e S n—. , [VAv.-Sibi. 3 Giessen ———— a. 72„. ng — VOVdIV 8 r ,2 G dNNM rp S,N e ede See Seeehe ce 77 5 1(T, 5 — Seie is 4 Feis ne,ls 8— 8 22 M 2 2 8 ‿ — —, — 5 N ☚ D — VNVII — S — 8 13— THE HONEY-BEE, ILLLUSTRATED. fe 8 dinäd M 8 1 nſ m. 2B5 —r — „— — S 7 G ponop un s2 eodiz ²ee 2 2‿r ᷣπ mẽ/9x,e as 2,= Tafveuae dan Suotsss,ssodtl, Vszn.f Pils rod al‿, s, 4 SAONMAAAda ” 81 VLTLIIINO 5 — 8 Wh B 4 ‿ W vs 12EaS— VICNI dGNVVNIHO 410 S NOI 948 V3I AHT DNITVOTGNIT Or dVM 06 0/8 — SAGIVTS GMAILIND dHdIlILTIO VAM dVqV AXATIINASuvVddV SN e X N 4. 7. 53 5. F X. 2. 1,JA SLrues eünnkan al49 3 ,3, 3 S⸗ 68 4 S93 Deedſe ‿ — 2 22 luan — acheda 2 8, füde 2nuuduunna 10eauuꝙσ nmeudN äbu 2. 21,N Aui: ns 8 8 1 4 4.A 6. 2 8 ſenoc, — mM 9 8 AA ue uuen, 1ouhasn 6 8 8 822. 4 *. +‿ 116 — svvnnßen 2 36 12 nausa .7 n Vschägen „ Au Ne Wie . X abe, 4A 0, 1 v 0nnena M „2 4 ſſ 7 O. ☛ X I Se NA 1 HEDGE PLANA 8. — REFERENCES. iun 1141 33 unrn. ihe 16811,3, 8 7 7 in 7 * 1 8 aiiſt: : 1121,115 311169 . 1111K 111n e, 12 771 nse n,nein, 711 6 1,1Jinsn aaau , „nann. 11492 1 77.. 3 12111 itn!ernerii 5 4 dltIau 171,NNé ,N. nituu, 3 8 unbun 7 ,uu 1Its: s n Nnu. in 1e n P eeiinen 1ennnnn 392, 7,, ni,„2 11 M h e 1 7 7. 5 airwanhiin 3 1 ders Marir 1 10 Shettt 7 iiannin A7n eist 1 er 1 ,1iu, 11717:7171 3 1111 11111i213 41717177,4111 w.n, ,e1dna nu 7 :1 „ 11 Cedars, Pines, Spruces. ere. 4 N Deciduous Trees... p 8 D MAP SHOWINC THE fFOREST AND PRAIRIE ANDS OF THE UNITED STAfES. —u——— S—— ——Y— 4— ——½ʒ 4 5.10l0) ur Pena — —— —— V b V 1 IMNIf 5 ASWOH-XVvUG NIOdAnS 1 E — A —‿ L — L Li Süe + — 35/H CoNxdRESs, HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. Ex. Doc. 4 ISt Session. No. 32. REPORT 0F THE COMIIISSIONER OF PATENTS FOR THE YEAR 1857. 46RIOULTURV. V WASHINGTON: JAMES B. STEEDMAN, PRINTER. 1858. IN THE HousE OF REPREENTATIVES, May 19, 1858. Resolved, That there be printed for the use of the House of Representatives two hundred thousand extra copies of the Report of the Commissioner of Patents on Agriculture for the year 1857, and ten thousand copies for the use of the Patent Office: Provided, That the aggregate number of pages contained in said Report shall not exceed five hundred and sixty-eight, in- cluding ten pages of illustrations on wood. And provided further, That the entire amount of copy necessary to complete said Report be placed in the hands of the Superintendent of the Public Printing on or before the thirty-first day of August next. Attest: J. C. ALLEN, Clerk. REPORT OF THE C0OMMISSIONER OE PATENTS. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Mag 11, 1858. SIR: Agreeably to the design of Congress, as indicated by the appropriation of March 3, 1857, for the collection of agricultural statis- tics, investigations for promoting agriculture and rural economy, and the procurement and distribution of cuttings and seeds, I have the honor herewith to transmit the agricultural portion of my Annual Report. The success which has heretofore attended the operations of this Office in collecting and promulgating facts connected with the history, progress, and economy of the principal staples that form the basis of our national wealth, in procuring and disseminating new and useful products throughout the land, and the increase and extension of such as have been of limited and local culture in the different sections, respectively, has practically demonstrated that the expenditures for these objects have been judiciously made, and commends the expedi- ency of continuing these appropriations for similar purposes. Among the objects of interest which have been under investigation for several years may be mentioned the enlistment, in connection with the Smithsonian Institution, of more than three hundred meteor- ological observers throughout the Union, who have been furnished with appropriate instruments for the purpose of determining the mean monthly temperatures, as well as the extremes of heat and cold, and amount of rain, with other phenomena, at the various stations. In connection with the same Institution, meteorological and geological maps have been constructed for determining the regions which would seèem best adapted for the culture of tea, and other products, as compared with the countries in which they are indigenous. IV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER. An agent has been employed to visit the tea districts of China, for the purpose of collecting the seeds of the tea shrub, and of other plants; and is instructed to return with them to the United States early in 1859, when he is expected to make choice of localities for their cultivation. This gentleman, it may be stated, was selected as being peculiarly qualified to carry this enterprise into successful operation. He had been previously sent to China, some ten or twelve years ago, by the London Horticultural Society, where he wandered for three years in the interior, collecting seeds and plants, which have proved a great acquisition to the gardens of Europe, and in some degree to those of this country. In 1848, he was employed by the British East India Company to revisit the tea districts, to collect the seeds of the tea plant, and to introduce them into the Himalaya, in which last mission he was eminently successful. It is shown on a subsequent page of the present Report that it has already been ascertained that many portions of the United States, in respect to soil and climate, are well suited to the cultivation of this plant, and that, with improved apparatus, and other appliances of American skill, the leaves can be manipulated, or otherwise con- verted into tea, at an expense less than the actual cost of similar preparations in China, even with the low-priced labor of the Asiatics. From the character of the person selected for this duty, his intelli- gence and experience, as well as the clear understanding he pos- sesses of the desires of this Office, no doubt can reasonably be entertained with respect to the satisfactory discharge of all the duties of his mission; and if success shall attend the vessels bearing the seeds or plants to our shores, a new branch of agricultural industry may be confidently anticipated. The services of an able chemist have been secured to make investi- gations in the quantitative analyses of the cotton plant and the soils in which it grows, researches on the Chinese and African sugar-canes in reference to the amount of alcohol and saccharine matter contained therein, as well as of the nutritive properties of the Chinese yam, the common potato, chufa, and of Indian corn. The results of these investigations, it is believed, not only throw new light on science, but will prove, on further inquiry, of value in the production and economy of these plants. AGRICULTURAL REPORT. V Other chemists were also consulted or employed in different parts of the Union, to determine practically the feasibility of crystallizing the juice of the Chinese sugar-cane—a question, as will be seen, which has been fully and satisfactorily solved and put at rest. An agent was also employed during the past season to visit Arkansas, Texas, and the neighboring Territories, for the purpose of selecting cuttings of the native grape-vines, with a view of testing their adaptation to wine-making and for table use in various sections of the Union. In his journeys over a vast extent of country, travel- ling much of the distance on foot through regions wild, rugged, often without roads, and presenting no shelter to the wayfarer, even at. night, he succeeded in collecting several thousand cuttings of the best varieties of vine indigenous to those tracts, which have been placed in proper hands for direct experiment in various localities, as well as im the forcing-house of Government on the public grounds in Washington, in order that they may take root preparatory for future distribution. The manufacture of wine from our native grapes, it is well known, was practised not only by the French settlers on the Illinois river, but by several of the Indian tribes, who regaled themselves with the „must,““ or juice of wild grapes. Experiments in wine-making, both with the European grape and our own species, have also been made at various periods in other parts of the territory of the United States; but the designs of those interested have never been brought to perfection with the foreign grape, California and New Mexico excepted, owing, it is believed, to the unsuitableness of our climate, which, on the contrary, is favorable to the native varieties. Not- withstanding these difficulties, many patriotic individuals have per- sisted in the endeavor to make this a wine country by establishing nurseries and vineyards, their motives, in many instances, doubtless being influenced by a desire to promote the cause of temperance, and consequently of health and happiness. The past experience of the world has shown that inebriety, and the attendant evils produced by the usè of distilled and factitious liquors, as beverages, disappear in proportion as pure wine becomes accessible to the people. Within the territory of the United States, it has been stated that there are at least forty well-defined botanical species, including VI REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER. upward of one hundred varieties of native grapes. More than half of these are susceptible of being converted into a wholesome wine, either alone or with the addition of sugar. and amorfg these only some ten or twelve varieties are sufficiently palatable for table use. All, doubtless, would flourish near their native sites, and many of them, probably, would succeed well, and improve in the qualities of their fruit, if transferred to other States. It has been recommended that the best varieties of the Northern grapes, which mature early in August, might be cultivated in the Middle and Southern States, with the view of obtaining them several weeks earlier than the varieties already existing in those regions. One of the greatest checks to this species of culture in this country has been the time required for the grapes to produce well, often being from three to six years. Farmers and others, who could conveniently engage in it, have been impatient to have yearly returns in their crops, and have been unwilling to wait for the vines to come into bearing. Another obstacle has been the difficulty and expense of procuring cuttings or roots. Were they to propagate vines from seeds of the wild grape, they would never be sure to produce fruit of the same quality, as a new variety will often be the result; and, besides, many of those thus cultivated would prove sterile or male vines. Moreover, a seedling vine, unless grafted, will not bear fruit until it is five, ten, or perhaps fifteen years old, while cuttings will bear in from three to five years. Again, the process of hybridizing the European grape on our native species is a somewhat difficult one, as well as long and tedious. And finally, the greatest discouragement has arisen from the want of a knowledge of the principles of vinification, which has so often resulted in the production of inferior or worthless articles— not wines, but unwholesome factitious mixtures. The entomologist employed by the Office confined his researches during the past season principally to the insects frequenting the cotton plant, and the diseases affecting it in Mississippi and Tennessee. At present, he is employed in Florida, in the regions of St. John's River, in prosecuting his inquiries and experimenting upon the insects which infest the orange groves and cotton fields. His labor, it is believed, will be fraught with much benefit to planters, and to the country at large. AGRICULTURAL REPORT. VII Among the seeds, cuttings, and tubers which have been introduced from abroad, or have been made the subject of experiment in this country since the date of the last Annual Report on Agriculture from this Office, it may be stated that— The cuttings of the sugar cane—imported from Demerara by gov- ernment for the planters of the South promise to attain a large size, and, should they prove sufficiently hardy to withstand the climate of the regions where they are intended to grow, it is believed that they will amply compensate in the end for the trouble of introducing them. In addition to the large amount of Chinese sugar-cane seed culti- vated and distributed towards the close of the last year, more than one hundred bushels of the seed of this plant were imported from France, and distributed throughout the cultivated parts of our terri- tory for experiment. Sufficient returns have been made to convince us that this new product will prove of incalculable value for feeding stock, and promises fair to be of other economical use in all situations where the corn-plant will thrive. The success attending the culture of the Chinese yam has also peen such as to warrant us in stating that it is well adapted to our soil and climate; but how far it can be depended upon as an alimentary basis as a substitute for the common potato can only be determined by further experiments. The aspersions and prejudices which have been advanced against this esculent for the last two years have pro- bably arisen from a want of knowledge of its habits and the disadvan- tages under which it has often been grown. For instance, most of the plants which have been propagated in this country have been started from the small tubers, or pseudo bulbs, taken from the vines of the preceding year. These, in many cases, probably, did not possess sufficient substance to maintain the vitality of the plants, and even when they did, it was in so feeble a degree as not to allow the growth of the roots to make much progress before the second year. Several tubers have been presented to this Office exceeding two feet in length and weighing nearly two pounds each. Among the Cereal grains distributed by the Office in the course of the past summer, I would instance several varieties of wheat obtained from the shores of the Mediterranean, and a quantity of bald barley from Tuscany, which, it may reasonably be expected, will succeed in many localities where they have been sown. VIII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER. Having thus endeavored to carry out what he believed to be the intention of Congress in making the appropriation for agricultural purposes, the undersigned herewith presents the results which have been attained during the past year. All of which is respectfully submitted. J. HOLI, Commissioner. Hon. JAMES L. ORE, Speaer of the House Representolives. V PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURT. PROGRESS AND PUBLIC ENCOURAGEMENT OF AGRIOCUL. TURE IN RUSSIA, PRUSSIA, AND THE UNITED STATES. BY D. J. BROWNE. ALTHOVGH it is a well established axiom in political economy that the wealth and material welfare of nations, upon which their power and financial prosperity depend, are primarily determined by tho ro- ductive forces each country possesses within itself, it is conceded that the effects of institutions— social, economic, or administrative— have done more to increase their industrial interests than all other moral and political causes combined. In common language, we often hear a country spoken of as agricultural, manufacturing, or commer- cial; but these terms imply only relative values, which serve to indi- cate the degree of importance occupied in a given territory by one or other of these three branches of productive industry, or rather the degree of development at which its industry or commerce has arrived; for at all times and in all countries, agricuſture, the“nursing mother of nations,“ forms the basis of wealth and prosperity, and the plough, in its modest guise, plays the principal part in the creation of values, even in countries the most commercial and industrial. Of this, Eng- land furnishes a most notable example: In the scale of natiens, she is decidedly the most commercial, as well as the most industrial—her trade and industry forming the basis of her power; and yet, it ap- pears from the returns of her income-tax that the net revenue of all her manufactures and commerce, and of all her personal capital, does not exceed two-thirds of the net revenue derived from her agriculture alone. From this single fact, we may infer the degree of pre-emi- nence which should be attributed to the agricultural element of national wealth. In proceeding to the subject immediately before us, namely, the encouragement of agriculture in some of the leading countries of the globe, it may be stated that, from the rapid advancement of this science under the mere influence of an increasing population and a more diffused intelligence, aside from all intrinsic causes, such as the infinite variety of industrial products, the unprecedented progress which industry has made within the last quarter century, the tribute 1 A 2 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. so largely paid to it by the exact and natural sciences, the ingenious inventions that have augmented its productive forces, the wonderful mechanisms by means of which it has rendered tributary the physical powers of Nature to spare the labor of animals as well as that of man, it is not surprising that the attention of governments, as well as of individuals, should have been directed towards the encouragement and improvement of farming pursuits. A more careful and exact inquiry into their guiding principles has been instituted, and a desire manifested to give them an elementary and communicable shape, so far as might be found practicable for the benefit of those who should be interested in their study. But the growing estimation, popularity, and widely extended adoption of agricultural pursuits among all grades of society, in both hemispheres; the distribution of books and other publications, treating on the subject; the formation of numerous associations, special and general, for its promotion; and the constant activity of discussion which has ensued, have all tended to draw towards it a degree of attention and scrutiny, probably unpre- cedented in the history of mankind. By the appliances and improve- ments which have resulted from modern art and discovery, forests have been cleared; marshes and lakes drained and converted into arable fields; hill-sides and plains made fertile by irrigation; useful products introduced or improved, and their properties recognized, represented, and compared with those of the soils in which they grew; telegraphs have been extended from zone to zone; seas united; continents traversed by rail-roads and canals, and oceans navigated by steam. Political changes and the combined efforts of individuals, as well as of States, have also contributed to infuse into it a warmth of discussion, which, whatever its present effects, cannot fail to be regarded as one of the most powerful vehicles of information and corrected views. Thus nations have become more intimately con- nected; their arts, commerce, and manufactures increased, which, krom the great extent of their influence, have caused the various countries reciprocally to respond to each other with all their attendant advantages and blessings. In presenting the following accounts of the encouragement given to agriculture by some of the principal governments of Europe, the writer wishes it to be understood that it has not been done with the idea that all which has been practised by our brethren beyond sea is applicable to our own husbandry or economy, nor with the expecta- tion that it will be imitated by us; but they are simply offered with the view of enabling us to compare some of the public operations of agriculture in the Old World with those of the New, which, it is believed, will prove suggestive in enlarging the fields of labor of the Agricultural Societies in the United States. ENCOURAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN RUSSIA. . It has been asserted that no empire but Russia“ ever succeeded in keeping so vast a portion of the globe a secret and a mystery ——————— — —— d PROGRESS OF AdGRICULTURE. 3 to the rest of mankind.“ There does not seem to be a just cause, however, for imputing to that apparently anomalous country any such intention; nor is it easy to perceive any motive which should induce her to entertain it. Whatever may be the mysteries of her diplo- macy, it is found that those publicists, who have restricted their inquiries to an analysis of the effective components of her material welfare, do not complain that there is any department of her statistics in which secrecy is either maintained or desired, with the exception, perhaps, of that of her finances, as to which she certainly has not been unnecessarily communicative. On the contrary, it would appear that, for the last quarter century, at least, the Russian government has not only made great exertions to obtain correct information with regard to the condition and resources of the empire, but has taken pains, at no small expense, to diffuse this information among its sub- jects, and to excite among them à desire for its acquisition. For this purpose, reports from the various ministries, appertaining to matters concerning their respective departments, have been published at frequent intervals, and chairs of statistics established in the several universities. In 1843, for instance, the ‧ Materials for a Statistical Account of the Russian Empire' emanated from the Ministry of the Interior; the official“Tables of Commerce,“ also, which have ap- peared annually for upwards of fifty years, contain more information than is to be found in the analogous documents of most other Euro- pean States; and, altogether, scarcely a month or a week passes without some valuable contribution to the knowledge of the country issuing from the press through one or other of the official journals. The collection of agricultural statistics commenced as early as 1803, under the Ministry of the Interior, and continued until the establish- ment of the Ministry of Domains, in 1837, from which period to the present, the latter has been sedulously engaged in taking and arrang- ing them. The facts are furnished by the heads of the several governments and those of the crown lands— by the inspectors of agriculture—by the societies— by agents sent to different parts of the country— by commissions for effecting an equalization of the different classes of peasants— by the professors of the Institute of Goirgoretzk-— by the correspondin gmembers of the Scientific Com- mittee of the Department of Rural Economy and, finally, by the answers to prize questions. The varied information thus obtained is published under the direction of the Department of Rural Economy. The diffusion of knowledge by means of the press, in Russia, it may be remarked, has also been recognized as one of the most effoc- tual means of promoting the improvement of agriculture. In 1802, the Emperor Alexander manifested a desire to see the Academy of Sciences systematically engage in publications, derived from periodical literature and foreign works, on all agronomic inventions and improve- ments of recognized utility. From this period, date the numerous agri- cultural publications which have been issued at public expense. In 1830, the practice was introduced into most of the governments of issuing periodical publications under the title of Goubernskia Ve- domosti,“(government news,) containing useful hints in matters of —P'—C—C—⸗;⸗xℳx⸗u«'—— 4 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. agriculture, industry, and commerce. In 1834, there was established, at the expense of the State, an Agricultural Gazette, of which a certain number of copies is distributed gratuitously to the village The whole number of this paper is about five thousand copies. Since 1841, the Ministry of Domains has issued a monthly journal of its operations, containing also essays on varlous subjects vonnected with rural economy, as well as information appertaining to agricultural improvements bôth at home and abroad. Another Agri- cultural Gazette, in the German language, has been published at Odessa, since 1846, by the Colonial Protection Committee, especially clergy. intended for the colonists in the south of Russia. There are also published, under the superintendence of the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of Domains, and by some of its members, useful works on various branches of agriculture, of which several are devoted to the moral and agricultural instruction of the peasants. The impulse thus given by government roused the literary activity of the enlightened classes in different parts of the empire, and within the last ten years publications on agricultural affairs are yearly becoming more numerous. The Imperial Independent Society of Rural Economy, at St. Petersburg, now issues three journals, one monthly and one weekly, in the Russian language, with a circulation of six thousand five hundred copies; and the other in the German, appearing once in two months, with a circulation of one thousand two hundred copies, two hun- dred of which go to foreign countries. The Transactions of the Jaros- law, the Southern, and other agricultural societies, which have no annals of their own, are published in the above-named journals, each society being furnished with a stipulated number of copies for its own use. Besides these journals, the society has printed and published, at its own expense, a" Course of Technical Chemistry' a Description of Mineral Waters;' a treatise on the Protection of Cattle from Disease' and“Etudes Entomologiques,“ the latter of which com- prises monographs and reports on entomological investigations in Russia, so far as they relate to agriculture, whether the insects are injurious, beneficial, or specially adapted to the use or luxury of man. With the object of diffusing knowledge throughout the empire, the society recently distributed four thousand two hundred and ninety- four volumes among educational institutions, libraries, and agricul- tural associations, a portion of which comprised its own publications. This society also receives, by way of exchange, upwards of seventy journals or transactions from the societies of foreign countries with hich it has intercourse. and is presented with all the publications issued in the empire. Since 1842, the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of Domains has offered gold and silver prize medals for the solution of important questions connected with Russian agriculture, py ascertaining the causes which impede the progress of any particular branch, and sug- gesting the best remedies. The successful essays are published in the Journal of the Ministry. Shows of agricultural products are held in several of the governments, and prizes awarded to promote the improvement of rural economy by stimulating competition. These —— PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 5 shows—the first of which were held at Odessa and Jaroslaw, in 1844—serve also to exhibit the progress which agriculture actually makes in the different provinces. Within the last seven years, there has been issued a physical and industrial chart of European Russia, as well as several of its govern- ments, indicating the climate, soil, products, mines, manufactories, internal improvements, imports, exports, valuations,&c., which con- tain a vast amount of information nowhere else to be found in so concise a form. In attempting to provide express seminaries for agricultural edu- cation, more activity has been manifested in Russia, perhaps, than in any other country of Europe. Under the Emperor Paul, near the close of the last century, the idea of imparting special instruction in husbandry was formed, and the first practical school of agriculture founded about fifteen miles from St. Petersburg. Another school was established near the same city in 1804, under the patronage of the administration of the Appanages, and organized in a manner exceed- ingly appropriate to the wants and social condition of the agricultural population. In that school, theory is adapted to the capacities and education of the students, and closely followed by practical instruc- tion, which is made to extend not only to the tilling of the soil and che rotation of crops, but also to the trades most useful for the rural classes, as the weaving of linen, the preparation of leather, the making of wearing apparel, and various implements of the house- hold. In 1832, there was founded a special Seminary of Agriculture for the peasants of the Appanages, in the neighborhood of St. Peters- burg, on the north bank of the Neva. Of the serfs owned by the Emperor, a certain proportion were annually sent to this school for the purpose of being educated in all the practical details of farming operations, according to the climate and necessities of the districts into which they are afterwards to be detailed. Modern implements of the most approved construction are provided, and the pupils in- structed in their use. The term of tuition, or rather of service, is limited to five years, and classes of sixty are annually sent out to farms in different parts of the empire, carrying with them into its remote provinces such knowledge and skill as a compulsory system of train- ing has bestowed upon them. The expense is privatel)y defrayed by the Emperor, and the project, it is stated, has resulted in success. In 1834, an Agronomic Institute was established at Dorpat, for superior instruction in the various branches of rural economy; and in 1840, another, on a grand scale, in the government of Mohilew, on the domain of Gorigoretzk, belonging to the crown. A capital of about 38, 580 rubles(§28, 935) and a considerable tract of land, with an agricultural population of 2, 735, were appropriated to this estab- lishment, which is divided into two departments—one of inferior instruction, for simple cultivators, with the view of enabling them to carry out the praxis, and the other of a higher order, for the special purpose of training agriculturists for the management of large estates, and introducing upon them improved systems of husbandry. ————— ——ÿÿÿõÿ—3 ——— 3 —ÿö—ꝛõÿõ;¾ÿõ—— ——— —ÿ— — AGRIOULTURAL REPORT. 6 Annexed to this iustitution is a farm for the p imple peasants.. 3 WLiablisbments for special instruction in various subsidiary branches of rural economy have also been founded in different parts of the em- pire, such as forest institutes, schools of viticulture, gardening, bee- culture, sheep-raising,&c., and have been attended with good results. At the period of instituting the frst agronomic schools, the idea was conceived of creating model establishments of rural economy. In 1801, a model farm was founded in the government of Smolensk to facilitate the introduction of an improved cultivation in the Ap- panage Domains; ahd in 1802, a similar establishment, termed the „English Farm,“ was founded near St. Petersburg; but both were suppressed shortly afterwards, in consequence of their expense so greatly exceeding the value of any benefit which seemed likely to be derived from them. At that period, the agricultural classes in Russia, it was found, were not sufficiently familiar with the mere ele- ments of a rational system of culture to be able to appreciate their advantages. But this first want of success did not prevent the Em- peror from again directing his attention to the subject. In 1825, the Minister of Finance was authorized to institute model farms in those Fistricts where it was thought they might be the most useful, appro- priating to each a foundation capital of 50,000 rubles(§37,500) and an annual rent of 15,000 rubles(§11,250.) By virtue of this authority, a farm was established at Lougaunsk, in the government of Ekathérinoslaw, which was afterwards suppressed for local reasons, and replaced by another founded in 1848, in the same government, on an estate belonging to the crown, in the district of Alexandrowsk. Besides this farm, others have been established in the governments of Wologda, Saratow,(two,) Tambow, Mohilew, Kazan, and Khrakow. The lands appropriated to these eight farms occupy an area of 10,490 dessiatines(28, 220 acres.) Both crown and private peasants are admitted as pupils into all. In 1849, the number of pupils was 706, but is annually increasing. A complete course of studies occupies four years, in which different systems of agriculture are taught, each being appropriate to the particular circumstances of the region where the farm is situated. With the view of diffusing agronomic knowledge among the peasantry through the instrumentality of the village curates, the gov- ornment has introduced a course of agriculture into the seminaries which send to the institute of Gorigoretzk pupils intended to become professors of this branch of instruction; and the Ministry of Domains has since published a complete course of agriculture specially designed for the students. These curates, who belong to the dominant church, have considerable endowments in land, well arranged, and every way suitable for converting into little model farms; and an improved system of culture, seen in operation on the curate’s glebe, cannot fail to exert a favorable influence upon the whole parish, to say nothing of the good counsels which an intelligent parson may be able to impart. But one of the most effectual means of conveying agricultural knowledge in Russia, and which has been recognized in every civil- ractical instruction of PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 7 ized country, is by agricultural associations. They afford farmers the means of suggesting improvements, as well as a channel for communicating to each other the results of their observations and experiments, and of securing the general benefits of their respective knowledge. The first Russian association of this kind, the Imperial Independent Society of Rural Economy, at St. Petersburg, was insti- tuted under the auspices of the Empress Catherine II., in 1765, at a period when there were not half a dozen societies of this description in all Europe. At first, it received from the Empress 6, 000 rubles (§4, 500) for the erection of a building. Subsequently, Alexander I. granted 5,000 rubles(83, 750) per annum to defray the necessary ex- penses. In 1826, the Emperor Nicholas increased this sum to 15,000 rubles(§11, 250.) The next year, he granted to the society an annual contribution from the general imposts or taxes of the country for the diffusion of vaccination. In 1833, there was also bestowed an annual donation of 20,000 rubles(§15, 000) for agricultural education. Besides these sums, he ordered an annual payment of 7,000 rubles (§5, 250) instead of lands which had previously been endowed to the society. Another feature worthy of note is, an annual appointment, made on the recommendation of this association, of a suitable agent to travel in foreign countries five months each year, to report on the condition and progress of agriculture and manufactures, who receives his instructions from the council of the society, and enjoys certain privileges granted by the government during the mission. Under the reign of Alexander I., the Agricultural Society of Livo- nia was founded, in 1805, and that of Moscow, in 1818. Since that period, several others have been formed in the Baltic provinces, in the south of Russia, as well as in some of the central governments. At present, the number of societies in Russia amounts to about twenty, among which may be particularized the Agronomic Society of Moscow, the Central Society of Sheep-Farming,(also at Moscow,) and the Agronomic Society of South Russia, at Odessa. In 1836, the Technological Institute of St. Petersburg was estab- lished, containing a cabinet of models of agricultural implements and machines, duplicates of which are transmitted to the Chambers of Finance of every government for the purpose of forming collections. The manufacturers of agricultural machinery at Moscôw have also received pecuniary subsidies to enable them to extend their establish- ments. These measures, it is stated, exert a favorable influence on agricultural progress. ENCOURAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN PRUSSIA. The administration of the entire domain of agriculture in Prussia is conducted by a Department of Agriculture, under the direction of a Minister, whose jurisdiction embraces the government of the authori- ties charged with the execution of the laws established for effecting an immunity both from tenant-rights and such rents and tithes as are an obstacle to a proper and advantageous use of real estate; the 8 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. —⅓ 1 ſſſſ— 5 division of real estate held jointly; the granting of rights of posses- sion, redemptions,&c.; the administration of the laws for the pro- tection of forests and fields, game and fish, and riparian rights; the regulation of drainage and dykes, the public studs, and the insti- tutions for agricultural education, as well as the direction of the societies for the improvement and encouragement of agriculture and rural economy. Subordinate to the Department of Agriculture is the Board of Rural Economy, constituting a technically advisory authority, which is especially charged with the direction of the agricultural societies. It was organized in 1842, and is composed at present of a president, secretary, and a board of ten consulting members, some of them —— —— —— —— — — being practical agriculturists, while others are well versed in various 1 branches connected with the subject, among whom is the Director of h the Bureau of Statistics, which is subordinate to the Department of 3 the Interior, and charged with taking the general, as well as the 3 agricultural statistics of the country. In the transactions of this N board, the members individually discourse or write upon such subjects I as they are best fitted by their knowledge and ability. The board is 1 furnished with regular reports from the societies, and again it sub- mits its own reports to the Minister of Agriculture. It also publishes, in monthly numbers, the Annals of Agriculture, containing its own transactions and such other articles as are deemed useful and worthy of diffusion. A The support afforded by government to agriculture consists, there- d — —————— 1 ——— — n V l fore, in the extensive and judicious organization of its department, 3 its proper legislation, agricultural education, liberal appropriations, 1 and temporary advances of money, together with such other measures as are adapted to its general encouragement. The societies them- 1 selves are distributed over the nine provinces of the kingdom, which E contains about 17,000, 000 inhabitants, and embraces an area of n 107,960 square miles. In each province there is one central or gen- h eral society, or more, surrounded by subordinate societies, to which Ot again, in some cases, are attached minor clubs or associations. Aside h from this centralization, there are other societies, having no connection with the above, all, however, acting under the direction of the Board of Rural Economy. The central societies exercise a general super- 1 intendence, direction, and control over the subordinate and minor ones, encouraging and aiding them, suggesting and assisting in agri- cultural improvements and education. Each central society has a 1 fund, to which all the respective subordinate societies contribute, to. defray the expenses incurred in furnishing agricultural information, 8 in holding exhibitions, and in the general advancement of their com- b mon interests. Collectively, they promote the common cause, by 3 meetings and exhibitions, by distributing publications and seeds, by establishing schools, experimental farms, and trial grounds, as well as 1 by other institutions appertaining to the promotion of this great 8 branch of national prosperity. 1 The following table exhibits the distribution, membership, and 1 annual expenditures of the several societies in the kingdom:— PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 9 Distribubion, membership, and ewpenditures of the several socueties. 5„. 8 4 9 8 E 3 5 5 8 5 2 2 3 4 8 0 8 S8 5 8+ 8 8 8 8 5 5 3 8 PRoOvINOS. 22 5 2 8 8 35 ½ 3.5 3 8 3 8 8 8 4G— 8 8 2 8 8 S 8 6 8 5 8 8 8 3 8 8 5 S 2 E Prussia. 4 79 13 3, 665 86, 144 00 Poland- 1 9 13 1, 780 7, 491 20 Pommerania 2 27 2 1, 724 2, 825 60 Brandenburg 3 32 11 4, 140 12, 515 20 Silesia 1 42 11 5, 848 7, 417 60 Saxony-- 1 48 13 4, 647 6, 684 00 Westphalia ö 5 34 4 6, 611 5, 773 60 Rhenish Prussia. 1 47 5 11, 088 11, 066 40 Hohenzollern 1 4.. 1, 116 322 40 Total..= 19 32² 7² 40, 619 60, 240 00 Accordingly, the whole number of societies in Prussia is four hun- dred and thirteen; those of the other parts of Germany, as far as they could be ascertained, being about one thousand, or fourteen hundred and thirteen in all. The annual expenditures of the various societies are derived from the following sources: Fees and contributionroee)b........ 444, 660 80 Income from lands and loans... w....... 1,913 60 Donations from insurance and other companies........ 3,030 40 Other donatioiriroo.„...... 1,488 00 Proceeds from gardens, nurseries, experimental farms, sale of publications, exhibitions, CL..... 9, 147 20 Total............................ 60, 240 00 —— This sum, aside from the appropriations and temporary advances made by the government, is annually devoted by the societies to agricultural purposes. The following are the periods at which some of the societies were established: The year 1772 gave birth to the first, agricultural society, which was foljowed by the organization of another in 1791; so that, prior to the year 1801, there were only two societies in the kingdom. The next twenty years, from 1801 to 1820, being an unfavorable period to agriculture, in consequence of the raging wars, called forth only eight societies, while the ten succeeding years, from 1821 to 1830, 10 AGRIOULTURAL REPORT. favored by the blessings of peace, brought into existence twenty- three, a number which, during the eleven years, from 1831 to 1841, under the continued influence of peace, was raised to one hundred and nine. The next period, embracing the four years from 1842 to 1845, the commencement of which is distinguished for the establish- ment of the Board of Rural Economy, shows the formation of eighty- five societies, followed by an increase of seventy-five during the five years ensuing. From that time, up to 1855, there was an addition of one hundred and eleven societies. This statement shows that there were one hundred and forty-two societies organized prior to the establishment of the Board of Rural Economy, in 1842, while the number formed after that time amounts to two hundred and seventy-one—certainly a gratifying increase, and no doubt greatly owing to the energy and beneficent influence, both directly and indirectly, emanating from that board, and the general administrative organization of the agricultural affairs of the country. Among these societies may be instanced the following, designed for special objects: 8 No. of Societies. Horticulture................................ 13 Breeding, rearing, and management of horses.... 13 Bee-culture............................... 12 Cultivation Of forests......................... 8 Wine-culture.............................. 1 Fruit-culture............................... 5 Silk-culture................................ 20 Flax and hemp-culture............... 3 Cultivation of beet-root....................... 1 Collection, trial, and exhibition of the best agricul- tural implements and machines........... Besides the above, there are a number of teachers' and villages' agricultural associations; also, seventeen societies for the improve- ment of the moral and social condition of servants; and an agricultu- ral work-house to afford practical and theoretical training to orphans and other children in want of care. There are also several agricul- tural banks for savings, as well as exchanges for ascertaining the best modes of selling products and providing for the protection of the interests of mechanics. There are four societies for the embellish- ment of private and public grounds; joint-stock companies for drain- ing and improving grass-lands; agricultural fire and cattle insurance societies, as well as companies for the importation of breeding animals. It may be stated, moreover, that agricultural machinery receives a large share of attention from the government and societies in loans and donations of money, as well as in premiums and provision for the education of mechanics. There are fifty-five establishments of large size, worked either by steam or water-power, in the manufacture of machines, and twenty-eight smaller ones, principally engaged in repairing. Among the societies. there are some which purchase and sell ap- —-——— —— ᷣ˖⸗ PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 11 proved implements and machines to their members; while others cause them to be manufactured for gratuitous distribution. Of these, they possess some fifty-six cabinets of working models, including numerous machines for the manufacture of drain-tiles, for the use of members. Some of the societies own property, others lease grounds or hold public property in charge or trust for agricultural and experi- mental purposes. A number of them are also provided with collec- tions of wool and Cereals, models of fruit, herbariums, mineral cabinets, chemical apparatus, philosophical instruments, designs, drawings and paintings of agricultural objects. The societies have, in the aggre- gate, some seventy-three libraries, for the benefit of the members, used either gratuitously or fom a small compensation, a regulation also applying to the perusal of tue newspapers, periodicals, and annual reports in their possession, being fifty-one in number. Of these, four are published by the government, forty-one by the societies, and six by private persons. The objects to which these publications are individually devoted are as follows: Horticulture, five; breeding, rearing, and management of horses, four; fruit-culture, one; forest- culture, one; wine-culture, one; bee-culture, three; silk-culture, two; statistics, two; the rest being devoted to agriculture generally. The agricultural publications in other parts of Germany, so far as is ascertained, amount to thirty-eight; the whole number being eighty-ninc. Of agricultural institutions for education there are two classes— one including the colleges, and the other the elementary schools. Of colleges, there are five, three of which are supported by the gov- ernment, but two are private. In the colleges are taught the various systems of husbandry, farm management, book-Keeping, cultivation of arable and grass-lands, horticulture, landscape gardening and rural embellishments, silviculture, agricultural technology, mechanics, natural philosophy, botany, mineralogy, a knowledge of the soils, mathematics, agricultural chemistry, zoology, breeding, rearing, and management of animals, veterinary surgery, classification of sheep and wool, entomology, practical operations in the garden and field, designing and drawing, national economy, and the law and history appertaining to agriculture. There are twenty-eight elementary schools, some of which are sup- ported by the government; others by societies; while a third class is private. In these are taught the elementary branches of agricultural education, by lectures and demonstrations, in a manner adapted to the comprehension of the pupils. Besides the above, there are other schools devoted to special objects: Draining and improving meadows, five; management of forests, ten; horticulture, six; silk-culture, one; flax-culture, four; bee-culture, one; raising of sheep, two; spinning schools, fifteen; the whole number being fifty-seven. In the neighborhood of some of these schools, there are machine shops, where the pupils have an opportunity of witnessing the making of various machines, thus uniting practice with theory. There are also model farms and ex- perimental grounds of various sizes. amounting in all to seventy-two, AGRICULTURAL REPORT. some being conducted by the government; others by societies; while a third class belongs to private individuals. Instruction is often en- couraged by premiums offered by societies to the best pupils. The more important of these institutions have commissioners appointed to furnish regular reports to the Department of Agriculture, and though the greater number of them have only been in existence for about ten years, the results are considered satisfactory. For the further improvement of flax-culture, the government pro- vides some districts with stationary, and others with itinerant teach- ers, practically trained for the cultivation of flax and dye plants. There is also set aside for this purpose a special appropriation(the Royal Grace Fund) and a mutual stock company. In its manufacture penitentiary labor is sometimes employed. Some of the societies provide for the distribution of good flax-seed and machinery, pub- lishing, also, circulars on its improvement. For silk-culture, there are ten reeling establishments, and twenty- one mulberry plantations. Some of the societies distribute cuttings and seeds, a portion of which is planted on roadsides, graveyards, and other public places. Among the silk-growers there are some who also give instruction in this branch, as is done in the model silk establishment at Breslau, which has reeling and spinning machines, with an operative hatching machine, and eighteen smaller ones, the latter distributed as models among the agricultural officers in the various parts of the districts. It has also three ingenious models for showing the interior structures made by the worms in the stages of the last development. It likewise issues communications on this sub- Ject. The impro'rrement of arable and grass-lands is liberally and most advantageously encouraged and promoted on the part of the govern- ment and societies by judicious appointments of draining engineers in several parts of the country, the profits of which enterprises, in an agricultural and economical point of view, are most clearly shown in the construction of excellent roads as well as in those large tracts of arable and grass-lands regained from a net of lakes and swamps in the northeastern part of the kingdom. With regard to fruit-culture, there are several model pomological gardens, a large number of nurseries for growing fruit-trees, coniferous and foliaceous trees, and two for raising tree seeds. Some of these nurseries are conducted by the government; others by the agricul- tural societies, with a view of distributing seeds, cuttings, and trees among their members, an illustration of which is given in an official report on the nurseries planted in the province of Westphalia in 1855. From this report, it appears that this province has nine hun- dred and forty-five nurseries, containing four hundred and thirty-nine thousand, four hundred and eighty ungrafted stocks, and two hun- dred and twenty thousand, one hundred and sixty-two grafted ones, and that the trees sold and distributed over the province amounted to twenty-three thousand, one hundred and forty-one. Some of the nurseries are the property or in charge of private persons, especially of experienced teachers, for the purpose of diffusing that kind of ———.— PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 13 knowledge, and encouraging their pupils to plant nurseries of their own, as in many cases has been satisfactorily done. In other parts of Germany, the community and schools of every village are supplied with suitable nurseries, placed under the charge of the teachers. In respect to the improvement of horses, it may be remarked that, in addition to the public studs, the societies hold annual shows, estab- lish horse markets, depôts for stallions, in several districts, keep well regulated and extensive pastures for colts, and also have race courses. The Society of Berlin, for the improvement of horses, publishes an annual report, a“ Coursing Almanac,“ and the general Stud Bock, containing the pedigrees of all the full-blood horses in Germany. In addition to the societies before mentioned, it may be stated that there is also the Itinerant Society of German Agriculturists and For- esters, including not only members of Prussia, but those of all other German States. This society, now in the twentieth vear of its exist- ence, bears the character of a National Congress, Which investigates and discusses all subjects having a general scientific and practical tendency to the improvement of agriculture. At various points they have stations for experiments in agricultural chemistry, physiology, c., for the purpose of settling important questions proposed at thein annual meetings, which are held alternately in the principal cities of the confederation. ENCOURAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATEsS. In tracing the progress of agriculture in the United States, let us revert to the condition of the country when frst visited by Euro- peans. Then, this art was only practised by the wives of the Indians, in limited areas of tobacco, beans, pumpkins, and maize, without the aid of domestic animals, or any implements, except clam-shells, the scapula of the buffalo, the antlers or horns of the deer and elk, and pointed sticks of wood. At this period, a large portion of the soil of our territory was charged with an abundance of humus and earthy phosphates, the accumulations of ages, from the decay of primitive forests, other vegetation, or of animal remains; and it is a question worthy the attention of agriculturists and political economists, whether there was not absolutely more wealth invested in our soil, in fertilizing matter, at the time Columbus discovered America, than there is at present above the surface in improvements and invest- ments of every kind. European settlements began, and civilization gradually extended, heralded by the sound of the woodman's axe and the crash of trees. As the country becamne more and more settled, considerable tracts, situated in what now constitute the Atlantic and Gulf States, were cleared, laid open to the sun, and converted into luxuriant meadows and fertile fields of tobacco, cotton, sugar-cane, and the Cereal grains. Meanwhile, most of the soluble phosphates and other elements of fertility, which originally existed in the soil, were exhausted by injudicious cropping, or from neglecting to return —— 14 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. to the land an equivalent in manure for what had been abstracted by the plants. The result has been, instead of full and abundant crops, the older cultivated fields do not yield at present half as much as formerly, and in many localities, not a third, nor even a quarter as nuch, without the application of extra supplies of manure. To carry the evil still further, many of the farmers and planters of the present day, along the Atlantic seaboard and on the Mexican Gulf, are still exhausting the fertilizing matter of their lands by adding thereto large quantities of Peruvian guano, or other concentrated manures, which, when their immediate effects are over, will generally leave the soil in a poorer condition than it was in before they were applied. A similar devastating course, it is to be regretted, is now being pur- sued by many of the agriculturists of the States west of the Appala- chians; and unless this improvident practice be checked, and due regard be paid to stock-raising—the very foundation of successful farming— and a judicious rotation of crops be observed, the result will inevitably be the same as it has been in the older-settled Ztates.. From entering at length and minutely into the rise and progress of agriculture in this country, we are prevented as much by the want of the necessary information, as by the immediate object and limited length of this paper. As all inquiries on this subject must be derived from facts, they can only be answered by history or statistics, which throw comparatively but little light on these topics up to the period of the formation of our government. It appears, however, that it was the wise and far-sighted policy of all the civilized nations who laid claim to American soil, except in some cases, where an insatiable avarice prevailed in subjecting the Indians to involuntary servitude, or otherwise depriving them of their natural rights, to encourage the agriculture of their respective territories by inducing emigration, in making free grants or concessions of land to companies, as well as to individuals; in conceding to them the exclusive possession and enjoyment thereof, by pre-emption, or by the payment of a nominal sum for such quantities as they might choose to Rold; and in foster- ing particular branches of rural industry bv awarding premiums or bounties for agricultural improvements or increased productions. Thus, in 1495, shortly after the brilliant discoveries of Columbus, Spain,"in order the better to facilitate the emigration and perma- nent establishment of colonists, offered to all who wished to go, pro- visions for a year; to defray the transportation of their supplies and persons; exemption from all duties and imposts; and the perpetual ownership of the houses they might construct, and the lands they might cultivate.“ In 1523, among other regulations for the benefit of New Spain, it was ordained that, since it was a land newly discovered, and not peopled by Christians, there should be given to the first colonists, by way of reward and extra satisfaction for their labors, two knights' allotments of land to each, in the cities and towns which they might prefer, in order to build; and that they should be permitted to sell them and do with them as things belonging to themselves. PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 15 In 1565, Spain granted to Francisco de Eraso 25 leagues square. (3, 600, 000 acres,) to be located wherever he pleased, in Florida, with the office of governor, and various other titles and privileges for him- self and heirs, exempting them from imposts and duties, on conditions that he should provide several caravals for exploration, and colonize his tract, within three years, with 500 settlers, most of whom should be husbandmen, 500 slaves, 100 horses and mares, 200 heifers, 400 swine, and 400 ewes. In 1622, the“ London Company,“ n Virginia, was encouraged by James I. in the breeding of silkworms and the establishment of silk works. In about the year 1651, this branch of industry again became an object of interest in that colony, and premiums were offered for its promotion. In 1657, the growth of hops was encouraged in Virginia by legisla- tive enactments. In 1717, a royal grant of 144 square miles was made by France to the celebrated John Law, on the Arkansas, with a complete monopoly of the trade and mines of the Territory for twenty-seven years, on condition of introducing from Germany or Provence 1,500 persons to settle the land. In 1732, a parcel of ground belonging to government was allotted as a nursery plantation for mulberry-trees in the infant settlement of Georgia, and several of the colonists were soon after engaged in rearing silkworms. For ten years preceding 1743, the British Parliament granted to the patentees of Georgia§600, 000(A120, 000) for the encourage- ment of the culture of indigo and other agricultural crops. In. 1749, an act of Parliament was passed for encouraging the growth of silk in Carolina and Georgia, exempting the producers from the payment of duties on importation into London. In 1766, the house of assembly of the province of Carolina voted the sum of 55, 000(Q1, 000) towards the establishment of a silk filature at Charleston. In 1768, the Society for Promoting Arts,&c., at New York, awarded a premium of§50(410) to Thomas Young, of Oyster bay, for the largest nursery of apple-trees, the number being 27, 123. In 1783, the legislature of Connecticut passed an act granting a bounty on the production of mulberry-trees and the rearing of raw silkworms. In 1785, by an arrangement between the courts of France and Spain, a large number of Acadian families(about 2,500 persons) were transferred to Louisiana at the expense of the French King, and joined the colonists from Malaga and the Canaries, imported a few years before at the expense of Spain. In 1786, an ordinance was given at Madrid, under the Spanish ministry, commanding that the colonial authorities should,"'by all possible means,*** X extend agriculture and the sowing of grain, especially that of wheat, by assistance of the exemption from royal duties, enjoyed by flour exported from Vera Cruz and other ports of that kingdom.“* ———— AGRICULTURAL REPORT. In 1787, Diego de Gardoqui, minister from Spain to the United States, formed a plan for encouraging emigration from Kentucky and North Carolina to the Arkansas. He obtained from a Mr. Morgan the grant of a large tract, on which he laid the foundation of a city, dignified with the name of"„New Madrid'—afterwards the post so- called. Morgan, it is stated, made many sub-concessions to his settlers. In 1795, Seor Marquis de Maison Rouge, an eminent French knight, conceived the idea of forming a colony in the prairie Chatel- leran, on the river Ouachita, in Louisiana, which, at that time, belonged to the Spanish crown, principally with the object of cultivating wheat and erecting mills for the manufacture of flour. The inducements then offered by the laws and government of Spain to such under- takings were very great. As it was the policy of that country, like our own at present, to encourage the population of her vast and mag- nificent realms, which lay almost valueless, until their resources could be developed under the influences of immigration and civilization, a grant was made to the marquis, on the 14th of July, of 30 super- ficial leagues, provided he should cause to be brought into the pro- vince, from the United States, thirty families of immigrants, which were to descend the Ohio. Baron de Carondelet, then military and civil governor of Louisiana, agreed to pay out of the royal treasury 8§200 to each family of two white persons fitted for agriculture or for the arts useful and necessary for the establishment; and 8400 in addition to each family having four useful laborers or artificers, or §100 each for a less number. He also agreed to assist each family from New Madrid to Ouachita, with a skillful guide, and provisions sufficient for their support until they should reach the place of desti- nation, allowing them each 3,000 pounds of baggage, implements, &c., to be transported by sea to New Orleans, and thence to Ouachita. Each of said families was to receive 400 square arpents of land, which was to be increased in proportion to the number of white cultivators it might possess. No Americans were to be admitted on the lands included within this grant. The marquis introduced the full number of settlers required, and the conditions of his contract as a poblador were fulfilled. In 1796, Philip Henry Neri de Tot Bastrop, a nobleman of Holland, residing in Louisiana, conceived a similar idea to that of the Marquis de Maison Rouge, the year before, of forming an extensive colony in that province for the same purpose, of which he was to be the chief. A grant accordingly was made to him by Spain on the 21st of June, 1796, of 12 leagues square, one half situated on the side of Bayou de Siar, and the other on the side opposite the Ouachita, with the ex- its source to its mouth, in order that he might construct the works and embankments requisite for mills. He was permitted to export to the Havana and other places, free, the commerce of the province, without restriction. The government also was to charge itself with the transportation of families from New Madrid to OQuachita, and furnish them with seed for sowing, and provisions sufficient for their main- clusive enjoyment of 6 toises of land on each side of said bayou from PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE 17 tenance during six months. It appears that, upon reconnaissance, a change in the location was advisable, in consequence of portions of the tract being subject to inundation, or occupied by the ancient inhabitants; and a new grant was issued the following June, giving the same quantity of land, to be taken upon the river Ouachita and the Bayou de Siar and Barthelemi. In return, Baron de Bastrop, in the capacity of a colonizer, was bound to introduce settlers to a num- ber exceeding two hundred and fifty families, to each of which he was to assign a tract of land of not more than 400 square arpents. These requisitions were complied with on the part of De Bastrop, as far as he was permitted; many families were introduced and measures taken to erect a mill, and to make other improvements; but he was prohibited by the local government from carrying out his designs, as it neglected to transport the settlers and to furnish them with pro- visions and seeds. Consequently, De Bastrop was not allowed to ful- ſil his obligations, being compelled to abandon the enterprise forever, as Spain, on the 30th of April, 1803, transferred to the United States, through France, by a secret treaty of 1800, the magnificent province of Louisiana, which then stretched from the great lakes of the North to the waters of the Mexican Gulf. On the 9th of August, 1796, another grant of 458,963 acres (536, 904 arpents) was also made by the Spanish government to James Clamorgan, a merchant then residing at St. Louis, with the object of establishing a rope manufactory to supply his Majesty’s navy and the Havana with cordage; procuring farmers from Ganada to engage in the cultivation of hemp; and to give instructions in its manufac- ture. This grant called for the tract of land now lying partly within the boundaries of Missouri and partly in Arkansas, on the western bank of the Mississippi, beginning at the place which is opposite the head of an island situated about 100 arpents below the Little Prairie, about 30 miles below the village of Neow Madrid. The continuance of hostilities between Spain and England prevented Clamorgan from obtaining his farmers from Canada, and from commencing the culture of hemp, until Louisiana was transferred to the United States in 1803. On the 3 of March, 1817, Congress granted four townships of un- occupied land(92, 160 acres) lying in that part of the Mississippi Ter- ritory now comprised within the counties of Greene and Marengo, in the State of Alabama, to Charles Villar, agent of an association of emigrants from France, for the purpose and on the conditions of settlement of at least one adult to each half section contained in the said four townships, and for the cultivation of the vine, the olive, and other vegetable productions, no settler being entitled to more than 640 acres; the grantee to pay the government of the United States the sum of§184, 320(§2 per acre) on or before the expiration of four- teen years. It was further stipulated that, within three years from the date of the contract, there should be made upon each tract allotted to the respective associates a settlement by themselves, in- dividually, or by others on their account; that, on or before the ex- piration of seven years, there should be cultivated at least one acre of each quarter section, taken aggregately, in vines; and that there 2 A 18 AGRICUILTURAI REPORT. should be planted within that period in said four townships not less than five hundred olive-trees, unless it should have previously been established that the olive could not be successfully cultivated thereon. It appears from the Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, in December, 1827, that there were 7,414 acres cultivated within the above-named tract, principally in vines, cotton, corn, small grain,&c. The quantity of land devoted to the vines was 271 ½ acres, which, according to an estimate, is not more than one-tenth part of what was originally planted. The vineyards occupied fields which had previously been cultivated with cotton, the vines standing 10 feet apart in one direction and 20 feet in the other, each fastened to a stake. The number of olive-trees standing on the grant was three hundred and eighty-eight, some of which were six years planted and others only three. There were also planted on the tract twenty-five thousand olive seeds. It has been stated that about five hundred French emigrants settled under this concession, yet, comparatively put few made any considerable improvements, although extensive and profitable farms Were in possession of Americans who had pur- chased them from the grantees. The chief reasons assigned for the failure of performance on the part of the emigrants were not only the natural obstacles incident to the settlement of a new country, but many of them came prematurely to their lands without funds sufficient to improve their allotments or even to provide for their immediate support. The region of country to which they were to remove was then a wilderness, almost impervious to the approach of man, and the means of transportation were so difficult and expensive, that many persons, upon their arrival, were compelled to settle temporarily on small lots of land, where their funds were exhausted, and they became unable to make a second settlement on a larger scale. For several years, the colony was remarkably unhealthy, scarcely a family escaping sickness, and numbers of the grantees died. Again, possessing, as they did, but little knowledge of our agricultural economy, strangers to the language, the manners and habits of our people, it is not surprising that they should be retarded in their progress, and be less prosperous than the citizens of the United States. The chief causes which led to failures in the culture of the olive and the vine were ascribed to the necessity each grantee was under of first obtaining the means of subsistence; the difficulty and length of time required in clearing and preparing the land— nearly seven years elapsing before this was accomplished; yet, very early impor- tations of cuttings were made, a large quantity of which arrived out of season; and when we consider the lateness of the period in Europe at which they had to be taken, and the early time at which they must be planted in Alabama, it is obvious that any considerable delay in the arrival of vessels must have caused them to perish on the way. All of the cuttings which arrived alive were carefully planted, though large numbers of them died, owing, as was believed, to the newness of the soil. Again, the kinds of vine imported did not appear in all cases to be adapted to our climate, and, doubtless, the modes of culture in Europe and in this country are radically different. Finally, less becn reoh v i uthe de. bieh, what had feet 1b thres dand fefire ddred ively Nsive prr. er the ythe but leient diate e Wàs dd the many Iy ecamne everal aping sslng, nomy, ple, it 3 and olive under length sevell jmpor. ed out Jurope 1 uns elay N- e Waj. nough ewness 3 1D A des inally PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 19 the olive-trees that were planted perished with every winter's frost, but put up fresh shoots again in the spring, which also perished with that of the succeeding season. On the 30th of June, 1834, Congress granted 36 sections of land (23,040 acres) to the Polish exiles, then recently expelled from Europe by Austria, on conditions of actual settlement and the improvement of the soil. In 1838, similar views again, probably, prompted Congress to grant to Dr. Henry Perrine, a township 6 miles square(23, 040 acres,) in Dade county, in Florida, on the implied condition of introducing the culture and“ domestication“ of tropical plants. But, perhaps, owing to the want of a practical knowledge of the business and of funds adequate to carry the project into execution, little, if anything, was done by Dr. Perrine, and the enterprise was abandoned at his death, in 1839. S— The pre-emption system afterwards expanded into one of vast pro- portions, under the passage of the act of Congress of the 3d of March, 1799, which was special, and only included certain purchasers of lands in the Northwest Territory, under one John Cleve Symmes, being more in the nature of a relief act. At various periods since that time, extending through a space of about thirty years, special pre-emption acts were passed for the benefit of settlers in Mississippi, Tennessee, Ohio, Michigan, Florida, Alabama, and Arkansas. But the first general pre-emption law was approved May 29, 1830. This act gave to every settler or occupant of the public lands, prior to its passage, and then in possession, and who had cultivated any part thereof, in the year 1829, the right to purchase his claim, not exceed- ing a quarter section, or 160 acres, in preference to all other persons, upon performing the conditions of the act, at the government mini- mum price of 1 25 per acre, and by its own limitation was to con tinue in force for a year from the date of its approval. Afterwards, several acts were passed, continuing the privileges of the above act to certain settlers. On the 22d June, 1838, the privileges of the act of 1830 were extended to every settler, who was the head of a family, or over the age of twenty-one years, in possession as a housekeeper by personal residence, on the land claimed at the time of its passage and for four months preceding. The next in order of time is the act of June 1, 1840, which was supplemental to the act of 1838, and enlarged the privileges therein granted. But the great pre-emption act, which has superseded all prior laws on the subject, and which has disseminated its blessings throughout the extent of our great country, was approved the 4th September, 1841, and its provisions in the main have governed in all subsequent enactments up to the present time. Our legislators, at, that period, seem to have been actuated by a noble spirit of liberality both to aliens and to natives, not forgetting the rights of women. This act has probably done more towards the promotion of settlements in the vast regions of the West and Northwest, and in the develop- ment of their agricultural resources and interests, than all other causes combined. It gives to every-one who is the head of a family whether — minimum price of such lan 2 20 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. a widow, or any man over the age of 21 years, and being a oiti- zen of the United States, or having filed his declaration of intention to become a citizen, as required by the naturalization laws, who had made or should make a settlement in person on any public lands to which the Indian title had been or should be extinguished at the date of settlement, said lands having been surveyed, who shall inhabit and improve the same, and erect a dwelling thereon, the right to enter any number of acres, not exceeding 160 in one body, to include the residence of such settler, upon paying to the United States the d. The right is restricted, however, to such as did not own 320 acres of land at, the time of settlement, and no one is allowed to enjoy it who shall abandon a residence on his own land to settle upon the public land in the same State or Terri- tory, and the right can only be enjoyed once under this act. The blessings of this law to individuals and families, and its advantages to the government itself, are inestimable. Thousands upon thousands of indigent families have thus been enabled to obtain comfortable homes, and, by means of their settlements, our western wilds have been subdued into civil."ion, and covered by the farms of a pros- perous and happy people.. In 1844, an act was passed for the relief of citizens of towns under certain circumstances, which gives the right to enter by pre-emption 320 acres of land, so settled and occupied as'a town site, in trust for the several use and benefit of the inhabitants, according to their res- pective interests. By the act of the 3d of March, 1855, contractors carrying the mails through the Territories west of the Mississippi are authorized to pre- empt their stations, not more than one for every 20 miles of the route, to the extent of 640 acres at each station. In 1853— 54, the pre-emption law of 1841 was extended to the public lands in Califor- nia, Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota, Oregon, Washington, and New Mexico, and the right o. ettlement was conferred upon unsurveyed as well as surveyed lands. This privilege of settling upon unsurveyed lands has been of great advantage to the hardy pioneers, and has done much towards the peopling of our vast territorial possessions. In Oregon and Washington, stronger inducements were offered by the donation acts, which grant to settlers upon the public lands in those Territories, under certain conditions and restrictions, a half section of land to a single, and a whole section to a married man. In the latter case, one-half is secured to and vests in the wife, another very wise and loneficent interposition in favor of females. This is but a cursory view of our pre-emption and donation systems, and the laws upon which they are based; all having in view the expansion of our country, as well as the happiness, advancement, and prosperity of the great masses of our people. Towards the close of the last century, a new era dawned upon the productive industry of both hemispheres, in the formation of agricul- tural associations and economical societies, the beneficial effects of which were manifest from the interest they elicited on the part of dit. Ntion who lands tt the habit ht b clude s the er, to and n hi Terri. The ges to Sands rtable har Dros ander ption st for r re mäils opre- of the 4 the alikor. 1 New veyed veyed d has Os. ed by mds 11 3 halk n. I nother estels. ew Uo ut, anl 0! he gri eul. ects0 part 1 PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 21 the more intelligent class of farmers, as well as that of the merchants and Political economists of the day. The first association of this kind formed in the United States, so far as is known, was“The Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agri i- culture,“ established on the 1st of March, 1785, by a body of citizens, only a few of whom were actually engaged in husbandry, but who were convinced of the necessity and of the assistance which an asso- ciation, properly managed, would afford to the interests of agricul- ture. rhis society continued to meet regularly for several years, and published numerous valuable communications from practical men in the newspapers of the day, thereby contributing to diffuse the knowledge of many improvements in rural affairs, the general adop- tion of which visibly tended to augment the fertility and to increase the products of the soil of Pennsylvania. Premiums were proposed and conferred for the elucidation of subjects upon which information was desired, and for the adoption of approved systems and modes of European culture, as well as for the improvement of certain articles of domestic manufacture. Among the latter, for instance, may be mentioned cheese, for the best sample and greatest quantity of hieh a gold medal was awarded to Mr. Mathewson, of Rhode Island, 1790. After several years of active exertions, this society was unfor- tunately permitted to slumber until the winter of 1804, when it was revived under the laudable and patriotic efforts of the late Judge Peters, through whose indefatigable exertions regular meetings were resumed, new subjects for premiums proposed, and numerous com- munications received, which were published in the Memoirs in 1808-11, and afterwards. The society was incorporated by the legis- lature of Pennsylvania on the 14th of February, 1809. The first agricultural association incorporated in this country was the“Society for the Promotion of Agriculture,“ established in South Carolina, in 1785, the objects of which were to institute a farm for experiments, to import and distribute foreign productions suited to the climate of Charleston, and to direct the attention of the farmers and planters of the State to economical purposes, as well as to reward those persons who should improve the art of husbandry. Among other subjects of interest which received the attention of this society were some cuttings of the olive and of the vine. The former suc- ceeded very well; but the climate near Charleston proved too moist for the perfection of the grape. In 1791, a few patriotic citizens founded in the city of New York a Society for the Advancement of Agriculture, Arts, and Manufac- tures.” This association was in operation only about 10 years, having ceased at the close of its incorporation. Next in chronological order stands the““ Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture,“ which was incorporated on March 7, 1792. The design of this institution was to promote useful improvements in agriculture, and the association was empowered by law to hold, pur- chase, and receive in fee simple, or any less estate, by gift, grant, devise, or otherwise, any lands, tenements, or other estate, real and 22 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. personal; provided that the annual income of the said real and per- sonal estate did not exceed the sum of L10,000; and also to sell, alien, devise, or dispose of the same estate, real and personal, not using the same in trade or commercè. No society in the Union, perhaps, has contributed so much to pro- mote its object as the one under consideration. The trustees, by prudent care and good management, have not only ever had a surplus of funds in their treasury, obtained through donations from generous and public-spirited gentlemen and by annual assessments on the members, but they have exerted its beneficial effects by holding public exhibitions and offering rewards for the encouragement of agri- culture and the arts, the results of which have been made known to the world through its journals. A considerable portion of the moneys accumulated has been expended in importing improved breeds of domestic animals for the free use of the State; agricultural imple- ments and machinery of approved construction, to serve as models from which others might be manufactured; the standard works on European agriculture; and in sending agents abroad for acquiring agricultural information on such topies as might prove useful at home. The attention of the trustees has long been directed to the important and disputed question, how far and in what way the primitive breeds of cattle of New England may be improved by the admixture of foreign races, and more particularly, which of these races, from its valuable qualities for work or for the dairy, as well as its capacity of thriving in that climate, and under the degree of care and protection which can be conveniently given to it by the farmers, would best re- pay the expenses and trouble necessarily incident to its first introduc- tion. These motives, as is well known, led the society, some 12 years ago, to purchase and import several fine animals of the North Devons and Ayrshires, which were placed in charge of a responsible person for breeding. As soon as this stock was sufficiently multiplied, pairs of one or the other of these breeds were distributed to each of the county societies of that State, for further experiment. Subse- quently, another importation was made of the Jersey or Alderney breed, for similar purposes as above. In December, 1793, a circular was issued by several members of this society, residing in the county of Middlesex, inviting other mem- bers to lend their aid in taking such measures as would appear calcu- culated to promote and, in general, to improve the husbandry of that county. On the 27th of October, in the year following, a new society was fully organized, appointing committees to receive communica- tions upon agricultural subjects, to hold meetings,&c., the latter of which were afterwards held three times a year. In 1804, this society was duly incorporated by the legislature, and, so far as known, was the first county agricultural association formed in the United States. On the 12th of March, 1798, the legislature of New York passed an act establishing a„‧Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Manufactures and Arts;“ and on the 2d of April, 1804, another, entitled“An act to incorporate a Society for the Promotion of Useful nd per. to del⸗ nal not to pro. tees by Lurplu euerous on the volding of agr. down to noneys Seds Of imple moddels rks oh quiring home. portant breeds ure of om its city ol tection dest re⸗ trodue· mme 12 North onsible ipliel. ach of Subse- derney drg f mem. ealeu. of that oeiety nunieur tter of oeiety n, VAs tates. passe Uture other, Usetul PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE 23 rts,“ in which agriculture is first named. This society published soven volumes of its Transactions prior to 1815. In about the year 1800, the Kennebeck Agricultural Society was formed in the District of Maine, and was continued with considerable activity for a period of several years. Anumber of interesting papers, emanating from this society, were published in the Repository and Journal, issued by the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agricul- ture, in 1803.. In August, 1810, Mr. Elkanah Watson, of Berkshire, in Massachu- setts, wrote an appeal to the public, which he induced twenty-six fkarmers to sign, appointing a cattle show at Pittsfield, on the Ist of October of that year, which took place, and it is believed, was the frst agricultural fair ever held in America. The Berkshire Agri- cultural Society was incorporated in the winter of 1810—11. From this era sprang the system of agricultural societies and shows. as they exist at present, in most parts of the United States. Through the perseverance and patriotic efforts of Mr. Watson, the gentleman mentioned above, societies were formed, not only in many of the counties of New England, but in New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee, as well as boards of agriculture in several of these States. 1 In 1819, the legislature of New York appropriated 20, 000, to be divided in two years, for the promotion of agriculture and family domestic manufactures, to be equitably distributed among the agri- cultural societies of the counties of that State. By the same act, the sum of§1, 000 was also appropriated for the purchase of useful seeds, to be distributed to said societies for experiment, and a board nf agriculture was established, to be comprised of the presidents of chese societies, who were authorized to compile and publish fifteen mundred copies of a volumo of archives at the expense of the State. In 1828, the ‧American Institute of the city of New York' was incorporated for the broad purpose of encouraging and promoting domestic industry throughout the United States, by bestowing rewards and other benefits on those who excel in any of the departments of agriculture, commerce, manufactures, and the arts; serving also as the agricultural society of the county of New York. The officers, committees, and clubs of this institution have ever been active in promoting the objects of its formation. The annual volumes of Trans- actions, published with commendable liberality by the State, not only contain reports of the progress of the institute itself, but those of the judges of the fairs, as well as the addresses and useful papers on subjects coming within the wide scope of its design. In 1832, The New York State Agricultural Society' was incor- porated to continue for the term of 20 years, with power to take and hold real and personal property; but lest the farmers should combine and turn speculators, they, with commendable caution pro- vided that their real estate should not exceed§25,000. This charter was renewed in 1852, restricting their personal property to§10. 000. Notwithstanding the spirited exertions of many gentlemen in differeui 4AGRICULTURAL REPORT. parts of the State, not much was effected by the society for the eight or nine years after its first incorporation. But after the importation of bread-Stuffs, to the amount of several millions of dollars, in 1837— 38, made necessary to a considerable extent from a neglected cultivation, and after many other evidences of a decaying agriculture, an energetic effort was made by many of the most active men of the State, as well agriculturists as others, to reanimate the society, and through its agency, if possible, to awaken a spirit of improvement with the farming classes. On the 5th of May, 1841, the act for the encouragement of agri- culture was passed by the legislature of New York, appropriating 88, 000 for five years, to be divided among the agricultural societies, which has been continued to the present time. The State Agricultu- ral Society was recognized the same year, and a cattle show and fair held at Syracuse, which was a most creditable one, exceeding the expectations even of the most ardent friends of the cause. These fairs have been continued, increasing in interest, utility, and import- ance, every year.. Since the formation of the society last named,"State Agricultural Societies“ have also been incorporated in Alabama, California, Con- necticut, Georgia, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Michi- gan, Minnesota, Mississippi, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, and Wisconsin;““Boards of Agriculture“ in Indiana, Massachusetts, Ohio, and Tennessee, and numerous ‧County Agricultural Societies,“ and other associations in which agriculture and horticulture are encour- aged, have been formed, making in the aggregate about eight hun- dred in number in the States and Territories. The operations of all these associations, in detail, would form a subject for an essay in a future Report.— Another interesting feature in our industrial history is the annual appropriations by Congress for the collection of agricultural statistics, investigations for promoting agriculture and rural economy, and the procurement of cuttings and seeds for gratuitous distribution among the farmers, which appropriations are expended under the direction of the Patent Office; the idea having originated with Hon. Henry L. Ellsworth, in 1839. The sums appropriated each year, since that period, for the above-named objects, and the number of copies printed of the Agricultural Reports, with the size of each volume, are denoted in the following table:— 4 —— ꝑ „———— eight tatich —88 ation, rgetic s Well gh its n the agri. iating leties cultu. d fair g the These jport. ltural Con- lichi. North and Ohie, 1 and lcour. hum of all fina Inla. stics, d the mong ction ry L. that inted noted PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 25 Appropriałions for agrioultural statistics, dc. TEARS. Appropriations. Copies of re- Pages in each Remarks. ports printed. volume. 1839 81, 000 54 Agricultural and Mechanical Reports combined. 1840 None.= 60 Do. 1841 Nons. 84 Do. 1842² 1,000 174 Do. 1843 2, 000 5²² Do. 1844 2, 000 71⁰ Do. 1845 3,00ir0o0o 1, 376 Do. 1846 Nonos.... 366 Do. 1847 3,90oo ⁵ 1, 004 Do. 18418 3, 500 1, 142 Do. 1849 3,500o. 574 Agricultural(alone.) 1850 4. 500).. 580 Do. 1851 5,500 145, 420 676 Do. 18⁵² 5, 000 145, 420 448 Do. 1853 5, 000 152, 920 448 Do. 1854 35, 000 167, 920 560 Do. 1855 25, 000 267, 920 550 Do. 1856 105, 000 267, 950 5⁵² Do. 1857 63, 500 222, 950 5⁵² Do. 1858 60, 00oo„.... The results of these appropriations may be judged of in a measure on the perusal of the Reports of this Office. Another object of encouragement from the public purse, and one which was advocated by Washington and Jefferson, as well as by other Presidents since, is agricultural education. No direct aid, however, has thus far been bestowed upon it by the general govern- ment, nor until a comparatively recent period by any of the States. The first important movement in this matter was made by the late. Judge Buel, of Albany, in 1838, who endeavored to establish an agricultural college, connected with an experimental farm, to be en dowed by the State for the education of farmers' sons. The same object was urged upon the legislature by the American Institute of New York, in 1844, and the project was again revived by the execu- tive committee of the New York State Agricultural Society, in 1849. The latter, failing in their exertions, concluded to suspend their efforts, „and wait what change the wheel of time might bring.“ In 1853, the late John Delafield, of Seneca county, procured the passage of an act by the legislature to incorporate the New Vork State Agricul- tural College,“ providing no pecuniary aid from the State, but leav- ing the trustees to commence the work from private contributions. Considerable progress had been made in obtaining subscriptions to the fund, but, on the death of Mr. Delafield, the matter was again suspended. In the year 1855. the citizens of Ovid, in the county of Seneca, and in its vicinity, with a most commendable spirit, made an active effort to carry the project into execution. A subscription was AGRICULTURAL REPORT. opened and another act passed by the legislature providing pecuniary means for the establishment of an institution, which it is confidently believed will succeed. The act provides for loaning from the surplus of the United States Deposit Fund§40, 000 for twenty-one yGars, without interest, to be expended in the purchase of a farm, in Seneca county, of not less than 300 acres, and for the erection of college buildings thereon, provided the like sum of§40, 000 should be obtained by private subscription for the same purposeé, and its payment secured to the satisfaction of the comptroller, and the land so purchased to be mortgaged to the State to secure the payment of the money loaned. The trustees accordingly selected a farm of 680 acres lying between the village of Ovid and the easterly shore of Seneca Lake. Posses- sion has been taken of this farm and the college buildings are in process of erection. 14 A kindred institution was also chartered, in 1854, by the legislature, under the name of The People's College of the State of New York,“ which is located at Havana, Schuyler county. The design of this institution is to give instruction in agriculture and the mechanic arts, and such other branches of knowledge as the students may prefer. Connected with it is a farm of 200 acres, on which the college build- ings are now being erected. The State of Michigan has a constitutional provision requiring her legislature to establish an agricultural college; conformably to which an appropriation of 850,000 was made, in 1855, with which a tract of nearly 700 acres was purchased in Lansing, and the buildings erected. In 1857, the legislature made a further appropriation of 540, 000 for the use of this establishment; and in the May following, the first class of students was received. The design of this institution is to receive the pupil direct from the common schools of the State, and give such a course of English and scientific education as will render him an intelligent citizen and a practical farmer, qualifying him to discharge such duties as his country may require. In March, 1855,„The Farmers’ High School of Pennsylvania' was incorporated, at the instance and under the auspices of the Penn- sylvania State Agricultural Society, for similar objects as those of the Agricultural College of Michigan. It is located at the junction of Nittany and Penn Valleys, near Bellefonte, in Centre county, and comprises, with the buildings now- being erected, a farm of 400 acres, 200 of which were donated by General James Irvin, of Bellefonte. Its resources consist of§10, 000 appropriated by the State Agricul- tural Society; a legacy of 55, 000 from the late Elliott Cresson, of and an appropriation of 850, 000 by the legislature, one half of which was made contingent upon a similar amount to be obtained from other sources, forming an aggregate capital of§100, 000. The trustees school edifice that will accommodate, when completed, three hundred students. The farm, at present, is under thesupervision of Mr. William G. Waring, who has for some time been engaged in planting orchards and hedges, as well as in embellishing the grounds with shade trees Philadelphia;§10,000 subscribed by the citizens of Centre county; have erected several of the requisite buildings, among which is the wiary dently orplus pean deneca olege tained cured ed to aned. tween 08ses. are in ature, ork” f this arts reker. duil. gher rhich nct of cted. ” tor frst 1s to and ender im to ania“ venn. f the n f and cres, fonte. rieul. n, Of unty; rhich other stees s the dred llam Hrds trees PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 27 and evergreens, and in making preparations for a model farm. As it is designed that this school shall, in a manner, sustain itself by the industry of the pupils, only a comparatively small tuition fee will be charged. It is expected that it will be open for instruction the present year. In the winter of 1856, the legislature of Maryland passed an act appropriating§6,000 per annum for the perpetual support of an agricultural college, on condition that 850, 000 should be raised by private subscription for its establishment. It may here be stated that the trustees were greatly encouraged and stimulated to increased exertion to raise the required amount by subscription, to entitle them to the endowment from the State, by a munificent donation, volun- tarily made, by Dr. William Newton Mercer, a native of Maryland, but now a citizen of Louisiana. The homestead of Mr. Charles B. Calvert, situated near Bladensburg, in Prince George's county, nine miles northeast of Washington, comprising 428 acres, has recently been purchased; plans and specifications are in preparation for the buildings, and arrangements are being made to procure materials for their erection. The soil of this farm varies in quality and condition, affording a fair opportunity for experiment. It consists chiefly of rich meadows, artificially drained, dry bottom-lands. undulating pas- tures and moderate hills, abounding in wood, and irrigated by a rapid stream of pure water, sufficiently copious to afford any motive power or other useful purpose the establishment may require. The site of the proposed college buildings is a commanding eminence, so fully exposed to constant ventilation as must entirely exempt it from miasmatic influence, which, it is believed, will render the locality permanently healthful. 4 b The ultimate end aimed at by the trustees is the foundation of an *Educational Institution“ in its most comprehensive sense. Its defi- nition of education is, that it is the united symmetrical development and instruction of the religious, the intellectual, and the physical qualities of the man. It recognizes the whole man in all the departments of his being as the object of its care. Its aim is not merely to instruct, nor to impart knowledge, but to awaken, develop, train, and discipline all the talent, inborn powers, and faculties of man, that he may com- mand them for the high and noble uses of. which they may be capable, or for which they were designed. It claims for the farmer or the mechanic, or for whomsoever its care may be sought, first, his devel- opment as a man, trained and fitted to the full extent of his capacity, for all the duties of a good citizen. To this end, it offers him the advantage of the most approved system of moral and intellectual culture; and superadds to these, for his physical training, moderate and systematic exercises in the field and the workshop, as the best means of laying the foundation of future health and energy, in a well developed, robust, physical constitution. Thus, incidentally, if not primarily, the scheme embraces the best practical training in agricul- ture and mechanic arts. The student will acquire skill and handicraft in the use of tools and implements, from the hammer or the hoe to the scythe or the plough; he will learn the construction and management 28 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. of all such machinery as he may probably have the future use of. These exercises are to be learned simultaneously with his scientific instruction, in the lecture room, and the valuable mental habit will be acquired of referring the daily operations to their principles, and of watching and noting the facts and circumstances, which, in practice, will modify the application of purely scientific theories. The well informed mind and the cunning right hand will learn to work together, and labor will be enlightened and dignified by its association with science. As regards moral and intellectual culture and instruction, it pro poses nothing more, yet nothing less, than the system which has ap- proved itself to the wise and jearned of many generations. The religious training is to be more especially the duty of the parent and the church. It begins at the mother's knee, and its best and most effective lessons are learned before the period of college life. With strict impartiality as to the various shades of Christian belief, the moral character will here be guarded by vigilance and discipline from corrupting and immoral influences; and by diligent instruction be confirmed and strengthened in the great principles of faith and well living, which rise above all denominational differences and discussions. In mental culture it adopts the course of studies of the most ap- proved institution for training and disciplining the intellect and cul- tivating the taste; embracing the study of languages, spoken and unspoken; the mathematics in its several departments and applica- tions; moral and intellectual philosophy; the physical sciences— those especially more immediately associated with agriculture; also the science of government, political economy, and political ethics. In connection with such studies, a patriotism, which shall embrace his whole country, and a devotion to the republican principles of the government, will be faithfully instilled. Its teachings will rise above section and party; will know no difference of class, and acknowledge no personal superiority but what is due to worth and excellence of character. The scheme of this agricultural college, in connection with an educa- . tional institution, embraces an experimental and model farm, with a plan for the advancement of agricultural science, based upon practice. It is proposed to institute a series of experiments, made under the most intelligent observation of facts, with an accurate and careful record of all the circumstances attending and bearing upon them. These experiments are to be made in the full light of all that science now professes to teach, but with absolute impartiality as to theories already in vogue, and the strictest reserve in adopting conclusious. Their design is to contribute in some degree to building up an agri cultural science on the sure foundation of well ascertained facts. The farm, in its general management, it is proposed to make a model and an example of the best modes of culture in the several departments of agriculture. It is to be stocked with the best breeds of cattle, sheep, hogs,&c., and the most approved tools, implements, and wa- chines. To complete the arrangements which a system so compre- hensive demands, a commodious workshop is to be erected, with PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 29 motive power sufficient for all its purposes, and with space enough for exercise and instruction in most of the mechanic arts, at least for those operating in wood, iron, and stone. In the year 1855, the legislature of South Carolina passed an act appropriating 5,000 per annum for agricultural purposes in that State, and for experiments, principally with the seeds, cuttings,&c., which may be obtained from the United States Patent Office. Scientific schools, experimental grounds, and agricultural professor- ships have also been established in connection with many of the colleges and universities of the country, with the view of affording thorough and practical instructions in the arts and sciences, which bear directly upon rural affairs, as well as upon the other industrial occupations of the age. In reverting to the progress of agriculture in the United States, it is obvious that, from the paucity of our statistics, prior to the year 1840, it would be difficult to arrive at any fixed ratio of increase or diminution of any particular product. The chief elements that would seem to have a bearing on these points consist in the augmentation of our population by birth, accession, or immigration; the annexation of territory; the demand for our staples, either for shipping or home consumption; the construction of railroads, telegraphs, and canals; the improvement of rivers and harbors; the introduction of improved implements of husbandry and labor-saving machinery; and last of all, in the permanent improvement or the overworking of the soil. The following tables exhibit the general industrial and commercial condition of the country, as near as can be ascertained, with the popu- lation at each decennial period, since the formation of our govern- ment: 888SG2 1 SzISES 1 8r92.90 ‧8 1089———y y———— 1reIIeP Be eneee eeIrrrI=IET 899 †21˙1 918 7†09 961*92 18² ‧061 Be=eSpllop.. 110 oulpe Poadodxe 1180Op 8000 Pu 115851 1=--spunod----porlodxe olsoulop 8010) 8*7 † 681 199 01 118 181'I 187˙991 911*† 6 588 †I9 1 298 †9 106 021 168˙9„G “ sſfeopo 0p Jo anlrA 868 ,809 9⁵6 299 13 810 81 6809 eSpunod. poxlodxe use1 es0010 961 913, 89 F.ſeesmlloph oump Jo oulha 868 9os go. spunod-poonpold sauiop ‧s0 Srellop. 0441p Jo enluA spunod-. pollodu 800910 esbunod- pollodxe 0lasourop 1. --grellop-.-. oaalb 10 ↄuleA spunod-==poodun oan 219 68 †20 ˙690 1 ——õ——— 21966 681 848˙1 698 139 910 088 ˙3 ———— 298 ‧„†9 868 909 259 †66 ˙8 999 18 081(62† 852—991 109 318 †1 0†9 II 966 981 ˙8 266 929 ˙8 41 1 68 1 ˙69 212 ‧821 1 501 9 51 ————— 80½˙1 798 96 009 ˙888 O----------—ℳ—ℳ *-Sellop--=-. olllb 10 aule4 90g Grs gle ℳ⸗- ͤ espunod---poonpoad Seulop 1119 661 188 Gsr 800 18 99. f—— lloobh J0 nluA 1801,18 porlul u o ood Ke 879 06 189 99 01109 188 99 97191 189 ‧94 119 ‧29-eslored. 9031oOdxe seuop Joeg 186⁶ 96 ⁵ 8 28˙81--- slllop-- Oaap J0 onlua -spunod----poxlodxe uS10 Nod pus Jood -0qmnu---porlodxo eSouiop Poulou 1490 srellop- onnp Jo onleA =spunod- poxrodun- Nlod puu Joο erellop 8011 porlu 000 92 099 1 19 ˙1 9121† 2r1 801 1II —-—-—-ͤ—-----—- 810˙9 229 ‧8 ——ℳ—ℳ-— 000 21 198 1½ 639 8 FLI 891 ———-———ℳ— 9988 ˙IT 188˙9 069 ˙9 226(98 —————— AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 30 690 963 01 FTI 001 1 560(88 ˙9 106 818 81 —--- 989 116 711. 817 691 996 88 909 0 ¹ i 999˙81 — ————— ———õ ———ℳ—ℳ— ————ℳ ⸗— —õ'—ℳꝑv⸗— ———:——— ———————ℳ 0981 0781 0881 0381 ———— —-——ℳ 0181 0081 06/1 2u ls sleurlus Jo onleA --requnu- 80e,8 pPollul ul ²lato 1010 --r0qumnu-----Soο8 Dorlul u o roquinu--- s041 18 Porluſl u SAàOo olLIT -oqunu--Lelo sorus Porlull u ou(013480 =-Srellop--Jo enleà pollodurl sluullun 100 grellop---Jo onfeA poo 10 pollodulsleurluvV — saqonpond I1 puu SleulluV NOILVOITISSV5IO 0 10μιυμι☚ιοο‿ mQm 0o υν õ4Souο Oασα Gιαοοιννmσ⁶ο uν m 2 ½ ſο Sνεοε οꝛ2ο 2uνοs 1T2 gpOν.