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Book I. AGRICULTURE OF THE ROMANS. 21

ee..> the goodness of the bread and drink, and examining their clothes, mittens, and shoes. (Col. lib. i. cap. 8.) In another place, he says,‘* That the bailiff should have the family dressed and clothed rather usefully than nicely, and carefully fortified against the wind, cold, and rain; all which they will be secured from, by sleeved leathern coats, old centones(thick stuff used as bed-quilts) for defending their heads; or cloaks with hoods. If the laborers are clothed with these, no day is so stormy as to prevent them from working without doors.”(Col. lib. i, cap. 8.) Cato likewise makes particular mention of the clothes of the slaves:‘‘'The vestments of the family,” says he,‘a coat and a gown three and a half feet Jong should be given once in two years; whenever you give a coat or a gown, first receive the old one; of these make centones. Good shoes should be given once in two years.”(Cat. cap. 59.)

91. Cato informs us what quality of bread and wine, and what other kinds of meat were’ given to laborers. Of bread, he says, each laborer was allowed at the rate of three pounds avoirdupois, or of three pounds twelve ounces avoirdupois in the day, according to the severity of their labor.“ During the winter,” says he,“ the bailiff should have four modii of wheat each month, and during the summer four modi and a half; and the housekeeper, or the bailiff’s wife, and the shepherd, should have three. During the winter, the slaves should have four pounds of bread each in the day; from the time that they begin to dig the vineyard, to the ripening of the figs, they should have five pounds each; after which they should return again to four.”(Cat. cap.56.)‘Io this bread, there was a daily allowance of wine; during the three months that immediately followed the vintage, the servants drank a weak kind of wine called Zora,‘The manner in which this liquor was made, is described both by Pliny and Columella; and from the description given by them, it may well be supposed to be as good as the small beer given to servants in Britain.(Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. xiv. cap. 10.) It does not appear that the Roman slaves were much restricted in the quantity; Cato mentions no measure; he only says, that they have this to drink for three months after the vintage; he proceeds in this manner:“ In the fourth month, each should get a hemina of wine in the day, which is at the rate of twoand a half congi in the month; in the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth months, each a sextary in the day, which is five congié in the month; in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh, each three hemine in the day, which is an amphora in the month. More than this, at the saturnaiia and compitalia, to each man was given a congius.‘The quantity of wine for each man in the year is eight quadrantals; however, as addition must be made according to the work in which the slaves are employed, it is not too much for each of them to drink ten quadrantals in the year.” This allowance of wine, it must be acknowledged, was not inconsiderable, being at least seventy-four gallons in the year, or at an average 1.62 parts of a pint in the day.

92. Besides bread and wine, the slaves got what was called pulmentaritum, which answers to what in some parts of the country is called kitchen dripping or fat.(Plin. Nat. Hist. lib, xviii. cap. 8.)| For this purpose Cato recommends the laying up as many fallen olives as can be gathered; afterwards the early olives from which the smallest quantity of oil is expected; at the same time observing that these must be given sparingly, that they may last the longer. When the olives are finished, he desires salt fish and vinegar to be given, and besides, to each man a seztarius of oil in the month, and a modius of salt in the year.( Cat. cap. 18.) Columella, for this purpose, directs apples, pears, and figs, to be laid up: he adds, if there is a great quantity of these, the rustics are secured in no small part of their meat during the winter, for they serve for dripping or fat.(Col. lib. xii. cap. 14.)

Sussecr. 3. Of the Beasts of Labor used by the Romans.

93. The laboring cattle used by the Romans, as well as all the ancient nations, were chiefly the ox, the ass sometimes, the mule for burdens, and but very rarely the horse. The horse, however, was reared; but almost exclusively for the saddle, the chace, or for war. The respect for the ox which existed among the Egyptians, Jews, and Greeks, was continued among the Romans, so much so that Varro, and after him Columella and Pliny, adduces an instance of a man having been indicted and condemned for killing one to please a boy who longed for a dish of tripe.

94. The breeding, breaking, feeding, and working of the ox is very particularly treated of by the ancient authors.

95, Bulls, says Palladius,“ should be tall, with huge members, of a middle age, rather young as old, ole ah countenance, small horns, a brawny and vast neck, and a confined belly.”(Pal, lib, iv.

96. The cows, Columella“most approves of, are of a tall make, long, with very large belly, very broad forehead, eyes black and open, horns graceful, smooth and black, hairy ears, strait Jaws, very large dewlap and tail, and moderate hoofs and legs.”(Col. lib. vi. cap. 21.)

97. Breeders both of horses and cows, Virgil observes, should attend principally to the make of the female.“If any one,”’ says he,“fond of the prize at the olympic games, breeds horses; or if any one breeds stout bullocks for the plough, he chiefly attends to the make of the mother, who ought to be large in all her parts.’’( Georg. iii. v. 49.) The same maxim is attended to by the best breeders of the present day; and the reasons have been most satisfactorily and scientifically given by Cline.(Commun. to Board of Ag. &c. vol. iv.)

98. For breaking and training cattle to the yoke, Varro and Columella give very par- ticular directions.“* To break bullocks,”’ says Varro,“put their necks between forked stakes; set up one for each bullock, and give them meat from the hand; they will be- come tractable in a few days: then in order that by degrees they may become accustomed to the yoke, let an unbroken one be joined with a veteran, whom he will imitate; then

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