*νο uο‿ειοι τνı ⁸οπ οννι* ↄ‿ uuuas S7ιmσι/1ο s⸗uνde pub S2AO⁴dee ½ uν 2u¹o. fDs½ S2 οωοωρπõðõò—Mᴵ ſo Seoonpos an⸗enodP wdaοue.d 2½ 1ο Sdouis 31 PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 158 283 ˙2 991 508 898 89† 861 90⅞ 8/5 11 361 ˙8G 991 9 1³³m19⁹ 16 ⅞ 2 609 81 919 2335 109 1 858 ˙† 119 98 091 91 891 680 1 782 ˙915 1 068˙38 196 298 968 85 011 998 F29 98 888 ‧*796 ˙9 FSS 13 888 596 9 E99*72ZII 28 † v96*† 889 961 998 98 619 †1 609 1 290 1 91†„† 06 ½ ,18 689 88 999 069 ——“——— ————V—«ꝰ v6I 02 687 †92 296 1 007 ‧91 868 9† 216 99 879‧4 852 297 8 918 02 06 939 ˙9 196 065 091 19⅞ 42½ † 239 1 19 997 1 971 89 961 918 ———ℳ—— —————ℳℳ 839˙˙6 967 66 917 665 921 03 11 ‧‧021 879 490 ˙8G 962 ‧*92 ——⸗—⸗—— ——ℳ—ℳℳ 89⅞ ,995 688 181 269 9„ 5Z 017 1 95† ˙9 966 1 —-—— 999 9*2 ———-———ℳ 990˙9 529 88 899 91 126 19 089 268 L82˙061 286 839 8 966 2† 199 ‧1 1³⁰0 1 ——-—ℳℳ 261 ˙8 956 998 ——-—M—— ———ℳ— ———õℳ-—— —— —-— ————— ——õ-——ℳ—- 9 59 91 998 ˙3 ——-—ℳM3 287 † 286 181 10⅞ ‧*6 —-———— 958 013 ———-y-—ℳRK —————ℳℳ ————P—— 169 9G% — —-s 950 1 28 † 839˙„1 898 ‧99 061 12 F2P G ————ℳN4 ————— 2E -aud.. bolrodxo onsoum op puv uSloroO s1eddyus puu sooug SAeIloh onmb Jo onſez sIed-perlodxe uS105„»— PIlu nld MIIS Saoddils pue sools S400 erellop 015 0 onleA sad- paxiodu„oy vllou uad AIIS s4oddils pus soous 400 srullop-e Jjo onluA pollodxe 0 1s0uop onol soous puu s1ood =SIed---- po*lodxo aSourop 10Haeol 8000S =STpd-----parlodxo 0nsouiop lousvol S4009 sreIIoo. 0aap Jo oulnA sned pol10dxXO uS10101 10 9eoI Sa0ddls Pun ‧soous ‧s1009 =eSreIlop mmmpoonlu =Sad-p. dunl—e1u1 s10ddüls pus'eous 1009 srullop anlea Prodxe 0SouOp SuINS 000010UI Pu 1090,1 =spunod-- perlOdxo éSeuop 1d,ee,I --sSluIlop-- ommnb Jo onlsA eroqumuu-.. poptod xo*uS1010 possonp puu pouue; Sulis AIellop 0, 10 ouleA spunod--. Poqlod XO uSr010 loddn pur elos 1e.αο =saellop--Jo onleà pollodxe uS010† 0U8071 =-Srsllop---= onalb 10 ouleA -roqumnu--perlodu S1oALMs Puu sufds pouunsJ, -eSrBIIeOP- onlp 10 bMlen --spunod---porlodun loddu puu olos 12u071 -spunod--= poxlodxe uSLe40] enlD sieliob-- 0mmb zo ohloA spunodc--poxloduf onlp roqunu--==porlodxe Souiop SopIH =suIlop----jJo onleA parlodxo uSI0103 S0plIH egrllop 70 aulea poadod Xo 0lsoutop suonand pu S =-saullop--zo onleA polodu SapIH “ J0 DSulX —— — ———““ erree- PeSAPS Korr. ‿— 4——— 881 609 119 †6 † 9½ 959——,— 818 ˙882*† z81 Fpry e— 607 199---.... ee e Pen enen ee 646 1 zececee„ 919 29“.025 595,9. 313 916 46 88† Ʒ16 31. 4 P7STllop. Doosnlea 6——— i 901 988,1 216,,66 079 ·6..898.96 989·899 5. 926 11.epunod- e.e olpuvo e Deo e L989 122 966 168 011 991——é—-——spunod--- poerlodxe 0lisouiop“ B08 916 8 9†8'CrI' 112 ˙(699 919 275 198 ˙699 rer Tglr 8-d pariodxo 31. op Auos .561 096 182 6699, 8239 82FI 889. 88.879,5 els..-2felfo... e. z, e ee. uSlo0 deos 679 889 199 669 088 ,11⁵— 889 000 I 661 818 1 117* spunod-- 0441p Jo onluA 588 178—-———— 239 89 spunod---===- poxiodur d 89 616 493— pPollodxe 4S0uo 1 dzos Sr 6. g990 699 918 929 811 llope-reererereeneee on 1Len S01pPuu . 1 ⁸ 106 21— 3 SerllaNie--e...en.--.. Valodse ad E 1———ℳ——————ℳ—————ℳ—— 2 0p 6 90u 01189 U 8 06* ⁷ 39⁵†„—— asloy.eereree-on XBℳ S0Ipuu C 295 66 ²“ hellule.eeeen.r Jo onluA 4=====——-—— uS Ppo 10d 7 8³ Sr e er 208 2........ß........ Brr.aneTp--Aenumaen pus Se. 1ollsge 912˙91 97 168 †3————-«——————s--spunod--oaap Jo 4 59 80⁵ P od 4 1b 4 onlBA 3 Ti655 Tdr 191 807 g6....001 9T...........eee... eanane--Lorreerrre-aen Solpu — nn 2r es 852˙9. 885 1-Wunod poxlodxo„ecslh Soren en 8 8 8. 2 1*⁰ 8 9 9—— 8 801PB0 80 ⁸ 927ã. Pano porodun eoumods p vue O 00⁵†. 981 ˙62 699 1— SS......... eanon vekeren eeerrere puu xu⁴ solpuu 5 896 ˙689 1 816 †06 1LIL 2 10½ †1ε 3 Spunod--. 041p Jo onleA S. 386 688 828 ‧869 696 19 899 ‧961 b..-hunalle-eoee-e-hce uISs Solpuu 2₰ d25.861 8 120 086 92 2 666.9.. anode-ere--e Hanond uon lA 3 276 35 1 9 619 169 18 911 srullop----zjo onleA“ 1 etollwe S0pu 85⁵ 99 812 98 36“ 911.75.. 27I 19 961 2. epl pun Mo u49 4 2148 IOp 908 31 968 2 96. Z12˙08.... 361 2Te„punod-.. bo I Teon 0ro pouioH 991 110³ 089˙82 993 ,01——— ,———h⸗———⸗. andle.. 2-e--edeere, 2118210P Mollul. 001 08 99† 32 199.6 7†1 016 899 ˙9 6,-—.-spunod. Oalp Jo ouleA 0†† ·68 211 17 997 168——..........— uS110]3½ Mollel. 119 †l 916 1... 8“ 10 onleA esrellop-Jo rloOdul Ao J0 eulBA poalodxe nsomop 4 easddlll penunuod— saonpond Jouz pue SluuluV .0981.07 81 0881. 037 0181 0081 0611 NOIILVOIAISSVIO 32 ponunuo— 8. νρ 0 20 0 92 2—u, 277 ſo 890 o 2 pa pos v.n, 26 F 7pd 21 0 ſ0 28do0 .* 2 2— 2* uuſig — —— 5 2⸗ PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURI FSE 06 ⅞ ,13 191 998 9& 16 7 879 29 480 991 91 696 919 ˙29 918˙81 199 † 0½ ˙921 12 000 ˙000 ˙9 000 ‧000 91 991 861 9⁵6 2 799 1 090 968*† 198 699 611 999*† 19½ ‧8 869 917991 8ʃ 996 769 †FZ 9†9 9† 998 ‧221 956 I† 909—918 ˙‧2 061 ˙998*†1 —— 28E 609 293 ˙996 31 219 911 979 969 FII 208 998 194 99G 699 †1 5IE 119 ˙61 — — 01† †p9(6 851 963 817˙1 096 ˙7 699 998 † — ——ℳ 908 ‧262 031 †! 880*2 —— 908 ˙829 L1½9*6 181˙ 121 ˙680 91 606 883 ˙1 096 239 9 665† 393 ‧8 ——ℳ——— 4 ———e 910 ‧812 0†9 1 ——ℳMm —õA 210 II 656 09 † 292 2*9 5g6 893˙2 638 96 888„88 ————— 9½1 22 411 II ———ℳ—j ——ℳ—gö— —f-⸗—— 088'69 6 898 — —— ——-—ö 08 198 †8 799 98 606 1TZ 607 199 —-' ——ℳ———— — —— ———ö ———ℳm 108˙9 999 ˙0 ½ ————— 861 998 2 098 092 —————ℳ—— — ——— ——-ℳ—ℳö—ℳ— ——-—— ——-ℳ-⸗—ℳ—ℳ —-—— 139 11 1287†.22. ————— 885 980 ˙9 ——õ——— ——— — 898 L21 — —— —— ——ℳℳͤ—ℳB — ——K— ———— —— 119 ˙01 „09 221 ————— pr 916 9 ——— —————— ———— 0 †L 1 899*†22³ —.—----- Oᷣ-S-srenen-- —- . Sa1uIlop- 10 ↄnluA poräodu soolls puu slod dIs u populoul osou dooxo OOAMA 10 a1ud uf 10 Klloua sonngouſuue Slullop--eeeeeee-onmp Jo oneA respunod---- porrodur loo esIuIIop onap Jo gneg spunod- soaνs portu Poonpoad loo M⁴l srullop-=.= Ooamlb Jo anlsA odununeeeeeeeeeepor odxo 04s0uiop doongs odunu 1eror 0es porlull oua doous rodunueeee poodxo 0fsouiop Kog. sIBIIop- Jo onluA soa u8 pollul u 8585 sIvIiop- Jo enleA sεμμ Porlul 2ur un Cralnog Sellob 0 onlen Porod -Xo O0Isoulop olnm pur Sos105I lodunu- portodxo onsotHop SeInM duineeeeeeeeee porlodxo olsouop 80810 oqumu---= Izzo⸗ soreg Ponun l, ein e e so tadauma..1 07 804918 pollull oua ul soluut puu sossv -roqumuu--.(solzlo ut osoua 1dooxv) soqus poalu e so sauIIop--Jo onleA porlodXxXo 0fsomop sousnäg seIlop-- Jo onſeA poxäodxo usS sousnag sauIIOop-- Jo onluA poxrodur Sodsnag eslullopb--- aalp Jo onjeA spunod--- porlodxo u110 sS0LI olasIrG. SIullop ozuap 1o0 auluaA spunod- pojrodun sSol solastlg -suolles pojlodxo soulop Kouof --Srellop oaap Jo onleA spunod- poxlodxo 0soulp XuAS0eg veSlellop-= onmp Jo onlea sbuanod- z/ues pozlul) 0ul u ponpond Kououf puu Xu&sog srellop---- jo onſva Sors ponun oiß u ppond XuMSoog eeerere er⸗ Jo eoulex onnode oflseurop selpuso Nollue Dus AvON 3 A 992 29T. 062 Enn 1 3rr 22r Zöͤ— = 1.2=Sr 2.18—2.‧2 rr LI 902—* 8 8sr l oas ES92 SIA—— 5— EO= 2.,1.8-2S=-hee e =ehrI eekrreeee er eeee eeee AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 319 88³*9 99†˙1 91⁵ 981 080 1 915 799 ‧08 291 116 12† ˙„ 878 01 669 914 98⁰ ˙8 93G 891 117 998 9 † 018 061[ 99† 628 179 ‧83 618 ‧811 25 6 †*5 99 † 989 515 .—---——------ ⸗-——---- — 106 ˙1 963 ,109 93 393 ˙866 399 19 13† ˙13 199 01 229 ˙5 069 131 911 1 811 ‧818 1 960 968 888(† 119 985 201 7†⁹ 939 181 909 ˙3 291 13 069 1 8986 09½ 118 293 015 1 8 99 †I 948 FS 081 918 2 821 10 ½ 90½ ˙39 816 ˙8961 199 ‧88 18 ˙665 ———ℳxp—ℳM— ——C— .—---ͤ--⸗---——-— ——-—— ———ℳ— 988 ˙1 ———————ℳ ℳ———ℳ—ℳ 905 991 —————ℳ—— 526 987† † 292 618 ——— ——ℳy-———ℳ—— ————-——ℳ ————ℳ— e † 916 918 ————ℳ ——-“————ℳ ———— —————— —————ℳ— —————— ————ℳ 219 1 699 185 ————ℳ—— 908˙91 —⸗—-—-:—ℳ—ℳ—— .sSlelIlop 0im 10 gulu spunod--- poxlodxo us10 suru puu uOoud -eSrellop.-oanlb 10 dulta -spunod--== porodun Surel puu uooud Suullopbhb 0aalp Jo auleA Spunod-. pPorlodun uooug -r0qumnu----= porlodxo S0uOp ulA -roquinu--- urol souzs pPoalul dl ul llAs -=SIBIIop. 40 guluA porlodxo 0fsouop sIn] pus sulis srellop-- Oaul 10 onlaA spunod--... 829,8 perlu ed Soοοο ALS *STellop-===- Jo onleA porlodxe 1 ur10 Jo sonnjoulnuuu 100 AIIS sauIlop-Jo euleA porlodxo u319103 AIIS ZuIMS .-sreflop-.. 3o0 onlba parodxo uSſe-ox suolo Suralog srellop.= Jo ouluaA poerodxe uSI10] poo08 0001d AIIS saeIIop- Jo enleA pollodxe uSſe10 ABI AIIS .-saufiop-- Jo onltA perodur Jo sonnqocguuutu 100 AIIS =SaBIIOop Jo ouleA poaodun AIIS 3uA8 — SeIlop Jo nleA Porodun Su4010 Sunlod ——y—ℳ—— ——— ——————— 0981 0581 0881 0581 0181 0081 ponuxuo— 307,8 pPorνι s ſo Soᷣ 641 —-—eeee-==sreIlop“ Jo enltA porlodu spPoo 00Id AlIS srellop-o onleAà porodun Aer puu ssog AlIS =seIIop-.- 40 aulga podxo usloloh Soous pus slod dus u popnloul 9soOli 4dooxe lood Jo qred ul 10 llouæ solnlouin e ponunuo saonpoxd leul purs SIBMHV NOIIVOIAISSV7IO w.an noν⁵ᷣ daouνd ſo 8doufig — 205 — 5 —₰½ — A S — E ₰½ 2 2 — 8 85 —₰ A A 999 99 999 96 016 919 9& 910 291° 916 91 9 † 83³⁸1 108˙⁹ 926 95 916 19 321 91 †IT0 9„†1 916 9 396 † 2 †9 009 ˙1 878 ·00 830 †93 950 1† 799 86 910 898 † 280 989 61 ——— 191 319 2 90³ ‧991 308 150 81 1- —— ————V „0Q 191*† 196 21 609 985†˙1 962(81 899 392 981‧69 991˙61 210 901 236 960 ˙1 701 LIT 697(86 981 66 911˙9 96701 299 139 71 „9 269 01 ———— —— 9 08 06 ⅞ ,991 119 †61 2 811˙2 236 981˙3 369 9 959 ˙99 918 L1 998 91 ———— ——ℳ 909 ˙6 081 7† ————-— 12 ²⁹ 692 19 F†9 109 1 919 996 ˙9 16† 8919 I9† 841˙9 99² 19 9† L251 — — 99 † †1 369 48 919* FL9 9 ———ℳℳ— 096 69 917 21 911 799 1 199 966 9 —⸗—ℳN—ℳN— —————— 279 99 909 209 1 ——— ———— ——-— -——ö ——-—-’:—— 918 99 169 912 5†2 9 —- 06 †l 197 ‧126 1 ——— ——-—ℳMm—— ———ℳ:—ℳ— — 01 ˙28 608 982 1 —— — —— —— ——-é-——— —— —-———— —— ——— 208 ‧8 889 821 200 913 009 919 2 —- ————ℳV ——— 611 021 089 †90 2 . Srwllop---- onmp jo onleA Seeszrzeeer-e--sfousuca----ee--eee-.. poyrodun oſg e llood oau Jo onleA eeeeeeeeeeslousuq sa ν poaluſl ul poonpond olaug — spnaspuong 299 saIIop“-Jo onleà porlodxo 1480uOp eSouA Saruliobpb omp Jo onleA ——--suolles-poxrodxo uS10105 18Z0uA ——— tollob oñtp 10 onlsd suolles perlodun ESoulz) — s1eIlop-====- Jo oulvàA Iuo poodXo 630 1 979 96 0Somlop 10plo pun 101oOd(1 1009 -suozop solaloqQ u poodXxo 048euOp 0plo puu 10410d 1[u 00g suolles sASuo ul pollodxo 0ISotHop leplo pur 10410d eIe 00g eeeee--sSSsSwloph- 0411p J0 nleA suofles-.= soſoq UI poadod Xo u 5relor lordod pus elu 1e0eg eoh onp w onfeA esuoffes. SS UI PoOd L2 19 20 2† 168 † 9886 I21 Xo uSelox elod puus elu oeg eslellop- orap Jo onleA suolles....... 801440 u odun eod pue ee g grelloPp ozmp Jo ouleA suolle.. SSvo prtodun loqlod pun eln eog — aSoufà puu 1oplo 1elod elu 100g —é——ℳ seIlop----Jo onleA porlodxo SsSoulop 91½ ˙220 paul pur sulei ooec d SoOH spunod-poxlodxo Solop piI —- srellop onfp Io onfeA e=eeespunod--.. polrr0dxo u SIOlO PB 999 92 119 962 sSAIIop eror Surnu puu Booner Säullop.(0P0nmn 30 nloh punod porodun pae-I Sloerledc ponrodxo 0Socuop NloOd spunod- poauodxo soutop suuell puß uoong 30 Sulw-X△ Eä8„—„—— —=2IS eeeree r ———=nng= ne AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 36 7† 19 258 908˙1 918 ‧881 †l 126 011˙2 069 901 000 000 † 167˙818 913 99† 29˙9 106 ˙613˙6 817˙9 001˙2 875 891 218(619 992 ˙916 9† 611*[89 9 51 998 239 229 805 679 ‧291˙1 118 935 8 399 990 963 F01 110 ‧269 —— ℳuö⸗— 888 ˙696 9 316 996 ˙8 389 81 839 ‧283 -oℳ-ℳ- 199*979 81 10¹1 ,010˙2 119 101 ———-———— 235 18 08 ———ℳ—— 129 ‧910 ˙1G 119911 ———— —— 208 †6 † 1 122 8s8 —--⸗-———— —-————ℳ⸗—-—õ—ꝛ—⸗ —---------= —----ℳ-⸗-—---———-—ℳ—ℳ⸗— --—-—ℳ--= -—---——-- ———————— 86˙ 108 ·‧9. 178 110˙931 197‧289 583 285 p96 318 131 ˙989 918 1e9 118 988 9³³1 —————VVõ— —-:—— —ℳ„—M—— ————— FS 969 509 102 119 968 218 119 ————— ——— 081 g8 699 181 660 19 11 ‧109 ———— ⸗ —------⸗-——-—ℳ — ,—---⸗--⸗—-⸗ℳ—⸗——ℳℳ— 8*1 16 ½˙1 ———-——--—⸗——ℳ⸗ ———⸗ß—ßÿ⸗ê—ͤ—- -.̃k⸗—-⸗ͤ-⸗-- ——----ͤ-A-———ö⸗ ————--⸗⸗⸗⸗⸗-——-—-ℳO Ween 1ns 1. IWenn. nmn 098 61˙8.. ———— 681 091 912˙65 8 0981 0†81 0881 0281 0181 998„*6 996 99 ———— 158 —————ℳ'p— F 001 29 908 291 891 1 ———— 989 v9I -———ℳ——ℳ 962˙8 —— — ————ℳ— ———ℳ—⸗⸗—-⸗— 086 96 912 991 —— . rS9 911 ———————ℳ— ——ℳ——-A—ℳN —,——ℳ—V-—ℳ — 689 0 1Z 1L 1 —,——ℳ— 23† 667 FI ———— R— 98 ————— ——— -Slousuqa-- poalodun 4 srullop-. 0nlp 10 nluA -slousuq- s01948 Pollul poonpond£ —swllop. 1b 30 onleA oeh.. porodxo souiop ‧ν -Srellopo- omp J0 nlra. =spunod- soaur Poxlul U poonpold*³ =slousnq-- polrodxo 14s0ulop UL0C Puu Se0d sreflop Oaap J0 onleA =-slousnd-seν⁄ ˙1 Un poonpoad'suvod pus sued -slousn0a- porlodxe 0S0udOp[u-u ellopW- 0alP Jo onlex& ““ porlodun eoun estousua poalodxe 08ulop 40 srellop omb Jo euleA esleousuxa-.--porodur 8190 srllop onffp J0 nleA slousud- 864998 pPoaluſl ul poonpold 920 srellop 0n 10 ulsA sloxlud---porlodxo nSauiop TuoMI- IO0 srellop omp 10 onluA slousnq---porlodxe esoulop uupul .-srErlop- onlb Jo ultA slousnq--saνs u poonpold uelpul uO0 -Slo118 porrodxe se anog Tueℳdoud slousuca porrodxe 0s0uOp olA dond slellop- oaalp Jo enleA =slousnqo- 8eaus peoupold aoMNOn eslousuca poealodxe liSeulop Kolxeg r-swllopb- onp z0 ule) spüuod-. pealodu ILreod Koluvg 5 ponunuo naspeld. 0081 0641 NOIIVOINISSV7IO bonu*—so2d,g poννu suis o ,onpold! v.nno2.P TPdoue.d 2 1% susdoufig 1— 8 PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 981 61 † F98 191˙21 9⁵0 ‧22 —— 098(⁸ 966 ,17 98³ †92 918 †8 669 ‧901 976 812 1 910 987 1899 †2C 01 998 202 ‧2 626 ‧800 1 10³ ˙96 5 381 930 1 921 920 1 988˙817 FISIL† 189(609 688 018 †PG(87 001 FT6 987 001 019 021 308 9†1 zol f 98† 9†9 —- 891 92 399 698 290 199*† 790 †I ——ℳꝑ —— — 170 828 017 ˙68 966 901 ——— 9†9 ‧6912 118 919 1 L*2 98 188 228 989 ‧‧898 999 399 999 2989 215 928 †8 868 ˙(691 909 ˙891 190 †p — — N 095 ‧801 9Z 2SO l 31 † 889 ˙092 850 97† 911 ˙19 — — 89† ˙896 ˙6 959 908 1 FI 9 01 929 016 807 989 0³9 112˙281 188 12 001(61 —-—— — — 398 16 191 ˙139 —— ——ℳ'— ——ℳ—ℳ—ℳM3 —— — —- 689 ‧191 019 19 609 17† —— 9†0 863 † 611 990 1 926 0 138˙93 —B — — ——-—ℳ— ——— 181 1 9²²⁸99ẽ 939 9 ——-'—— — ———— 289 019 ——ℳ 000 932 002˙1 219 30† 6 999 ‧17 106 901 310( † 1 998 913 — “ — 919 ˙63 818 †1 — —— 690 999 218 999 099 902 ———ℳ— ——ℳ-—— — ————ℳ—ℳ 610 7† 986 901 †† 201 1 626 692 — 891˙091 oII 12 —,— 993 ˙92 0*0 202 039 1 591 18 ½ 091 979 91 615 001 189 619 688 810 1 290*e 18198 Suilop onaſp Jo onlua Feousn9-...pox ·10duu Ieo0 ellop....)j onlra porrodxe 1s0mop uIII pue SNMollg slousnqa-eeeeeporlodxe 19soulop euI oqunueeeeeepoz odxo 01s0uop sNolag — eum pur sNoli spunod---- porlodxo Somop UoS spunod-- pariodxo uS1010 ¼ o938 SrEllopo ozmmp zo onleA spunod. s paxlodun O92S STeIlop- Jo onluA 1240 pealodxe eu 80 Op S121010 10 peorqdius inosig 8304.. paalodxe on S0Op S101O20 10 purqd-us—o0sIg slolm-ad. paxlodxo on S0Op S40NO2o 10 prolqdius 4nosig arellopb aam o ouleA oeeeeeeepoodxe uSoo, anog eeu A Saellop omp zo onleA SloIIqQ poalodxe souop uog Juoc △ SaeIlop--. oaalp j0 onleA 4Aoeeeeeeeeeeeeee poodun uop uoc A sllop= onp Jo ouleA slousnd--eeeeepoodxo 0soulop eo A salloo omlp Jo onloA slousno---poxlodxo*u31010] uo A äellopb. onmmp Jo ouleA Sousna e. porloda vou A SSeIIOop. oamp 10 onleA Sslousnqa- so2S porluſl ul poonpond uou A sTBIIOP- Jo onleA peaodxXo oseulop eslud pus ue8 Ileuis oο puu Saeo e4& SSrellop-- onm o onleA slolludeporodxe souop leou-g SäeIIOoD onlb Jo onleA aAo.. pozaodum Iroui-A slousna-epoxlodxo Souop 4g aloodo oamlp Jo onleA DSnaodISKAM srrlop- Oqalb Jo auleX¼ ͤͤͤͤ ſö ———— .—— 1 e, MrIe ieeereeer re xA rIe eer 291*192 2s VIL 08 I 869 011 ˙11 8³6 068˙21-ee se. abo ouleA poalodun Sools Pur s10ddlls loOoA Ual poxlu sod* 4dooxe uOn 400 J0 arud ux 10 4llouæ sonnaougnun. 601-slousnq--- porlodxo 01s0cHop poos-u0 eeeee--=-spunod-- paalodxo 11saulop uO400 10940 -eeee-=-spunod-po*odxo nsoulop puulsI 2 uo*2α ————————ͤ—-—-—ℳℳ————---⸗--⸗—ℳ—ℳ————————— 997*186 ˙816 919 ‧996 839 230 ‧899 892 688'679 811 099 820*†9 999 ‧665 ˙8 pE* 183 ˙9 291 118 ˙8 990 †fS II 949‧630 8 118„18 2II 178 ,088 ,59 267 686 ·92„er 191060 D-=srellop.. 0a,b J0 enleA 680 183 ‧126 001:†05˙089 587 ˙616 942 907 868*l 982 ‧890 ˙29 10½ ‧116 07 918 ˙681 spunod--- Irao* Porrodxo olsomop u01100 e- 810 9 11 99⁄½ ˙†01 965.890 60..De.tro. e.ecc. eeeeee--eSusllop-- ozub Jo nlrä .eeeeee- 812809 ˙3 210 988 991˙98† 878 151 B=spunod--===Ponllodxo uS1010 ¼ uO00 183 11 081 188 91788 919(07†1 788 28-srelloponmn Jo anloh 191 191 800 3181 8 697†˙978 680 169 871 ˙988 926 991 † rTZI 988 spunod-ee porodu O 061 ·809 88. Bargeker----1s ſeee⸗-ereees-e. . Srellop unlp Jo ulrA 00:5d 846 003:647 061 em rereerteeee.e. -spunod-soxνν Pealuſl eul un Poonpold uo*ν0 — sonnqoujnuuu S-I pus dο*νο “ eSrellop.... aalb J0 duleA 565 901 9r 116 296[sbunocdd pPorlodxe use1o½ 0 .222.eeee er? Oes rellop mlb 10 dnlah r06 g88 19 949 817 † spunod---e Paxiodun eg00 668 198 609 689 129 139 617 180 56. 882—,129 ‧8 999 † SL'9 679 990·⸗9 969 188 46 98l 195 01 010 198 ˙31 288 †F† 01 999 119 9 016 687 7. 9 51 ˙619„gl 881 786 FII 988 191 ˙18 699 812 1 998 ˙290 ˙08 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 992 ˙8 90⁰9 3 996 1 991 ˙˙2-sxellop- O0aalb J0 enlBA 129 ˙923 689 ,33*S9 1I 698 01 91191—We spunod---- perlodxe souiop ˙0000 193 21 986 80 150 911 613 ‧833 211.0ͤͤb. BBarellop nb 30 nlea. 083—101 ˙1 670 591⸗'1 069 ‧884˙1 248 †og l Z I2 ½ 828 090 1 228 ·8-spunod---pealodxo u104 lO00O Pu L0000 098 131 606 82G 819 ‧791 969 183———ö 298 06 F-Sdellop--.. fHanlp Jo enluA 609 861 ˙5 189 609% ſ91 958'5 278 ,136˙1 086 999% ſ068 015˙9 068 299˙1. spunod----=====-pPoalodm 2lO000 Pux v0000 116 ,891.729.,607,1. gat. erere-eeeeeegsree-eeeeeeeee--saulleop.... 0341p 10 nluA 122 18“ 4-suol--eeeporlodxe 080 moOp L200 069 1 0⁵0 91 866 09 † ˙‧2“ ee-=-srellop b 30 enleA 788˙31 6335 ˙†1 638 † 818˙8 916˙1 5g8˙91 881 ˙8 slousnq---==Porodxo u³ e10 LO . ponulquoO 1900 —— 2—— .0981 10781.0881 0281 0181 0081 0611 NOITVOIIISSVIO 95 ponu— νννι moηοννμ‿mοͥg? 1O Sοον wn o⁴p Pdaou.d 2 ſo Sasdoufig —2 PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 896 012 919 601˙1 880 91 691 91 199 188 16 891 9 72F I9 190 †g 069 22 999 91 068 150 ˙1 9/1 189 ˙8 668*† 690 81 117˙999 63 I 969 9† 908˙3 0† ˙³ 867 61 286 81 180 919 58 900 1 69 001 019 961 90 ⅞ IrZ2 196 96 Or Sz gz „ ——ℳ—ℳℳkR 949 001 — ——ℳ——— ——ℳMã——— 991 29 „†80 912 995 93 316 31 96 † 128 5r6 938 ˙9 F 2† 619 991 16 ‧‧901 6⁵1 69 ——ℳ— 9Z 18 † 196 079 9†9 I 9 9⁵9˙˙696 pFTI2 OS8PzZ ††F 61II ——ℳMK — — 878 92 158 9† 899 91 689 99 881 999 0†8 281 † 14 911 ˙66 —— —-— 166 812 81 ˙883 210 691 39⅞ 908 836 911 300 199 918 9211 188 972„ 869 OZIII —— 698 IFI ——ℳ—ℳ 129 91 0†† 1g 120 ‧609 L51 9†6 9 — „99 681 FI2 700 1 896 917 gFI 59 217 †02 908 †89 981 111 266 398 ——— 97I 1891 826 ˙068 ˙2, —neee ———-————ℳℳ—; ——— — 868 938 1III 060(61 090 999 818 908 191 Ig —— — ——-—ℳℳMüãq 190 02 L01*90 ˙9 950 19 0IIIF 264 13† 897 982 —e 80³⅔ 7† 870 981 615 098˙1 ——— 03½*16 19⅞ ˙99 19 99 80 ⅞ ˙62 — Saoſlob onp o onlpA spunod---soaea ponull dg u poonpond xelg — sonnjorjuuuu oua pur dulon puu xelg savilob--- jc onſea porlod u piun 103suld 1o unsddH SaeIloobhbd o0am o onlus suoeeeeeeeeeeeepeodxe uS1e* ourn SSTeIlop-oamp Jo onfeA suod po)rodun ouend — s.02I110,1 SIopes omnb Jo onfeA slousna-eeeeeeporlodxo 0Iasomop S SIBIIOop oaalp Jo onfeaA slousna-eeeee=- poalodxo us10101 eS STellob---=--oaalp Jo onluA eslousnda--“eeeeeeeer. poxlodun les SIIOpo. onmp Jo onluz spunod----poxrodu ue 10 pol 1oddog SIIIOD. jo onſa porlodxo 01seuop Kp a0ao puu MäIq AO SreIIoph-onp Jo onlwA espunod-- porlodun peoMA eSrelloh-oaap Jo ouleA spunod- poalodxo 0S0ulop 0SpPu esrellobpb ommp 10 onfeA spunod--porlodxo uS5O 8 puI esreliobph omfp o onlea Ispunod---.. porrodur OSſpul esrellop-ommp Jo onlpaA spunod- porodxo 14souop Zuosu — sauoupuoo pur so4p SSna. eSrullop- jo ouſea porod XNo soous puu sloddyls looM aA poxlu 0soul 4dooxo uo0o Jo Jaud u 1o llouM Sol oejnuunl souo Seflop--.. zo onleA Pollod Xo sools puu slodduls looA aA poxlu sou dooxo*uoroo Jo alud u 0 Slloua sonnaoufnuutl uS10. —----- 1— 1l--srulIop---t--- z0 -————yö—ͤͤ— ee ne * 070 21. oqencdc.. Hon dlunt poosxul 89p ghkshshs....— V=WV-Sleſlop 0amp zo onloa— 318 ‧299---⸗ö slousnq--sou porru od poesxel. 8⁰1 85—*—---⸗-—-------=---Se-=eS rellop-eeeee on Jo onlsA 988 ‧1.— esie ehep abecheheesc eeeee-—MM---44o-----pontodxo uSZ1010»n oo es d esWlIlop 0alm Jo onle --aMO-=porodulf oN 4ul 100 les!s duloH --sreliopb-.. Oamlb I0 onleK. -40—ꝓ--- pollodxo uSſ010] „oF uelpul„uns„elllucll dureH -srellop-“-e--=erer-- Oap 30 nluA rroao--eererrreee e==-poxlod oE uepul uns vIIIur N duleH FII˙6⅞-——---.=esmIIop-- onlp Jo aulen 694*† eeeeees-eeeee 11 199 91--au0o== poalodxo 14Seuop duH. 948˙1 09 V——B—B... awellob mulp zo oulof 8†8 1 9 oo-==- porlodxo uSloo, duioH „86 ·83 680 199 901 962 687 019., 168 69-srellop onp Jo aulua 919 10..“ 618 ‧88- ————“:———ℳMK ——————— 889 8——.--------⸗----⸗--—-——--⸗⸗-—-ͤ——õõ— 280 3-- 601 809-—-ↄ---⸗-— 888˙861————⸗——————⸗ ——-—ſ——ℳ4——----—— 089 ˙18 396 31 606 19 361 98 18 7 83 6 5 4 1228 ˙11 430 porlodur duuoH dgp Iu, eeeereee-erereeee-ſess-eee--- ereeeee=eSrellob.. Sopeas porful ou ul poonpoad durou Jo enleA auooo s81928 Prlul 2a u onponld porlol-101M duueH suoo-so4,8 ponluſl elr d eep d auooo. 9491 V 1 porlu poid duol puu xeld. —ℳ——⸗————⸗—⸗ßꝛqℳ⸗—é— 6 . 003 ˙28 096 ˙82 009 81 spunod-==parlodxo esouop XIA 161 d2l.. 217*9“. Nrlloo. onlb Jo onleA 1 3 89 V“-poalodun XVI* 8191 o“---- AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 4 v.... 961 88 V 931 88 19³ ‧96 4ͤſͤſſſſſſſſ“ ——————ℳ--⸗-— ponuxxuo— duleou puu xld 0981 0*81 0881 0381 0181 0081 0641 NOITVOITISSV10 40 ponunuo— S2νννεσ eqηντκνsomQlům;[o sonρosd wmenod daoue.d 07 H Ssdoufig 41 PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 278 83 090 ·† 990(—† 908½ 985 F08 †8 5 15I 906 102*„†60 927 186 18 790 39 199 921 237 TIG 1 920 ‧8 161 911 998 ˙810 ˙6 017 I 961 02 Fo I 199 I1 118 299 1 Frg 818˙3 886 81 981˙6 081 0l 110 ˙09 † 91½ ˙(3% 861 11 916*1 919 ˙89 961 918 1 ˙967† 289 I18 611 281 918 121 3 00 91 697 083 860 898 9 291 29 210 01 291*2 966 8 786 †9 921 917 181˙09 9†5 39 — —————— 918˙91 99 † ˙16 990 99 689 ˙681 1 119 ˙913 601 ˙9 909„*09 286 069 ˙1 088˙3 621 406 361 †10*† 260*†9 979 8 976 1 999811 918 913 301 ,023- 188 25 I6 ˙88 818 †95 —— ——— 299 93 2II ˙191 I19 835 ,1 878 9 691 799 2 299 ˙0 019˙91 —ö— —-——— 20 02† 019 7†92 129 ˙91 199„21 806 911 ———— —⸗— ————— ——— —— —- —— — 169 FII †0g 250 6 ——————— —————— ——————— —————- ————ℳ —— ———————— -———— -—— — 99 ½ ,19† 898 31 ——,— —— -—— 999˙29 ---- 06 097† 263 Slodanq poalodxo 14so0ulop Solddv sSrellop--ee ommp Jo onſvA spunod----= porlodao uSο spuoullV FsSrlloph-. oaalp Jo onleA espunod--= parrodun Sspuoullvy — sauu puv sauna SIuIIop- Oaap Jo onlpA spunod-- porlodun spuft IIe Jo ssu saullop----==- Jo ouluA porlodu Munf pl0 sauIlop--Jjo onleA spufl Ile poxlod XCo Jo sonnqoujnueu 0souiop dulo sTellop jo onfeA spuld Ile porlod XBo Jo sonnjougnuuu uSoor duio esanlloph----=· Jo onlea spural IIe porodur Jo soanqoujnuuu dmo srellop--jo onlvà porodxo(sools pue sloddils looðA eA p 080U dooxo Jaud up 10 llol Jo soanjouguuuu osoceop -scllop: w onlu poaodxo ‧soous puu saoddils looA UaIA poxlu 9s0u 1dooxo αν ul 10 AIloũA& Jo sonnqoulnuum uS1010r XuI =eSreflop-.... 10 onleA poxlodun Soous puu saoddils IooM⁴ UalA poxlul 9sou 4dooxo ud ur 10 Kllouà Jo seanaouguuuu I sreIlop--Jo onleA porlodxe Isomop urauodana Jo saülds pun Ilo poosuVyl -suoIIe-poqlodxo 0Isoulop 1Io poosulll srullop onp Jo onleA -suo[Iu ⁵ porlodxo uSloo-r Ilo poosull] =saellop- omnlp lo onleA --suofle-- polrrodu Tlo poosull Saellobd H0np 10 onluA slousud----porodxo seulop poosxvl. sreflop-- omp Jo onlA sleusnao--==poalodxo uSlelo poosxul-. esaTellop-- oanb Jo onleA Poraodun peoosx uL.A. 2 ⸗————— 62O L6—— PaIrA=re r een erI ISET w. 900 2-suo-- parrodxe onseuop uH F6 018 u9“-eeeeeeeeeeerrereeeeesrelloeoeo 9221b 30 uleA 279 888 91 8o0I 872 ol“ Beee([--suoa-soa ,8 porrul pod KeH 98† 31-eeeeeeeeeeeerrerereeeSllop 0a Jo onleA 160 96 †..------- -spunod-==-poalodxo uS1010 San N -SrDIIob 0anlb J0 onleh “ espunod--------=pan odunl San N 691 19 188 88 858 ,81 818 ˙91— BBeeeeeeree.-SwlIfeop. onp J0 oulea F9I 689 991 29† 693 ˙929 617 ˙381 010 122. oor=spunod-----poxrodxe uSloa0 sulsteg. 169 ˙618 FI9 T82 6090 889.6( BBee..eswllop.. Oallp Jo anlnA z12 ‧98 81 001*†99 pI 954 0851 0e 7O, 185 ,1e9l..........=spunod---eepoadodun Sulslud 111‧3 179 8 fͤ · B.ee-esxellop-.0anlb Jo aulA 696 ,21 991„18 098 9 5P9*† 009 1—eeeeee-=-spunod--ponlodxe uslox0f sunld pus sounld 911 18 101 Sr—eeeeeeeeeeVelooo.....9alb 10 anlba 699 †r l 910 189 876 96 009 931 FOI 1—-espunod--poalodu sumnld pus soundd 981 931 ˙1 J706 996 1·..·...· ·eeeeoPD 858o anlra *80999S Pl ed e -Saellop 0aalb J0 9ulBA 616 ,21 91129 p09 988 992 ˙6 879 95—⸗—————.eeeespunod---r.... perlodxo u3IoO s3nl 699 991 Fr6 98—BöV⸗ e.eeeee-eeesmllop Oanb Jo nleA 661 8fr' L89 686, 1 828 ,195,'1 119 ,692 286 ˙913 BBee spunod...... bon odml SBr. 963 ˙831— 196 619 ÖB+B†B1/n** AZ 879 9 921 ˙9 öͤͤ—]ͤſſſſſ. 968.....Aeeeeeee- rullop 9aulb Jo onla 121 8---spunod---pollodxe uS1040 80480 868 †-..Aeeeerelloo 0uu Jo uleA 821 80 †--- espunod.==pexxodun 8949 188 ,11 195 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. esaellop-. onlb Jo oulsA 269 e 990˙³ 28 ⁸ 001 181 9——:d-spunod- poalodxe uSlelox sauun 018 881 177 801 876 96 ö—B—ze-e--=-e[-srelloooo onlb zo 2ulA 887 ˙655 8 991(Q9I'I 880 983 889*2 985 81———i--spunod---=======poalodur Sauuaan ““=-sleusnq---- poaaodxo fsomop soεueσ³⁸ -SIMIIlop=-= onb Jo onluA ponunuo— sanu pus sana . ·EIA(60324 198 11 968 87 851 18 996 68“ 0981 0781 oes 0281 0181 0081 06 E1 NOILVOIdISSV5O 42 ponmu⁹— S νσ„oν ον⁴ο Sοννo dn-en‿ wdoued 2u ſo S2sdoubs b 43 PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 068 578 ³ 826 ˙897 119 1 989 891 FIH 61 35E 901 Ir 6 391˙665 FIO FSI 61 851 895 ˙88 891 618 92 968 162˙99 28½ ,99 †' † F0 990*0! 8191 F9 5 919 ˙9 9⁰9*† 688 901 FIS 9I 06 992 170 91 58I ‧23 908 901 999 11 099 011 096 223 1 650 16 5† 8 090 ‧86 ‧801 99 67 969*† 918 ˙9 18 † †1 870 96 008 1 646 9 938 83 619 911 309 885 1 76 048 96 19 799 93 9*0 99 ö 86† 81 109 ˙6198 —-—— —,— —— ———— ————-õ—— ——ℳMmK— ———ℳ— 58 0½ —— ———ℳ— ——— —————— ————— 099 savllob- orpp Jo onleA esslousuc--= 80178 Porlun eu pod poos-1eAο⁵ -sauIIOpPp-- Jo onleA porlodxo uS1010] 0„ Squnld*squlus seοI+ spoos uoparP -sIeIIop= Jo onfeA porrodun 0N quuld squads S00 spoos uopae Sesucllop- Jo onluA *80499,8 pPorru o ed Kesan N .— aurld pur squads 80014 SPo8 -gAuIiopee Oaam Jo onlea slousnqo-eeporlodxo 014Souiop ‧s004ε. Ssullopeeeeeee uleA --slousuo e-porlodun uoulu Sor od gaellop ormpp zo auluA sslelsnxa-=S0S pontu om u od oos 8004910 Saellop oen o aulsA Slousnqoeeeeee 80418 poaru ed Srellod orp 0 nlsnh srousnderere-re-e-reeeeeeee 80418 pealu d d spuld IIe soοονυνο STBeIloohb Hanlb Jo oultea -suolſus=- poalodu poos-edul 11O -Srellop onap Jo onleaA -suoles poxrodxo uS1010 eAIIlo IIO Srelloobo 0b J0 uleA -suoſles=-poqllodur eAllo 110 Srellopb 02 10 aulsA -sSdolleeeeee porodxe uSolo] 104880—1IO esrllob 0aap Jo anleA --suoſſu porlodmt 104s8uo[IO — oldaο0A 8110 --saeIlop- Jo ouleà poalodxe 0fsoulop ‧01 esruIlop- oanp Jo ouſpA =spunod---==ee-porrodxo seuiop SdoH Saellob. Oap 10 uleA =spunod- s0au2S Poalul dl u poonpold sdofH 1212 985 9S8STLE 916 952 981 099 615 ‧698 ‧5G 0 2I 190 ˙9 86† † 675 135 229 688 9†5 99 780 98 9 55 96 118 ˙92 198„† 790 995 191 763˙1 080 9G 989 91 099 90 I17 160 2G 811˙086 † FSL Tl 765 148 371 183 1 091 ˙16 161 838 LIF III 998 L13 185 gI. I FSI 20⅞ ˙8 ¹ 129 181 811 128 890 919 ˙1 290 ˙069 9& 699 †g 799 011 764 ITI 167 9238 F/E 93 008 ˙689 181 180 ,1 829 167† 3 —-—— 636 0† 281 629 F95 918 1 25I 912 8 ———— 8759 083 191˙0†8 091 991 918 †9 861 †08 1 091 ‧899 8 139 †ps 997 ††8 816 009 929 991 — ——⸗ —1— ree ᷣ EnnrIrnr 1rnr Arn — 291 199 1 9% ,811 3 679 028 90⅞ 029 386 586 1 ———— ————ℳ— ———— 118 801 52 919 99 ½ 909˙65 916 ˙698˙1 101 496˙8 ————ℳ—ℳ— 2esSTeIIop-eererr-er onlp 10 anleA -sSuollus³- spuld Iie poalodxo uSlo10r sout A srellop--- 0a1p Jo onleA --suolleseeeeeeespudl IIe poxlodurl soul A slullob 60341b 10 onleA -suoIlss--so*νκας pou oua u onpoad'eul A esSTuIop---==--=- onnD 10 nloA -esuolle-.. poaod -Xo 0seop Sosselour uror SIIdS =esellob 0oanp 10 oulsA -suolles poliodxo esouiop uren SaIIIdS -=SreIIop Oaap J0 enluA -suollee por lodxo SIelploo pues 4Apuurq uSrolOr 2dooxe s7111dS =esrefllop= onnp Jo onleA --suollese porlodun SIup-00 pus Kpuuiq uSlor 4dooxe Salalds =esTeIIop-=--=== Oaalp Jo onſeA --suoIu ³-ee=-porlodxe uSodor S1erP -säuIIope---eeeeeoOp Jo onleA ———õ——— v6 5½ 131 †e — ℳ——— 983 8(8-eeee--suoffrsa----=--=-errree-poloda slerpo 310 08--- äeeeeeeeee-eeeeeeeehllooso ap Jo onleh 915 98 6/9 831 ‧2 981 991 ˙8½ --suoIleeeeeepoarodxo uSor Apuulg -srellope oanp Jo0 anluA uolles-pozdodu Kpueag — ou pur salalds Saulloop 0341p Jo uleA --slodsnda-- su⸗g poalul u poonpold spoos sseas 10u10 ponulquod— squuld pun squals ‧S00 SPO8 — ——ℳℳ— AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 299 9888 188 ˙91F ———ℳ—— 0581 0881 0381 0181 0081-06 11 NOIIVOIIISSVT0 4 ponur— S d& Poeνuf 5 o S,onpos n,eno.EP Ddi0uε‿˙ νmdο S2Sdouſig 15 ₰ PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 89⅞ ⸗†f 269 933 9† 99 189 10 8 212 948 98 611˙0 †9 ˙2 166 ˙00 ½˙21 889˙(612 159 689 G 0 11 65 828 199 188 1 965 ,101 1 62½ ,901 881*88 ˙1 199 181 929 961 9 695*† 085 12 02½ g21 9²1 110 51 291 9982 18 982 † FI3 288 21 198 199 999 119 212 I 99 ⁵ ˙„92 o 098 818 ,21 000 9,81 18 129 160 †1 98 989 11 9*2 507„on 98⁰ ˙98 981˙828 619 829 ˙2 820 9(99 ˙61 ——ℳMK— FI6 858 ˙I 780 9gP gI 188 82 †98 518 9*5 990˙9 I21 09 999 991 6 016 021 199 ‧‧990 3 Fg FII 129 † 612‧‧89 10½ ,2611 619 985 81 098 909“2 980 996 291 —————— ——õ— ———M8K—— ——--—ℳg— — ℳHℳꝛℳü— 9899*1 n99 g 1 969 11 3 5IIL 885 28 † 2 818 ˙980„L1 „61 913 287 190 ‧2G 901 01 291 081 612 96 † ˙8 866 †0 649 †I 9 599 98 1988 165 LI 176 923 vIC 913 788 689 921 18*†˙01 966 025 ·⁵ 826 ·919 ·86 ——- ———õℳ—— —s⸗snee 1 Z29 ⸗181 SB711TZE 293 ,11 137˙68 12⅞ ,614˙1 286 ·980 ˙6 —————— 190*† 129 ˙991 916 1 269* 912 08 † 19 7† 289 89 91 818 998˙2 1.227.... — 181˙198‧9 ——ℳℳ—ℳ— 799 ,911 99 1 ——-ö—ℳ— 1 - 1 ————ℳ—— 626 10*2 ZEE 6GZN 188˙81 817„†99 ˙8 210 911 092 ,12 989 1 911 910 91 988˙681·9 948˙1 671 919 088 ˙81 —⸗-—ℳ——ℳ—é 996 118 ——————ℳ— —— ———— 5 saelloP 120 pPfpg 839 13† 06 1129 ——— 61*˙891 — —— ————ℳ⸗—ö 88 ½ 999 16 919˙669˙698 ———-— 129 626 96 ————ℳ— ——õ-———— ——————-- Z912. ˙189‧1 131˙31 126 895† 1 909 †611 ————— ————“—ℳℳM3ä ——— —————— ——ℳ———ℳ— ——ℳ— —:— 198α˙Ʒ ——— ———U ———ð-— 50 81 919 19 90 rg 089 809 1 769 ˙998— ———ℳ—V— ————— ———ℳRm 118‧˙801 „ slellop---=⸗-⸗⸗Oalp Jo ouluA -suollusee-porlodxo usſ0 s0sSeloN erellepeonm Jo onlA spunod- pozlodun dulds ouu.) Srellop----map Jo anleaA suolles porlodu SossuloN -arulIop-- 01 10 nſwA -suolle ⁵-- se pollu ur onpond sossulo]d =spunod----poalodxo 0f4SolIOp eſdeu eng srelioph- oaap J0 ouleA spunod--- porlodxo soulop pougol u3n8 srellob omp S0 anluA spunod----poxrodxo"nsoulop uA 8 veSTellohp omb 10 nlu⸗ spunod pPoaodxe uSoO pougor 10130 pur Juol desng Srollop- onafp 1o onſa spunod-porlodxo uSIoo- porepMod 10 po4vulo 1A n sellop- oap Jo onluA -spunod------porodxo uSIoror uAOId uSnS --Sleffop-- oallp 10 gnlus -spunod--==-poalodun Kpuro avng .=Srellop orn Jo ouluaA -spunod pollodun pougoel 10o puu]Jeol ung Srellob-= oaalp 10 ouluA spunod. porloduw polopRod 10 po Kulo A s awrlop aanb 10 aulu. —spunod-- pPorrodu uorq ung esIeIlop-- onmnb J0 oulu⸗ —spunod--.-. 80a28 porlun d npond eldeu uSng sSTEIlop Ozalb Jo onlu³ spaaod--. 89 us porlu ond ure eus -sSIeIloph 0n o uluA -spunod-Ie„0½ So-18 porlul u poonpold ausns — sossulom puu Wöng == oaalp go eutexA --SsuoOTIeS---SspDutN TI PSAOdXxO uSISIOI SBurg L.DOSII LIS S8ESB 1— 1 —=— 1 1 1— -e PerrerIr Krrrr —————;— eree erne Dre r — Sog E“, T19 909 ·3 998689 8 6 76 3d.I 814˙28 383 31† 221 18--wuaod.... yoa10d Xo 0Isoulop ponnqoujuuum 0009QO spunod--e-poxlodxe soulop Puus --SRgllop---====-e--=Op Jo aufe. -Sproussou- poalodxo 0fseudop 00udO. esrellob 9421b J0 anlua 115— ee-spunod- po*lodxo usr „ 94 10 000890] J0 soraounuum 10940 8— 892 384——““ ielloo faFlb J0 onleA 8- 1S2 8 898˙˙2 59“ banod. pPorrodxo uSlolo« Pg 609 291 628 98 eee g96 gl 24 eeeeee-e--Srellob aub 10 2ulea 9†† ˙8 PIFI- 360 1 949 ˙5-—--pursnouaß porlodxo u2010 42310 978 09 JIſ Srellobheeesnneeee lb 10 2uls4. 887 912—------==—————spuno-d- poxlodxo uSO0r 0009Q0 099 51 699 55——1.“ erellob oump J0 nleA 6 †3 S 28 F 94 or FII81..-=e.neeneenee--ePunod.. Rlnidd 1=u e ene e 898 191 999 ,3 94--STellop 2anpp zo zuluz 86† 1 622 940*† 018 ,5 278 1 102 92 088*1-spuOd--=⸗⸗enenenene poztodun Duus 318 039 5 80 ⅞ Fge l 19 † S8† Too elf eloo..... o nfa 261·813 868 ·86 215 ˙68 000 ,11 186 ˙81 S———ͤͤ 809 ·999 ͤ—aa““ llop 62ub zo anlea 126 620 †—. 918 991 spunod- pa10dt 00090 989 ˙286 81.--eee-.-=Srwllop(8falb J0 dnlsA Q49 291 ˙661 612 Lol 616 ö““ spunod--so* 8 pPorluſl ul poonpond 050-Q0I — sonnqoujuueu SaI puu 000uQOI. 109 9†8 1 092 165 609 ‧098 318 5—“ sxellop ſ0Oum Jo ouleA Ors ·996/8 288,099 981 ·9290 82⁵† ˙688 796 920⸗1l L92 607 1 spunod- bolodxo ustoso do. 900 361% 6 3 99y'g 180 ⸗817 999 3gs1(Olg'noee Arellop.........MlP I0 ufeh †1I1 195=21 108 099 11 198 ‧2819 979 ‧916 † 00 ⅞ 08”2 608 928˙8 827 909 1-spunod- porlodun 20. 098˙˙91 666 ˙1 8 6———--o⸗-- eeSruIlob Jo oultA po110dXO n1480Iop S08Su10A. ponunuon— sosstloul pur ens 36 18 899(89 196 15 299 f 0†8(61 16 29 689 91 15 615˙6 802 940 l 889 268 396 9579 9 000 Ools... 9†6 96 828 LTI 812˙98 898‧99 838 ˙98 894 901 212 101 112 ꝛ——---—-⸗--⸗----- ------————V AGERICULTURAL REPORT. 0981 0*81 V 0881 0381 0181 0081 0611 NOILVOITISSVTO 1 46 ponur— S, poreue AO 32OnPo. D.rno.P mdlaouνεα οm² ſο Ssdoub d ₰ PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. g9 † 1 v20 1 I8I Tgl 608 ˙61 828 ˙999 278 990 1 116 211 053 ˙188 061 902 960 0½ 139 8rg 900 98 118 ˙†8 219 I 509 001 160 679 816˙9 159 gPI I SSE 9E 2, 989 ‧2 ———————— 269 †9 90 † 079 101 FIg †89 610 11 9†8 †r 911 995 166 ˙89 318 679 ‧ 109 5† 691 18 6 19 650 86 9²0 9119 999˙9 118 918 19 09 E 081 -———ℳ— 997 ,18 7193˙1 F6 191 289 168 966 259 619 991 901 rs 908˙„1 990 197 1 898 335 321 99 998 29 950 99 919 996 61 01 917˙365 998 6E9 E —— 910(61 099 †I8 961 11 915 ˙(6 129 06 139*9 099 199 1 909 ˙93 989 99 03½ 91 † 91 85†8(688 999 ˙8 980 6 51 676 1 —-— ℳ— 991 9† 111191 „9 911 — 050 801 78³ 098 160(69 83⁵ 911 079 98 8 ———-- 9589 —-—ℳ= IEL 2E ——— —————ℳℳ 881 ˙† 691 01 018 29 ———-õ—ℳ4B —- ——— 681 18 „†O 18 199(6 089 12 929 ˙8 288 SLr 211˙1 ————-—ℳ 398 †9 999 ‧89 ——-——ℳℳ— 290 ˙63 90 ⅞*†2 C12 I F6 1† 18²³*9 22118 saBIIop---Jo onleA poalodxo uS1o½ sA100 esmwllop H onls Porlod ee sIuIIOp- jo onluA porlodu N4100 -sellop jo onſeA pollxodun ponnqocjnueuun Jo Aau- 0 suolle.. pz 10 X₰o 0lsoutop eulauoduna Jo saualds srellop-jo onleA poxllodxo 0fgsoul -Op eulquodand pus ulsox NoaId u. slelauq-- porodxo 0fSouop oid pur au Slonled poplod Xo 0fsoulop"oufuoduna pun ulsod egIeIIop 77J0 ule? porodxo 0Ilsoulop loqQue e Pesreflopb 10 aules poraodxo Souiop sauds pue sasu]l. sauIlop--- Jo onleAà porlodxe 0fsoulop Zulpeou puu SoAus solsulds 10 u oc Suuos sAuuld Spauog pursnou-..or od Xo 0IISouop Sulpeoc pus soAus -pursnoua poxrodxo fasoulop Solsulus -suo porlodxo 14s0Op loqu H roor AAI„a⸗10dxo ol So urop Sullquvos puu sAuuld spauog Sielloobd 042 0 dnleA -Suoo..0 10. Xo 0Ilsomop ävod puu Jod solsv — szonpold sal puu poo A saeIIlOop=-jo enleA porlodxe 0seu -op ponnjoejunueu 000uQO pun gnug 8 spunod-- SSSSS Ponaod r480mOPp Ppogaugougwmunu oncer. AGRICULIURAL REPORT. 48 819 93 848 3† 588½˙˙918 890 1 2698 8II 706 005 000 009 989 005† ‧Ʒ 816 ˙14 981˙6 6 ˙˙65 189 ·0*5 ˙2 819 ‧†05 ˙9 811 109 1 989 ‧209 1 96 † † H F 112 933 „ZI 80⅞ 890 999 61 999 939 ˙6 30† 930 01 18 ˙98 91½ †o 11 199 198 ,11 918 161 ˙93 FIP 6 91781 10⅞ ˙26 19 891 ˙998 866 89 ————— 3 6 1SF 188* 851 81 919 ˙9 FL9˙2 50 9 789 ˙9 159 †I FI6 8 9998‧9 99 † 185 8986 055 1 119 955˙I 909 989 228 661 185 981 969(61 †I 191 0*6 ˙9 5EG 992—1 19 ‧38 136 088 ˙8 299 889 ˙8 99† 690 11 950 600 2 025 966 888 210 1 669 61g 971 991 997† ˙891 875 929 01 911111˙9 981 ˙9998‧9 6 † 8 529 988 ˙9 969 ˙639 ˙9 020 998 ˙31 695 pS 119 01 F81 1 089 5G 277*˙9 24 921 889 001*092 920 887 991 883 061 931 996*1 186 198 1 508 998 ˙9& 981 966 ˙9 91 8 500 0†1*† 151 868*† 191 ˙899 ˙6 000 9 598 161 1 97†7† ˙981 700 298 9 98 † †I8 ˙³½ 119 ‧186 ˙5 9*† ‧98 ——ℳ——— FI8 69˙1 —-——— . 000 9 170 968 968 801 685 †0 † 890 001 ˙3 127 †05 ‧5 50 ‧98 926 908 9 000 ‧* 000 92 L68 2169 997†˙˙69 59† ZII ˙8 688 999 ˙1 929 919˙1 ——————— ——— 128 656 98 ——---⸗⸗--⸗-ee ee---==Sorumruoom Muelslun —=-zloman Sauprelu (0281 0 roOfad pouunsse) 1e*³ squua SuuII poluzs zou 08 Squuilurul =====--esoſuuio HuunlSm — Solsm aunSlorral -=(poumsst) Suulpul --eeeee=====SI0uII –„b 1141 =. dump bpue zeo — ouoml pun oursul ======== uod HSIoo. J -— r 01 SoAuls sojuumol soauls olum SoAu ----- L107 polol0o 50. =Seleuo] P0l00 001,1 —.— sojluul polOloo eο 901 S0zlMA Sojranior lu M --------solem enu A peldooxo suelpul polled Hono 10 uonaulndod eloulà Jo 4uοο 1d esuolouI 801BIg - eeeeeee==- S01eI -—e suupul dooxe uonelndod 1e*ο. 0981 0581 -0881 0281 0181 0081 0611 NOIdVOINISSVIO ·s PO+ 10, 2uονν νm ν 5νυνσ oννι⁷mQoΤ⁷m⁴⁹⁴‿ο ονννεod 2½— fi. pdteung PROOCRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 49 By examining the preceding tables, it will be seen that, notwith- standing the abundance and cheapness of virgin soil, the advantages of climate, the facility of transportation to available markets, and the untrammelled, lightly-taxed, and independent condition of our farmers and planters, the ratio of increase of the agricultural pro- ducts of the United States in the several decennial periods is, in general, far below that of the increment of population, accession of territory, extension of commerce, manufactures, internal improve- ments, and the modern appliances for economizing labor. This ap- parent decadence may be attributed chiefly to the deterioration of the soil in many parts of the older-settled portions of our territory, caused by injudicious culture, a want of a proper regard to the allot- ment and rotation of crops, the increased devotion of labor and capi- tal to manufactures, commerce, and mines, an advance in the rates of wages, as well as in the expense of living, and the augmentation of taxes for the support of paupers and the punishment of crime. Of all causes most likely to be instrumental in the future develop- ment or retardation of agriculture in this country, probably the in- crease of population is the one to which we should direct our atten- tion with the most watchful interest. As inhabitants multiply, their demands for the produce of the earth for support will annually in- crease, and to meet this demand, a corresponding tillage and applica- tion of labor to the soil, guided by science, intelligence, and modern improvements, must necessarily follow. An experimental farm should be established and conducted under the direction of a well-organized society in every populous county in the United States, the results of which should be widely disseminated, with other agronomic knowl- edge, through public journals and authentic reports; agricultural education should be advanced by the institution of special and ele- mentary schools in the various States; and an effectual plan should be devised for a friendly co-operation of the agricultural societies to prevent jealousies and inspire confidence throughout the land. Our soil should be renovated and maintained in its fertility by an increase of dairy and stock-farms, by means of the manure produced thereon; by the judicious application of lime, gypsum, guano, bone-dust, marl, swamp-muck,&c., as well as by converting the sewage of cities and towns into fertilizing compounds, thereby promoting the health of the inhabitants, and serving the purpose of two ends; stiff and clayey soils should be ameliorated by under-drainage, with the object of rendering them permeable so as to admit moisture and air, which, together, contain the principal elements of vegetable nutrition; light soils should be made more adhesive by the compacting tread of animals in“ folding,“ or the out-door consumption of green forage or root-crops in the field. The best means should be devised for converting grass-lands into tillage, without exhausting the soil, and of returning the same to grass after a certain period in an amended state, or at least without injury. New plants should be adopted into the rotation of crops, either by introducing them from abroad, or by improving those already existing in the country by change of locality, hybridization, or the selection of seed. Vineyards and 4 A 50 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. orchards should be increased throughout the land for promoting the blessings of temperance and health. Plantations of timber-trees should be established for furnishing, in future, materials for naval and of forest- civil architecture and the arts, thus laying the foundation culture. Our axgricultural, mineral, and forest resources should be developed by the extension of railroads, canals, and other channels of intercommunication, in all cases which would justify the expense. Capital should be invested in joint-stock companies, or otherwise, for rearing and improving domestic animals; for the production and manufacture of manures; the raising and preparation for market of the Cereal grains, cotton, flax, hemp, tobacco, sugar, molasses, tea, fruit, wine,&c.; for directing the agricultural portion of immigrants into proper channels, and extending to those pioneer farmers all pos- sible aid and support in their hazardous and laborious undertakings; for the remedying of pauperism and preventing crime by persuading, and coercing, if necessary, the idle and the vagrant to engage in some useful employment, and thus, by furnishing food and profitable labor for the poor, to lay the foundation of moral as well as of physical good. D. J. B. ANIMALS. 51 ANIMAIS. ADAPTATION OF THE ENGLISH DRAUGHT HORSE FOR CITY OR TOWN WORK. The existing cart-horse of England is not an aboriginal breed of that country, but was imported from the neighboring Continent since the Norman conquest. Indeed, there is reason to believe that the horses employed in the army of William the Conqueror were little better than the draught horses of the present day. So long as armor was in fashion, a large massive animal was required to support the enormous weight of the steel-clad knight, and to withstand the pon- derous attack of a similar opponent. The half-bred horse was then unknown, and the Barb and the Spanish horse were insufficient in size; so that recourse was had to the large black horse which had been known throughout the fertile plains of Europe from time imme- morial, and from which, no doubt, the greater portion of the English cart-horses are descended. This race is pretty generally distributed throughout the country, and may be divided, in fact, into three kinds: First, the heavy massive horse, reared in the rich marshes and plains of the midland counties expressly for the London brewers; second, the smaller-sized but still tolerably heavy horse, generally employed for agricultural purposes, a strong, compact animal, but slow in action; and third, a lighter and a more active animal, possess- ing either some admixture of blood of a smaller breed, or being the descendant of the Flanders discarded coach-horse. The most prevailing color amongst these animals is black, so much so that we recognize a distinct breed under the appellation of the «Old Black Cart-horse;“ but the large dray is by no means confined to those of a black color. There are many of a bay, and still more of a brown color, as well as numerous greys and roans. There are also very many excellent compact cart-horses, of these various colors, better adapted for agricultural purposes; and, indeed, there are those which are generally preferred to the black horse as possessing greater activity and cleaner limbs, combined with equal compactness and strength. The dray-horse is reared in the greatest perfection in the richest pastures of the fens of Lincolnshire, the largest being seldom less than seventeen hands high, when two and a half years old, at which age, they are usually sold. The purchasers work them moderately until they are four years old, feeding them well during this period. Previous to their re-sale, they are often taken out of work and fat- 5² AGRICULTURAIL. REPOET. tened in loose boxes, much after the manner of oxen for the shambles, in which state they are supposed to please the eye of the London brewers, for whose more particular use these pampered animals are generally bred; and a colt, for instance, perhaps purchased for§200, vealizes in the course of two years double this amount, besides work- ing moderately during the time. Thus the horse, if he does not fall a victim to the various diseases which the redundancy of fat is calcu- lated to induce, yields an ample profit to his feeder. These noble looking animals, with round, fat carcasses, and sleek, glossy coats, are slow in their movements, and are not the best for hard and long-con- tinued work; but their proud deportment is well adapted to gratify the ambition of the brewer to outvie his neighbor; and as they move majestically through the streets of the metropolis, they present one of the most striking sights to the eye of the stranger. That such large massive animals are really required, or are the most profitable for their peculiar work, is a matter of considerable doubt. It is a species of pride, however, which has long prevailed among the Lon- don brewers; and whilst they continue the premium in the shape of high prices, the breeding of them will remain a profitable pursuit, and the streets of that metropolis will doubtless exhibit the largest horses in the world. One great drawback attending this breed is their tendency to weak and convex feet and to ossifications of the cartilages and pasterns, the former being the effect of their great weight acting on the soft horn induced by moist pastures, and the latter to their great predisposition to throw out bone, caused, proba- bly, partly by the large amount of phosphates contained in the grain upon which they are fed. Many of these horses are rendered useless from such morbid deposits, although the latter is so common that there is scarcely a dray-horse in London but has in some degree these eside bones,“ which, in many cases, do no injury. In the improve- ment of this breed, however, it should be an object to diminish, or rather to discourage, as much as possible, these objectionable quali- ties to which it is naturally so prone. When, therefore, it is con- sidered that a heavy dray-horse, working in the shafts, with a load, perhaps, of four or five tons behind him, which, in turning a corner, devolves on him alone, and, in the act of walking, must be thrown alternately on each nock, the importance of having this joint free from disease and all tenden v to it must be apparent. That an animal of such noge dimensions as the English dray- horse should be profitable or adapted to American use, there are many doubts. The cost of their food, and the expenses attending the wear and tear of their trappiugs and shoes, are much greater than of any other horse. It is bolleved by some that he could be employed with advantage in the crowded streets of our larger cities, where it is difficult for ordinary drays to travel faster than a common walk, even with a light load. Take the lower part of Broadway, in New York, for instance, where it ordinarily requires thirty minutes to pass from the Battery to Chambers street with a load of half a ton, drawn by a single horse. By the London dray, the ground could be travelled over in about the same length of time, with at least five times that * ANIMALsS. 53 weight, with but little additional expense, except the extra food consumed by the large horse over the one in common use. Similar reasons would apply to other parts of the United⸗States. But the horse which would seem to be best adapted for many agricultural purposes in this country, and one that possesses the combination of strength, compactness, and activity, is the“Suffolk Punch.“ It is difficult to trace the origin of this breed, other than that it has been reared in Suffolk for many years, where it was probably once employed for other purposes. These animals, for the most part, are of a chestnut color, though sometimes sorrel and bay, which uniformity shows that the breed has been kept tolerably pure. They are distinguished by roundness of barrel and compact- ness of form, generally combined with great activityK. They are exceedingly staunch to the collar, free from any redundancy of hair on the legs, and are by no means coarse about the head. They are rarely of large size, but usually range from fifteen to sixteen hands high. It speaks highly in favor of this breed that, at the late shows of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, they carried away the majority of prizes. It should be observed, however, that they are rather more liable to strains of the sinews and the joints than most other breeds. p. J. B. ADAPTATION OF THE MOUNTAIN REGIONS OF THE S0UTH TO SHEEP HUSBANDRVY. BX GEORGE C. PATTERSON, OF ROGERSVILLE, HAWKINS C0UNTY, TENNESSEE. The opinion, which has heretofore generally prevailed, that the northern portions of the United States are better adapted to the purposes of sheep-farming than the southern, is gradually being removed by successful experiments, showing not only that this impression is founded in error, but establishing, conclusively, the converse of the proposition; that is, that, in all the essentials for profitable sheep-farming, a large portion of the Southern States possesses advantages incomparably superior to those presented by territory further north. Beginning at or near a point on the 39th degree of north latitude, 150 miles from the Atlantic coast, and proceeding in a southwestward direction, as far down as the 34th degree, we find an expanse of country embracing about 180, 000 square miles, the geological and climatological characteristics of which give to it advantages for sheep husbandry unequalled in any other portion of the United States, of the same extent... This area of, say, 600 miles in length by 300 in width, includes large portions of Virginia and Tennessee, with considerable parts of Kentucky, North Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama, and a small portion of South Carolina and Mississippi. 54 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. The natural configuration of this vast region is not the least of the many desirable advantages it presents. It is situated many hundred feet above tide-water, fanned by the purest atmosphere, and sup- plied with innumerable salubrious streams. Having a high and dry range, so conducive to the healthfulness of sheep, and presenting a succession of mountain and valley, it affords the most ample defence against the heat of summer, as well as the bleak winds of winter. Artificial protection, indispensable at the North, yet so apt to induce disease, is thus rendered unnecessary in this more favored situation. These valleys, or mountain gorges, are most prolific in a variety of herbage suitable for sheep, and, during winter, they afford a supply of pasturage so abundant that very little additional food is required. Especially is this the case when a portion of the range is reserved for the winter season, which is the proper course. Hence, . the sheep have access to a continuous supply of green food, by which the secretory organs are retained in full action, and an uninterrupted growth of wool is promoted; while cases of constipation, frequently fatal at the North, by reason of sudden changes from green to dry food, are unknown here, there being scarcely a day in the year in which sheep cannot find sufficient green food to keep their digestive organs in healthy condition. Many of the more elevated portions of this region are so naturally disposed to grass that it is only necessary to clear out, the under- growth-which can be done at an expense of about S2 per acre— when the indigenous grasses, such as Timothy, blue-grass, white clover,&c., will immediately spring up and take possession of the land. There are few ranges of any extent that do not furnish ample quantities of arable land for all the purposes of the sheep-farmer; and they frequently include a fair proportion of excellent meadow land. The soil in this region is generally good, and it is by no means uncommon to find it fertile even to the tops of the mountains; and although there are to be found considerable bodies of thin soil, yet even these are more disposed to the production of grass than lands of a better quality further south. This thin soil is generally of loose texture, and, therefore, liable to be washed off by rains, unless appropriated to grass. The common sodge is the kind usually found upon it. When this is burned off, in early spring, a luxuriant range is afforded for sheep during the sum- mer. It is not advisable precipitately to substitute the cultivated grasses on this land, since it is not capable of growing them success- fully. By burning off the dry and decaying growth of the previous year, when its accumulation interferes with a succeeding growth, and close depasturing for a few years, the sedge will gradually give way to the more valuable grasses. It is well known to all sheep-farmers that, when lands are freely pastured by sheep, their capacity for producing grass is much assisted, as by close grazing the morèe useless grasses, briars,&c., are subdued, and the desirable descriptions allowed to strengthen their hold, and this, together with the tramp- ing t the land and the droppings of the sheep. induces a more dense sward. — —————— — —ͤ————.——— ANIMALS. 55 The“Randall Grass''— said to have been discovered in one of the western counties of Virginia— promises to be the most valuable for sheep-grazing in the regions spoken of. From the many experiments resulting from the distribution of the seeds of this grass through much of Virginia and Tennessee, it seems to have met with universal favor. In character and growth, it closely resembles orchard-grass, but is more tenacious of life, flourishing under the most unfavorable treatment, and resisting the intrusion of sedge and other inferior grasses. It has a more profuse foliage than the orchard-grass, and a more slender and soft stem; it will retain its green color during the severest weather of winter, and exhibit an earlier growth in the spring than other grasses known in this region. A comparative statement of the expense of maintaining sheep at the North and in this Southern country will exhibit the decided supe- riority of the latter, and materially assist us in forming correct con- clusions. If we examine the various communications on this subject, contained in the Agricultural Reports of the Patent Office, we shall find the average expense of wintering sheep at the North to be about. §1 25 per head, while in the region herein treated of it does not exceed 25 cents, or one-fifth the above amount; and in most winters, when the snow does not lie more than a day or two at a time, the cost of wintering is hardly worth computing. This difference in the expense of maintaining a flock is considerably widened when we con- trast the value of lands in the respective districts. Those at the North, we may safely place at an average price of§20 per acre, while in the Southern region any quantity of lands suitable for sheep-walks can be purchased at an average of dl, and many large tracts at half that price, or even less; thus affording decided advantages to per- sons of small capital. That the climate of the Northern States is more favorable to the growth of fine wool than the region to which I refer, repeated experiments are disproving. Although it is an admitted law of Nature that the covering of an animal will adapt itself in a great degree to the climate in which it abides, yet this does not prové that fine wool cannot be grown in a warm climate any more than that fine furs or fine feathers cannot be found there; for many animals, bearing the finest quality of furs, inhabit the most southern borders of our country, such as the beaver, otter, muskrat, and flying squirrel, and may be classed among the finest fur-producing animals; they are all found in Texas, as well as in the Canadas. The Merino sheep has been bred for ages as far south as the 36th degree of north latitude, in Asia; and we are informed by eminent writers on the subject that there is no perceptible difference in the fineness of their fleece from that of the flocks of Europe; and we have the testimony of the head of the great, Lowell Manufacturing Company, who has purchased extensively from all parts of the United States, that“ wherever there are good shepherds there is sure to be found good wool.“ The veritable samples of wool grown by an eminent sheep-farmer of Tennessee,(Mr. Cockrill,) are said to have exceeded in fineness those selected by an agent of our government from the best flocks of Europe; and this gentleman 56 AGRIOULTURAL REPORT. attributes its superior quality to the climate of that region, although it was grown nearly two degrees south of the scope of country of which I am treating, and not in the true grass region. Whether Mr. Cockrill is correct or not in his opinion, the fact is incontrovertible that the climate has worked no deterioration in the quality of the wool in the many years he has given wool-growing his attention. But whatever difference of opinion may exist on this subject, it is estab- lished beyond doubt that wool grown in a warm climate has a longer and softer fibre than that produced in the colder countries, although there may be no difference in the fineness of either; and the manu- facturer will give a decided preference to the longer and softer staple. Since the introduction of the Saxon sheep at the North, it is found that they are not capable of resisting the severity of that climate, and the breeding of them is abandoned as unprofitable; but it is reasonable to conclude that this most valuable variety of fine-woolled sheep, before long, will find its fixed place of habitation in the more congenial climate of the South.. 1 There are but few wolves in this region, and as-they commit their depredations only at night, all danger from them may be obviated by penning the flocks at such time, when they will also be secure from the attacks of curs, which are unfortunately but too plentiful in this wild and uncultivated region. REPORT ON ASIATIC GOATS. By a resolution of the Southern Central Agricultural Association of Georgia, a committee was appointed to report on the goats now in the possession of Mr. Richard Peters, of Atlanta; and, in compliance therewith, presented, through Dr. John Bachman, of Charleston, South Carolina, their chairman, an elaborate report, from which the fol- Jowing is an abstract: Among all the domesticated animals introduced into our country, the goat has hitherto been regarded as the least valuable. The several large breeds, such as the Scind, the Maltese, and the Swiss goats, which were, from time to time, introduced as milking animals, were, after a period, neglected and considered as of no great value in comparison with the cow; and we are not aware that their milk is converted into cheese in any portion of our country. The hair was too coarse for manufacturing purposes, and the flesh was considered inferior to that of veal or mutton; hence the goat was scarcely regarded as deserving of notice among the herds of the farmer. The wisdom of Providence has, however, so ordered it that, in all the species of animals intended for the use of man, distinct and per- manent varieties are produced in different localities, which varieties, by proper attention, may be preserved for ages without change or deterioration. Breeds of horses have been produced, adapted to the various necessities of man. The breeds which have originated from our domesticated horned cattle are equally varied, and so organized —N— ⏑ ⏑ ANIMALsS. 57 as to minister to the wants of man in the different climates of the world. The sheep, which, in many of its varieties, is a coarse-woolled animal, has assumed various forms and infinite varieties in the flavor of its mutton— in its fleece, and in its adaptation either to cold, temperate, or tropical climates. In Africa and the West Indies, breeds have sprung up, called by some ‧Nubian sheep,“ the wool of which has become converted into a short, coarse, glossy hair. In the mountains of Spain and in Saxony, varieties of the same species produce the finest wool. These Merino and Saxon sheep having become perma- nent breeds, have retained their fine fleece in our country during suc- cessive generations. The varieties of the goat are equally numerous and equally varied in different eountries. ſhey are all of one species, the varieties mixing and multiplying with each other ad infinitum. They all claim as their origin the common goat, Capra hircus,) which, it is admitted by nearly all reliable naturalists, derives its parentage from the wild goat,(Capra ægagrus,) that still exists on the European Alps. Two individuals of this wild species lived for several years in the menagerie of Paris, and exhibited all the habits of the common goat. We have, on several occasions, seen herds of our common goat, which had strayed away and become wild; one of these might for several years have been seen on that wonderful pro- duction of Nature, the Stone Mountain of Georgia. They evidenced all the peculiarities ascribed to the wild goats of the Alps. A herd of these goats exists on the precipitous side of Ben Nevis, in Scotland, and are described as still numerous on the rocky island of Juan Fer- nandez, which the fertile imagination of Defoe, by the aid of the narrative of Selkirk, has invested with such a fascinating romance. An animal so easily reared and domesticated must have been given to man by a beneficent Providence for a more valuable purpose than that of its very sparing portion of milk and its rather inferior flesh. The Creator, who gave to our first parents the soil, with the command to till' it, has also given to the animals which accompany him in his migrations over the earth an organization adapted to the production of improved and permaneunt varieties. These, when produced, it becomes the duty of man to increase and multiply. The individual who does this, by the application of his time, his scientific knowledge, his labors, or his wealth, carries out the designs of a superintending Providence, and becomes a public benefactor. The goat has, in several of its varieties, become a wool-bearing animal. To these we will now direct our attention. We have satisfactory evidences that, from the time of Moses, who in several places refers to the fine linen and goat's hair spun by the women, the manufacture of fine fabrics from the hair of this animal has been uninterruptedly kept up. Throughout all the higher mountains of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, goat's hair, of fine quality, has been an article of manufacture and a source of wealth to thousands of the human family. These fine- haired breeds of goats exist under many varieties in Angora, Northern Persia, Cashmere, Nepal, Thibet,&c. These have sent off herds, varying in some particulars, into Bucharia, Tartary, and Syria. A small herd was, some years ago, after incalculable difficulties, carried 58 AGRICULTURAL REPORT into France, from whence aà few found their way into England, and we have now another variety in our oWn country derived from the same Eastern source. Hodgson describes four varieties of goats as existing in Nepal and Thibet. The“Shawl goat' he calls Changra, and the Cashmere of Cuvier is called by the natives Chappoo. The Shawl goats are characterized as being covered with long silky hair, with an under vest of delicate greyish wool.“ The quantity of this wool is very small, not exceeding two, or at furthest three ounces. The Angora goat derives its name from the country where this pecu- liar variety has originated. It is remarkable that nearly all the domesticated animals carried to Angora have, in the course of time, produced varieties, the whole pelage of which is formed of white hair of uncommon length and kineness. Not only the goat has thus been changed, but also the sheep, cats, rabbits,&c. Neither the latitude, tho altitude, nor calcareous soil of this country are in them- selves sufficient to account for these remarkable transformations, since there are more northern regions and far higher mountains in other countries, with chalky marl formations, where this peculiarity does not occur. The Angora goat, more especially the varieties it has produced, is described by Hassilquist, Buffon, Pennant, and others, as in general of a beautiful milk-white color, with short legs, and black, spreading, spirally-twisted horns. The hair on the whole body is disposed in long pendant spiral ringlets; its ears are pendulous, and the horns of the female, instead of divaricating, as in the male, turn backward, and are much shorter in proportion. Professor Lowe, in speaking of the climate in which the wool- bearing goats are produced, characterizes it as“stretching from the mountains of Thibet into the elevated Steppes of the interior, north- ward to the arctic regions, eastward through Chinese Tartary, and westward through the vast dominions of Russia to the confines of Europe. In the northern provinces of China, there are goats of a small size, which yield wool as abundantly as the sheep of the same country. Extending over the varied surface of Hindustan, the goats assumé a prodigious diversity of color, aspect, and form. Sometimes they have horns, and sometimes they are destitute of them; some- times they have long pendulous ears; sometimes they have a short fur, like that of a fawn, and sometimes fine silky hair falling in glossy ringlets on each side of the dorsal line. The largest of the goats of Hindustan are brought from Cabul, Thibet, and the high- jands of Persia.“ The varieties in form, color, and qualities of pelage, under which these various breeds of goats are presented, will account for the great difference in the figures of what are called Cashmere goats. The same may be said of the Thibet shawl and the Angora goats. In a word, they are all of one species, but under many varieties; breeds have become permanent, and some are infinitely more valuable than others. Local names have been attached to these various breeds, many of which are still confined to the herds- men of the East. To the farmer the possession of the most, valuable breed of goats is of far more importance than the name by which it is designated. 4 „———————— ANIMALS. 59 Since, however, we are obliged to regard the different breeds of animals by the names under which they are usually designated, we are not allowed to consider the goats of Mr. Peters as the true Cash- mere. The two kinds of hair, with an under vest of delicate greyish wool, which amounts only to two or three ounces on a well-grown animal, together with horns not spiral, draw a broad line of separa- tion between these probable crosses and the far superior goats of Mr. Peters. This animal differs also from the Angora goat, to which it has a nearer approach, and from which this improved variety has probably descended. In the few specimens of the Angora, which we saw many years ago in Europe, and in the figures now extant of this variety, the ears, compared with those of the goats of Mr. Peters were smaller and less pendulous; the tail much longer; the neck covered with a mane of almost straight hair, reaching the shoulders, and uniting with the beard under the chin; the body was larger and more goat-like, and had less the appearance of a sheep than the present variety. The fleece was equally white and glossy, but more than twice as coarse. By what local name this breed of goats, owned by Mr. Peters is called in the East, remains for some future natural- ist or traveller to determine. It will probably be found among some of the varieties spoken of by Hodgson and other travellers, who have given very imperfect descriptions of the varieties existing in the hilly regions of Nepal and Thibet, but who say of them: One character they all have in common— pendent or semi-pendent ears, more or less prolonged, and in all the hair falls in long masses, some- times twisted into spiral ringlets.“* We have adopted the usual rule among naturalists in designating animals by the common names under which they were sent, leaving it to time and further observation to determine their true place in science. Hence, we have continued the name under which it was imported, which may have been Cashmere in one of the languages of the East, as it is a general term—the name of a country which is known to possess several distinct varieties, both of the goat and sheep. At present, we can only designate them by the general term „KAsiatic Goats,“ or, to be more definite, as the““Davis Cashmere Goats,“ from the individual who introduced them. It yet remains for us to consider the most important subject con- nected with this report. What benefit may our country be expected to derive from this breed of goats? They were introduced into South Carolina, in 1849, having been brought from Turkey, in Asia, by J. B. Davis, M. D. We examined these animals on their first arrival, and pronounced them as destined to become à valuable acquisition to our country. We have since taken advantage of many opportunities, from time to time, of ascertaining their adaptedness to our climate, and saw them recently at the farm of Mr. Peters, at Calhoun. We are much gratified in stating that the proof has far exceeded our most sanguine expectations. We will give the result of our inquiries and experience under several heads. 60 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. CONSTITUTIONAL CHARACTERISTIOS AND ADAPTEDNESS TO OUR CLIMATE. These goats appear to be remarkably well adapted to our climate, show no evidence of suffering, and do not pant like sheep during the warm weather of summer, when the thermometer often rises to 920 F. In winter, when the thermometer sometimes sinks to zero, their woolly covering protects them from the cold, which they endure fully as well as sheep. In the lower country of Carolina, during recent severe winters, we ascertained that many of the common goats(as far as we could learn, one-half of the whole stock) perished from cold; the Asiatic goats, however, did not appear to suffer the least incon- venience. Kids were dropped in a snow bank, at Mr. Peters' farm, in February, and sustained no injury. Three of these goats were kept during winter and summer near Utica, in Central New York, and three others, with their descendants, have remained near Har- per's Ferry, Virginia, since the autumn of 1854; all of them are doing well, and have suffered no inconvenience either in winter or summer. This hardy disposition is imparted to the different grades, the half and three-quarter bloods, produced by an intermixture with the common goat. They are all healthy. No disease has appeared among them, and there has not been a single sick goat or any death by disease among those originally imported, or in any of their de- scendants, during the eight years since their introduction. The oldest imported female is at least ten, probably eleven, years old— produces a kid every year, and now has at her side a very fine female, dropped on the 10th of March last. She is in fine order, and looks as though she would breed for several years. The females furnish an abundant supply of milk, and are excellent mothers, never losing their kids, which are strong when dropped, and able to suck in a few moments, the mother remaining over and about them for forty-eight hours, and afterwards always keeping a careful watch. The half-breed ewes inherit from the Davis goats this peculiar trait of character, being the very reverse of the common goats in this particular, the latter, especially when bred in large herds, care little for their young, which are often left to die for want of nourishment when a few hours old. INCREASE. This has been less than was at first anticipated. The fact of the common goat having two, and, sometimes, three young at a birth, and often two broods in a year, led many persons to the conclusion that this new variety of goat would be equally prolific. In this, expe- rience has now undeceived us. The animal produces young but once in a year, and only one kid at a birth. Mr. Peters received from Dr. Davis, in December, 1856, eight females and two males—three of the females having been imported. There were in this number ——— — ꝗD——³——— ANIMALS. 61 three small kids which failed to breed until two years old. From these females, Mr. Peters has raised twenty-one, twelve of which proved to be males and nine females. Thus it appears that the constitution of this variety is organized like that of the wild goats,(Capra œgagrus,) which produces but one young annually. As, however, it produces young when fifteen months old, and continues to breed until over ten years of age, taking into consideration the strength and hardihood of the kids, we may safely consider it as equal to the French Merino sheep in the rapidity with which a flock may be bred and increased. PREPONDERANCE OF YOUNG MALES OVER FEMALEsS. It has frequently been remarked, that animals and poultry of various kinds brought from China and Western Asia produce a much greater number of males than females. The only experiment we made was on the Shanghae fowl, which, as long as we had an old male, produced, on an average, three or four male chickens to one female. Since we have kept young males only, the sexes in their descendants are about equal. It was at one time feared that the experiments in the introduction of these goats would be greatly re- tarded from the fact that they produced nearly all males. In 1854, Dr. Davis used one two-year old buck to five ewes. The result was two females and three males. In 1855, Mr. Peters used the old im- ported buck to eight ewes; the result was, two females and six males. In 1856, he used a buck kid of nine months old to six ewes; the result was, four females to two males. In the same year, he used the imported buck to two ewes; the product was one male and one female. It will be a matter of interest to the physiologist to become acquainted with the result of a further continuance of these experi- ments. FOOD. Like all species and varieties of goats, these animals prefer weeds, briars, and leaves to grass. Mr. Peters informed us that, during the summer months, they are a decided benefit to his grass-lands, by feed- ing on, and finally destroying, briars, weeds, and bushes. They are especially fond of the leaves of young pines and cedars, both in sum- mer and winter, the balsamic character of which is conducive to their health and thrift. During winter, they should be fed like sheep, but do not require much attention, except in snowy weather, as they are better able to shift for themselves. Mr. Peters advises that during this season they should be divided into flocks of about one hundred, or less, as they butt each other at feeding time. THE FLESH AS AN ARTICLE OF FOOD. We have never indulged in the extravagant luxury of feasting on a full-blooded animal of this variety; but we have, on several occa- sions, made a hearty meal on the quarter, half, or three-quarter 62 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. bloods, and all who dined in company pronounced the meat of the half-breed wethers superior to lamb, and at eighteen months old, superior to mutton; the flavor approaches nearer to venison than to mutton. They remain fat nearly throughout the year, and in Novem- ber are almost too fat for the table. We observed a great improve- ment in the progeny of the full bloods over their imported parents, both in fatness and size. The weight. of the buck is given as 155 pounds; that of the doe 102 pounds. LIABILIIY TO BE DESTROYXED BX DOGsS. If this animal were as liable to be killed by dogs as the common sheep, we would tremble for the perpetuity of the race in our coun- try. A flock of sheep when pursued by dogs scatter in every direc- tion, and fall an easy prey to their relentless blood-thirsty foe; but when he approaches a herd of goats, he finds them formed into a ring—the kids in the centre and the old bucks in advance—exhibit- ing their formidable horns. No dog is bold enough to close in, but usually runs, barking, around them, thus attracting attention, and receiving the reward of his carnivorous designs. Mr. Peters informs us that he gave up the raising of sheep after having a dozen fine South-Downs killed by a pack of dogs, when they also destroyed four common ewe goats; but since there were no sheep on the farm, to tempt the dogs, they have not come near. He says that he has lost none of his goats, either of the pure breeds or the grades, by dogs. He further remarks that with a large herd he had no trouble. They have a range of two or three miles over fields and through woods; they return every evening before sunset to their house, and in case of a shower of rain, run to their shelter, even at the distance of several miles. He believes that a thousand or more would continue in fine condition, during summer and fall, in one flock, on a large range, as they are free from disease, do not crowd together like sheep, or suffer from heat; they are very easily driven and managed, and do not run off and get lost. FLEECE. The quantity sheared in April was, from the aged bucks, from 5 to 7 pounds, and from the ewes from 4 to 5 pounds. Mr. Peters shears but once a year, but intends hereafter to clip the kids in September and again in April. In regard to the fineness of the fleece, we find a microscopic exami- nation of the hair of Asiatic goats, from the stock now owned by Mr. Peters, William P. Davenport, of Virginia, and Dr. Ambler, then of New Vork, printed in the Agricultural Report of the Patent Office for 1855. The examinations were made by George C. Schaeffer, M. D. He says,'“the degree of fineness is about that of the finest Saxony wool.“ He gave also an outline from a piece of shawl stuff im- ported from Calcutta, and said to be the finest ever brought into this country.“ He adds,"it is gratifying, then, to be assured that the ANIMALS. 63 fleece may be raised in this country with a fineness closely approxi- mating to that which it has ever attained in Asia under the most favorable circumstances.Ö“ We have lying before us specimens from the fleeces of several young Asiatic goats, which we have compared with the finest wool of the Merino sheep, and find the former not only equal in fineness, but of far greater length. It must, however, be observed that young animals, at their first shearing only, present this remarkably fine fleece. In the old female, it is a little coarser, and in the old males still more so. It is proposed by Mr. Peters to divide the fleeces of these goats at shearing-time into classes, thus: Kids under a year Old....................... No. 1. Nearling ewes and yearling wethers........ No. 2. Nearling bucks, old ewooos... No. 3. Aged bucks................................ No. 4. The fleeces of old ewes and yearling bucks would answer for cloth of a valuable texture. The fleece of the yearling is much finer than that of the old ewes; and that of the kid is fine enough for the very finest shawls, and ought to be very valuable. There is a large class of fabrics for which these fleeces are peculiarly adapted, namely, camlet and worsted goods and ladies' fabrics, as shallies, mouslin-de- laine, gentlemen's clothing for summer wear, hosiery,&c., promising a beauty, strength, durability, lustre, and permanency of color, far superior to the wool of the alpaca or sheep. The goats' hair is known to receive and retain the most brilliant coloring, which the hair of the sheep and the alpaca has not the property of retaining. RESULTS OF BREEDING WITH THE COMMON GOAT. Familiar as we have been through a long life with the changes produced by crosses among varieties of domestic animals and poultry, there is one trait in these goats which is more strongly developed than in any other variety that we have ever known. We allude to the wonderful facility with which the young of the cross between the male of the Asiatic goat and the female of the common goat assumes all the characteristics of the former. It is exceedingly difficult to change a breed that has become permanent in any of our domestic varieties, whether it be that of horses, cattle, sheep, or hogs, into another variety by the aid of the male of the latter. There is a tendency to run back into their original varieties; hence the objec- tion to mixed breeds. But in the progeny of these Asiatic and com- mon goats, nine-tenths of them exhibit the strongest tendency to adopt the characteristics of the male, and to elevate themselves into the higher and nobler grade, as if ashamed of their coarse, dingy hair and musky aromatics, and desirous of washing out the odorous perfume, and putting on the white livery of a more respectable race. Mr. Peters has not bred any quarter-breeds. He made wethers of all his half-breed males, of 1856, and sold his three-quarter blood bucks. He now owns one hundred and fifty half-blood females, 64 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. seventy-five three-quarter plood females, and six seven-eighths blood females. He has also four females three-quarters Asiatic and one- quarter Thibet shawl. There appears to be no improvement in this mixture with the Shawl goat, over that produced by a union with the common goat; indeed, the product which we saw in Charleston, from what was cal led the Cashmere and the Asiatic goat, was decidedly inferior. The half-bloods, as we have stated, have an under-coat of fine, downy wool, closely resembling and equal in quality and quantity to the fleece of the Thibet Shawl goats imported into this country. The three-quarter breeds in mid-winter show an under-coat of greater quantity and length. In both grades, this under-fur drops out in summer. The fffteen-sixteenths or one-sixteenth common goat resem. bles the Asiatic goat in quantity and quality of fleece and size of carcass, so closely that We found it impossible to distinguish them from the full-bloods. Another advantage is likely to result from this admixture with the common goat: the half-blood females produce two kids at a birth, and the three-quarter blood females generally, although not always, two. Thus the breed may be rendered more prolific. We here perceive in how short a period ofe time our whole race of now almost worthless goats may be converted into a breed valuable both for its flesh and wool. REGIONS OF COUNTRY TOo WHIOCH THEY ARE BEST ADAPTED There does not appear to be any part of the United States to which the constitution of this goat is not adapted. Damp climates, like England, where there are almost daily drizzling rains, are inju⸗- rious. This animal scarcely needs water. We were informed by Mr. Peters that three of them remained in a lot, feeding on weeds and grass, without any water, during three months, and keeping in fine order. Our whole country is warm in summer, and portions of it very cold in winter. If this goat is constitutionally adapted to brave the cold of the Steppes of the Eastern Caucassian, Himalaya, and Altaian Mountains, it would not suffer, if fed in winter, in our ld thrive along all the sides of the Alleghany coldest regions, and wou and Rocky mountains. It has improved in the comparatively warm climate of Carolina. It would do well in the hilly country of the GCarolinas and Georgia, many portions of which are now scarcely cultivated. The whole western country, from Nebraska down to Western Texas and New Mexico, may be rendered a feeding-ground for this wool-bearing goat. The mountain regions of Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, and Tennessee will be found admirably adapted to the raising of large flocks of these goats and their crosses. The wild growth of the mountain-sides, with the native grasses of the rich valleys will afford pasturage summer and winter at a trifling cost. Thée worn-out plantations and poor pine lands of the Carolinas and Georgia might be brought into requisition to supply meat for our markets, which, by many Persons, would be preferred to venison. A ——,ÿ—ÿ —— ANIMALS 65 single shepherd could guard a flock of several thousands, more espe- cially if he called to his assistance the large shepherd-dog from the Swiss mountains. They would not only astonish the marauding wolf, but his prowling relative, the cur. It is not impossible that, among the many varieties of goats existing in the far distant and almost in- accessible regions of the Eastern World, some breeds may yet be found more valuable to our country than this; but at present, we know of none that can be compared with it. WHAT IMPROVEMENT CAN BE MADE IN THIS BREED OF GOATS? Since it possesses the characteristics of all the other domesticated animals, we have reason to believe that, by judicious breeding, and devoting to this subject the same attention that breeders in England bestow on their horses, cattle, sheep, and swine, an equal number of improved varieties will be produced. We are at present unacquainted with any superior variety of goat with which this might be crossed to improve the fineness of the wool. Improved individuals, however, spring up in these varieties themselves, without any foreign admix- ture; and by selecting these, and separating them from the common stock, we have at once a new breed, which soon becomes a perma- nent race. Let us in these matters follow the teachings of Nature in all her departments. How were the varieties of Sea Island cotton, of large rice, of prolific corn, wheat,&c., produced? A few stalks of these superior qualities were detected in the fields. Thus far it was the free gift of a beneficent Creator. Man, his agent, now se- lected and cultivated them separate from all others. Thus a valuable variety was obtained that may, by proper care, be perpetuated. In the Courrier des Eats Unis we have a long and interesting account of a Merino sheep in France, which, instead of wool, produced fine silken hair. The breed was perpetuated, and goes under the name of“ Cashmere sheep.“ At the ‧Universal Exhibition,“ in Paris, it was affirmed by the judges of one of the shawls made from this hair, that they found this(as they named it) native Cashmere as soft and as brilliant as the imported, and that it was superior to the latter on account of its regularity of detail.“ CONCLUSION In conclusion, we may be asked, whether we are induced to believe that, from the many good properties of this goat, it will eventually supersede the sheep in husbandry? We answer, certainly not. 4 gift of Providence so valuable as the sheep is not to be cast aside by any intruder on its rightful domains. The sheep and the goat have each their appropriate sphere in the economy of Nature, and there are good properties in each that cannot be supplanted by the other. The Creator, in his munificent benevolence, has given a limited number of valuable domestic animals and poultry, grains, fruits, and vegetables to man, all capable ef producing varieties, and of acoom- panying him in his migrations over the world. Each has its limits 5 A 66 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. of usefulness, and one species cannot intrude on the rights of the other. The maple tree of the North, and the sugar beet and Chinese sugar cane of more temperate climates, are admirable substitutes, and of immense value. They are also well adapted to check the cupidity of speculators in sirups and sugars; but they cannot in the end demolish the great sweetner of the human palate of the world— the old tropical cane. Cotton js at this time king, and is struggling, like Aaron's rod, to swallow up all the lesser products of silk, flax, and wool, but they are destined still to hold their place in the articles that minister to man's comfort. The sheep will not be depressed in the scale of man's valuable commodities; the goat will only be ele- vated to the standard to which it was designed to rise. Thus each product revolves in its own sphere like the lesser lights in the firma- ment, reflecting glory on their great Author, and conferring benefits and blessings on him' who was created in his image, and crowned with glory and honor.“¹ — THE LLAMA AND ALPACA— THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRI- BUTION, ORGANIZATION, FOOD, HABITS, AND PROBABLE ADAPTATION TO CERTAIN REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. On the lofty Cordilleras of the Andes, in South America, consider- ably below the line of perpetual snow, from Chili nearly to the equator, there abound at least three kinds of animals known under the names of“ Guanaco,“ or“Llama,“ Paco,“ or“Alpaca,“ and the Vicuña, the latter of which, according to the classification of Cuvier, is merely a variety of the llama. This also agrees with the opinion of Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, who says, in the year 1811, that the domestic animals of the Peruvians are of two kinds—the greater and the smaller—which they, as a common name, call lama, that is, cattle or sheep. The larger kind they call huunacu-lama, on account of the resemblance it bears to the wild animal known in Peru by the name of huanacu, from which it differs only in color; for the domestic llamas are to be met with as various in their colors as horses; but the wild llamas are uniformly of a chestnut color. The larger kind bears a great similitude to a camel, except that it is deficient in the hump upon its back, and is not so large. The small kind they call paco-Mama, which is only reared for its flesh and wool. The vicunas are not very unlike goats in their appearance, except that they have no horns, are larger, and are of a leonine color, or more ruddy. They live in the highest mountains and groves, and particularly love those cold regions of solitude, which the Peruvians designate by the common name of Punas, neither are they annoyed by frost and snow, but are rather created by them. They go in ſlocks and run most swiftly; and such is their timidity that, at the sight of man or wild beasts, they instantly hurry into inaccessible retreats, and thereby elude their pursuits. There were formerly a — ———+,,— ANIMALsS. 67 great number of these animals here, but they are now become much more rare in consequence of the promiscuous license of hunting them. Their wool is very fine, resembling silk or the fur of the beaver, and the natives deservedly hold it in high estimation; for, besides other properties, it is also said to resist heat and impart coolness to the wearer.“ The llama,(Auchenia glama,) ordinarily, is from 4 to 5 feet in height, of a light-brown color on the back and sides, and under the belly uniformly white. Sometimes. however, it is dun, grey, or even inclining to purple, and very seldom parti-colored or black. The hair is long, of a texture between silk and wool, but not curled. The alpaca(Auchenia alpaca) is smaller than the llama, its usual height being only 4 feet. It appears more corpulent, however, owing to its possessing a much longer and a more profuse clothing of hair, which, sometimes, is from 8 to 12 inches in length on the sides. rump, and breast. The fleece of an old individual is represented to weigh 20 or 30 pounds. It partakes of various colors, often being parti-colored, but more frequently white than the other species. The most valuable breeds are said to come from the central provinces; and here it may not be irrelevant to observe that there are too varieties of alpaca, differing in size, figure, and fleece. The breed called cogds is the most diminutive, and is esteemed for the smallness of bone and symmetry of form. It is chiefly confined to the Cusco range of mountains, more particularly to that part of it intervening between the ancient city of the Incas and Haumanga. It is thought to be a remnant of the old royal flocks, or those once owned by the priests of the sun, who are represented as having the choicest breeds. That territory was, besides the principal theatre of agricultural operations, the seat of power, and the centre of Peru- vian civilization. The Peruvians dry the flesh of the Ilama as well as that of the alpaca, which they are very fond of eating. The order to which the genus Auchenia belongs offers to the eye of the naturalist but a very small anatomical difference of conformation from that containing the camel, properly so called. The feet are not, like those of that quadruped, entirely padded with an elastic sole, but the two toes are separated, each having strong, horny nails, or hoofs, nearly resembling the talons of a bird, with a thick cushion, or pad beneath. These animals are also dissimilar in the formation and arrangement of their teeth, having on each side of the upper jaw one canine tooth more than the camel, but are deficient in a second canine tooth in the lower jaw. Their incisors project fully half an inch from the muzzle-bone, so as to meet the pad fitted above, by which means, and with the aid of the tongue and cleft lip, they are not only enabled to draw together and clip short grass upon the ground, but also, with their long necks, pointed muzzles, and the oblique posture which the head can assume, to collect herbage growing on the hedges, and in the interstices of rocks 7 feet high, as well as the tops of hedges and tall shrubs. Their teeth are, at the same time, so strong, 68 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. and interlock in such a manner that they easily crush and masticate vegetable substances too hard and tough for ordinary cattle. The absence of the hump and of the callosity on the breast, also consti- tute striking points of difference between these animals and the camel. The llama, however, has a conformation resembling the camel'’s hump, being provided with an excess of nutritive matter, which lies in a thick bed of fat under the skin, and is absorbed as a compensation for an occasional want of food. Some of these animals, as in the camel, have callosities on the knees of the fore-legs, and, like them, kneel down in the same manner. Their stomachs and those of the camel, in some respects, aré similarly organized. That of the llama, according to Sir Everard Home, has a portion of it, as it were, intended to resemble the reservoirs for water in the camel; but these have no depth, being only superficial cells, and have no muscular apparatus to close their mouths, and allow the solid food to pass into the fourth cavity, or digesting stomach, without going into these cells. But the stomachs of these quadrupeds certainly must have some kind of internal mechanism for retaining water or secreting a liquid sub- stance; for it has been remarked, along the flanks of some parts of the Andes, that they live far above any lakes or streams, and abstain from drink a great portion of the year; and further, it has been observed that, in a state of domestication, they never manifest any desire to drink so long as they can optain an abundance of succulent herbage. From the peculiar organization both of the camel and the Ilama, we are led to infer that each is evidently fitted by Nature for the endurance of great hardships and privations—the one amidst the sands of the desert, under a burning sun; the other on the wastes of some of the loftiest mountains of the globe, with a region of per- petual snow above. The slight variations of their conformation, such as that of the foot, are modifications of Nature which befit them for their respective abodes. 4⁴ habitation amongst the rocks would be mechanically impossible for the dromedary, whilst the burning plains would be as little suited to the paco. The llama, in its natural habitat on the Andes, at an elevation of from 8,000 to 12, 000 feet above the level of the sea, far above any lakes or streams, feeds, through choice, on a sort of rushy grass, or reed, called ichü, which grows in abundance where it is said these animals are never known to drink so long as a sufficiency of green, succulent herbage can be obtained. They also derive subsistence from the mosses and lichens which fringe the rocks among their native haunts, or by browsing upon tender shrubs. They adapt themselves to almost any soil or situation, provided the heat is not oppressive or prolonged, and the air is pure, possessing a hardiness of constitution admirably well adapted to the nature of their birth- place, where, during half the year, snow and hail incessantly fall; whilst in the higher regions, nearly every night during summer, the mercury sinks below the freezing point, and the peaks are perpetually covered with accumulations of ice or snow. It is astonishing that the temperature of the air, on mountains so peculiarly situated and exposed to the full glare of the vertical sun, should be so much ———— ——— à3— ANIMALS. 69 chilled as almost to present the desolate aspect of the Arctic regrons; and yet such are the tracts upon which the vicuna and the guanaco abound and run wild, far above the abode of man, and are hunted for their flesh and skins. It is remarkable, however, that they do not inhabit Quito, Santa Fé, Caracas,&c., although the climate of the mountains of those parts is similar to that of High Peru. The comparatively small size of these animals, as well as the vege- table forms by which they are surrounded, clearly indicates that the climate of the Andes is not favorable either to animal or vegetable growth. It has also been remarked, that there the human species is subject to the same law; man decreasing in bulk and stature in pro- portion as he dwells near the meuntain summits. In Peru, the winter sets in towards June, and is severely felt on the highlands, where the snow remains upon the ground six, and in some places eight months in the year. As soon as the narrow and green strip of land bordering upon the Pacific is passed, the traveller begins to ascend the slopes; and when he attains the first table-land, observes a com- plete change in the climate and the appearance of vegetation. Except in the„ungas, or hollows, where an alluvial soil has been collected, and where the Indian plants his sugar-cane, banana, and esculent roots, the country wears a naked and barren aspect. The female llama and alpaca go with young eleven or twelve months, and rarely produce more than one at a birth. They are weaned when half a year old, but are not put at work before they have completed the third year. They begin to bear when two years old. The Ilama and alpaca, as well as the alpaca and vicufia. can be induced to breed together, and of the former union there aro“Cauent instances to be met with in Europe as well as in Peru. From this alliance, a beautiful hybrid results, if possible, finer to the eye than either parent, and also more easily trained to work, but, like the mule, it does not procreate. From the sterility of this hybridous race, it would follow that the alpaca is a distinct variety of the llama tribe, differing as much from its allied species as the horse does from the ass; and, consequently, that the two domestic animals of the Peruvians were not brought to their present state by means of crossing. Their intermixture is a modern expedient by the Spaniards. It is a rule of the vital economy, that life only springs from life, and every being is consequently endowed with the property of generating an offspring, inheriting a nature similar to its own. When the species vary, this rule ceases to act; whence, although possessing a strong physiological resem- blance in many important points of their organization, there must necessarily be some material difference between the llama and alpaca in the functions of generation, which it is more than presumable equally extends to the wild species, and that difference produces an irregularity at variance with Nature's laws, constituting an essential condition of life. It appears from the report of M. Bory de Saint Vincent, a distinguished naturalist, who accompanied the French 70 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. army into Spain, under Marshall Soult, that he observed in the Zoological Garden of Don Francisco de Theran, at San Lucar de Barrameda, in Andalusia, three alpa-vigonias,(thê cross between the vicua and alpaca,) the fleeces of which were much longer, and six times heavier than those of any other variety. The Spaniards were proud of this acquisition, thinking that they had thereby obtained a new race of wool-bearing animals, calculated to people their hills and repair the loss sustäined through the decline in their Merino flocks. By the experiment of crossing, however, they defeated the very object which they had in view, as the animals gradually died off without leaving any offspring, and in the course of a few years, there was scarcely one individual to be found in the kingdom. The Peruvians are careful not to overload either of these animals, the burden of which is generally about 100 pounds, though, for a short distance, on good roads, they occasionally carry 12 or 15 pounds more. They are usually docile and willing to perform their task, if gently treated, but if provoked, they express their anger by turning pack their ears, and spitting into the face of their offender, even if he be 3 or 4 yards off. Their food is never prepared for them, but when unemployed, they are suffered to graze on their native mountains, often pasturing in company with the wild species; but they are so much accustomed, and apparently attached to mankind, that they never exchange servitude for freedom. Those animals which have been brought to Europe and the United States appeared to thrive well for a time on the same sorts of food as eaten by cattle and sheep; but the inferior kinds of browse, grass, Or hay, with a due proportion of potatoes, carrots, or other succulent roots, were preferred by them to rich pastures and farinaceous grains. Too liberal an allowance of nutritious and stimulating food to an animal extremely abstemious cannot, therefore, be regarded other than injurious. Its peculiarly formed stomach is not adapted to dry, hard food, the best proof of which is its habitual abstinence from drink. In Peru, the llama is sometimes treated with maize or millet in their green, soft, milky stage. In regard to the diseases of these animals, it has frequently been remarked that, when they are taken down to the lowland towns, and are there kept for much length of time, they perspire freely, as soon as the hot weather comes on, and if neglected, a scurf, or rash, forms on the skin. In their new character, the coat, of course, is carefully preserved as being ornamental; but if it is shorn off, and the animal is bathed in the cool part of the day, before the system has been heated by exercise or the natural warmth of the climate, the sufferer invariably recovers in a short time. This cooling remedy, it has been observed, the animals themselves naturally seek; for, when taken down to the heated atmosphere of the plains, should this rash break out, both these animals instinctively go in search of a refreshing stream, not for the purpose of drinking, as has been erroneously supposed, but for bathing, and thereby preserving their health. For a period of nearly forty ycears, the subject of introducing these . quadrupeds into this country Has been agitated, and several attempts ANIMALsS. 71 have been made to engraft them into our husbandry. As well known instances of this, it may be recollected that the late Colonel Skinner published an extended notice of these animals in the“‧Ameri- can Farmer,“ in Baltimore, advocating their adoption, in 1821; the „American Agricultural Association,“ of the city of New York, raised a fund by subscription for the introduction, in 1846; a present of several of them was made by the Peruvian Government to the Honorable Daniel Webster, when Secretary of State; and the early part of the past winter, a cargo of llamas and alpacas were shipped to Baltimore, on speculation, from Guayaquil. But owing to the appar- ent inadaptability of these animals to the climate and elevation of the Atlantic and Gulf States, all the experiments hitherto made proved futile. To succeed, then, as a last resort, we have only to direct our attention to those vast elevated tracts known under the name of the „Great Plains,“ at the east of the Rocky Mountains, and lying prin- cipally between longitude 200 and 300 west from Washington, extend- ing from Texas to the Arctic sea. These plains contain but little timber, or woods, and individual trees are rare. They mostly have a gentle slope from the west to the east, though in some instances gracefully undulating, clad with thick, nutritious grasses, and teem- ing with animal life. The soil, though compact, is a fine calcareous mould. The climate is comparatively rainless, storms being rare, except during the melting of the snows on the mountain crests, which swells the rivers, like the Nile, to irrigate rather than to drain the neighboring tracts. The herbage, which is perennial, edible and nutritious throughout the year, is peculiarly adapted to the dryness of the soil and the temperature of the air. It consists, principally, of the“ Gramma or ‧Buffalo'' grass, and covers the ground an inch in height, having the appearance of a delicate moss. During the melting of the snows, in the immense mountain masses beyond the Great Plains, the rivers yield a copious evaporation in their long and sinuous courses; storm-clouds gather on the summits, roll down the mountain flanks, and discharge themselves in vernal showers. In this temporary prevalence of moist atmosphere, these delicate grasses grow, seed in the root, and are cured into hay upon the ground by the returning drought. It is in this longitudinal belt of eternal pasture that the llama and alpaca would thrive, if at all, in any part of our domains, where infinite herds of aboriginal cattle, the buffalo, the antelope, the elk, and wild horses abound, as well as the mountain- sheep, the white and black-tailed deer, and innumerable smaller game. They could be imported from Peru to a number of a few hundreds, by the way of the Gulf of California and the Gila, and presented as a token of friendship to the immense population of no- madic Indians, or their chiefs, by whom they should be protected under prohibitory laws. Could these animals be suffered to remain unmolested for ten or twenty years, if successful, they would probably increase to thousands, and even millions, ever after while immense profits would result, from their flesh, skins, and wool, besides using them as beasts of burden, in places inaccessible to the camel or the mule. e 72 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. THE QUADRUPEDS OP IIIINOIS INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL TO THE FPARMER. BN ROBERT KENNICOTT, OF WEST NORTHFIELD. pOCKET GOPHER, OR POUCHED RAI. Geomys bursarius, RICHARDSON. DrSCRIPTION.— This species, when full grown, measures from nose to root of tail about 9 inches; tail a little over 2 inches. Different specimens vary much in size. The head is large, nose blunt, eyes Very small, ears nearly concealed, whiskers few and much shorter than the head; incisor teeth large, protruding beyond the lips, Opening exte- rior to the mouth are large cheek-pouches, which extend back to the shoulders; thesc are lined with fur, and are quite unlike the comparatively small cheek pouches of the spermophiles, which open within the mouth. The legs are short, fore-feet strong, armed with very large curved nails, of which the middle one is the longest; hind-feet and nails smaller; tail nearly naked— quite so at the tip. The incisor teeth are yellow, the feet and nails white; the general color of the body reddish brown, but lighter on the belly; the young are much darker than the adults. As mentioned in the Agricultural Report of the Patent Office for 1856, page 79, the striped and grey prairie squirrels are also called „gophers,“ by persons not knowing the Geomys. But the most careless observer, who has seen both, cannot fail to distinguish this at once by its color, large feet, teeth, and nails, capacious cheek- pouches, short and nearly naked tail, general form of the body, and subterranean habits. The two genera are as widely different as any among our rodents. 3 The gopher is found on the prairies in most of the middle and northern parts of the valley of the Mississippi, west of that river, and towards the Rocky Mountains, and north to latitude 500. It is very common in Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, and parts of Kansas and Nebraska. I found it abounding throughout the valley of the Red River of the North, as far as Pembina, in latitude 490. But north of this it was rare, and none had been seen below Red River settle- ment, in latitude 500. East of the Mississippi, it has been found in some parts of Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin; and on the great prairies, in Central IIlinois; also south and east of the IIlinois River it is constantly met with. It is worthy of remark, if true, as alleged, that the part of IIlinois lying between the Illinois and Mississippi rivers is entirely free from gophers, while they are abundant along the borders of the opposite sides of these rivers. The gopher is properly a prairie animal, and, though I have ob- served it occasionally in the edges of woodlands, or in the small „prairie islands'' on the Red River of the North, in Minnesota, yet I never found it in the heavy and extensive woods on the headwaters of the Red river and between Otter-tail Lake and the Mississippi. Though fond of dry, sandy soil, in which it can burrow easily, it does not abound on the sand-hills of the plains, as these are without sufficient vegetation to afford it food; neither does it generally bur- ——— — 1——— 8— ANIMALsS. 73 row much about the wet edges of sloughs and streams, choosing rather the fertile and level, but dry spots, along hill-sides where, in some places, I could not walk without stepping upon its little heaps of earth, or breaking into its burrows, which frequently ran just below the sod; for, though the main galleries were much deeper, it also burrowed in every direction near the surface for the purpose of obtaining food. On the east side of Red River are remarkable sand ridges, sometimes miles in length and only from 5 to 10 rods in width. Generally, several of these lie parallel to each other, sepa- rated by regular intervals, about their own width, of low, fertile, and in some cases wet ground. These intervals are usually filled with a thick growth of small poplars, while the tops of the sand ridges, almost destitute of vegetation, are frequently quite level and straight for a mile or more; thus presenting an appearance strangely resem- bling a very smooth turn-pike road, between artificial belts of trees. In the narrow strips of sandy, but fertile and open ground, lying between these barren hills and the“ poplar hammocks,“ I found these mounds and burrows in astonishing abundance, while the numerous dead tops of the liatris helianthus, and of various grasses and other plants, showed what the gophers had been digging after. Some of the poplars exhibited their ravages; but the roots of several species of helianthus appeared to be their favorite food. It is one of the most facinating features in the study of zology to notice how animals are constituted to live in every habitable part of the earth, and the nice adaptation of each to the situation it is in- tended to occupy. The fish cleaves the water by means of its fins; the light-boned bird is propelled through the air by the feathery appendages of its wings and tail, the former answering to the fore- legs of quadrupeds, so extended and modified as to form proper organs for such locomotion; the timid hare, from the superior length of her hind-legs, is enabled to spring fleetly over the ground; and the squirrel, from his great muscular power, to leap easily from bough to bough; while the gopher, organized for life in a different sphere, his form in every respect corresponding to his habits, passes his days as happily in his subterranean abode as the fish, the bird, the hare, or the squirrel, each in its appointed place. As the home of the gopher is underground, he does not generally come to the surface, except to remove the earth from his galleries. The peculiar form of his body, and powerful fore-feet and toes, would be of no use to him elsewhere; but here are necessary to his existence, enabling him to burrow through the earth with wonderful ease, while his capacious cheek-pouches furnish him with a means of conveyance larger than is possessed by any other animal of his size. On the wild prairie, the gopher throws up a mound of earth of considerable size, frequently 10 feet in diameter and from 1 ¾ to 2 feet in height, being highest in the low ground liable to inundation. In this mound is his nest, in which the young are bred; and from it, endless galleries are excavated in various directions, a foot or two below the surface. These are complicated, frequently intersecting and running together, and, in short, forming a complete network of 74 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. underground roads through which these strange animals can travel for miles. In digging them, the gophers run ub shafts at irregular in- tervals from 2 to 10 feet apart, which open to the surface usually a little at one side of the main gallery, and from each of these side cuts they throw out the earth brought from the main gallery below, to the amount of from a quart to one or more bushels, and thus form little piles of earth by which the general course of the burrow may be traced. They have a remarkable antipathy to the light, and these side cuts are usually closed again with earth after they have served their first purpose; and, if a hole be opened into any part of the purrow, it is closed as soon as observed bythe inmates. Only a por- tion of the earth taken by the gopher from his main highway is carried to the surface, much of it being used in filling the side cuts, into which it is packed, sometimes even more closely than the sur- rounding soil; and in digging about their burrows, I have thus been able to trace these cuts. The galleries are also apparently enlarged py pressing aside the earth. These are of greater dimensions than would seem necessary for the accommodation of an animal of this size. The main galleries are about 4 inches in diameter, and the side cuts from 2 to 3 inches. I am informed that, in digging wells. shafts have been found sunk by the gophers to a depth of 10 or 12 feet with water at the bottom. The opinion of those who have observed such holes usually is, that they are dug to procure water. There has been some question as to whether gophers carry earth in their pouches; and even naturalists have said that they do not. These pouches, however, are certainly sometimes used, if not always, for carrying off the earth removed in excavating the burrows. These animals have been shot with their pouches filled with earth, and they have frequently been seen, both in captivity and while at liberty, in the act of emptying the carth from them. There seems to be a peculiarity in the manner in which the animal empties his pouches. It is done so rapidly as to puzzle the casual observer. Many persons inform me that, when watched, one of them may be seen at the moment it comes above ground, throwing the earth to some distance and instantly retreating into its hole. A gentleman writes me that one morning, about 9 O'clock, he saw a gopher, which had probably peen alarmed at his footsteps, come out of the ground, and then, without noticing him, go back, and soon after reappear at the mouth of the hole with both pouches full of earth, when, by the mere mus- cular force of his pouches, he ejected some portions of it to the distance of 2 feet. As observed in captivity, when the gopher begins to dig from the surface, he at first loosens the earth with his claws, aided sometimes by his teeth, then scratches it back with his fore-feet, and throws it fuͤrther off with his hind-feet. As the hole deepens, he does not always carry out the earth in his pouches, but frequently, after throw- ing it behind him a short distance, turns round and simply pushes it forth with his head and shoulders, sometimes filling his pouches first, and pushing before him a quantity of earth besides. In carrying it from some distance within his burrow, however, he appears oftener to b ——— 4‧“ ANIMALS. 75 convey it all in his pouches. The old gopher hills'' are usually covered with luxuriant vegetation, and, when numerous, give to the wild, level prairie a singular and agreeable aspect. They are fre- quently chosen as burrowing places by badgers, foxes, and wolves. Though a lover of darkness, this animal is sometimes active by day. In its subterranean abode, it cares little whether it be night or day above; but it does not often carry earth to the surface on- bright sunny days, though it may be seen at work in cloudy weather, and early in the morning or late in the afternoon, and, though still more rarely, may be found moving above ground at such times. These animals ocasionally have been known to travel from one district to take up their residence in another. These migrations are per- formed at night, and it is chiefly at this time also that they leave their burrows to seek food on the surface. The proper food of the gopher consists of roots, which are usually obtained without leaving his underground roads. Though he some- times comes to the surface to feed upon the leaves and seeds of plants, this does not appear to be his principal means of subsistence. The manner in which he naturally procures food is by approaching it from below, without coming above ground at all. He lays up stores, apparently, at all seasons. Considerable quantities of the roots of the rosin-weed,(Silphium laciniatum,) wild artichoke, or wild sun- flower,(Helianthus?) spike flower,(Liatris?) and various other plants, are collected in its burrows on the prairies; while, in cultivated fields, I am informed, the roots of the grasses, potatoes, and other vegetables are found in its holes. Whether the gopher secludes itself in its burrow during winter is not certain, but probably it does not; or if so at all, the hibernation is not perfect, as it is seen out late in autumn, and observed to be active early in spring, making its first appearance at irregular periods. Some persons have stated that they have seen fresh earth thrown out by it in the winter. This, if correct, would prove that the animal does not fully hibernate. The mere fact of its collecting a store of food for use in winter, however, is by no means conclusive. Occasionally, the sudden rising of prairie streams, by heavy rains, inundates low spots inhabited by the gophers, drowning them in their burrows. Those who have observed them at such times say that they appear to be unable to swim. Gophers are very pugnacious, fighting savagely with each other, and offering battle when met by man. They probably suffer but little from rapacious animals; for they appear capable of formidable resistance to the attacks of small carnivorous mammals, while they are protected by their habits from the larger ones, and from birds of prey. The common domestic cat has been known to capture them, but often the attempt failed. It has been said that gophers are social in their habits; but I am unable to learn that more than two adults are ever captured at the same place; and, in a communication published in the Report of the Smithsonian Institution, it is stated that, if two are placed together, they at once attack each other, and the victor devours the vanquished. 76 AGRICULTURAL REPORT The writer's observations would also go to prove that this, like most rodents, will sometimes eat flesh. Five or six young are usually produced at a birth, and there is apparently but one litter in a year. It is stated that, in Missouri, the young are brought forth late in March or early in April. A gentle- man informs me that, in Iowa, he has observed they are produced in May; and further states that he found young in every nest examined by him. If gophers hibernate, as has been supposed by some writers, the young could not be produced so early as the first of April in this latitude. Wherever they exist on cultivated land, the gophers are very inju- rious. No animal is more complained of by our prairie farmers. Scarcely a crop escapes their ravages. They are said to desert the wild prairie to inhabit cultivated hay-fields; and they particularly delight in clover and Timothy meadows. Here they not only do mischief by devouring the roots of the plants, but impede the mow- ing and raking of the hay, by inequalities of surface caused by their mounds. Grain fields are much injured by them while the plants are growing; and, when the stacks are left standing after harvest, the gophers burrow from below, and frequently cut up and drag into their holes, or otherwise completely destroy, entire sheaves. All root- crops suffer severely from them. In passing below the surface, they gnaw off the bottoms of carrots, beets, turnips, and other tap-rooted vegetables, without disturbing the tops or coming above ground. In fields of common and sweet potatoes, they work under the hills and remove the tubers, and thus sometimes destroy half or more of the crop before the dying vines give evidence of the mischief. Instances are related in which potato heaps, covered with earth and left out during winter, have been entered by the gophers and the tubers carried off. They sometimes enter melons, pumpkins, and squashes, through holes at the bottom, and eat out all the fleshy part, and then fill the hollow rind with earth, leaving it in a condition to create much astonishment when harvested. They also feed upon the bark of the roots of trees, as well as upon the fleshy roots of her- baceous plants. Some of our prairie farmers are greatly injured by their destruction of Osage-orange hedges. No small item of their in- jury is the gnawing and cutting off the roots of fruit-trees. A con- siderable portion of all the trees have been killed annually in some young orchards in Iowa and IIlinois; and several fruit-growers inform me that they have seen as many as a dozen large bearing apple-trees killed by them in a single orchard. Forest trees, 6 or 8 inches in diameter, have died in consequence of their roots being cut. From his habit of keeping constantly under ground, the gopher suffers but little either from man or wild animals. He can only be shot after being watched patiently near the opening of one of his side- cuts, out of which he has recently thrown earth; and here the gun must be kept aimed at the hole, and discharged the instant his form comes in sight, or he will throw out his load and retreat before the gun can be levelled and fired. Trapping is the most successful mode adopted for capturing this animal. A hole being opened into a —öy II—— D ANIMALS. 77 gallery known to be travelled by him, a small steel trap, covered slightly with loose earth, is placed in the track, in such a position that, when he comes to shut out the unwelcome light, he must una- voidably be caught. It is not necessary to bait a trap thus used. The Missouri gophers can doubtless very readily be poisoned by strych- nine or arsenic in pieces of vegetables placed in their burrows, as is sometimes practised with the California species. There could be no danger attending this, and the probability is that the method would be highly successful. A number of gentlemen inform me that they have, by perseveringly trapping and shooting the gophers, completely cleared them from their farms at times; but all complain that they soon return from their neighbors' fields. Why do not all the farmers in a district meet and agree to use all reasonable exertions within their power to kill the gophers and other injurious animals for a cer- tain period? It is very certain that nothing but concerted action is likely to avail much in this matter. I would suggest that agricultural societies should offer premiums for the farm on which most success has been attained in destroying the injurious mammals and insects, and in protecting such of their natural enemies among the rapacious birds, reptiles, insects, and other animals, as are not themselves actu- ally too prejudicial to be tolerated. In Georgia and Florida, another species of this genus(Geomys pinetis) is found, where it is known under the name of ‧Salamander,“ whereas a terrapin, or fresh-water turtle, is called“ gopher.““ The pouched rat of Arkansas is also called“„Salamander.“ The name gopher“ is derived from the appellation of gaufre, given these animals by the Canadian voyageurs. It is stated that, on the Upper Missouri, they are sometimes called„mulos.““ Twelve species of gophers inhabiting the United States are described in Baird's General Report on Mammals in the Pacific Railroad Survey. Of these, only the present species and that of Florida are found east of the Missis- sippi. The Californian species(Geomys bulbivorus) is even more destructive than that of IIlinois. COMMON GREVY RABBIT, OR HARE. Lepus Sylvalicus, BACIMAN. DESCRTPTION.— Adult male.—Length of head and body, 16 ⅛ inches; vertobræ of tail, 2 ⅓ inches; length of hind-feet, 4 inches; height of ears, 2 ¾ inches; feet clothed with long hairs, which conceal the toes; color above, yellowish-grey, mixed with brown; below, whitish. Does not become white in winter, like the large varying hare (Læpus americanus.) All the hares have large prominent eyes, very long ears, and short, almost rudimentary upturned tails; and have the inside of the mouth and soles of the feet furnisned with hair. Behind the large incisors, common to other rodents, they have on the upper jaw a second pair of small incisive teeth. The hind-legs are very long and muscular, and by means of these they travel by leaps made with but little assistance from the weaker fore-legs. Though called“‧ Grey Rabbit,“ in IIlinois, as, indeed, it generally is throughout its habitat, this, like other American species, is a true hare, and, like the European hare, has a form,“ and the young are 78 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. born clothed with hair, with the eyes open; while the European rabbit burrows, and is born naked and blind; but, as their organiza- tion is otherwise the same, both rabbits and hares are included in one genus. The European burrowing rabbit(Lepus cuniculcris) is frequently kept in this country in a domesticated state. The grey rabbit exists nearly throughout the eastern half of the Union, and south of the Gulf of Mexico, but it is not found far north- ward. It is abundant at least as far west as Iowa and Minnesota. This well-known species is fond of dry, level ground, rather thinly wooded, and interspersed with thickets and open spots. In Northern Tllinois, where the prairies are traversed by streams, bordered by trees, or dotted with groves, the grey rabbit is very abundant, par- ticularly in the groves and edges of the larger woodlands where clumps of hazels and priers are numerous. This hare is properly an inhabitant of the woods, and though sometimes abounding for several miles on the prairies, it is not so much at home there as in the neighborhood of trees, among which it finds better shelter from its innumerable enemies. Many, which spend the summer on the prairies, are believed to return to the woods in winter. As the wild prairies become settled, the rabbits are observed to live further from the forests, seeking shelter about fences and stacks. In the hilly and heavily-timbered regions of Southern IIlinois, this species is less abundant. The“form“ of the grey rabbit is in some concealed position, by the side of a log, in a small brush heap, or at the root of a bunch of briers and weeds, if in the woods; or it is frequently situated in the grass at the edge of the prairie, or of the sloughs that run into groves and outskirts of the woods; and here, as well as on the prairie, it is where the overhanging grass shelters and conceals it. The form, in fact, is only a particular spot to which the rabbit retires to spend the day, and is merely a slight depression, sometimes with a few grasses and leaves drawn together, little or no art being ever used in its construction; though, as before mentioned, it is usually in a position somewhat concealed. The same individual sometimes has several forms, and, in winter, one is frequently chosen in a more sheltered position than that used in summer. But in winter, it does not always occupy a form, often being found in hollow trees, whether fallen or upright, as well as in holes in the ground. It usually retires, how- ever, to these situations only in severely cold and stormy weather, or for refuge when pursued. Though holes in the ground are often occupied, they are not dug by the rabbit, but are the deserted burrows of some other animals. It is true that the female scratches shallow holes in which to bring forth her young, in open fields, but it is rarely indeed that rabbits of this species dig burrows. J am credibly informed of a few instances in which they have been known to dig holes for themselves in hill- sides; but these may be considered as departures from their natural habits. This rabbit is not pugnacious, several even taking refuge in the same hole; but though they exist in astonishing abundance in- particular localities, they are not naturally gregarious. opean aiga. ded in ris) i d the north. eSota. tbingy thern dd by par. where lya veral n the itz iries iries uthe and less n by Chof nthe ropes it is m, in dthe 4sses n its jtion feral ered Tays nor Ow- ANIMALS. 79 The grey rabbit is exceedingly timid, and rarely or never makes. the slightest resistance when attacked by other than its own kind. Its only attempts to escape its enemies are by speed and stratagem. When pursued, an old male exhibits as much cunning as a fox— doubling, turning aside, and permitting the dog to pass, and then running on the back track; going through water, which it dislikes; and frequently springing upon a log and sitting motionless, while the dog, in plain sight, beats around within a few feet of the spot. Usually, when one of these animals is started by dogs, it runs a short distance, and, unless closely pursued, turns aside and stops. The dog generally passes it, when it at once returns to the neighborhood of its form; or, if unable to do so, directly, an old one will frequently manage, by repeated doubling, to elude its pursuer, and reach its form again by a circuitous route. Should it be closely followed by a fleet dog, it will make for a burrow, or a hollow tree, which has an opening at the ground into a cavity extending some distance above, up which it forces itself by bracing against the sides. Young rabbits. are not so apt to double and attempt to turn back to their forms, but often run immediately to a tree; and an old one will sometimes take- to a hole without much doubling, especially if it has before been chased and found refuge in the same retreat. When seized, the grey rabbit never makes any attempt to bite. It utters a clear, sharp, wailing cry, like que-a-a-a, which is its only note, and is never heard except in distress. At other times, this animal appears to be voiceless, except that, in fighting, or playing together, the males produce a low, purring sound, scarcely above the breath. They also make a noise by stamping upon the ground with the hind-feet. Like its congeners, this species has a very acute sense of hearing, and, when running, it stops and listens to any extraordinary sound. Though it has not good„bottom,“ its speed for a certain distance is great, enabling it to outrun almost any dog. It always travels by leaps, its powerful hind-legs and the immense muscles of the back enabling it to take long bounds, sometimes of 10 or 15 feet, in which it is but little aided by the weak fore-legs. It never appears to run or“trot,“ and, when it walks at all, as in eating, it rests the hind-feet upon the ground, only moving a short distance on a walk, and more generally hopping along by jumps of about a foot. This, like all other hares, is nocturnal, or, perhaps, more properly, crepus- cular, moving about for food and amusement chiefly by twilight, or on moonlight nights. It is frequently seen standing, however, on open ground in the sunshine, especially in spring and summer. The position of the rabbit's feet, in running, is not always under- stood. I well remember my astonishment when, upon examining their tracks the first time, I found, as I thought, that they always ran backwards. For, the slight tracks of the fore-feet are really situated. behind the larger and more widely separated prints of the long hind ones. As this animal springs, the fore-feet strike the surface near one another, while the hind-feet are spread apart and brought to the ground some distance in advance, outside of them; as these strike, 80 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. the fore-feet, which have touched the surface but lightly, are lifted, and the spring is again made with the hind-legs alone. In making the longest leaps, the fore-feet strike in a line, one behind the other, and at some distance in the rear of the hind ones, as if thoy had peen again raised before the latter had touched the surface. Rabbits are very active, moving about at all times, except in very cold and stormy weather, when they keep close in their retreats, sometimes not leaving them for a day or two, and not unfrequently lying in their forms in the tall grass completely buried under the Snow. Wherever two or three of these animals occupy a neighbor- hood, long well-worn paths may be found beaten in a single night, after a light snow in mild weather. Particular paths are used even when there is no snow, the same track being travelled repeatedly by one or more individuals. The food of the grey rabbit is grass and other herbage, the tender shoots of briars, and various shrubs, as well as the buds, twigs, and sometimes, perhaps, the bark of trees. I have never observed that it gnaws hardeshelled nuts, like those of the hickory, though it is said to eat chestnuts; nor does it generally, if ever, dig through the snow for food. It does not hold food in the paws when eating, like many rodents, nor does it usually sit erect upon the tarsi. The domes- ticated rabbit, in eating a twig, holds it in its lips, and continues. without laying it down or ceasing to masticate rapidly, to cut off pieces from the end with the incisors, until the whole is devoured. This species doubtless eats in the same mammer. Rabbits are sometimes quite injurious in gardens, by devouring young plants of beans, cabbages, lettuces, and all kinds of vegetables; and where very abundant, they occasionally damage harvest fields, though they do not appear to feed very generally upon ripened grain. But their most serious injury is the destruction of fruit-trees, by cutting off the shoots and, perhaps, sometimes gnawing the bark. Their damage to fruit-growers in this way is at times very groat, and leads to bitter complaints. When the ground is covered with snow, they enter gardens and nurseries and bite off and devour small shrubs and fruit-trees; or, if the snow be of sufficient height to enable them to reach the branches of orchard-trees, these, too, are eaten and their tops sadly disfigured. The branches are taken off with the rabbit's incisors so smoothly as to leave the appearance of their having been cut with a knife, and more than one orchardist has wrathfully sought the persons who'estole scions.“ Rabbits are said to kill fruit-trees by gnawing the bark from the trunks, and in this manner to have utterly ruined large and valuable orchards. Fortu- nately, however, this reported bark-gnawing appears to be generally, if not always, done only when the rabbits cannot, reach the buds and branches upon which they prefer to feed, eating the entire branch. In hunting these quadrupeds, every winter, and working every sum- mer, for ten years, in a very large nursery of fruit-trees, where they were numerous, I have never seen a tree from which bark had been gnawed by them, though thousands were severely“ pruned,“ the rabbits, in deep snows, appearing to feed entirely upon the twigs and ANIMALS 81 buds of the young apple trees. From the larger limbs they cut off the buds, of which they are fond; and in the woods, in winter, they can be tracked to living forest trees, recently felled, to which they repair to feed upon the buds. They also feed in winter upon the buds and young shoots of briars, sumach, hazel, thorn, dak, hickory, basswood, poplar, and other shrubs and trees. It is highly probable that, injurious as rabbits are considered, dy gnawing bark, the mischief charged to them is often, if not generally, done by meadow mice alone. It must be remembered that in deep snows the arvicolæ can readily climb some distance up the trunks of the trees, and I have frequently observed them to gnaw bark at a height of two feet or more from the ground. If these animals do gnaw the bark of fruit trees, as reported, it must be when they cannot reach the limbs or obtain any other food. A gentleman living on a prairie farm in Northern IIlinois, informs me that, though many rabbits frequent his orchard throughout the year, he has never had a single tree barked by them; and in such a situation they might certainly be expected to gnaw bark, if ever Though I am inclined to believe that they do not injure the farmer by bark-gnawing to the Mtent usually supposed, yet I by no means wish to defend them from he just charge of committing great havoc in nurseries and gardens by biting off young plants; but would rather suggest that the true criminals—the meadow mice— be destroyed, as the best means of checking the evil. The grey rabbit is very prolific, producing young three or four times a year, and usually from four to six at a birth. In open ground the female scratches a shallow hollow, in which to bring forth her ;oung. In this she forms a nest of soft leaves and grasses, well lined with fur from her own body; and when she is absent, the young are always completely covered and concealed in this nest, which they leave at an carly age, and separate from the mother as soon as able to take care of themselves.. It is pleasant to observe that an animal usually so timid and unre- sisting will fight bravely for its young. A naturalist tells me that he once saw a grey rabbit attack a large black snake, which was holding one of her young in its coils. She fought by springing over the snake, and striking back with her hind-feet, which is the usual mode of defence of this species. Her blows were delivered with force and precision, and so rapidly that the snake was struck nearly every time, despite his attempts to evade them. As she passed, the snake aimed at her with his fangs, but though he often scratched off a mouthful of hair, he was plainly getting the worst of the battle, when the naturalist interfered. Another instance is related in which a rabbit was observed to pursue a hawk in the act of carrying off her young. The grey rabbit is not only preyed upon by various carnivorous mammals, but by many rapacious birds found here, as well as by the larger snakes. The musteline mammals, or animals of the weasel family, are the most to be dreaded. They search out the retreats of these animals, and, as most of them can enter wherever the latter pass, they readily follow, and kill them unresisted. I suspect the 9 4 82 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. little brown weasel(Putorius cigognanii) subsists largely upon them in winter in this region, as does the larger white weasel(Putorius novehoracensis) which is also said to be their worst enemy at the East. I have repeatedly observed the track of the common mink for a great distance, as it wound about logs and brush-heaps, often entering hol- low trees and burrows, sometimes following a rabbit's track, till finally I have come to where an unhappy victim has been pulled down from a tree in which it had in vain sought refuge. In Northern IIlinois, numerous cats, which have escaped from domestication, and live in the woods like wild animals, frequently prey upon them. Among the birds, the great horned owl is noted as a successful rabbit-catcher. The white owl occasionally seizes one, in winter, as it sits on its form on the prairie; and the red-tailed buzzard, or“hen-hawk,““ as it is called, frequently swoops upon oné of them in summer. Their young are destroyed in great numbers, as they fall an easy prey to any animal which finds them, when too small to escape by flight; and a large proportion of the whole number produced are probably thus doomed before the period of maturity. Many rabbits are infested by the larvæ of a large gadfly,(œstrus,) and are hence said by hunters to have the wolf.“ In their fur live astonishing numbers of a eculiar flea, apparently differing from the common species. In cultivated districts, where many of the natural enemies appointed to check their increase are destroyed, the rabbits frequently multiply to such an extent as to render their extermination a matter of im- portance. Then they are easily trapped or snared, and may readily be poisoned by arsenic or strychnine, placed in a pait of apple, tur- nip, or other vegetable; but the most effectual mode is to encourage the hunting of them. As before stated, the grey rabbit often has his form situated in the tall grass, at the edge of the prairie, or in sloughs running into the woods. By walking along between these and the trees, where there is generally a space clear of cover, while a dog beats the grass beyond, one may get a shot at them, as they will almost always make straight for the woods. The rabbit will generally"lay“ to the dog, giving him a fair chance for a point,“ so that one may comeè up and take a shot as he goes off in a direct line, if that is preferred to a cross shot. If he cannot be brought down at first, thée dog, by fol- lowing on the track, will start him the second time, when he may be shot as he comes back, unless the dog should compel him to retreat into a tree. The finest shot should be used in shooting rabbits, for they are very easily killed, and generally drop at a slight wound. I have, more than once, shot one, however, without injuring a bone. when he would run half a mile, and then fall dead without a struggle. A more primitive mode of hunting them, I believe, is practised by boys, which is to go armed with a small sharpened pole and some matches, accompanied by a dog to chase them into hollow trees. Sometimes the hole in the tree is such that one can reach the animal with his hand, or pull him down with a short hooked stick; but when he is out of reach, and the boy without an axe for cutting into the hollow of the tree, a stick is introduced to“„poke him out; and ——— —-———— ———ͤs ☛— ———— — ANIMALS. 83 shortly after, in an agony of fright and pain, he rushes down the hollow, and the boy quickly grasps the legs of the captive. When the game cannot be brought down with the stick, leaves are collected and fired at the entrance of the hollow, and in a short time, the suffo- cating animal unavoidably descends. he. When chased on the prairie, if there are no stacks of under which to find refuge, the rabbits take to the long, heavy sedge grass(carex) in the sloughs, where, by doubling and shifti 5 they generally elude the pursuit of the dogs. They are also snared in great numbers upon their path-ways.. simple but successful method of capturing them: A small thickly branched tree is felled across the path-way, as to leave but a single narrow passage; an elastic sapling is then bent down over this, and tied by a cord t hooked peg, driven into the ground, at the side of the opening; this is not tied to the peg by a common square ¹hard knot,“ but only with what is called a⸗ single bow-knot,“ so that the pulling of the end of the cord frees the whole. In order to prevent the strain given by the bent tree from pulling it out, an enlargement is first formed by knotting the cord just within the point at which it passes from the bent tree, under the part of the cord passing around the peg, so that, although this protuberance does not permit the cord to be drawn through from above, neither does it interfere with the loosening of the knot by drawing out the bow, if the other or lower end be pulled. This lower loose end of the cord is formed into a noose a little larger than a rabbit's head, and placed open in the path, so that the animal, in attempting to pass, readily puts his head through but in his endeavor to force through his shoulders not only tightens the noose around his neck, but pulls out the bow; thus loosening the knot, when the bent sapling, being freed from its attachment, springs up and breaks the rabbit's neck, or suspends him until he is strangled. A very smooth, tightly-twisted cord should be used; the noose is sometimes formed of brass wire, which keeps its position and slips easily, and is not liable to be cut by the animal before entering, like the cord. A little practice is necessary in learning to arrange the knot, so that, when loosened, the noose will not be drawn up on the Wrong side and entangled; and the arrangement of the whole will be better understood after a few experiments. In consequence of the rabbit's well known habit of travelling in accustomed paths, which may be discovered even in summer, it is not necessary to use any bait, though pieces of apple, parsnip, or cabbage placed in the path on each side of the snare might more fully insure success; and the snare may also be set at the entrance of a little pen, or hollow tree, in which is placed a bait. I learn from a gentleman of Pembina that, on the Red River of the North, the Indians subsist, in hard winters, when game is scarce, almost wholly upon hares caught in this way. Grouse, quails, and many other animals can also be successfully snared. and it is said that even the moose and the deer have been caught in snares constructed on a larger scale. Hares may slso be caught in 84 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. steel traps and“"dead-falls„' and, in fact, they will enter almost any kind of trap.. The grey rabbit frequently takes up its abode about farm-yYards, and I have often observed individuals living all winter under stacks and buildings situated within a few rods of dwellings, making nightly sallies into the garden, greatly to the injury of the plants, many of which they destroyed. In one instance, within my observation, a mink did good service, and amply paid(or the two or three fowls he consumed, by ridding a farm-yard of several rabbits which had thus taken up their quarters under the barn and hay stacks, and were making sad havoc among some choice plants in the flower garden. As long as the mink remained, no rabbits were observed on the premises, though before and after his visit their tracks were seen in every direction, despite the presence of two dogs accustomed to hunting. Where rabbits are troublesome, and no fowls are kept, the presence of minks and weasels is desirable, especially of the weasels, the good offices of which in the destruction of rats and mice, both in the field and farm-yard, often save a single farmer more than the value of all the fowls destroyed for years in a large neighborhood; yet there are few who ever willingly spare the life of a weasel. Indeed, it is frequently killed while in the very act of hunting the far greater enemies of agriculture. A gardener once expressed to me his satisfaction at having slain several garter-snakes and a green snake, which had caused great alarm and discomfort about his home. They infested his rose-bushes; but the good gardener knew not that they resorted thither to destroy the green slugs of which he had so long complained, and that the snakes themselves Were harmless to man. So, too, Whoever kills weasels on his farm, at a distance from the poultry, might find it profitable to consider what they feed upon. Grey rabbits sometimes form a considerable item of human food, and are sold in our city markets, in winter, in large numbers at a price of 10 or 12 ⅛ cents each. The flesh is rather dry, and without much flavor, and is generally not deemed eatable in summer. rHE NORTHERN HARE, VARVYING HARE, OR WHITE RABBLT. Læpus americanus, ERXIEnEN. DESORNIPTION.— This species is considerably larger than the grey rabbit, and has the hind- feet much longer. It is from 16 to 19 inches in length; the hind-feet from 4 ¼ to 5 ⅓ inches long, and the ears about 3 ⅛ inches in length. The color in summer is reddish- brown above, and white beneath, with the tail sooty-brown above. In winter, the upper parts become nearly wnite in high latitudes, but in Northern IIlinois retain a brownish tinge. On the outside of the ear is a narrow black border. The Northern hare is sometimes called“ rabbit,“ in common with the Lepus sylvaticus. It is a northern species, and inhabits the eas- tern part of North America, from about latitude 680 southward to 400 in the United States, though it is rarely found that far south. It has —„ s n— ANIMALS. 85 been stated that a number were shot on the present site of the city of Chicago, in the winter of 1824. I have been unable to ascertain whether they have been found further south in this State. This species is not uncommon in Central and Northern Wisconsin, and considerable numbers are found in the southern part of that State. The northern hare is'strictly an inhabitant of the woods. Unlike the grey rabbit, it prefers the deepest forest. In winter, it some- times abounds in the swamps, where it forms many paths, showing even more inclination than the grey rabbit to travel the beaten track. In summer, however, it avoids wet places, and chooses higher ground, at all times being fond of a thick undergrowth of young evergreens. These hares have no other retreat than their forms. When pur- sued, they are never known to enter hollow trees nor burrows, but try to elude the dogs by doubling and winding through tangled thickets. They are swift on foot, and frequently outrun the fleetest dog, finally escaping. They are shot on their paths, or started from their forms and shot as they run. Like the grey rabbit, they often return to the neighborhood of their form after being started, and are thus shot by the hunter who watches at the spot while his dog pur- sues them. I am informed of the same habit in the California hare. Though larger than the grey rabbit, and more valuable in the mar- ket, its flesh is less esteemed, as it is even more insipid and dry. Being less prolific than the grey rabbit, the northern hare never exists in great abundance. I am not aware that it is, to any consid- erable degree, injurious to the farmer. Its food in the woods is similar to that of the grey rabbit, but it peither enters gardens nor comes about stacks and barns, like that species. SwAMP RABBII, OR WATER HARE. Læpus aqualicus, BACHMAN. DESORTPTrION.— This species is very large, exceeding the grey rabbit and the Lepus ameri- canus in size. The dimensions in inches, as given by Professor Baird, of a specimen from Louisiana, are, from nose to occiput, 3,3; nose to tail, 20 ⅜; tail to the end of vertebræ, 12; tail to the end of hairs, 2,8 ☛; length of hind-feet, 3; height of ear, anteriorly, 22. The dimensions of a smaller specimen from the same locality are, from nose to occipue, 475 inches; nose to tail, 17 3; tail to end of vertebræ, 1 ¾; tail to end of hairs, 2 3; length of hind-feet, 4139; height of ear, anteriorly, 3 inches. The head and incisors are large; ears scarcely half the length of the head; hind-feet shorter than the head, and pointed; claws uncovered; tail as long as the ears; color above, yellowish-brown, closely lined with black; sides greyer; forehead containing a black spot; tail above, rump and legs, chestnut-brown; tail beneath, and belly, cottony white; under fur, on the anterior portion of the back, without any yellowish-brown tips. 3 1 1 The head and incisor teeth of this species are remarkably large. while the ears and hind-feet are as strikingly small, when compared with other hares; and the feet, instead of the heavy covering of fur, such as is found on those of the grey rabbit and varying hare, arée scantily clothed, leaving the toes uncovered. It bears a general resemblance to the grey rabbit, but may at once be distinguished by its greater size, large head, and incisor teeth, as well as the scanty 86 AGRICULTURAL REPORT kur on its feet. It need not be mistaken for Lepus americanus, as the two never inhabit the same region; and a striking difference is the plack on its back, the white under-surface of its tail, the shorter hind-feet with uncovered toes, and the fact of it not becoming white in winter. 1 The Lepus aquaticus is abundant in Mississippi and Louisiana, and probably along the Mississippi, at least as far up as the southern part of Illinois. It is not uncommon in the swampy“bottoms' near Cairo, and in neighboring localities in Kentucky and Missouri, where it is recognized by the hunters as distinct from the common grey rabbit, by its larger size and peculiar fondness for low and swampy grounds. At New Madrid, Missouri, I learn that it exists in the swamps of that neighborhood. In its singular semi-aquatic habits, this species differs remarkably from all other hares, except the marsh hare(Lepus palustris) ot Florida, Georgia, and the neighboring States. It lives constantly near water, in low and swampy grounds, feeding chiefly upon paludal plants; and it not only takes to the water and swims readily, Dut even dives without hesitation when pursued. In Southern Illinois and Missouri it is observed to prefer the densest forest as well as the vicinity of water, being rarely seen on the hills or in open woods. It abounds in the deep cypress swamps and dark heavily-timbered“ bot- toms“ along the Mississippi. On dry ground, as in the swamps, it generally rests upon logs, stones, or other elevations, in preference to sitting in a form on the ground; a habit probably acquired from the necessity of choosing an elevated seat when inhabiting the swamps. At New Madrid, I was informed, this rabbit is readily captured by being chased into trees by dogs; for, though fleet, it soon takes to a hollow tree, like the common grey species. It is said that when pur- sued, it runs towards the nearest water, as if to seek an element which would leave no trace of its scent. Often, too, after swim- ming a creek or pond, it will hide under the bank or among the roots of trees. The young of this species are stated to be produced at least twice a year, to the number of from four to six at a litter, in nests on hil- locks in the swamps, or in fallen hollow trees. From its habit of living in marshy ground and deep woods, this animal will probably never be found injurious to the farmer in any considerable degree. In Southern Tllinois and Missouri, its flesh is preferred to that of the grey rabbit. I believe no hare has been known habitually to eat insects or animal food of any kind. Indeed, the hares may be re- garded as the most strictly herbivorous of our rodents; for, though all the gnawing animals are properly vegetable eaters, most of them depart from their legitimate food to some extent by occasionally eating insects, while several, as the spermophiles, even devour birds and mammals. 1 The three hares here described, with the Lepus palustris, of Florida and Georgia, are the only species now known to exist in the United States east of the Mississippi; though, west of that river, there are at least seven other hares. Some of these Western species are vemarkable for their habit of living exclusively on the prairies. ——˖—2 ⸗ ——O——— ————— ANIMALS. 87 RED MOUSE. Hesperomijs Nuttalli, BArRp. Arvicola Nullulli, HARLAN. Mus aureolus, AupUBON and BACMMAN. DESCRIPTION.— The dimensions in inches of a large female from Southern IIlinois, are, from nose to tail, 3 ½8; tail to end of vertebræ, 2 8; tail to end of hairs, 2⁄ ½; length of hind- foot, ¼¾. This species is about the size and proportions of the common deer-mouse, (HesperemYs leucopus,*) which it closely resembles in form, though the head and feet are shorter, and the tail nearly naked. The entire upper parts are bright brown, or yel- lowish cinnamon, darker on the back, and brightest on the shoulders and cheeks; the ears are cinnamon; the tail brownish above, and white on its under surface; the belly is cream-white, the feet silvery-white. In life, the nails and tips of the toes are bright reddish flesh-color. This very beautiful little animal will at once be distinguished from the common deer-mouse by the bright cinnamon color of the entire upper parts, especially of the ears, and by the creamy or yellowish tinge of the belly, as well as by the shorter hairs of the tail, which appears nearly naked. In the deer-mouse,(HesperomyYs leucopus,) the color of the upper parts is light yellowish-brown, with a blackish line along the middle of the back, and the belly white. The young of Hesperomys leucopus are slate-colored above, while those half-grown of Hesperomys Nuttalli are nearly as bright cinnamon as the adults. In some parts of Southern IIlinois, I found this species to be well Known, as distinct from the common deer-mouse, under the name of Red mouse.“ It exists from Pennsylvania south to Georgia, and west to Missouri and Mississippi. I captured two at Murphysboro', and it is not very uncommon near Salem, in Marion county. It is seldom found, if ever, in the northern part of this State. The red mouse appears to be strictly an inhabitant of the forest, like the deer-mouse,(Hesperomys leucopus,) to which it is closely allied in habits as in form. Farmers who had repeatedly observed this, as well as the deer-mouse, in the woods near Salem, inform me that they never heard of the red mouse on the prairie, though it fre- quented clumps of hazel bushes at the edges of the prairies. It is also stated that the common deer-mouse was found upon the prairie in that vieinity; but, on procuring specimens of this prairie species, it proved to be not the common deer-mouse of the woods,(Hesperomyſs leucopus,) but the prairie white-footed mouse,(Hesperomys Bairdii,) described in the last Patent Office Report. Thus the existence of the Hesperomys Bairdii throughout the prairie regions of IIlinois is established; but it has not been discovered in the heavily-timbered country in the extreme southern parts of the State. The red mouse is more arboreal in its habits than the deer-mouse. Iobserved one, when driven from its nest, at once take refuge in a- tree, instead of running off on the ground, and I am informed that these mice have frequently been seen climbing trees and shrubs. From a gentleman, of Salem, I learn that this, like the deer-mouse, -— „In the description ofthe coinmon white-footed mouse, or deer-mouse, and of the prairie white-footed mouse, published in the last Patent Office keport, the names of these species were printed'Mus leucopus'' and Mus Bairdii,“ instead of Hesperomys leucopus and Hesperomys Bairdii. No species of the restricted genus Mus, which includes the introduced house mice and rats, is found native in North America—our white footed mice of the style of the common dun-mouse, all belonging to the genus Hesperomys. 88 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. builds nests in the branches of small trees, and that several were found in the tops of hazel bushes, and built neatly, somewhat like a pird's nest, but covered at top, with a small opening on the side. Judging from the number of nests observed, this species must build them more generally than the deer-mouse. The only two specimens of this mouse which I have seen alive, were an old female and a half- grown young one, found together in the month of May, in a slignt nest formed of soft fibres of bark, and placed on the ground under a log. There was no burrow, either beneath nor near the log, though thée female had evidently reared her young in this nest. The species probably does not generally burrow at all. When seized, it did not attempt to bite. Like the deer-mouse, probably it is not pugnacious, and, like that species, again, it is doubtless strictly nocturnal. The food of the red mouse appears to be seeds and nuts, like that of the other species of hesperomys. It can hardly become a serious evil to the farmer, as it seems to be nowhere abundant, and is appa- rently less proliſic than the Hesperomys leucopus; the female, which I caught, had but four mammæ. It is said not to be common in the East- ern States, and, though found occasionally throughout Southern Illi- nois, I was unable, during several months spent in collecting in that locality, to find more than two specimens. It appears, however, to exist in unusual numbers in Marion county. From its elegant form, beautiful colors, and activity, it would make a very interesting pet. RED-BACKED MEADOW-MOUSE. Arvicla Gapperi, VIGons. DrSCRIPTION. The dimensions in inches of several specimens from the Red River of the North, measured in the flesh, are: Adult male, from nose to eye, ½¾; nose to ear, 1; nose to occiput, 1; nose to tail, 4; tail to end of vertebræ, 1 ½; tail to end of hair, 1 ¾; length of hind-feet, ¾; height of ear. M. Adult female, nose to occiput, 1 ¾ inches; nose to tail, 3 ¾; tail to end of vertebræ, 1 ¼; tail to end of hair, 1¾. Young of the year, nose to occiput, 18s inches; nose to root of tail, 3 ⅛; tail to end of ver- tebræ, 1 ¼; tail to end of hairs, 1 ½. The form is decidedly more slender and light than that of any other of our arvicolæ, and approaches somewhat to that of the white- footed mice(hesperomys.) It is rather small, with slender feet, and the tail long, as compared with the other species. The ears are remarkably large, being ½ inch in height, and higher than wide, projecting nearly ¼ of an inch beyond the fur; while in our other meadow-mice the ears are nearly, and frequently quite, hidden by the hair. The eyes are large, the nose very pointed, and the whiskers long. In the adult male the upper parts of the hend, and along the middle of the back to the tail, are of a clear bright brownish-chestnut. The upper surface of the tail, the hairs clothing the edges of the ears, and a spot in front of the ears, are of a duller chestnut. The cheeks and sides are brownish-grey; the forehead and nose dark-grizzly or grizzly-brown; sides ol the muzzle and entire under parts clear greyish-white; under surface of the wail greyish, with a chestnut tinge towards the tip, where there are a few blackish hairs. Legs and feet silvery-grey; nails white, covered by the hair of the toes, which extends beyond. When nearly grown, the young are colored as above except that the upper part of the tail is blackish-brown. A specimen apparently only a month or two old, exhibits the same coloration, the hues, however, being generally duller. The Arvicola Gapperi is the only known American representative of a group of meadow-mice which differ so essentially from the rest ANIMALS. 89 of the family as to have been erected into a sub-genus called Hypu- dœæus. Though the strongest distinguishing characters of this group are to be found in the teeth, skull, and other parts of the organiza- tion not apt to be noticed by persons unacquainted with anatomy, still, the external form of this species presents features strikingly dif. ferent from any other of our known American meadow-mice, as in the large ears, pointed nose, and slender form. Some differences in its habits are not less remarkable. It is a Northern animal, its range, as at present ascertained, being from Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Maine, and Massachusetts, westward to the Red River of the North. Near Breckenridge. Minnesota, at the south bend of the Red River, it is exceedingly abundant; but I did not observe it far north of this point; and it is rare, if found at all, as far north as Selkirk Settle- ment, in latitude 500. It probably does not exist south of Minnesota, in the West, and has not been seen in Southern New Vork. The red-backed meadow-mouse differs essentially in some of its habits from any other which has come under my observation. Our other species are remarkable for invariably forming well-worn paths under the leaves and grass, or even on nearly bare ground, in which they usually travel, rarely running on top of the leaves, or over the grass; and they are chiefly, though not strictly, nocturnal. But this species, on the contrary, appears to construct none of these paths, but habitually runs about and over the leaves and grass in any direction, like the white-footed mouse,(Hesperomys leucopus,) and is to a sur- prising degree diurnal. On the Red River of the North, I had repeated opportunities of witnessing these peculiarities. Near Breckenridge, I captured a number of this species, which, with several deer-mice, (Hesperomys leucopus,) came into a shanty to feed upon some rice which lay in bags on the floor. These arvicolæ never having been injured, were quite tame, and ran about the room without much re- gard for the presence of the occupants. In feeding, they sat upon the hind-feet and haunches, in the manner of the Arvicola austerus, hold- ing the grains of rice with the fore-paw, and sometimes grasping a grain in one paw only. I did not at any time hear them utter cries as the Arvicola austerus does whenever several are feeding together, nor did they make any cry when caught. Neither did they enter traps baited with meat, and, though pieces of it were placed among the rice, they constantly declined such food. In climbing, they sur- passed all other meadow-mice, running up the corners of the shanty to the roof, and over the rough logs as if perfectly at ease. In the woods, too, I found a nest in the rotten stub of a tree, several feet from the ground. They never moved by leaps, but trotted with a graceful, gliding movement, like the Arvicola austerus. I was particularly struck with their diurnal habits. Not only were they active during the day, but they appeared to seclude themselves strictly after dark. Jcaught them readily in traps, in the day, but never at night, nor were they seen in the evening, as would have been the case had they even been crepusæular, as at this time the Hesperomys leucopus entered the shanty while it was lighted, and ran over us throughout the night as we lay upon the floor. a number of them being caught in traps, but never 90 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. m the day. In several instances, I noticed the Arvicola Gapperi run ning about voluntarily in the woods in the daytime. The individuals thus noticed ran over the leaves and sticks, instead of around or under them, when slightly raised, like other meadow-mice; and, when driven from their nests, they never attempted to burrow beneath the leaves, as is the habit of the Arvicola scalopsoides, in such cases. I sought in cain for any indications of regular path-ways under the leaves or grass, (ikke those of our other species, and was finally induced to believe that t constructed none. I found a number of the nests of the red-backed meadow-mice, and, with the exception of one placed in a stump, they were all situated on the top of the ground, under logs. They were slightly formed of a small quantity of soft leaves and grass. I observed no burrows; but for their winter residence, they probably dig them, and make large and warm nests, like our Illinois arvicolæ, like which also, they, doubtless, collect stores of food for winter consumption. It might, naturally be supposed that in a climate so much colder than that of Tllinois. the meadow-mice would dig deeper burrows and form warmer nests; but upon examining, late in September, the burrow of an arvicola, on the prairie near latitude 490, where the mercury sinks to 600 below zero, I found it of about the same depth, and closely resem- bling that of our Tllinois prairie meadow-mouse( Arvicola austerus.) The nest, too, was of about the same size, and several large excava- tions at the sides contained a store of winter provisions, to the amount of over a peck, consisting entirely of roots, chiefly those of liatris and helianthus, without any seeds at all. In this connection, I deem it worthy of remark that, in Illinois, the Arvicola austerus, which lives exclusively on the prairie, collects only roots for its winter store, while the Arvicola scalopsoides, which inhabits the woods, provides nuts, acorns, and small seeds, but no roots. Though this burrow was situated on a sand-hill, very scantily covered with grass, numerous well-trodden paths extended in various directions from it, over the nearly bare groũnd, to a distance of several rods. I did not capture the dwellers of this prairie burrow; but they were doubtless the Arvicola cinnamonca, of Baird, found at Pembina, near this same locality—a species closely alliod to Arvicola austerus, and probably possess- ing similar habits. The Arvicola Gapperi is, apparently, very prolific. I found eight young in a nest, and within several rods of this a family of five or six, probably a month or two older, and which I concluded to be an barlier litter of the same parent. The females have eight mammæ: one I caught appearing to have had them all recently sucked. Though I collected several specimens of this species, together with a great number of Jaculus labradorius, drowned in a hole half a mile from tho woods, I saw none on the prairie at any other time; whence it is inferred that they are probably confined to the woods. Near Breckeur- ridge, I found them most numerous in a low heavily-timbered“ bot- tom,“ though they were also common on high ground. In this „bottom,“ they were more numerous than I have seen any other mammal in an equal area, except the Arvicola austerus in Northern — —— ½——— ————₰ᷣ⸗——ẽͥ——— ANIMALS. 91 Illinois. In the same locality, Iobserved the Hesperomys leucopus in numbers exceeding any I had seen elsewhere. When Minnesota shall have become settled, this meadow-mouse will probably prove as troublesome to farmers as our more southern species now are. CANADIAN PORCUPINE. Erethizon dorsatus, LINNEUS. DESOCRITPTION.— This singular animal is about 29 inches in length, from nose to tail, when fully grown, and the vertebræ of the tail about 7 inches. The size is variable, many individuals being smaller. The body is thick and clumsy; the legs short, with broad feet and strong nails; the head is also short, with a broad nose, large incisor teeth, small eyes, and concealed ears Its general color, above and below, is brown or black, though sometimes lighter. The entire upper part of the body, head, legs, and tail are covered with long, coarse hair, intermingled with numerous tough, horny spines, or quills of various sizes and lengths, which are white, tipped with brown or black, with a few of the longest entirely white, those on the forepart of the head being less than an inch in length, and often 4 inches on the haunches, while those on the tail are of the greatest diameter. These quills are sharp and pointed at the extremity, where they are covered with numerous short barbs, or reversed points. On the under part of the body, which is clothed with long hair and fur, there are no quills. The hair on the back and sides is long, being sometimes 6 or 8 inches, and when the quills are erected, the animal presents a shaggy appearance, which makes it seem larger than it in reality is. The Canadian porcupine is found throughout the northern parts of the United States, as far west, at least, as the Mississippi, and north- ward to the barren tracts, in latitude 670. It does not exist in the Southern States. I am not aware that it has been observed in North- ern Illinois, though it is said to inhabit Whiteside county and the banks of the Illinois River. It has been common in parts of Wiscon- sin, Michigan, and Northern Indiana. It never inhabits the prairie, and probably is not found in"oak openings“ or prairie groves. It is not fond of swamps and bottom-lands, but particularly resorts to hill-sides and ravines. This animal is almost exclusively an inhabitant of trees, and, when discovered on the ground, it is apparently only passing from or to its retreat, seeming to climb with more ease than to walk. Indeed, it is the slowest on foot among our mammals. Its retreat is in a hollow tree, and at some elevation, though it is occasionally found in the bottom of the hollow trunks of standing trees, near the earth. Being chiefly if not strictly diurnal, during the day, it climbs into trees to eat the bark, buds, and smaller branches, which form its only food, at least in winter. Hemlock spruce, bass wood, and slippery elm constitute its favorite repast. Sometimes, an individual will strip away sufficient bark to kill a tree; and it has been stated that, during one winter a hundred trees have been destroyed by a single porcu- pine; moreover, that all the young trees on two or three acres of woodland have been killed by two or three of these animals. Usu- ally, however, they are not so destructive, and in Western New York, Tam assured, they rarely kill trees at all, though they greatly injure them. It is only in this manner that they interfere with the farmer. 92 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. As the forest becomes the home of man, the porcupine disappears, for the armor of quills, though efficient protection against the wild- cat or the panther, is no security against the rifle. The quills of this animal are but slightly attached at the roots, and are erected at pleasure. Being sharp-pointed, they readily enter the flesh of their enemies, and are then immediately separated from them selves. Having once entered living flesh, every movement of the muscles causes them to penetrate deeper, the barbs preventing their extraction, even at first, without considerable effort and much pain. When attacked by another animal, unless near its retreat, its sluggish movements would render useless any attempt at flight, and therefore it curls itself up, drawing its unprotected nose and feet under the body, and presents to its assailant a rounded mass of bristling spines. At the same time, it is prepared to deal severe side-blows with its tail, which is armed with the strongest and most formidable quills— the tail, in fact, being the animal's chief weapon. Wo to the dog or wildcat that pounces on it now, for head, mouth, and feet are sure to be filled with the sharp-barbed quills, which always produce great agony, and frequently death.. 3 The Indians and hunters eat the flesh of this animal, but to a more refined taste it would be unpalatable. The quills are much used by the Indians for the purposes of ornament, and are skillfully dyed in bright colors. Baskets and various other articles, formed chieffy of birch bark, are trimmed with them, and sold in considerable quanti- ties in our cities. A gentleman of Claremont informs me that, according to his obser- vation, the porcupine produces from two to four young at a birth, and there is probably but one litter in a year. 1 In California, and northward on the Pacific coast, as well as along the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains, on the Upper Missouri, this species is replaced by the yellow-haired porcupine,( Hystriæ epixan- thus,) of Brandt.— SHREWS. The family of shrews is composed of small animals having con- siderable external resemblance to mice, for which they are frequently mistaken by careless observers. They are nwuerous in North Amer- ica, and species have been found in Europe, Asia and Africa; but none, thus far, in South America. Twenty North American species are given in Baird's Report on Mammals, and many, yet unidentified, doubtless exist. Shrews are properly insectivorous, their teeth being formed for seizing and crushing insects, and their organization other- wise adapted to this purpose. They are remarkably voracious; therefore deserving the attention and kind treatment of farmers, who, however, uninformed of their habits, too often kill them indis- criminately with mice. Shrews are chiefly nocturnal—some species aquatic. None hibernate, and all are capable of enduring an ex- traordinary degree of cold. The young, at birth, are naked and blind. —),ä,Ä——————— d ANIMALS. 93 The body of the shrew is slender; the legs short, the feet and nails resembling those of a mouse; the neck is short and powerful, and the head stout, terminating in a long, pointed nose, extending much beyond the teeth, the slender, but strong, cartilaginous point of which is movable. The eyes are exceedingly minute, and are usually hidden by the fur. The lower incisor teeth project hori- zontally forward from the jaw, at the base, and are curved upward near the tip. The points of the teeth are usually of a dark color; the body is densely clothed with soft glossy fur. On each side, are glands, which secrete a fluid of peculiar odor. These glands are more fully developed in the males.— No mammals of equal abundance are so little known as the shrews. Not only are they almost overlooked by farmers, but the most eager naturalist is baffled in his attempts to learn fully their habits, and often even to secure specimens. Leading chiefly a nocturnal and subterranean life, and being shy and wary, they are seldom met with even where most numerous. SHORT-TAILED SHREW. Sorer Blarina(brevicaudatus,) SAx. DrscRIPrION.— This is the largest North American shrew known. It is of compact form, with the head broad and massive, and the ears small and perfectly concealed by the fur. The tail is short, about as long as the head. The dimensions of an adult male, in inches, are, from nose to tail, 3 ¾; tail to end of vertebre, 1; tail to end of hair, 1 ¼; hind-foot,; extent of snout beyond the teeth,. The dimensions of another are, nose to tail, 3 ⅝ inches; vertebræ of tail, 1. Of a third, the dimensions are, nose to tail, 3 ½ inches; vertebræ of tail,. In life, the snout is flesh-colored; the naked tip, which is lobed, has the lobes of a brownish-drab color. The teeth are tipped with brown, deepening into glossy dark-brown at the points of the incisors. The minute black eye is visible in life; tail, cylindrical, much constricted at the root, where it is naked, flesh-colored, thinly clothed with short leaden-brown hairs, lighter on the under surface; feet, lighter flesh-color, more thinly ciothed with light brownish-drab hairs; toes, still lighter and nearly naked, the hairs not covering the nails, which are whitish, faintly tinged with flesh-color; whiskers, less than half as long as the head, all bright whitish-drab. The fur of the body is dense and soft, plumbeous at the base, tipped with glossy leaden-brown on the back, and lighter on the belly, where there is somewhat of a dull rusty tinge. Viewed from behind, the back appears black; from before, bright leaden brownish-drab. In dried specimens, the flesh-color of the snout, feet, and tail fades to whitish, the tip of the nose remaining brown. There is some question as to whether the small group of very large short-tailed shrews, including Sorex brevicaudatus, Sorex talpoides, and, perhaps, Sorex carolinensis, are not all identical. Should the Sorex talpoides be really distinet, it will probably be found that the shrews of this type in the Eastern States and Canada are Sorex tal- poides, while those of the Upper Mississippi Valley, and west to Nebraska, are Sorex brevicaudatus. Assuming the short-tailed shrew to be distinct from Sorex talpoides, its geographical distribution, as at present known, is throughout IIlinois and Southern Wisconsin, and west to Iowa and Nebraska. It is abundant in Northern IIlinois and Southern Wisconsin. I found a specimen in Southern IIlinois, and in the collection of the Northwestern University is one obtained 94 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. at Lebanon, Indiana. The close resemblance borne by some shrews to each other, together with the incompleteness of their history, and the rarity of specimens, make it difficult to trace their geographical distribution with any degree of certainty. The short-tailed shrew abounds both in prairie and woods. I am unable to say whether it exists far out on the larger prairies; but it has been found in abundance several miles from any woodland. It is fond of high ground, and is not at all aquatic. Ihave been unable to find traces of it in wet places, such as swamps and the edges of sloughs, within a few rods of which it is numerous. I have nowhere seen more of its tracks than on some white-oak ridges lying several miles west of Lake Michigan. But even where most numerous, it is little known; and, indeed, it is no easy matter to get sight, of one of them at any time. In turning over old logs, for hours, in search of them, I have rarely been able to see one; and then only when it was retreating at such speed as to generally escape in some of the numerous path-ways which lead in every direction from a log thus chosen for its resting place, or under which it may happen to take refuge on a journey by day. These, like other shrews, are often found lying dead on the ground, both in winter and summer, having been killed by birds or beasts of prey, and left uneaten on account of their disagreeable odor; and such are usually the only specimens observed by farmers. In the woods, this shrew generally passes under the leaves, just at the surface of the ground, in search of food. In examining their tracks, I have frequently found where they inclined downward into the earth, several inches, or a foot, and even more, and then turning up to the top, and going on under the leaves again. In forming these passages, it had not dug out the earth, but pressed it aside, doubtless loosening it first with its snout, incisor teeth, and fore-feet; and in this manner, I observed caged specimens to burrow rapidly. When the course of the tracks under the leaves was obstructed by a stick, or the roots of a briar, or bunch of grass, it descended beneath instead of going round or over it. In spots of loose earth, many tracks were entirely under ground. In some spaces, several rods square, I have been unable to find a foot not crossed by the net-work of leaf-covered tracks of these animals, composed of large, well- beaten galleries, more than double the diameter of their bodies, frequently branching and intersecting each other, with innumerable side-tracks, which seem to have been less used. Under every log, where would be found the most abundant supply of insects, was a large passage, with a labyrinth of side-tracks. By the pile of ex- crement observed where some were discovered under logs in the daytime, it would appear that these are often chosen for resting places. The nest is probably in a burrow, at some distance below the surface. I have never seen one, nor do I know the number of young produced at a birth. The preferred food of this, as of all other shrews, is slugs, earth- worms, and other similar insects; though it may, also, sometimes capture and devour young mice, reptiles, and birds. I have caught —-— ANIMALS. 95 it in traps baited with beef. Other shrews have been observed to eat grain while in captivity, and this species may do the same z but insects are always preferred to vegetable food. I am not aware that shrews are ever accused of doing the farmer any considerable injury, while the benefits conferred by them in their destruction of insects are very great. If they ever injure vegetation at all, it is while searching for insects which would prove more de- structive. They should always be protected. This species, though chiefly nocturnal, moves about in its path-ways more or less by day. Like other sorexes inhabiting the North, it can endure a great degree of cold, being active in the severest weather in winter, running about or through the snow. I have several times kept specimens in captivity for a day or two, though they always died by the end of that time, despite my care. While alive, the minute black eye is distinctly seen and always open; but, though the sense of sight may be possessed in the dark, it cer- tainly is not used in the full light. Upon waving different objects before one, or thrusting my finger or a stick close to its face, no notice was taken of it whatever; but if I made any noise near by, it always started. If the floor were struck, or even the air disturbed, it would start back from that direction. I observed no indication that an acute sense of smell enabled it to recognize objects at any considera- ble distance; but its hearing was remarkable. An exceedingly delicate sense of touch was exhibited by the whiskers, and if, after irritating a shrew, I placed a stick against it, in even the most gentle manner, the animal would instantly spring at it. I could see that, in running along the floor, it stopped the moment its whiskers touched anything; and often, when at full speed, it would turn aside just, before reaching an object against which it seemed about to strike, and which it certainly had not seen. Unless enraged by being teazed, it endeavored to smell every new object with which its whiskers came in contact, turning its long flexible snout with great facility for this purpose. My caged specimens, both male and female, exhibited great pug- nacity! When I touched one several times with a stick, it would become much enraged, snapping and crying out angrily. When attacked by a meadow-mouse(Arvicola scalopsoides) confined in a cage with it, one fought fiercely; and though it did not pursue its adversary when the latter moved off, neither did it ever retreat; but the instant the mouse came close, it sprang at him, apparently not guided in the least by sight. It kept its nose and whiskers con- stantly moving from side to side, and often sprang forward with an angry cry, when the mouse was not near, as if deceived in thinking it had heard or felt a movement in that direction. In fighting, it did not spring up high, nor attempt to leap upon its adversary, as the mouse, hut jerked itself along, stopping firmly, with the fore-feet weli forward, and the head high. On coming in contact with the mouse, it snapped at him, and, though it sometimes rose on its hind-feet in the struggle, I did not observe that it used its fore-feet as weapons of offence, like the arvicolæe. Its posture, when on guard, was always 96 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. with the feet spread and firmly braced, and the head held with the snout pointing upwards, and the mouth and chin forward, in which position, its eyes would have been of no use, could it have seen. The motions of this animal, when angry, are characterized by a peculiar firmness; the muscles appear to be held very rigid, while the move- ments are made by quick energetic jerks. Short springs, either backward, forward, or sidewise, appear to be made with equa: readiness. This shrew is quite active as well as strong; the snout and head are powerful, and seem to be much used in burrowing; tho tough cartilaginous snout received no injury from the rough edge of a pane of glass, under which that of a caged specimen was forcibly thrust in endeavoring to raise it. When liberated, upon a smooth floor, it runs rapidly, without ever leaping, placing only the toes on the sur- face; though in moving slowly the whole tarsi of the hind-feet are brought down. By placing an ear of corn, over 2 inches in diameter, at the edge of the room, and chasing a shrew towards it by striking the floor behind the animal, I have seen one several times spring over it, apparently without great effort; but if not much frightened, it would always go round objects an inch high, running close along them, as it did beside the wall, invariably feeling its way! One would never leave the side of the wall to run across the room, and would always run round the side of its cage, rather than go across the middle. When hurt or irritated, it uttered a short, sharp, tremulous note, like zce-e, and, when it was much enraged, this note became longer, harsher, and twittering, like that of some buntings or sparrows. Some- times, a short, clear cry was uttered, the voice calling to mind that of the common mink,(Putorius vison,) but softer and lower. C00PER'S SHREW. Sorer Cboperi, BACHMAN. DrscRIPrION.— This species is small, with the body slender, the head rather narrow, and the snout much elongated; the tail is nearly as long as the body; the feet very slender, and rather long; the ears large and visible; the upper part of the tail, and the upper surfaces generally, are light chestnut-brown; all the under surfaces brownish-white. The dimensions of a specimen from Northern IIlinois, from nose to occiput, were, 2 of an inch; nose to root of tail, 1 inch; tail to end of vertebræ, 1 ⅛ inch; tail to end of hairs 1/ inch; length of hind-feet, iiif inch. The dimensions of another from the same locality were, from nose to occiput,*ν inch; nose to tail, 12 ☛ inch: vertebræ of tail, 122₰ inch; tail to end of hairs, 17☛ inch. Cooper's Shrew has a wide range. It has been found from Massa- chusetts to Illinois, west as far as Nebraska, and north to Labrador and Minnesota. It exists as far south as Murphysborough, in Southern Illincis. It is not uncommon in the northern part of the State, and, though I have never seen it alive, I have obtained a number of speci- mens, which were found dead, on high land, at the edge of a wood. Of its habits. but little is known. My very limited observations, however, go to show that it is not aquatic, like some of the allied species; and it appears to inhabit both prairies and woods —.— ANIMALS. 97 ARNOLD'S SHREW. Sorer eximius, BAIRD. DESOCRIPTION.— Size less than two-thirds that of the Sorex brevicaudatus; form similar to the latter, but the body more slender; snout small and short, naked at the tip, dis- tinctly lobed; feet small; tail small and short; ears small and concealed; fur of the body short; whiskers scanty and short. The entire upper parts are of a rich glossy- brown, the hairs being plumbeous, ringed with light brown near the ends, and tipped with a darker shade. The lower parts, fore-feet, and under side of the tail are of a bright silvery-grey; the hairs of the belly plumbeous at the base; the upper side of the hind-feet and legs are brown, like the back; the snout entirely dark-brown. Length from nose to tail, 2 ⅛ inches; tail to end of vertebræ,& of an inch; tail to end of hairs, ¾ of an inch; length of hind-foot, 2 of an inch. The general external form of this beautiful little shrew very nearly resembles that of the Sorex brevicaudatus, though it is scarcely more than half the size, and will at once be distinguished from the Sorex cooperi by its very short tail, small snout, concealed ears, and more slender body; and as readily from Sorex brevicaudatus, by its much smaller size, more slender feet, and light-colored belly. It may pos- sibly be Say's Sorex parvus. The individual described very nearly resembles Audubon and Bachman's figure of that species. It was found in a prairie, three miles from the woods, De Kalb county, lying dead upon the snow. This species has also been taken near St. Louis, as well as in the woods at Independence, in Missouri. SIIVERY MOLE, OR WESTERN GROUND MOLE. Sæalops argentatus, AupDuBox and BACHMAN. DESORTPTrION.—Length from tip of snout to root of tail, 6 or 7 inches; tail, 1 inch, or a little over; head stout, and neck closely attached to the shoulders, without the latter being visible; the cartilaginous and flexible snout extends nearly 3of an inch beyond the upper jaw; eyes not visible; no external ear, and the small ear-hole placed far back; fore-feet flat, of a comparatively large size, being nearly an inch in breadth and a little less in length, including the nails, which are large, flat, and slightly arched. The hind-feet are slender and weak, the soles of all the feet naked; on top, they are sparsely clothed with short hairs, as is the tail; the snout is naked at the tip, thinly clothed with short hairs further back. The nails, feet, tail, and snout are of a light flesh-color, the nails tipped with white; the fur, which is dense, soft, and glossy, ap- pears silvery-grey, and plumbeous on the surface, reflecting in different lights splendid tints of silver, purple, and bronze. The genus Scalops comprises this and several other nearly allied species, all of which are confined to North America. They closely resemble the true moles,(talpa,) which are not found in America, being replaced here by these and the star-nosed mole(Condlura cristata.) The various species so nearly resemble each other that all are usually considered identical, even by the more observing of our farmers. The well-known ground-mole(Scalops aquaticus) of the Eastern and Southern States is a different species from that here con- sidered; though, in their habits, as otherwise, they are nearly alike. This species is found abundantly in parts of IIlinois, Iowa, Mis- 74 2 98 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. souri, and Western Kentucky, as well as in Indiana and Michigan. Its range, as at present known, is from the last named State, west to Fort Riley, Kansas, and through the valley of the Mississippi, south to Louisiana. In the Atlantic and Southeastern States, it is replaced by the Scalops aquaticus. Though generally found throughout IIli- nois, it is rare in the extreme northern parts, and in the southern, appears to be equally abundant in woods and prairies, preferring, as far as I have observed, or can learn, the driest land, and never resort- ing to places which are wet. The most striking feature of this animal is the extraordinary size of its fore-feet, which are attached to the robust shoulders by short and powerful legs, and worked by large pectoral muscles. Instead of being placed under the body, the feet are extended out at the sides, edgewise with the soles—or, perhaps more properly, palas, for they resemble hands more than feet—turned backward. For locomotion above ground, this is certainly not a convenient form; but it is by such a modification of organs, united with unusual strength, that the mole so readily ploughs its way through the soil; and, indeed, it seems to travel thus more easily than on the surface. In motion, the fore-feet are thrust forward at the sides, with the edge, answering to the thumb of a man's hand, placed downward, and the nails taking hold in the earth, the body is drawn along with ease and rapidity, as a row-boat is propelled by oars, the hind-legs carrying the posterior parts. Those I have observed burrowing through unbroken soil ap- peared to loosen the earth in front with the long snout, and then to thrust it aside with the fore-feet, by the same movement which car- ried the body forward, the ground being raised above by the upward pressure of its powerful head and shoulders. The snout Was kept in constant motion, undoubtedly as much in search of food as to loosen the particles of earth for the passage of the pody. The eyes of these animals seem to be sightless- This might be re- garded as an unfortunate deprivation, did we not consider of what little use the power of vision would be in their subterranean abodes. Their strength is astonishing. when compared with their size. The proper food of this animal, like that of all other moles, is prin- cipally insects, in search of which, it passes along just below the surface, raising the earth so as to form a ridge, whereby its track is readily traced in summer, when it does not usually go beyond 2 or 4 inches deep for food, except in very dry weather—the insects lying mostly near the surface. Its habits in winter are not well known, though it is certainly active at this tune, when it doubtless travels readily below the reach of frost, in search of food, to which depth some kinds of insects then descend. It appears incapable of enduring much cold, however, and, though one has been known to come to the surface oc- casionally during thaws in winter, it is never. observed to come out in severe weather, as its hardy relatives, the shrews, habitually do. The nest of this species is of considerable size, formed of soft grass, leaves,&c., the materials being sometimes carried by the moles for several rods under ground. It is situated in a chamber from 6 to 10, and even 18 inches below the surface, and is commonly under a log ANIMALS. 99 er stump, if in the woods. The chamber is approached by numerous converging galleries, some of which descend below the level of the- chamber itself, entering it from beneath. Those roads which are most travelled by the moles are of larger size than those formed only in search of food. When a mole is liberated upon the ground, it does not attempt to run, but digs directly down, and will bury itself in a remarkably short time. When one is alarmed, while burrowing, it digs deeper. The number of young produced at a birth appears to be variable. The closely allied Scalops aquaticus was observed in one instance to bring forth five, and in another nine; and this species might be ex- pected sometimes to be equally prolific. A gentleman of Winchester writes me that, in the latter part of February, he found a pair of moles, male and female, in their nest; and upon dissection, the female proved to be gravid with two young, fully formed, clothed with hair, and apparently about to be brought forth. A gentleman of Diamond Grove states that, as observed by him, the moles produce two or three young about the last of Ma; While at Beverly, Adams Lounty, they have been known to produce four about the 18t of July. If these informants have made no mistake in their dates, this would in- dicate that at least two litters are produced in a year. Though generally nocturnal, the mole is not strictly so, and may frequently be found moving by day, especially in cloudy weather, or early in the morning, or late in the evening. It doubtless travels still more by day in its deeper galleries, where the light can never penetrate. I have sometimes found it, in the daytime, lying under logs, where there was no regular nest, nor resting place. As before stated, the natural food of this animal is insects. If it ever eats vegetable substances, in so doing it departs entirely from the means of subsistence to which its organization is best adapted. It is the opinion of most of our farmers that moles feed largely upon vegetables, while some do not even suppose they ever eat anything else. A large number of farmers, from various localities, who have kindly written me accounts of this animal, agree in affirming that it certainly eats corn, potatoes,&c. They state that, wherever it fol- lows the rows of corn, as it sometimes does for rods, going direct from hill to hill, all the kernels are missing, or have the chits' gnawed out; and, in potato-fields, the tubers are found gnawed in two, or with an end nibbled off, lying in the mole's tracks, while a large tu- ber is sometimes perforated in the construction of the gallery. It is stated that it has been nêcessary to replant corn-fields in consequence of their ravages. It has been seen that most of our rodents occasionally depart from their natural food to eat flesh, as do some carnivora to eat vegetables: and we need not be surprised at the moles doing likewise. If these statements be true, the mole departs strangely from its common means of subsistence; yet it is not improbable that this injury is done by arvicolæ, which would be very apt to follow the mole's tracks. The abundance of insects round the roots of vegetables, and the softness of the earth in the rows, would evidently be sufficient inducement for 100 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. the moles to follow the rows, whether to eat the vegetables or not. It is certain that, in many instances, they are accused of the injury to plants actually done by meadow-mice, and, as the latter are fre- quently called moles,“ it is impossible always to know which is meant,“Arvicola' or* Scalops.“ Though I am inclined to think that moles do not habitually feed upon vegetables to the great extent usually supposed, I know, from personal observation, that, under some circumstances, they can be induced to eat roots when no other food may be obtained. In two instances, I observed specimens in confinement to eat sparingly of lettuce and potatoes. Neither lived more than two or three days. however; and several others, kept for a day or two in barrels otf earth, in which were placed both softened and dry corn, with vege tables of various kinds, died without eating them, though insects were greedily devoured by another while in confinement. It is highly probable that moles never eat vegetables when they can pro- cure a sufficient supply of animal food; they certainly could not. under any circumstances, subsist upon vegetables alone. A number of experiments with caged specimens would satisfactorily settle this question, which is really one of considerable importance to our farmers. Whether it eats vegetables or not, the mole makes sad havoc among young plants of all kinds by cutting off the roots in its course while searching for insects. It will sometimes follow a row of small plants, destroying every one for some distance. Farmers assure me that they have known the mole’s tracks to cause serious injury by starting little runs in heavy rains, which, in time, become bad gul- lies. The same has been remarked of the Eastern species. But, in spite of their destructive habits, moles must be regarded as more useful than injurious to our farmers; and before any one kills them, where they are not exceedingly abundant, let him examine the matter well, and consider whether the noxious insects eaten by them would not destroy more than they, if allowed to increase, as they certainly would as soon as the moles should cease to keep them in check, by devouring the great numbers they require for food. The European mole, the food and general habits of which resemble those of our species, though troublesome to farmers, and often per- secuted on account of its destructiveness, is yet, by observing agri- culturists, considered a very useful animal; and instances are related in which, after its extermination on certain farms in England, the noxious insects have consequently so increased that the tenants of such farms have petitioned for the return of the subterranean pro- tectors of their crops, and a renewal of the breed. It is stated that the results of the mole's good offices are especially perceptible in pastures and meadows; and this is probably the case also with the American species. Hence, however destructive these may be in cul- tivated fields, they should never be disturbed in grass-land. When, from their great abundance and destructiveness, it becomes necessary to exterminate the moles for a time on a farm, they can readily be trapped, caught in pit-falls, or in a crock of water im- ANIMALS. 101 bedded under the pathway, or poisoned with arsenic or strychnine in pieces of fresh meat placed in their tracks. When these animals are injuring newly-planted corn-fields, furrows made both ways between the rows prevent them from proceeding so readily. This mode is often resorted to in certain localities, and is believed to be advan- tageous, as some farmers, who would otherwise neglect to plough their fields, are thus in a measure forced to do 80, and, consequently, not only are the moles prevented from doing much injury, but the growth of the corn is materially assisted, the weeds killed, and numerous insects and eggs thrown out, where they will surely be found by birds above and moles below the surface. STAR-NOSED MOLE. Cond lura cristata, LINNToUS. DESCRIPrION.— There is but one well authenticated species of this singular genus. The length of the head and body is 5 inches; tail, 3 inches; the general form of the body resembling that of the common mole. The fore-feet are also large and flattened, but longer and narrower, and the tail is much larger and longer than in the common mole. But the most remarkable characteristic, and one by which this animal is readily distin- guished, is the ciliated extremity of its nose, from which it has gained its name. The cartilaginous snout is elongated like that of the common mole, and is terminated by a circle of long points, radiating from its extremity, like the spokes of a wheel from the hub. The body is clothed with dense soft fur, which is plumbeous at the base, tipped with brownish-black on the back, and a little lighter beneath. This is nowhere a common animal. It is said to exist in all of the Eastern and Northern States, and is found as far west, in Illinois, as the Mississippi, and at Fort Ripley, in Minnesota. I am informed that it exists also in Michigan, and that it has been captured in parts of Northern and Middle Illinois. I learn, moreover, that, in Edgar county, where it is not very rare, it has been observed inhabiting the prairie. The food and general habits of the star-nosed mole resemble those of the common ground mole, except that it is said to prefer low, swampy places, and not to excavate its galleries to so great a length as the other. A nest, containing three young, has been found under a stump. This is not so strong nor so good a burrower as the com- mon mole, and is supposed to be less injurious. 4 THE MINK. Putorius vison, AUDUBON and BACH MAN. 10N.— Length from nose to tail, 15 to 20 inches; from tail to end of hairs, 7 ½ inches. General color dark chestnut-brown, with the tail nearly black; end of chin white. The mink abounds throughout North America, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic regions on the one hand, and from the Atlantic- to the Pacific Oceans on the other. As it is sub-aquatic, its form i- 102 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. suited to moving in the water. The feet are large and broad, with the toes somewhat webbed, and the body long, slender and compact, with its bones so heavy that, if killed in a stream, it will sink. It swims and dives almost as readily as the otter. It sometimes, either voluntarily or when pursued by dogs, climbs trees, although it is not properly a climber. In the midst of its ramblings, it often stops, raising itself upon its hind-legs, and looking around and snuffing the air, as if on a watch either for enemies or prey. It never hibernates, even in its most northern habitat. I know of instances, in winter, where minks kept up a communication from their burrows through hollow logs to the streams under the ice, and when disturbed left their nests and swam beneath it to some other hiding place, after the manner of musk-rats. They are chiefly nocturnal in their habits, although occasionally seen out by day in all seasons, and in pairing time the males are very active both by night and day. Near the prairies of this State, the mink sometimes takes possession of the house of a musk-rat, after devouring or driving off the rightful inhabitants. It appears to be quite as abundant and as much at home about prairie ponds and streams as in the woods. It digs burrows on the dry ground near the water, frequently in old ant-hills, some of which were penetrated to a depth of two or three feet, and a foot or two below the surface of the ground. At the extremity of the burrow is a chamber a foot in diameter, in which is found a globular nest of soft grass, lined with feathers, constructed with considerable art, and entered by an opening on one side. In the northern part of this State, where the climate is more severe, the burrows are deeper, being sometimes eight or ten feet in extent, with the nest two feet below the surface. On the prairie, minks are also found living in burrows, often six or eight rods in length, on high ground, from which long galleries extend to the edge of a slough or pond. These galleries, however, are not formed by the minks, but by musk- rats, which dig them in order to place their nests beyond the reach of high water, and yet have subterranean communication with the stream. Though they frequently take possession of the burrows of the musk-rat, and sometimes those of the badger and skunk, when situated in suitable localities, they also excavate them for themselves, but of much less diameter. In the woods, the burrows are generally kound under logs or the roots of trees near the water, and in rocky regions they burrow under rocks or stone walls; and I have occasion- ally discovered them living in the hollow of a fallen tree, or in the decayed roots of large trees growing in the water. The mink is not at all gregarious, and does not even live in pairs. During the love-season, which occurs in February or March, according to the climate, the female is accompanied by one or more males; but after this, each lives alone, the males apparently wandering about the remainder of the year. The young are brought forth in April or May, usually to a number of five or six, though sometimes there are as few as three. They separate from the mother as soon as they are able to take care of themselves, and before winter each provides itself a residence. The female exhibits considerable affection for her ANIMALS. 103 Foung, and when in danger does not willingly desert them. She carries prey to them for a time before they leave the burrow, as the remains of birds and mammals are often found in the nest. The adults, however, have the habit of conveying their prey to their retreats at all times. The mink is strictly carnivorous, and never, to my knowledge, eats vegetables. Besides birds and mammals, it feeds upon fish and aquatic reptiles, but probably does not subsist upon insects to much extent. Though not so expert as the otter, it frequently succeeds in catching fish in shallow water. In the prairie sloughs it devours at times considerable quantities of cray-fish, tadpoles, and frogs; and when the smaller of these places become nearly dry from evapora- tion, and are quite alive with tadpoles, and occasionally with mud- fish and stickle-backs, in common with the musk-rat, the raccoon, and reptile-eating birds, it clears these muddy pools entirely of their unfortunate inhabitants, which have no way of escape. The mink, however, does not always confine itself to this kind of prey; for when once it has gained access to the farm-yard, stocked with young turkeys, chickens, and ducks, it far prefers taking up its residence near by, where, without the exertion of long journeys and hard chases, it can make a nocturnal feast of its favorite food— blood and brains. Though destructive, it is not usually so much so in the poultry-yard as the weasel or skunk; for often, at least, if not gene- rally, it exhibits much moderation, comparatively, contenting itself with a single fowl each night. In pursuing its prey, it follows the track by scent, like a dog, as may frequently be seen in the snow where it is chasing a grey rabbit or a covey of grouse or quails, which, as well as many water-birds, with their eggs and young, it destroys. It also steals upon its prey, and seizes it by a spring, like a cat. When attacked by musk-rats or dogs, it fights with considerable courage, and is not easily killed. Its voice, which is a remarkably shrill, cwittering squeak, not unlike that of a bunting, is only heard when hurt, or otherwise excited. When taken young, it makes an agreeable pet, often manifesting strong attachment, although it will bite if suddenly provoked. As another mode of defence, the mink possesses anal glands, which secrete a fluid of powerful and fetid odor, scarcely less disagreeable than that of the skunk. This, how- ever, it cannot eject like the skunk. When fighting, this odor becomes exceedingly disgusting. From the great fondness of the mink for the blood and brains of its prey, it would probably be found best to use these substances in baiting traps, or preparing poison for its destruction, as well as for weasels, skunks,&c. The head of a bird is thought to be the most successful bait for these animals in the woods. As the mink grows more cunning when living about the habitations of man, and generally takes up its abode under a barn, hay-stack, or some other such retreat, so that its dislodgement is almost impossible, one will some- times prowl about a farm-yard for several weeks, bidding defiance to all attempts at its destruction, and nightly killing a fowl, if any be within reach. In such cases a dog is the only means of getting rid 104 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. of this troublesome guest; for though he can rarely kill it, he will probably so harass and alarm it as to drive it away. Sometimes, however, a dog is not sufficient to rid the premises of one grown bold by long residence. This species is readily caught in dead- falls,“ but the weight used must be quite heavy, as the animal possesses great strength and tenacity of life. It enters almost any kind of trap in the woods, and doubtjess could be easily poisoned. The skin of the mink, with its beautiful fur, at present is so highly appreciated that it commands ten times the price it did a few years ago; and the fur-dealers no longer need sell it under fictitious names. Very fine dark colored specimens sometimes sell for 85 each, and even higher, when manufactured into caps, tippets,&. As in most fur animals, the skin of the Northern mink is the most valuable, and the fur is only good when taken late in autumn, in winter, or early in spring. C0MMON WHITE WEASEL, OR AMERIOAN ERMINE. Pulorius noveboracensis, DEKAY. DuSCRIPTION.— Length from nose to tail, about 10 inches; tail to end of vertebræ, 5 inches, or about half the length of head and body; tail to end of hair, about 6 ½ inches. The outstretched hind-feet reach not quite to the middle of the vertebræ of the tail. In summer, the color is chestnut-brown above, the belly white, tinged with yellow; the edge of the upper lip white, and the end of the tail black for one-third of its length. In winter, at the North, it becomes entirely white, except the black tip of the tail. In the South, it does not turn white in winter, but retains its summer color. In Northern IIlinois, in winter, it is white. As in all the true weasels, the body is long, slender, and cylindrical, with the neck long and stout, and the head massive and broad. This species exists throughout the northern part of the United States, east of the Mississippi, at, least, and perhaps further west. In California and Texas it is replaced by other species, which resemble it in appearance and habits. It is not found in the extreme South, and is believed only to exist in mountainous districts in any of the Southern States. It is common in Northern IIlinois, and I have received a specimen taken at Duquion, in the southern part of the State. It has also been found as far southwest as Arkansas. There appears to be doubt as to whether it is found at all in Arctic America, as is generally supposed. The geographical distribution of animals like this is extremely difficult to trace, and it can only be fully effected by collecting specimens from the various localities which it inhabits, as any but educated observers must confound different species, when they so nearly resemble as do this and several other North American weasels. Every farmer, therefore, interested in having the animals about him investigated, should endeavor to assist in the work, by sending specimens to competent naturalists or scientific museums, where they may be identified, and the information gained thereby published. A more ferce and cruel mammal does not exist in Ameriea than ö——2 8— 2 ANIMALS. 105 this little weasel. The courage and sanguinary disposition of the panther are insignificant in comparison, having regard to the strength of the two. Without hesitation, the weasel attacks animals five or ten times its own size; and, not content with killing enough for food, wantonly destroys whatever life it can, leaving the flesh untasted, and only sucking the blood of some of its victims. It is far more cruel than the mink, which usually kills its prey for food alone; and actually seems to delight in murder. When a weasel has gained access to a poultry-yard, it will frequently kill every fowl within its reach in a single visit; and it is related that one has been known to destroy forty well-grown fowls in a night. Fortunately, however, this animal, even when abundant, does not enter the farm-yard so frequently as might be expected, appearing to prefer a free life in the woods to easy but dangerous feasts on domestic fowls. It is. generally less apt than the mink to make excursions about the abodes of man. I have observed for several years the presence of a number of these weasels in a grove near a farm-yard well stocked with poultry, which they never appeared to enter, though repeatedly visited by minks and skunks. Indeed, I am inclined to think that, notwithstanding their occasional predatory inroads, they should not be killed when living permanently about meadows or cultivated fields, at a distance from the poultry; for they are not less destructive to many of the farmer'’s enemies in the fields. Meadow-mice are certainly the greatest pests among mammals in Northern Illinois; and of these the weasel destroys great numbers. I am informed that, upon the appearance of a weasel in the field, the army of mice of all kinds begins a precipitate retreat. A gentleman of Wisconsin related to me that, while following the plough, in spring, he noticed a weasel with a mouse in its mouth, running past him. It entered a hollow log. He determined to watch further, if possible, the animal's movements, and presently saw it come out again, hunt about the roots of some stumps, dead trees, and log-heaps, and then enter a hole, from which a mouse ran out. But the weasel had caught one, and carried it to the nest. Upon cutting open this log, five young weasels were found, and the remains of a large number of mice, doubtless conveyed there as food. Pleased to learn that his supposed enemy was in fact a friend, and his poultry being at considerable distance, the farmer spared the young ones, intending to continue his observations; but upon examination the next morning, they had dis- appeared, having probably been carried by the mother to a more secure retreat. I have frequently found the half-eaten remains of meadow-mice in their own burrows, or under corn-stacks, which had doubtless been destroyed by this weasel, or perhaps the smaller one Putorius oicognanii.) It is surprising that an animal so large as this should be able to force its way into the burrows of meadow-mice; and yet it appears to do so without difficulty. Stacks and barnfuls of grain are often over-run with rats and mice; but let a weasel take up his residence there, and soon the pests will disappear. A weasel will, occasionally, remain for some time in a barn, feeding on these vermin, without disturbing the fowls. But it 106 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. is never safe to trust one near the poultry-yard, for, when once an attack is made, there is no limit to the destruction. When the animal has entered stacks or barns, it has the curious habit of collect- ing in a particular place the bodies of all the rats and mice it has slain; thus, sometimes, a pile of a hundred or more of their victims may be seen which have been killed in the course of two or three nights. The weasel preys largely upon the grey rabbit, pursuing it to its hole, and killing it there. Like the mink, too, it tracks its prey by the scent, so that the rabbit is lost if once he seek refuge in a burrow or hollow tree. It also captures many ground-squirrels by following them into their holes, and frequently succeeds in killing quails, and sometimes birds as large as the grouse. Insects are doubtless its principal food. Numerous experiments are said to have proved that this species can be used in the manner of the European ferret for driving rabbits from their haunts; and it is probable that it would be found serviceable in a state of domestication for destroying rats and mice. It is readily tamed and kept, making pleasant as well as useful pets when due care is exercised to prevent its attacking poultry. It would probably soon free houses of the troublesome Norway rat, as it could pass through every hole entered thereby. Like all the family, the weasel is nocturnal, though in some in- stances it is seen hunting by day. It is very active, and oné may sometimes be tracked in the snow through a journey of two or three miles, made in a single night. It is, however, more attached to a permanent residence than the mink. It is not at all aquatic, nor does it, to my knowledge, show any preference for the vicinity of water either to its hunting grounds or its retreat. It appears generally to prefer hilly and rocky regions. It is said not to burrow readily, but usually to take possession of the burrow of another animal, or to choose its retreat in some natural crevice among rocks, or in slight excavations formed by itself under trees. I have generally found it occupying the burrow of the common ground-squirrel,(Tamias striatus,) and have sometimes known it to live in hollow logs in sum- mer. It often travels under snow, through pathways constructed like those of the shrews and meadow-mice; and I have traced these snow- covered ways for many rods, where the weasel had evidently been in search of prey. Some of these had been travelled repeatedly and for a long time, though few tracks were seen on the surface. In consequence of this habit, the presence of the animal is sometimes not noticed. In its winter quarters, the weasel forms a large, warm nest, like that of the mink. Five young are commonly produced in the early part of summer; and these, I am informed, remain with the mother, or at least keep together in the same neighborhood till autumn, when they separate, and, like the mink, lead a solitary life, the males only joining the females in the pairing season. This is in the latter part of February, at which time the males are very active, wandering far from their burrows in search of the females. I cannot say whether this species ever inhabits the prairie at a distance from the woods. — * ANIMALS. 107 It may be that all the weasels found living on the prairies of IIlinois are of the smaller species, Putorius cicognanii. All the weasels identified with the Putorius noveboracensis, which I have observed, were taken in the woods. This species is not a tree-climber any more than the mink; but it has occasionally been seen to ascend trees, and I am informed of a remarkable instance in which one was observed to pursue and overtake a ground-squirrel upon a tree. Though so closely allied to the ermine of Arctic Europe and Asia, Putorius ermina,) as to have been long considered identical with it, the fur of the present species is comparatively worthless; and while great prices are paid for ermine skins, those of this species are seldom bought at all. Whether the fur would be as valuable if the animal inhabited the Arctic regions I cannot decide; but as far as Selkirk Settlement, on the Red River of the North, in latitude 500, I found the skins of closely allied species, Putorius cicognanii and others, were not purchased by the fur traders. It is stated that in 1829 the skins of American ermines were not considered by the Hudsoms Fur Com- pany worth the expense of collecting. I am informed that, when in winter colors, weasel skins are highly valued by the Blackfoot Indians for making“medicine bags,“ three skins being worth the price of a horse. I also learn from an early settler that he found them in use and much in favor by the Indians of IIlinois, for the same purpose, and for tobacco pouches. NATURE AND HABITS OF THE HONEY-BEE. *The bee observe, She, too, an artist is, and laughs at man, Who calls on rules the sightly hexagon to form; A cunning architect, that at the roof Begins her golden work, and builds without foundation. How she toils! and still from bud to bud, from flower to flower, Travels the livelong day. Ye idle drones That rather pilfer than your bread obtain By honest means like these, look here and learn How good, how fair, how honorable'tis To live by industry. The busy tribes of bees, So emulous, are daily fed with heaven's peculiar manna. „Tis for them, unwearied alchemists, the blooming world Nectareous gold distils; and bounteous heaven, Still to the diligent and active good, their very labor makes The certain cause of future wealth.“— Village Qurate. The natural history of the honey-bee, from remote antiquity, has attracted the attention of naturalists, moralists, and divines, as well as the inquisitive minds of all denominations of men. The incon- ceivable instinct of this species, its uniform habits of industry and economy, its wisdom and sagacity, and the peaceful regularity which pervades the whole community, afford a subject most truly instructive and sublime. But few animals exhibit in their social life such admi- rable policy, being free from all selfishness and highly devoted to the promotion of their common welfare. 1 108 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. An extensive cultivation of bees would not only enrich the observer with lessons in natural history of a highly pleasing, instructive and elevating character, but, requiring only a comparatively small outlay of capital and labor, would undoubtedly result in the addition of millions of dollars per annum to the wealth of the nation, as the profits are estimated at trom 40 to 100 per cent. It appears from statistics that Austria, in 1857, produced 66,000, 000 pounds of honey. and 6, 600, 000 pounds of wax, valued in the aggregate at§7, 000, 000; and that in some parts of Germany, Poland, and Russia, bee-keeping forms occupation for a considerable portion of the rural population, in which they are to a great extent encouraged by their respective governments, in supporting schools and issuing publications expressly devoted to the culture of bees. The object of the generality of persons who keep bees is profit, which might be greatly augmented were they properly managed and their lives preserved by superseding the cruel destructive system by a more rational conservative one. In order that this pranch of industry may be successfully and profitably conducted, it is highly important that the apiarian, or bee-master, should be fully acquainted with the instincts, habits, propensities, peculiarities, or, in a word, the nature of these wonderful little insects. By knowing these, he will be enabled to improve their condition, and afford them facilities for collecting and storing their treasures in the greatest, quantity and in the purest state. The following attempt, therefore, to supply the more important details in their natural history, although in some respects incomplete, it is pelieved may be relied on: In every colony of bees there are three kinds—'queens,“ or females, drones,“ or males, and„workers,“ or neuters, though strictly con- sidered there are but two, the neuters being only females in an un- developed state. In a swarm containing 20, 000 bees, about 19, 000 are estimated to be workers, 1,000 of them drones, and one remaining, a queen, who, in the strictest sense, is the mother and sovereign of the whole. From 4, 000 to 5,000 bees will weigh a pound. In a state of Nature, they inhabit hollow trees and the clefts of rocks in the mountains, where they congregate in communities, propagate and rear their progeny, lead a social life, and work for one common interest. But man, coveting the produce of their labor, has reduced them to the condition of domesticated animals, and shares with them in the luxury which could not be obtained from any other source; hence multitudes of these insects are made subservient to his con- venience, and by him are provided with tenements, called“hives,“ suited to their condition, which protect them and their young against the inclemencies of the seasons, as well as their honey from the depredations of other insects and rapacious beasts. A prominent trait in the character of bees is their unrivalled industry. So ardent is their native passion for flowers, and such their pleasure in making honey, that a young worker, on the very day of its birth, is seen in the field, passing from flower to flower, and loading its feeble legs with pollen or its stomach with the nectareous fluld. They labor from the dawn of day till evening, and never cease to collect honey ———,—————õ— ANIMALS. 109 and wax as long as the weather or season is favorable and the source of supply at hand, building cells at night and on rainy days. With proper protection, this insect may be said to be a resident of any climate of the globe, as it is known to prosper in hollow trees in Canada and in the northern part of the State of Maine, where mer- cury will freeze in the open air, as well as at the equator in South America, where the thermometer stands at 800 in the shade during the year. With kind treatment, when honey is proffered or when they are gorged with it, bees are docile and even affectionate in their disposition, and may be handled with impunity by their keeper, especially when his hands have recently been washed with a solution of honey or sugar and water, particularly at or near the time of swarming; but if irritated or approached with timidity, they will attack a person or an animal with great violence, pierce their stings into the flesh and inject a liquid poison, the virulence of which is suffciert, in some instances, to produce death. Of tne three kinds of bees inhabiting a hive, the workers, as has beep shown, form almost the entire swarm. They are calledneuters“ because they do not serve for the propagation of the species. To ey plain this singular fact in the order of Nature, it is thought that all rae workers would have been females, like the queen, had not the eggs from which they were produced been deposited in cells too narrow to allow a proper development of their sexual parts. They are much less in size than the queens or drones, being about half an inch in length. The working bee is no less admirable in the structure and form of its body than wonderful in its instinct or sagacity. It is perfect in proportion, and harmonious in the combination of its parts, all con- curring to the design of its creation. On each side of its head is a large, round eye, sufficiently hard on the surface to be proof against injury from contact with the substances it ordinarily meets. When these eyes require cleaning, it is performed by the brush of the legs. The head is also furnished with two“"'antennæ,“ or horns, of delicate touch, by means of which they reciprocally obtain by feeling a know- ledge of each other, their queens, as well as the young. It is by these simple organs that bees are guided in the dark, and are enabled to construct their comb and cells and to feed the young brood. It has a long tongue, proboscis, or trunk, curved at its lower end, for licking and sucking the honey, and two strong mandibles, or teeth, which enables it to construct the cells and combs, as well as to carry all obnoxious substances from the hive. It has four wings and six legs. The third pair of the latter is much longer than the others, each containing a triangular cavity lined with strong curved hairs, used for the purpose of holding and carrying to the hive the pellets, or little balls of pollen, which it gathers from the anthers of flowers. Thus, when a bee enters a flower the pollen adheres to its body, whence it is collected by the hairy legs into the form of a pellet, and deposited in the cavity for transportation to its home. At the ex- tremity of each of the six feet are little fangs, with which they occa- 110 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. sionally attach themselves in clusters to each other, and to the sides of the hive. The abdomen is provided with two stomachs—the first, being only a simple bag, which is transparent, and, when filled, is of the size of a pea, containing nothing but honey, as it is collected from the fields, a portion of which is disgorged into the combs, to serve as a store for the future, whilst another portion passes for nourishment into the second stomach. At the extremity of the abdo- men there is a sting, its weapon of defence, not consisting of a simple sharp-pointed instrument, but of two lancets, concealed in a director. and operated upon by muscles of uncommon strength, which to a casual observer would seem to be the sting itself. The external side of each of these lancets is provided with numerous arroweshaped barbs, which prevent their retraction when pierced into the flesh, without great pain. When the retreat of the bee is hurried, or when the part stung is too firm, as the skin of man, the sting remains in the wound, and the bee thus injured only departs to die in a few hours. Notwithstanding the sting has become detached from the insect, it still retains its power of penetrating further into the wound. Again, the embarbed part of the sting is so finely polished that even with the best microscope no inequalities of surface can be discerned. The usual term of life of the workers seems to be about a season, or six months, their places being quickly filled by the increase of young bees, which are of a light color when first hatched. These vary a little in size, probably on account of the irregular dimensions of the cells in which they are bred, a feature also observable in small drones that happen to be reared in workers' cells. This difference in size has misled some persons to the belief that there are different sorts of bees for various occupations, while it is maintained by others that working bees are"'servants of all work,“ and that all of them are“'equal to all occupations.“ The principal duties of the workers are to collect and store away the honey, prepare the wax, and construct the combs, in addition to which they are ready to guard the hive, and even to sacrifice their lives for the general good. While some are gathering honey, others are searching flowers for pollen, which they bring home in the hollow of their legs. Some are diligently employed in the various works within the hive, as guarding the queen, constructing the cells, and attending to the necessities of the young, while others, again, keep constant watch at the entrance of the hive, where, if a stranger bee, a wasp, or a noxious insect appear, it is instantly repelled or destroyed. The singularity of the means which the Author of Nature has directed for the preservation of this species is particularly remarkable. In most other instances the mothers are the attentive and tender nurses of their young, but in this they only give them birth. This duty is committed to the workers, which manifest, as nursing mothers, as much affection towards the young as is observed in the real mothers of other animals. They prepare the cells appropriated for the brood of the three kinds of bees, and, after the queen has deposited her eggs, they supply the food for each kind, and seal their cells with a covering, differing in character according to the chrysalis enclosed. ANIMALsS. 111 Although bees will revel and roll in a flower, they collect no powder to store up, except what adheres to their bodies and legs. After depositing the pellets, merely by placing their legs in the cells, and quickly brushing off the pollen with their fore-feet, they again issue forth, almost as dusty as when they entered. The anxiety of bees to collect this substance is as great as their desire for honey; they eat no pollen, but cannot multiply without it—the one being as essen- tial to the prosperity of the colony as the other. Although the government of bees is strictly republican, it more resembles the monarchical, as a single individual, styled a queen, rules the whole. She is distinguished from the others by her form and size, being usually about twice as long as a worker, with a color tending to a deeper yellow, although queens vary in size, according to the cells in which they are bred, some being scarcely larger than the working bee. Her abdomen is longer in proportion, and its thickness is augmented when filled with eggs. Her legs are neither provided with pristles nor cavities, and her wings are much shorter than her body, in consequence of which it is somewhat difficult for her to fly. Her sting, which she seldom uses except when in combat with a rival, is strong, and bent at the end. Unlike other bees, a queen lives four or more years, and, what is more remarkable, seems to increase in size with age, a circumstance apparently at variance with the law that insects complete their growth in the nymph or pupa state. Thus she not only lives longer than other bees, but. possesses a greater tenacity of life, being usually among the last to perish in a colony invaded by disease. Much has been written in praise of the queen-bee, but she is less active than the workers, and is comparatively helpless without them. They certainly are greatly attached to her, still they do not pay her all the homage which some observers have supposed. She is seldom seen abroad, and seems to have no other functions than to engender and deposit eggs, animate and inspire the workers, and lead them off in swarms. A striking and cheering characteristic of social life is manifested by the faithful attachment and deep devotion of the work- ers to their sovereign. They neither tire nor relax in their attend- ance in providing for her comfort and security. They will crowd around her, and inquire, as it were, into her welfare, showing at the same time marks of reverence and sincere regard. If she manifests symptoms of indisposition, they appear to be greatly distressed, and if lost, and not replaced, the result will be self-abandonment, despair, and even death. The queen lays all the eggs in a colony, let it be ever so weak or strong. She loves to propagate her progeny in secrecy at such a temperature of the hive as produced her own birth— 90⁰ F. The proper cells for the reception of the eggs are generally in the heart of the comb; consequently it is not easy to see the queen when thus employed. The eggs are quite small, elongated, slightly curved, of a brown color, and are deposited into cells adapted in size and shape to the kind of bee that is destined to occupy them. The queen, be- fore she deposits an egg, examines whether the cell is clean and 112 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. suitable to its future occupancy, being aware which kind of bee will be produced from the egg she deposits. She lays profusely in the spring, less in summer, but little in autumn, and in winter not at all. She first deposits from 20,000 to 80,000 eggs for workers, one, or rarely two, at the bottom of a cell; and, as the combs are placed per- pendicularly, the eggs, of course, rest in a horizontal position, and not on oneé side of the cell like those of wasps. She next lays, Say from 500 to 1,000 eggs in the male cells, intended for drones; and, last of all, from 10 to 12 eggs in royal cells for queens. She always lays in the same order in respect to the kind of eggs, though they are less in number at every successive brood. Each sort is hatched in three or four days by the warmth of the hive, according to the season or climate, into„larvæ,“ or white worms, which lie in a curved position on the bottoms of the cells, surrounded by a thin, trans- parent fluid, or bee-bread, believed to be prepared from pollen, mixed with honey and water, which appears to be adapted to their age. As they advance in growth, they lie horizontally, with their heads towards the entrance, and repeatedly moult or shed their coats. After the larve are sufficiently large, nearly to fill their cells, say in about eight days, they prepare for another state, called pupa,“ chrysalis,“ or nymph,““ during which they require no food. The workers being aware of this change, cover the mouths of the cells with a light brown wax. It may here be remarked that the cells, flled with honey, are provided with flat covers, while those contain- ing the chrysalides are arched, and, in failure of the brood, fall in and turn black. The larvæ line their cells with a silky substance, which they spin after the manner of silk-worms, and make a kind of pod, or cocoon, in which they become completely enclosed. They now cast off their last coats as they enter the pupa state, and not a vestige of the old form is to be seen. How this curious change is effected is not easily determined. To bring it about, several parts must be removed, out of which, it would seem, new ones must be formed. When they are thus entombed, they are at first milky and soft, in which state they continue even after they assume the insect form, until they gradually harden and change color, and in about eight days more, at a trying moment, resulting in the death of many, break through their covering, and, without assistance, come forth perfect bees, the whole period of the metamorphoses occupying about twenty days from the time of depositing the eggs. As soon as the young bees emerge from their cells, they are wiped clean and pre- sented with food by the workers, and in twenty-four hours after birth are capable of sallying forth into the fiolds, changing from a grayish or silvery hue to a yellowish-brown. The larvæ of drones are hatched in the same way as those of the workers; yet the time of their growth is somewhat less than that of the queens, which is usually about sixteen days. Although the queen lays an egg in each of the royal cells, which will successively be transformed into queens, only one in its mature state can exist long in the same hive. If two come forth at the same time, one must die for the welfare of the community. Nature, therefore, has inspired queens with the most —— ———— ANIMALsS. 113 deadly hatred, which nothing but actual death can appease. They rush together apparently with great fury; the antennæ are mutually seized by their fangs. The head, breast, and abdomen of the one are opposed to the same parts of the other. The one which is either the strongest or the most enraged seizes the origin of her rival's wing with her feet; then rising above her, curves her own body, and inflicts a mortal wound. She then withdraws her sting, and quits her hold of the wing she had seized; and the victim down, drags her- self along, and as her strength declines, she soon expires. During these combats the workers are in great agitation, but take no decided part in the contest, though they appear to be aware that it is neces- sary that such combats should be fatal in their issue. The queen takes no part in the operations of feeding and nursing her young, this duty devolving entirely upon the workers. The greatest attachment is manifested towards the brood, the presence of which may be inferred from the collection of large quantities of pollen. During the periods of metamorphoses, the bees cluster around the breeding-cells, from which it is more difficult to drive them away than from those containing the honey. Indeed, the more brood there is, the greater the pertinacity or suspicion they manifest in guarding and defending the hive. If their sovereign, by chance, gets lost or removed, the whole hive becomes a scene of tumult and dismay. They seem to anticipate their own destruction; and if there be neither eggs nor larvæ for rearing another queen in the cells, their instinctive faculties will be lost, and in a short time they will disappear or die. But if there be brood in the. cells, they will quickly pursue their labors, with the full assurance that Nature has endowed them with the power of repairing their loss, which they effect in the following manner: If there are no larvæ in the royal cells, they select one three days old from a working-bee's cell, and, after having sacrificed three contiguous cells, they form one adapted for a royal cell; and the larva which it contains is supplied with a- peculiar kind of jelly, or paste, of a pungent taste, believed to be reserved for this purpose alone. By this process another queen is produced from a worm which otherwise would have been transformed into a worker; and thus, by a single metamorphosis, they obtain a new sovereign, and avert the effect of a loss that would have proved the utter ruin of the colony. The drones, or male bees, have been abused by almost every writer on this subject; but without their concurrence with the queen, at the genial season, a colony would soon become extinct. They are larger and thicker than the workers, though similar in color, and are shorter than the queens. As they never visit flowers for collecting sweets, their probosces are shorter than those of the workers, and they re- quire no strong hairs to brush off, nor cavities in their hinder legs to hold pollen, and accordingly have not been provided with them. They are known to be males, and are only useful in propagating their species, taking no part in the construction of the cells, in collecting the food, nor any interest in the economical duties of the hive, which they seldom leave except in the middle of warm days. N othing sat- 8 A 114 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. isfactory is known of their real character or use, except that they fecundate the queen, but when or how. this is done is not ascertained. Most apiarians are of the opinion of the Hubers, that this operation is performed in the air, and always results in the death of the drone. In cold and temperate climates, as the warm and milder season draws to a close, they are usually all destroyed by the other bees. Some writers recommend assisting the workers in their slaughter, but this seems needless; for their hatred is raised to such a pitch, that it extends, like that of the queens towards their rival nymphs, even to the larvæ in the drones cells. It sometimes happens, however, that the drones are spared. In such cases, it is supposed that some mis- fortune has befallen the queen, and that their presence is wantéed until another is bred. It also happens, though rarely, that drones are hatched late in autumn, which corresponds with their habit in tropical countries of repeatedly swarming during the year. The number of males in a hive, it will be remembered, is small, when compared with that of the workers, but should not be regarded as superfluous, as they come at a time of plenty, when their presence tends to keep up the requisite temperature in the hive to facilitate the hatching of the brood; in consequence of which, more collecting bees can be spared to attend to their duties abroad. The precise age to which drones will live is not known, but it is believed that they will often complete a period of six or seven months. Having fecun- dated the queen, they are destroyed at the close of the breeding season, for the sake of economy, by the workers, in a general carnage, rhich sometimes lasts seven or eight days. Being more sluggish in their movements, though much stronger than the other bees, and having no stings, they are unable to defend themselves, as they might otherwise do. As their bodies are covered with a scaly armor, they can only be wounded in their articulations and joints, which causes a great deal of trouble to their executioners, who may be seen dragging out the slain, or clinging to the wings of such as attempted to escape, piercing them to death with their stings. Such is the order of Nature in the economy of the honey-bee, that. in spring or at the commencement, of summer, there is thrown off from the parent hive from one to four swarms, or independent colonies of young ones, which, immediately after being domiciled, commence operations for themselves, or, if not molested or secured by artificial management, seek out a secure retreat in the fissures of rocks, in the hollow of trees, beneath the large branches, or, per- haps, in obscure parts of buildings not inhabited by man. Much doubt prevails respecting the cause which prompts bees to break off into these colonies. It is generally believed, however, that the want. of space hastens the departure of the first swarm, which is led off by the old queen; but this cannot be said to be the case with the after swarms, as they come forth whether there is room or not. But rivalry of tne queens nas been assigned by others to be the primary cause; for, however crowded a hive, the queen will not quit with a swarm before more are in, or about to be in, the field to dispute her sway. It is true, that the old queen leaves a few days before her successors „ ANIMALS. 115 appear, but she knows, of course, when to expect them. It may be remarked that working bees are taught by instinct the time they are to quit their hive, and occasionally sally out without the queen, but return as soon as they miss her. Indeed, they frequently have another home selected and prepared beforehand, especially the first swarms. In these, it sometimes happens that there are no drones, the appearance of which, with the clustering of the bees outside of the hive, are generally regarded as the first signs of swarming. This may be owing to the forward state of the young queens and the crowded condition of the hive. The almost unfailing precursors of swarming are these: For several days there is an unmistakable commotion in the hive; on the lighting-board, in front of the entrance, the bees cluster into masses, which are often of the size of a quart measure; and, at night-fall, retire again, as usual, within. On the following or the next morning after, if the weather is favorable—the sky cloudless—the confusion increases, and suddenly a column of bees hurry by a simultaneous movement into the air, and within a few moments assume a novel spectacle of thousands of these insects all on the wing, flying in whirls, until the mass resembles, in outline, a globe of 30 or 40 feet in diameter. During this exodus of young bees from their parental roof, all ordinary business appears to be suspended. The old bees dart to and fro, in a most angry manner, driving the young from the hive, if they attempt to return when the weather offers no hindrance to the success of their flight, and forcing them off by degrees from the place of their birth. The young swarm thus continue whirling ovor or very near the old hive, till all their associates have been assembled in the ring, when, apparently, with an unexpected start to the spectator, the whole body, unless arrested at this critical period, are lost beyond recovery. This, indeed, is the trying moment for the apiarian; for, if he is successful in obliging the bees to light, they at once can be secured in a new hive—which is no sooner accomplished than good order immediately ensues. First swarms are always the strongest, and the bees are well stocked with provisions to begin new structures. When they alight, they usually muster on the branch of a tree or bush near the hive, where they are readily taken, though at times they fly directly to an empty hive in the neighborhood, or to the hollow of a tree or the cavity of an old wall at a distance of a mile or two off. So much do they prefer a place of their own choosing, that they will sometimes quit a hive when their owner imagines he has them secure. The old stock may be said to be without a head for from six to nine days, according to circumstances—until another queen is hatched. It is then that she begins to attack her rivals in the cells, and utters the shrill sound. Peep, peep, while the imprisoned ones cry hf, ohf. This is termed calling“ the queen, and the evening is the best time to hear these significant sounds, which continue night and day, until one or more rivals appear. Then the general uproar ensues in the hive, and another swarm comes forth, perhaps on the third day after the sound began. The same process goes on with the next, which is smaller in number, and at a shorter interval, corresponding with the period between the 116 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. laying of the queen's eggs and the state of the weather, or the tem- perature of the hive. The succeeding swarms, it is well known, have not the strength and instinct, nor the care to select for them- selves a future place of abode, like the first ones; and if not dis- turbed, will sometimes begin comb-building on a hedge or the branch of a tree or shrub. In connection with this subject, it may be stated that young bees seldom sting at the time of swarming, as they have no stores to defend. 1 8 Au inspection of the internal arrangement of a bee-hive produces in the observer the highest degree of admiration. He beholds a city in miniature, divided ipto regular streets, which are lined with houses constructed on exact geometrical principles, and most sym- metrically planned— some serving as store-houses for food; others, as the habitations of the citizens; and a few, much more extensive than the rest, destined for the palaces of the sovereigns. He perceives that the substance of which the whole city is built is one which man, with all his skill, cannot fabricate; and that the edifices thus formed are such as the most ingenious artist would find himself incompetent to erect. 1— Those who have seen a honey-comb must have observed that it is a flattish cake composed of a vast number of cells, for the most part hexagonal, regularly applied to the side of each other, and arranged in two strata or layers, placed end to end. Those intended for workers are hexagonal and horizontal, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, and six times as deep as they are wide; those for drones are also horizontal, somewhat irregular, and larger; but the royal cells, or the departments for queens, are circular, still larger, and arranged perpendicularly in the comb. The interior of a hive consists of several of these combs fixed to its upper part and sides, arranged vertically at a small distance from each other, so that the cells com- posing them are placed in a horizontal position, and have their openings in opposite directions. The distance of the combs from each other is about half an inch, that is, sufficient to allow two bees upon the opposite cells to pass each other. Besides, these vacancies, which form the main streets of the community, the combs are pro- miscuously pierced with holes, which serve as posterns for easy com- munication from one to the other without losing time to go round. The arrangement of the combs is well adapted for its purpose, but it is the construction of the cells which is most admirable and astonish- ing. As these are formed of wax, which is of no great abundance, it is important that as little as possible of such a precious material should be consumed. Bees, therefore, in the formation of their cells, have to solve a problem which would puzzle some geometricians, namely: A quantitr¹ of awax being given to form ꝗf it similar and equal cells of a determinate capacity, but of the largest size in proportion to the quantity of matter employed, and disposed in such ο manner as to oocupy in the hive the least possible space. Every part of this problem is practically solved by bees. If their cells had been cylindrical, which form seems best adapted to the shape of a bee, they could not have been applied —e ——— ANIMALS. 117 to each other withiout leaving numberless superfluous vacuities. If the cells were made square or triangular, this last objection, indeed, would be removed; but besides that a greater quantity of wax would have been required, the shape would have been inconvenient to a cylindrical-bodied insect. All these difficulties are obviated by the adoption of hexagonal cells, which are admirably fitted to the form of the insect, at the same time that their sides apply to each other without the smallest vacancies. Another important saving in mate- rials is gained by making a common base serve for two sets of cells. Much more wax as well as room would have been required had the combs consisted of a single stratum only. But this is not all. The base of each cell is not an exact plane, but is usually composed of three pieces in the shape of a rhombus, and placed in such a manner as to form a hollow pyramid. This structure, it may be observed, imparts a greater degree of strength, and still keeping the solution of the problem in view, gives the greatest capacity with the smallest, expenditure of material. This has actually, indeed, been ascertained by mathematical measurement and calculation. Maraldi, the inventor of glass hives, determined, by minutely measuring these angles, that the greater were 1090 28, and the smaller 700 327; and M. Réaumur, being desirous to know why these particular angles are selected, requested M. Konig, a skillful mathematician, without informing hin- of his design, or telling him of Maraldi's researches, to determine by calculation what ought to be the angles of a six-sided cell, witb a concave pyramidal base, formed of three similar and equal rhom- boid plates, so that the least possible matter should enter into its construction. By employing what geometricians denominate the infinitesimal calculus, M. Kœnig found that the angles should be 1090 26/ for the greater, and 700 34/ for the smaller, or about two- sixtieths of a degree, more or less, than the actual angles made choice of by bees, a surprising agreement between the solution of the problem and actual measure! The equality of inclination in the angles has also been said to facilitate the construction of the cells. Besides the saving of wax effected by the form of the cells, the bees adopt another economical plan suited to the same end. They com- pose the bottoms and sides of wax of very great tenuity, not thicker than a sheet of writing paper. But as walls of this thickness at the entrance would be perpetually injured by the ingress and egress of the workers, they prudently make the margin at the opening of each cell three or four times thicker than the walls. Moreover, the sides and bottom of each cell are actually double, or, in other words, each cell is a distinct, separate, and, in some measure, an independent tructure agglutinated only to the neighboring cells; and when the agglutinating substance is destroyed, each cell may be entirely sepa- rated from the rest. 1reA It is not precisely known how long the combs will hold good, for this is a very different thing from the longevity of the bees. It is thought by some, however, that they soon wear out, owing to the cell-walls being thickened by the coatings of shells left by the nymphs; but when the hives are kept dry, they have been known to last fifteen 8 118 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. or twenty years. This shows that much may be gained, if the combs are good, in putting fresh swarms into deserted hives. Those who object to this should bear in mind that in winter a large portion of the combs are unoccupied by the bees, and therefore will remain unharmed. Although some authors pretend to have revealed the mystery of comb-making, it may be safely stated that the manner in which bees construct their cells is unknown, except that they are made of wax, which is secreted in a form of an exudation, through the segments, or rings, beneath their bodies, and subsequently hardens into scales. Starting at the top of the hive, immediately after their settlement, they begin their first comb, which, when not more than half the size of a man's hand, may already contain both a little honey and a few eggs. Then, another and another comb are begun, the centre ones always being in advance, until the whole number reaches to within half an inch of the bottom board, or floor, space enough being left. for ventilation and the entrance and egress of the bees to and from the combs. A common hive may contain seven or eight divisions of comb, generally arranged parallel to each other, which a strong colony, under favorable circumstances, will construct in two weeks. Besides the wax, the bees make use of another substance collected from resiniferous trees, and called“‧ propolis,“ or bee glue. It is more tenacious, of a resinous and glutinous nature, a reddish-brown color, and of an agreeable aroma, especially when heated or rubbed. This matter is employed for fastening the combs, stopping the crevices in the hive, excluding insects, moisture and light. Being elastic, it will expand on warm days when the wood of the hive opens from the effect of the heat, but in frosty weather it contracts and hardens like resin.—. During summer, and sometimes until late in autumn, the workers are engaged in collecting or preparing another substance called bee- bread, which is of a reddish-yellow or pale color, varying according to the flowers from which it is obtained, and is thought by some to be a peculiar kind of pollen, while others suppose it to consist of the ordinary pollen combined with honey, elaborated, perhaps, through the agency of water, by some unknown process by the bees. As before observed, it is gathered and deposited for the especial purpose of supporting the young larvæ while helpless in their cells. Com- bined with heat, it is this material which discolors the much-admired works of the bee—rendering the wax and honey yellow, and, in time, the whole combs black. Besides, where this substance is stored by the workers, there, or in that part of the hive, will the queen lay her eggs—and there, of course, are propagated her young. And as animated Nature advances to perfection, so rises the interior tempe- rature of the combs, say from 900 to 1200 and even to 1300 F., or until an almost suffocating heat obliges the tenants to leave their homes. 8.— Honeyf, which seems designed by provident Nature to please the palate and mitigate distress, consists principally of the richest extract collected by bees from the cavities and petals of flowers, although —, — ANIMALS. 119 it is sometimes gathered, in the form of honey-dew, from the leaves of trees and shrubs, at a period of drought, or in autumn when there are few flowers in bloom. A portion of the honey received by the bee into its honey-bag,“ or first stomach, is passed into the second stomach, while the surplus is disgorged from its mouth into the cells for sustaining the colony in winter or during rainy days. They com- mence by filling the upper part or rear of the hive first, on account of their remoteness from the entrance, which affords a greater se- curity from pillage by other insects or swarms. During severe cold weather, say at a temperature in the hive of 400 F., or lower, it has been asserted that they exist nearly or quite in a state of torpidity, and eat very little, if any, honey. As it is the nature of these insects to maintain an interior warmth of 600 or 700 and upwards, to in- vigorate and cause an increase of population, it is necessary that they should consume a considerable amount of honey in order to produce that degree of temperature by their animal heat. Again, at 600 and above, they require much less honey to keep up the in- ternal warmth of the hive than below that degree, the drones being then adequate to the discharge of this essential function; and during the hottest weather in summer it is believed that they necessarily consume but very little honey for that purpose. In the opinion of modern writers, honey, while in the stomach of the bee, does not undergo any elaboration with other substances, but is disgorged through the mouth in the same condition as before it was swallowed. The best sort is of a thick consistence, and whitish color, inclining to yellow, possessing an agreeable smell and a pleasant taste. Those kinds collected from the flowers of lavender, white clover, and mignonette, are delightfully fragrant, and are produced by these plants in great abundance; the flowers of the two latter con- tinuing in bloom during summer and autumn, and affording both pollen and honey the whole season. That made from the blossoms of the raspberry, whortleberry, and buckwheat, is peculiarly grateful, although the latter is objected to by some on account of its dark color, and in not being quite so pure and fine. The famous Hyblæan honey of the ancients, it is stated, was the essence of the flowers of the marjoram,(Origanum vulgare,) and thyme,(Thymus serpyllum,) which grew wild in great abundanee. It is no less singular than true that, while one kind of honey is of the finest flavor, delicious to the taste, pure and transparent, another is of an entirely different consist- ence, dark and greenish in color, tenacious and bitter; and that a- third variety has been known to produce deleterious effects which, in some instances, seriously endangered human life. The rhododendron, which was known to the ancient inhabitants of Pontus, who were well acquainted with the poisonous qualities of its flowers, had such influ- ence on the honey of the country that the Romans would not receive it in tribute, but required the Greeks to pay them a double portion in wax in lieu of it. The honey from the Azalea pontica, which grew in the same regions as the rhododendron, possessed similar proper- ties. The flowers of the American rose bay(Rhododendron mawi- mum) are likewise known to produce unwholesome honey, as well as 120 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. those of the great laurel,(Kalmia latifolia,) the dwarf laurel,(Kal- mia angustifolia,) and the Jamestown weed,(Datura stramonium,) all of which should be extirpated from the vicinity of establishments de- voted to the culture of bees. There are three periods of the year in which those who keep bees may take the honey, but it is seldom taken more than twice, and generally but once; namely, in May or June, July or August, September or Oc- tober. That taken in these seasons will be found to vary extremely in quality, and therefore should be kept apart. Of these, the spring honey is by far the best, and should be the only kind used medicinally, as the bees are in full vigor when they collect it, and the flowers from which it is gathered are in their most perfect bloom. Next in value is summer honey, while that of autumn is poor and weak, and will soon spoil.— 24 Some persons object to keeping bees because they injure flowers, pierce fruits, and are apt to sting. It is said also that they perforate tubular flowers to get at their sweets—a charge denied by Nature in not providing the bee with a suitable instrument for the performance of such an act. The blame, with propriety, could be laid on the hum- ple-bee, which, if it cannot reach the honey by the natural opening of the flower, will often make an aperture at the base of the corolla, or even in the calix itself, to insert its proboscis in the very place where the nectar is stored. It is true, that, in hot weather, when flowers fail, the honey-bee attacks fruit, or rather sips what is soft and passing to decay, or falling a prey to wasps; but, unlike the wasp and humble-bee, it seldom stings while in quest of food, unless harshly used. Instead of being injurious to vegetation, bees often render much service to the husbandman in assisting the impregnation of plants; and, possibly, we are indebted to them for many of the new varieties of fruits and flowers which we possess, by this very means. As this branch of rural industry has been impeded in this country for many years by prejudices arising from the injuries supposed to be committed by bees in gardens, orchards, and vineyards, as well as the losses resulting from injudicious management, and the ravages of the bee-moth, an earnest appeal is here made to the interest and patriotism of the intelligent agriculturists and bee-keepers of the United States for their zealous co-operation in establishing and en- eouraging bee-schools and publications, with the view of improving and increasing the culture of this delightful pursuit. With a genial climate and a richly-varied vegetation, it may be successfully prose- cuted on a scale corresponding to the expanse and fertility of our ter- ritory, and, with a due degree of knowledge and enterprise, it cannot fail to be another source of national wealth. EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. Fig. 1 denotes an egg magnified; 2, an egg as laid in the bottom of a cell; 3, a young larva at the bottom of a cell; 4, a full-grown larva; 5, a pupa; 6, a drone, or male(perfect insect;) 7, a queen (perfect insect:;) 8, a neuter, or working-bee; 9, cells of working-bees; 1 —— ANIMALS. 121 10, cells of drones; 11, cell of a queen; 12, proboscis and mandibles, magnified; 13, the sting and its appendages; 14, the ovigerous tubes, spermatheca, and their appendages; 15, the honey-bag, crop, or sucking stomach, and second stomach. 8— D. J. B. INVESTIGATIONS ON THEINSEOTS AND DISEASES APFECT. ING THE COTTON PLANT. BX TOWNEND GLOVER. In pursuing the investigation of the characteristics and habits of the insects injurious or beneficial to agriculture, with the view of as- certaining how far they are destructive or advantageous to our crops, feel called upon to give an account of some of the impediments and difficulties Ihave had to contend with since I entered the service of government, which J trust will be a sufficient apology for the apparent delay in making a final report. It is true, that, in the course of my rambles, I have experienced many of the pleasures incident to the life of a naturalist, while gazing with admiration and wonder upon the varied forms, colors, and motions of the insect tribes, or while noting their fecundity, modes of generation, metamorphoses, instincts, and distribution—the inimitable mechanism provided by Nature for locomotion, defence, and even for preparing themselves habitations, as well as for obtaining the food adapted to their habits, their mouths being constructed upon purely mechanical principles, in some in- stances having jaws armed with sharp penetrating hooklets for seizing and securing active and struggling prey; keen-edged scissors for clipping and dividing the softer parts of plants and their fruits; files, saws, and gouges for rasping, cutting, and excavating wood; while in other cases they are provided with awls and lancets, for tapping the skin, and syphons or sucking tubes for imbibing fluids; some devouring the leaves of vegetables or feeding upon grasses and suc- culent plants; others destroying timber and the bark or roots of trees; while another class, more delicately organized, is content in ex- tracting the juices of the expanding buds, or in sipping the honeyed fluids from the cups of flowers. Again, many tribes are carnivorous, and so far are beneficial. Being armed with formidable weapons of destruction, they carry on a constant warfare with their own or other species, which they actually destroy by depositing their eggs in their flesh or on their skins, where they undergo the transformation peculiar to their race, feeding upon the rich juices of their bodies, thus ex- hibiting most beautiful illustrations of harmony, contrivance, and de- sign. On the other hand, notwithstanding I have enjoyed these pleasures, I have encountered many hardships, difficulties, and dangers, in exposing myself to unhealthy regions, in sickly seasons, where I necessarily performed tedious journeys, in which I was steamed or scorched by the hot sun during the day, and drenched by 122 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. heavy rains or chilled by clammy dews at night, accompanied more or less by hunger and thirst, lassitude and disease. In the course of my wanderings I was annoyed by gnats and flies which regaled themselves on my blood; irritated by ants, chigas, and ticks, that filled my skin or flesh with eruptions and sores; as- sailed with fury by bees and wasps that tortured me with their stings; and I was warned of my danger by the hiss and rattle of serpents that may concealed along my path. These dangers and annoyances, trou- ples and trials, were alternated by pleasures, joys, and sudden de- lights which no one can realize except the lover of science— surely not the sordid slave of paltry pay. I have met with all kinds of treat- ment, adventures, and fares-—generously welcomed under the hospi- table roof of the intelligent planter, the true friend of enterprise and science, and have been approached and entertained by liberal and enlightened men, who neither appeared to understand nor to ap- preciate the object of my pursuit. And, allow me to add, notwith- standing all these vicissitudes, I have been amply compensated by the satisfaction I have received in making these explorations and in witnessing and describing the results. Let the reader accompany me, if he please, to the vineyard, the corn-field, and the cotton plantation. On inspecting a sickly Catawba vine, near the base of its stem, in the month of July, by perforating the crown of the roots with a brad-awl or a pointed knife, we find imbedded in the bark and sap-wood a soft, whitish borer, or grub, measuring about an inch and a quarter in length. On further exami- nation, we discover that this grub or larva has sixteen feet, but neither horn nor prominence on the anterior segment of the body, from which we are led to conclude that it belongs to the genus ægeria. The question now arises, What is this species? Is it the peach-tree borer,(᷑yeria eæitiosa,) the grape-vine borer,(Ʒ᷑Qᷣgeria polistœformis,] or is it a new insect? In viewing other vines in the vineyard, we find the female of the Egeria polistæformis, resembling a large bee or wasp, depositing her eggs just above the crown of the roots of another Catawba vine. Woe watch these eggs from day to day until they bring forth small whitish grubs, which soon after bore into and feed upon the bark of the vine at the lower end of the stem. En- couraged by this success, we proceed to examine the rest of the vineyard until we find another Catawba, resembling the preceding, but more sickly in appearance, with its fruit shrivelled and most of its leaves of a yellowish tinge, and some of them already fallen through premature decay. In digging into its injured roots, we find an oblong-oval pod or cocoon, about an inch and a half in length, formed of a gummy kind of silk, covered with fragments of wood, bark, and dirt, which we conclude is the chrysalis of this borer. The next step to be taken is to review what we have done, by collecting specimens of the larva or borer, the males and females of the perfect insect, the eggs, and the chrysalides, noting their characters, entering them in the Field-Book, and finally making accurate drawings of them all, of the natural size and colors. The labor of research does not end here; we place the eggs and chrysalides in a situation favorable ANIMALS 123 to hatching into larve and transforming into a perfect state, with the view of ascertaining the periods of metamorphosis. And yet the inquiry does not end; a remedy or a preventive, if possible, must be sought for or devised. In noting the different species of vines, we discover that the Skuppernong is invariably healthy, and in no case is attacked by the borer either in the stem or in the roots. Granting this to be true, a remedy naturally presents itself by engrafting the Catawba and other variéties of the grape upon Skuppernong stocks in all localities where the latter will grow, the success of which will be obvious when we recollect that the insect attacks the vine only at the root. Let us now tunmn our attention 0 the corn- feld. On divesting several“ roasting-ears! of their husks, we detect a number of worms, or caterpillars, measuring from a quarter of an inch to an inch in length, variously marked with spots and longitudinal stripes of differ- ent hues, feeding with great voracity upon the milky and tender grains near the apex of the cob. In watching these worms from day to day, we observe that they cast and renew their skins several times, until at last they attain their. maximum size, when they cease feeding, desert the ear, and descend on the stalk of the plant into the earth, where, by constantly wriggling their bodies, they work out oval- shaped cavities adapted to their form and size. By gluing together particles of earth with a viscid gum, or silk, which issues from their mouths, the larvæ form rough cocoons, in which they shed their last coats, or skins, and change into glossy-brown chrysalides, or nymphs. On watching these produced from the early broods, we find that they are transformed into yellowish millers, or moths, in the course of a few weeks, which, from their characteristics, belong tothe genus heliothes. We farther learn, by observing these moths, that they deposit their eggs either on the silk of the young ears of the corn or upon the upper ends of the cobs, which reproduce small worms identical with those above described. In the meantime, specimens of these insects, males and females, which, so far as we know, belong to a new species, are collected in different stages of their metamorphoses, their charac- ters and habits entered in the Field-Book, and accurate drawings of them made, as with the ægeria before described. We will now repair to a neighboring planter' s cotton- field, reputed to be badly injured by"'rust.“ On examining the leaves of tbe cotton, we perceive that they are variously affected, some being changed to a bright yellow, blotched or blushed with red, marked more or less with brownish spots; others exhibiting rusty-brown spots on their under sides, resembling incipient rust; while a third class of leaves is curled up at the edges, the surface turned yel- low, and in some cases fallen to the ground. Here we find a subject for investigation, which, perhaps, from its importance, may ocoupy public attention for years. The first is a case of genuine rust, as no marks of insect acts can be traced, even under the microscope, on any part of the leaves, and may require a long series of experi- ments to discover and avert, if possible, the cause. The second, on closer inspection, is found to be the work of a minute red spider, belonging to the genus acarus, which generally attacks the under side 124 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. of the leaves, puncturing them until they are stung and spotted all over, and finally fall from the plant. The third affection is caused by the cotton-louse, a species of aphis, which pierces the parenchyma or outer coating of the leaves, principally on the under side. From the constant drainage of the sap by this insect, the leaves are en- feebled, curl up, turn yellow, and subsequently fall. As the season advances, we observe that the young shoots of the plant are also attacked, and are often completely covered by these pests. In watching this species of louse through its different stages of metamorphoses, we find that they are similar in character to other aphides, and are nearly of the same habits. The young are extremely minute, and of a greenish color; but when they become older, they increase to a tenth of an inch in length, and change to a dark green, and, in some instances, to almost black. The multiplication of these little creatures, it will be remembered, is almost incredible. Provi- dence has imbued them with powers of fecundity which no other insects possess: At one period of the year they are oviparous; at another, viviparous; and what is most remarkable, the sexual inter- course of one original pair serves for all the generations which proceed from the female for a whole succeeding year, before the spermatic virtue of the ancestral coitus is exhausted. It has been proved that, in five generations, one aphis may be the great grand-mother and progenitor of 5,904, 900, 000 descendants, and it is supposed that, in a single year, there may be twenty generations. The impregnated ova, we find, are deposited in the axils of the leaves, either of the cotton infested by this species, or, perhaps, later in the season, on some neighboring object or tree, or, possibly, on the ground. By retaining their latent vitality through the winter, they are hatched by the warmth of spring, giving birth to a wingless, six-footed larva, which, if circumstances are such as to favor it with warmth and food, will produce a brood, or, indeed, a succession of broods, as before observed, without connection with a male. So far as is known, no winged females at this season have appeared; but after several gene- rations from the virgin progeny, in the last larval brood, individual growth and development progress further than in the parent, and some of them become metamorphosed into winged males—others into oviparous females. By the latter, the ova may be developed, im- pregnated, and oviposited, and thus provision may be made for their dissemination and for continuing the existence of the species beyond the severe famine of the winter months. This double mode of repro- duction will serve to account for the almost inconceivable increase otf these insects.“ Having watched and noted the changes and habits of the insect above described, and made miscroscopic drawings of the same— a labor of several months—we will next look about us and see whether there are any means provided by Nature to maintain the balance between the increase and destruction of this tribe. In prosecuting this inquiry, we find that the lady-bird,(Coccinella?) is a most valuable auxiliary to the cotton-planter, as it devours the aphides by thousands, and is always the most plentiful where the cotton-lice —4‚ ANIMALS. 125 abound. Again, we observe that the lace-wing fly(Hemerobius?) and a species of syrphus are constantly waging war against these lice. We also discover another fly,(Lchmeumon?) wonderful as it may seem, deposits an egg in the body of a louse, which, hatching into a grub, devours the inside of the insect, while alive, until it eventually dies, clinging to the leaf, even after death, and the young fly escapes from the old skin of the aphis, and soon after commences her useful labors in depositing her eggs in the bodies of other aphides, in the same manner as her beneficent mother had done before her. ö““ By the foregoing, the attentive reader will be enabled to form an idea only of a small portion of the duties I have had to perform, and the character of the scenes through which I have passed within the last few years; and to finish the important task I have commenced, he will be convinced, is only the work of time. 1 It may here be proper to state that, during the summer and autumn of 1854, I was principally engaged in the cotton-fields of South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama, and the summer and autumn of the following year in those of Florida. The summer of 1856, I was detailed to Iowa, to investigate the insects of that State, and the autumn following was ordered to Demerara and Caracas to obtain cuttings of the sugar-cane, which I delivered in Louisiana in the early part of 1857. The summer and autumn of this year, I spent in Mississippi and Tennessee, examining the blight and rust in cotton, as well as the insects which infest this plant there. The only species of the latter I observed in these States, differing from those of the Atlantic cotton-growing regions, were a caterpillar, which appeared to do but little injury, and a wasp that I detected in the act of devouring the boll-worm. A Healthy Cotton Plant. Firrst Stage of the Blight. Among the enemies of the insects which attack the cotton-plant in Mississippi and Tennessee may be mentioned the mocking-bird, the bee-martin, or king-bird, the black-bird, and a species of lizzard, the latter being found usually in rotten fences, old stumps, and in hollow trees. The killing of these friends of the planter should be regarded 126 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. almost as sacrilege, and every possible effort should be made to pre- serve them, in order to check the prodigious multiplication of noxious insects, without which an inordinate accumulation would inevitably ensue. 1 4 The same diseases of the cotton that occur in the Atlantic cotton- growing States are usually found in Kentucky, Mississippi, and Ten- nessee, and at least one in addition, namely, a species of“ blight,““ often miscalled the“rust,“ which is prevalent on the alluvial bottoms as well as on the uplands. This blight appears very suddenly; as one day all of the plants of a field may seem to be perfectly healthy and vigorous, while on passing through the same field the next day, many of them may be observed with drooping leaves, as if affected by the heat of a mid- day sun. In a few days after, all the leaves will wither and fall to the ground, leaving the stem bare, though still green, and the ready- formed and, in some cases. fully matured opening bolls adhering to 8 — ——— Second Stage of the Blight. Commencement of New Growth. the branches. After remaining in a state of apparent lifelessness for some time, should rain and favorable growing weather follow, the affected plant will often send up suckers from the crown of the roots, and even, sometimes, young shoots from the junctures of the pranches with the stem.“ The difference between the rust and the blight is apparent at the first glance: In the rust, the leaves of the cotton turn yellow, and are often spotted or blushed with red. In the blight, they suddenly wither and droop, without changing to yellow as with the rust, turn brown and fall. The bolls also shrivel, dry up, aud the whole plant gradually dies.. As this disease was not observed by me before the middle of August, when it was at its full development, it is impossible to state how or when the young plants were first affected and began to show signs of disease. In pulling up an old blighted plant and dividing longitudinally the stem, I found that its pith and the heart of the main root, stem, and branches, presented a bprownish or blackish appearance, as if the centre were rotten, which may be the proximate cause of the withering of the leaves. On a close examination of the plants diseased, no insects, nor their punctures, could be observed; and as the plackened centres often — ANIMALS. 127 extend to the extremity of the branches and roots, it is obvious that the whole plant is in a state of disease, which, most probably, is caused by some vegetable acid in the soil, or, perhaps, by the tap- root penetrating into a hard, sour, or otherwise unfavorable sub-scil. MRA Sections of a Healthy and Diseased Stem, and of a Diseased Root. In directing my inquiries to the effects produced by the rotation of rrops in fields where cotton had been cultivated, I ascertained that, on one plantation in which the fields had been planted with cotton for five consecutive years, the first and second crops were perfectly healthy; the third, slightly attacked with the disease; the fourth, still more blighted; and that of the fifth vear had large patches of blight, 128 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. ranging from a quarter of an acre down to a few yards square. On another plantation, on which cotton had been cultivated for several years in the same field until 1856, when one side was planted with corn and the other with cotton, and the whole field again planted with cotton in 1857, it was observed that the crop produced on the portion of the field planted with corn the previous year was vigorous and healthy, whilst that on the old cotton land was small and diseased. REMARKS ON THE COTTON BLIGHT.— The suggestion thrown out by Mr. Glover, in the preceding paragraph, of the„blight' in the cotton-plant being caused by some vegetable acid of the soil, which probably had been left by continuous cropping, would admit of an explanation in M. De Candolle’s theory on the"'excretory functions of plants,“ whose views on that subject were opposed by Walser, but subsequently corroborated by Macaire, and more recently inves- tigated by Professor Gasparrini. M. De Candolle, it will be remem- bered, was led to form a particular theory respecting the rotation of crops, founded on the hypothesis that the roots of plants were the seat of secretions of an especial nature, and that they are only parts of the juices, which, not having served for nourishment, are rejected when they arrive at the inferior parts of the vessels, and prove hurt- ful to the vegetation of the next crop, if it be of the same species or variety of plant, but may act beneficially on plants of a different nature; or, in other words, every plant, in ejecting all the moisture which extends to the root, cannot fail to eject also such particles as do not contribute to nourishment. Thus, when the sap has been spread by circulation throughout the vegetable, elaborated and de- piived of a considerable quantity of water by the leaves, and then, redescending, has furnished to the organs all the nourishment it contained, there must be a residue of particles which cannot assimi- laue with the vegetable, being improper for its growth. M. De Can- dolle further asserts that these particles, after having traversed the whole system without alteration, return to the earth by the rootlets, and thus render it less suitable to sustain a second crop of the same family of plants, by accumulating soluble substances that cannot assimilate with it. In like manner, he observes, that no animal, whatever, can be sustained by its own excrement. Besides, it may also follow that even the action of the organs of a vegetable converts the mixed particles into substances not only deleterious to itself, but to other plants, and that a portion of this poison is also rejected by the roots, so that a vegetable may suffer from the absorption of the very poisons it furnishes. Hence it has béeen inferred that the continual elongation of the roots renders the effect hurtful, not to the same generation of plants, but to the next and succeeding crops of the same species; and that, on the contrary, it is possible that the excrementitious matter which they throw off would furnish whole- some and abundant nourishment to another order of vegetables. The conclusions arrived at by M. Macaire, after making a large number of experiments on different families of plants, as well as on individuals, were as follows: First, that most plants exude by their roots substances useless to vegetation; second, that the nature of . ANIMALsS. 129 these substances varies according to the families which produce them 3 third, that some being pungent and resinous may injure, and others being sweet and gummy may contribute to the nourishment of other vegetables; and, fourth, that these facts tend to confirm the theory of the rotation of crops suggested by De Candolle. The facts elicited from these experiments present themselves with a force of analogy, in the case of the blight in the cotton plant, no less striking than remarkable; and the subject appears to be well worthy the careful thought and investigation of a competent chemist and an intelligent agriculturist. A remedy for this disease here presents itself, in adopting a three or four-course rotation, by alter- nating cotton with peas, Chinese sugar-cane, chufas, perhaps, Indian corn, or some other renumerative crop which can readily be con- verted into the flesh of cattle, sheep, horses, or swine. There is nothing repugnant in this theory to probability and common sense; but, like all things connected with science, in order to become available in practice, it must be based upon sound, unerring truth, sustained by facts which cannot be controverted, and deductions that admit of no doubt; these alone bring conviction and lead to conclu sions upon which the mind may confidently repose. M P. J. B. PERSIAN INSECT POWDER. For a long period, a preparation was used throughout the Russian Caucasus for the destruction of injurious insects, and was regarded as a secret to the rest of the world, until its properties became known to Mr. Jumtikoff, an Armenian merchant, while travelling through that country some forty or fifty years ago. He communicated his discovery to his son, who manufactured the article, in 1828. This powder, or the plant from which it was obtained, was soon after introduced into Alexandropol, and subsequently into Germany, where its popularity is rapidly increasing. There are several plants similar in character, called by botanists Pyrethrum carneum, Dyrethrum roseum, and Pyrethrum purpurenum. (Persian cammomile, flea-grass, or flea-killer,) from which this pow- der is procured, consisting of small perennial shrubs, from 12 to 15 inches in height, bearing flowers an inch and a half in diameter, and resembling those of the ox-eye daisy,(Chrysanthemum leucanthemum,) except in color. They grow on the mountains of the Caucasus, at an elevation of 5,650 feet above the level of the sea, in a temperature of 680 F. They are of easy cultivation in gardens, and since their har- diness have become known, they have been introduced into Germany, Holland, and France, for the purposes of ornament, where they begin to flower in June. They will flourish in any ordinary garden soil, and may be propagated by layers as well as by seeds. The parts of the plants from which the powder is made are the dried fower-heads, gathered. when ripe, on fine days, and usually 9 A 130 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. dried by exposure to the sun; but they have been found to be more serviceable when dried in the shade, during which operation they are occasionally turned. In the process of desiccation they lose about 90 per cent. When perfectly dried, they are first comminuted with the hand, and then reduced to powder in a small mill. A quantity of these plants grown upon 18 square rods is estimated to furnish 100 pounds of powder, which is best preserved in sealed vessels of glass. The application is made either as a powder or as an infusion, though in the latter form, it is more beneficial, especially when intended for the destruction of insects on plants. The dried leaves only should be used for an infusion, as the green ones are ineffectual. The powder may be applied directly to the insects themselves, or in the places which they frequent. They are attracted by its smell, become stupified, and immediately die. This substance may be em- ployed without injury to the larger animals or man. It is estimated that the amount of this powder consumed, per annum, in Russia alone, is nearly 1, 000, 000 pounds. At present, there are more than twenty villages in the district of Alexandropol engaged in cultivating the plant and collecting its flowers and leaves. 4 D. J. B. HISTORT. EARLY AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF ILLINOIS. BX JOHN REYNOLDS, OF BELLEVILLE. [Condensed from the Transactions of the IIlinois State Agricultural Society for 1856- 57.] Religious altars, Kaskaskia, and agriculture commenced together in the American ¹' bottom' in the same year(1682) that Philadel- phia was laid out, one hundred years before any permanent settlements were made in either Kentucky or Tennessee, and twenty-eight years before the foundation of New Orleans. The villages of Cahokia and Peoria commenced their existence about the same time and manner with Kaskaskia, and those then French villages formed the nucleus of the first colonies established west of the Alleghany Mountains. Fort Crèveccur was erected by La Salle on the northern bank of Peoria Lake, a mile and a half above the present city of Peoria, some few years before the colonies were settled, and the Rock Fort, or Fort St. Louis, was established soon after on the“ Starved Rock.“ Which is situated on the south side of the high rocky bluff of the Illinois river, about six miles southeast from the city of La Salle. These forts were garrisoned for some years by French soldiers, to secure the Indian trade, and to keep possession of the country. — ,— HISTORV. 131 Father Allowes, a Jesuit, located in the Indian village on the exact site where Old Kaskaskia now stands, and commenced to Christianize the natives. The Rev. Mr. Pinet, another Jesuit priest, commenced his Christian labors in the Cahokia village of Indians, which occu- pied the same place that the present town of Cahokia does. The traders also assembled in these Indian towns, and thus, by Christianity and benevolence, they were changed into civilized and happy colonies of whites. Agriculture made its first entrance into IIlinois around these villages in the year 1682. The French pilgrims from Canada immigrated to the country with the pure and holy principles of Christianity, and lived in peace and friendship with the numerous tribes of savages, which were legion at that time in the West. They had scarcely any wars with the natives, but resided with their neighbors, white and red, for a hundred and fifty years, in perfect harmony. These French colonists never disturbed any one on account of their religion, nor persecuted Quakers nor any other sect for difference of opinion. But these immigrants were not good farmers. About one-half of the population depended on the Indian trade and voyaging for a living, and the other half were husbandmen, and cultivated the fields. These colonies were established where the soil was exceedingly fer- tile and easily cultivated. A very small amount of labor raised much produce. Large common fields were inclosed with few rails in the fence, the rivers, bluffs, or lakes generally answering for some part of the inclosure. Wheat, mostly of the spring variety, and a hard, flinty kind of Indian corn were cultivated and raised in sufficient quantities to support the inhabitants, and much for exportation South. The villages of Prairie du Rocher, Fort Chartres, St. Philips, and Prairie du Pont were added to the former colonies, and a great por- tion of the whole bottom was in cultivation at the highest points of French prosperity, in Illinois. Ihave seen the marks of the plough for 20 or 30 continuous miles above Kaskaskia, in the bottom, where the land would admit, and in an extensive range of country around the villages of Cahokia and Prairie du Pont. It is stated by authors that great quantities of flour were shipped to New Orleans, in olden times, from the IIlinois and Wabash colonies. The agricultural implements of the French were defective, and not of the character that would be tolerated at this day. The poverty of the country and the want of skill forced the people to use carts without iron. In alluvial soils, where rocks or gravel did not appear, these carts performed tolerably good service--much better than sleds. The ploughs were honored with only a small point of iron on the front in the ground, and that tied to the wood with raw hide straps. The beams rested on axles, supported by small wheels, also without iron, and the whole concern drawn by oxen— horses not being used in the ploughs by the French in pioneer times—and the oxen were yoked to the ploughs by the horns. Straps of untanned leather tied a straight yoke to the horns of the oxen, and a pole, or tongue, coupled the yoke to the wheeled carriage, on which rested the beam of the plough. At this early day, the French farmers used no small 132 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. ploughs, and had none. In the war of 1812, they obtained the knowledge from the Americans of the use of the small ploughs to work amongst the green corn. Before the war, the French and Americans were strangers, and learned nothing from each other. I presume for more than one hundred years, the French ploughed in their corn about the 1st of June, and turned under the weeds, and not many grew until the corn was up out of their reach. They planted the seed corn in the furrows as they broke the ground, and turned the furrow-slice on the corn planted, opened a few furrows more and planted another row of corn, and so on, until the field was completed. The weeds were kept down with the hoe, or brier scythe. Sometimes strange looking Indian pumpkins were planted with the corn, and at times, though seldom, turnips were sown be- tween the rows. Potatoes were not raised to much advantage— not sufficient for the consumption of the people—I mean the French in- habitants of olden times. The Americans have always raised an abundance of these roots, since my recollection, in Illinois. For many years, there were no sweet potatoes cultivated in the country. Not much corn was raised by the French in pioneer times, as they did not use it to any great extent for bread, and their stock wintered out, for the most part, in the range. In summer, the pasturage was excellent, and all kinds of stock were generally fat. Corn was sold to the Indian traders on which to support the voyageurs and couriers du bois, and some used to fatten their hogs. The history of one year of French agriculture will serve for nearly one hundred and fifty years; as I believe, in that long period, not a new principle was ingrafted into tba system, nor an old one aban- doned. A mathematical similaritv reigned in all the French colonies, until the Americans introduced new agricultural principles among their French neighbors. The wheat crop was generally sown in the early spring, and tolerably well ploughed in with the ox-team. It was cut with sickles, or reap hooks, as no cradles existed in those times. They boupd the sheaves with grass cut for the purpose, hauled the crop home either in horse or ox-carts, and stored it away in barns. The ancient custom at“ harvest home“ was, to tie together some nice straws of the wheat in the shape of a cross, and to place it over the gate of the husbandman. This exhibition was in praise to Providence for the harvest, and also to show that the crop was housed in the barns. In winter, the wheat was threshed out in the barns with flails, and ground, for the most part, in horse-mills. The spring wheat made Fooc, darls golorec bread, which many preferred to that made of fall wheat. Little or no oats, rye, barley, nor buckwheat were raised in IIlinois for one hundred and fifty years from its first settlement. The French never cultivated, to any great amount, either flax, cotton, or hemp. nor did they manufacture into clothing what little, if any, they did raise. They used very few spinning wheels, and I do not recollect ever seeing a loom among them. All their clothing, except the deer skin moccasins they wore, they purchased at the stores. They raised SALIT. 133 considerable stock—horses and cattle, some Hogs, but no sheep nor goats. Their horses, known as ‧French ponies,“ were numerous, and of excellent pedigree. They were generally small, but of the pure Arabian stock, from Spain. No care was taken of them for more than one hundred and fifty years, and the breed scarcely ever crossed. Many generations of them never ate an ear of corn or other grain, but lived on the range, winter and summer. The French kept no stable horses; but let all the males run in their natural state. These ponies endured much more hardship than the American horses, and would do more service, living on the range, without grain. French cattle were immigrants from Canada, and were a small, hardy breed, generally with black horns. They stood the winter better, without grain, than the American cattle, and gave less milk in the summer. The French never raised hogs in proportion to their other stock. They lived on vegetable diet more than the Americans, and used less pork. Bacon was uncommon among them. They rendered a fat hog into lard for the family, and pan-cakes then were triumphant. The common fowls were abundantly raised amongst the early French, and the poultry and eggs gave the people healthy and agreeable support. They excelled the American masses in raising fowls, and were attentive to the cultivation of their gardens, which gave them a good part of a cheap living. The French, English and American governments awarded to the French colonies large commons, attached to the villages, to advance agriculture; but at this day, these commons are appropriated to raise a fund to support the public schools. D. J. B. SALT. THE HISTORY, COMMERCE, SO0URCES, MANUFACTURE, AND ECONOMICAL VALUE OF SALT CONSUMED IN AND EXPORTED FROM THE UNITED STATES. BX WILLIAM C. DENNIS, OF KEY WEST, FLORIDA. It has been assumed that great power and influence have accrued to certain nations because of their possessing the sources of salt and the skill and enterprise to supply it in commerce; and coincidences eading to this conclusion are certainly not unfrequent in the history che world, whether they may be viewed in the relation of cause and effeet or not. It has thus been alleged that the commercial power of tue Roman empire was built upon the Etrurian salt-works of Ostia; that the influence of Venice in the middle ages arose from a like cause; and that France and England nave successively increased 134 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. in commercial importance in the ratio of the development of their salt-producing capabilities. It certainly cannot be questioned that, in the nature of things, this source of wealth must confer great bless- ings on its possessors, enabling them to supply the world with an essential of life, and to rejoice in their own independence in a matter of primary utility. he experience of the United States has been adapted to inculcate this lesson, its early privations in this particular having been very great. The history of our salt manufactures, indeed, would be inter- esting and profitable, could the requisite data be obtained; but many feeble and imperfect attempts were made before the achievement of a successful issue. Perhaps the first of these was that alluded to in Beverly'’s History of Virginia, wherein it is stated that, in 1620,"a salt-work was set up at Cape Charles, on the Eastern Shore; with what success, however, is not mentioned. Another attempt was made four years later, at Plymouth, in Massachusetts, of which the fol- lowing record is obtained from Prince's Chronological History of New England. 1624. At Cape Ann there is a plantation beginning by the Dor- chester men by which they hold of those of New Plymouth; who also by them have set up a fishing work.***** In the same ship which brought Mr. Lyford to Plymouth, came a carpenter and a salt-maker, both sent by the adventurers. The carpenter, says Govy- ernor Bradford, eis an honest and very industrious man, quickly builds two very good and strong shallops, with a great and strong lighter, and had hewn timber for two ketches, but this spoilt; for in the heat of the season of the year he falls into a fever and dies to our great loss and sorrow.’ The salt man he describes as ignorant, foolish, and self-willed:—chuses a spot for his salt-works, will have eight or ten men to help him, is confident the ground is good, makes a carpenter rear a great frame of a house for the salt and other like uses, but finds himself deceived in the bottom; will then have a lighter to carry clay,&c., yet all in vain. He could do nothing but boil the salt in pans. He next year is sent to Cape Ann, and there the pans are set up by the fishing; but before the summer is out, he burns the house and spoils the pans, and there is an end of this chargeable business.“ In the same work the following minute also is quoted: 1 21629, March 10.— At a meeting of the Massachusetts Company, in London, Mr. Thomas Graves, of Gravesend, gentleman, agrees to go to New England, and serve the company as a person skilful in mines of iron, lead, copper, mineral salt and alum, fortifications of all sorts, surveying,&c.“ At the birth of this Republic, and during the only defensive war it has since been called upon to wage, we felt most acutely the ina- bility to supply our want in this substance. In both these periods, temporary salt-works were erected under the special favor of several States of the Union, and a maximum price for salt was in some in- stances established by law. During the Revolutionary war, salt was manufactured along the SALIT. 135 sea-board of the United States by boiling sea-water, and after its close, quite an extensive system of salt-making grew up around New Bedford and Cape Cod, at which works, after the plan was per- fected, a large quantity of as pure an article as any ever made was obtained, but from the fineness of the grains it was not well fitted for salting pork, in barrels. The plan adopted was the origin of the one practised at present in the State of New Vork for making solar salt. Each of the lines of the narrow shallow vats, with their movable roofs, were more than 1, 000 feet long, one end of which was higher in level than the other, with a regular gradation the whole length. Sea-water was pumped into the highest end, and as it strengthened by the evaporation of the sun and air, it was let from one level to another till it arrived at a certain point in the line, beyond which it was not permitted to go, until reduced to the point of saturation with common salt, when the brine deposited all its impurities, except those more soluble than that salt, such as the muriate of lime and the muriate and sulphate of magnesia, the solution of which always drains off entirely from perfectly formed crystals of common salt. The remainder of the line of vats from this point was used alone for crystallizing the salt, no brine being allowed to come into this part of the line before it was evaporated fully up to saturation. The salt taken from these pans was remarkably heavy and strong. For salting beef and fish, and for preparing bacon and hams for the smoke-house, no salt could be better; but after our last war with England, when foreign salt could be bought for less than 50 cents per bushel, these works were suffered to go to decay, and now few of them are in operation. Some eighty years ago, there were many small establishments in Massachusetts for boiling salt from sea-water. That of Messrs. Obed E. Smith and Job Chase, at Harwich, consisted of twelve kettles, of 16 gallons each, set in mason work, and protected from the weather by a low building. At first, they raised the water by a hand-pump, afterwards by a wind-mill, and conveyed it in gutters to the boilers. This establishment was continued till after the close of the Revolu- tion, a period of more than twenty years. In Falmouth and Barn- stable, there were similar establishments. In fact, the restrictions imposed on our commerce by the British Parliament for several years prior to the Revolution, by cutting off the supply of foreign salt, compelled almost every man on the sea-board to become a manufac- turer. The exorbitant price of foreign salt, and the distress occa- sioned at this period, obliged many to continue this petty business, and induced others to adopt other means for making salt for their own consumption. Soon after the close of that war, boiling salt was discontinued, and has not since been resumed in this State. The salt made by this process was a very inferior article. It was fine-grained, and imperfectly separated from the lime, salts of the bittern, and other impurities contained in the water. In order to obtain a single bushel of salt, 8 barrels, or 252 gallons of sea-water had to be evaporated, for the most part, in kettles unsuited for 136 AGEICULTURAL REPORT. that purpose, hanging over a fire. or set in mason work unprotected from the weather. But an apparently unimportant observation, one of those small incidents which often pave the way to great discoveries, established the fact that salt could be made in this climate by solar evaporation. Several salt-boilers, at Harwich, remarked that some clam shells on the sea-shore contained minute crystals of salt. These, they concluded, must have been formed by the drying away of the water left in them by the tide. The correctness of this opinion they soon ascertained by filling several and placing them on posts. Mr. Ammiel Weeks, of that town, made another experiment, which was more satisfactory. He constructed a shallow box, open at the top, 6 feet in length by 2 feet in width, and divided into three compartments by narrow strips of board placed crosswise on the inside. This he filled with sea- water, and exposed it to the sun's rays, in fair weather, and at other times kept it covered. With this simple apparatus, he manufactured salt sufficient for his own consumption. This experiment was made in the year 1774, or 1775, and was probably the first salt made in the United States by solar evaporation, although it was practised in France and other countries many years before. About the same time that Mr. Weeks made his experiment, an unsuccessful attempt to manufacture salt was made at the Isle of Shoals, in New Hampshire. A vat, about 10 feet square and a foot in depth, was scooped in the ground, and made tight with a layer of clay. Over this, a rude frame was erected to support the boards which formed a covering on the approach of a storm. The next attempt to manufacture salt in works constructed on the plan now generally adopted in this country, was made in 1776, or 1777, by John Sears, of Dennis, who had previously led a sea-faring life. Possessing an inventive genius, he conceived a plan for manufacturing salt by a less tedious and more economical process than the boiling down of sea-water. Wanting the means to test the practicability of the plan, he associated himself with Edward Sears and Christopher and Edward Crowell. The latter had seen the works at the Isle of Shoals, but it does not appear that John Sears had any knowledge that salt had ever been made in works similar to the ones he proposed to build. The situation which they selected was on Quivet Neck, in the northerly part of Dennis,(then Yarmouth,) at a small distance from the sea-shore. The vat, or „bottom,“ as it is generally called, was constructed 100 feet in length and 10 feet in width, and all on the same level. The flooring was Wwhite pine plank, laid on oaken sleepers, the latter running cross- wise, and the former lengthwise. The gunnels, or sides and ends, were also of plank, 8 inches high, and secured to the flooring by by upright pieces mortised into the ends of the sleepers, supported by knees passing under the flooring and on the outer sides of the gunnel pieces. The corners of the vat were also secured by knees. The roof was curiously fashioned. Rafters, grooved on each side, were permanently fastened to the gunnels, at the distance of from 5 to 6 feet from each other. The doors were made of a corresponding width, and consisted of several boards of the same length of the rafters, SALT. 4 137 clamped together like a common door. These were moved obliquely upwards and downwards in the grooves of the rafters, when occasion required, and they were prevented from sagging in the centre by slender rafters placed between the principal ones. It was soon found necessary to have a separate vat for crystallizing the salt. A parti- tion was accordingly placed across the original vat, dividing it into two. For the first two years, water for the supply of these works was brought in buckets from the sea-shore; but just before the close of the Revolution, Mr. Sears procured one of the pumps of the British ship-of-war Somerset, which was stranded on the coast of Cape Cod, and erected it for the supply of his manufactory with water, and to avoid the labor of boiling. About 1790, he constructed, for the pur- pose, a wind-mill, on the plan of those then in common use. Like other inventors, Mr. Sears did not escape the shafts of ridicule. For a long time, his manufactory was known by the appellation of“John Sears Folly,“ and to avoid the sneers of the less enterprising, he con- structed his mill in secret. In Brewster,(then Harwich,) in this State, Mr. Scott Clark and Rev. Mr. Dunster commenced the manufacture of salt a little before the close of the Revolution. Their works were built on Broad Poin: in the north part of that town, and were constructed like Sears. except they were divided into three vats. They had no pump ſor several years, but afterwards one was constructed like a common hand pump. Mr. Nathaniel Freeman, of Brewster, also built salt, works about the same time. In Barnstable, the first salt-works were built by Mr. Admo Hinck- ley and Nathaniel Gorham, in the year 1779. They were constructed on Mr. Sears' plan, about 50 feet in length and 10 feet wide, and divided into two vats. In other parts of Massachusetts, there were works similar to the latter for the manufacture of salt by solar evaporation; but many of these were broken up soon after the close of the Revolution. A few vats, however, exist at Cape Cod, in which salt is still manufactured to a limited extent. In 1830, there were manufactured in this State about 600, 000 bushels of salt by solar evaporation, after the method above described, since which it has generally been discontinued. As sources of supply of common salt in the United States, New Vork, and what may be called the Salt Basin of the Kanawha, are of much greater magnitude than any and all others. Before the Revo- lution, the discovery of salt springs is sp'oken of in these regions, since which time others have been feund on the surface, or by boring in different localities. At present, the principal salt-works in this basin are found in New York, Virgçinia. Pennsylvania, and Ohio, with some minor works in the adjacer! States. Nearly all of the brine wells tliere contain petroleum, a.l many of them to such an extent as to be of commercial value. Most of the salt is manufactured by the boiling process, except a vart of that of New York. The springs which underlis“ large portion of Western New Vork issue naturally from the zaith, and attracted the attention of the 138 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Indians long before the settlement of this region by Europeans, as crystals of salt appeared on the surface of the black mud in their vicinity. Father Jerome Lallemont is believed to have been the first white man who mentioned these"salt fountains.“- Le Moyne, a Jesuit, also noticed them in his journal, published in 1653. More recently, in 1770, Onondaga salt was in common use among the Dela- wares, and the traders brought quantities of it to Albany with their furs, as a matter of curiosity!. At the same time, the Indian women sent this salt to Quebec for sale. The first white settlers commenced making salt, by boiling, in 1788, near where Syracuse now stands. In 1797, the first laws were enacted in New Nork for the regulation of salt-works; and in no case has there been granted to individuals in fee simple any saline belonging to this State, which opens the wells and keeps them in repair. It is at the expense of building the tanks, or reservoirs, into which the brine is pumped for the purpose of freeing it from impurities as much as possible, previous to its being distributed to the several lessees, who complete the manufacture of the salt. These reservoirs are in the exclusive charge of the State. which also furnishes the aqueducts for distributing the brine to the lessees, who pay a cent a bushel of 56 pounds, in the way of rent, or duties, on aſl salt manufactured. The strength of the brine is measured by an instrument called a“ salometer,““ arranged by desig nating distilled water 0, and the same kind of water saturated with common salt 100. With instruments thus graduated, the brine of the Onondaga salt-works varies at different places and seasons from 760 down even as low as 440. The wells which do not furnish brino above 50 are not considered worth working. There are made by solar evaporation, at the Onondaga works, from 500, 000 to 600, 000 bushels of salt per annum, which has the specitic gravity of all solar manufactured salt, and unquestionably possesses superior antiseptic qualities. It is made in long, narrow, shallow wooden vats, elevated a few feet, with movable roofs, which are run on and off, as the weather may require, similar to those formerly in use in Massachusetts. When the works are in operation, they generally require 3, 000, 000 gallons a day, and the average daily sup- ply for six months is not less than 2,000, 000 gallons. The average cost of manufacturing salt by boiling during five consecutive years was about 31 per barrel of 280 pounds, the minimum price being in 1849, 1850, and 1851, from 70 to 90 cents; in 1852, 81; in 1853, §1 13; in 1854, 81 25; in 1855, 81 30, in 1856,§1 40 per barrel. The solar-made salt costs about the same as that boiled. It weighs about 75 pounds to the bushel, while the boiled salt weighs only 56 pounds, the latter varying, however, according to the position of the kuttles, to a weight considerably above, as well as below, this standard, Sioh is the number of pounds reckoned to the legal bushel of the tate. A salt block for boiling, at Onondaga, of the largest sise is con- structed of pricks, from 12 to 15 feet wide, 4 to 5 feet high forming two parallel arches, extending its whole length. Within the top of these arches, are placed common cast-iron kettles, contaizing from 50 8 SALT. 139 to 70 gallons, set near together in two rows, the entire length of the arches. A fire built in the mouth of these arches passes under each kettle into a chimney, which may vary in height from 50 to 150 feet. The number of kettles to these double blocks varies from fifty to seventy, and the amount of salt made in one of them, say in eight months of the year, varies from 20, 000 to 25,000 bushels of 56 pounds. The following is a statement of the number of bushels of salt made at the Onondaga Salt Springs since June 20, 1797, which is the date of the first leases of lots: VnaABs. No. of bushels. 1(97................................ 25,474 1798................................ 57,928 1799.............. 42,474 1800.................................. 50, 000 180 1................................... 62, 000 1802................................... 75,893 1803................................... 90, 000 1804................................... 100, 000 1805)))))).............. 154,071 1806................................. 122,557 180 ⸗.............. 165,448 1808................................... 319, 618 180tt.:.¶ſ.... 128, 282 1810................................... 450, 000 1811..................... 200, 000 1812................................... 221, 011 1813................................... 226, 000 1814.......................... 295,215 1815.................................. 322, 058 1816................................. 348, 234 1817................................. 448, 665 1818.................................. 406, 540 1819................................ 526, 049 1820................................... 548, 374 1821.................................. 558, 329 1322.................................. 481, 562 182,3.................................... 726, 988 1824................................... 816, 634 1825................................... 757, 203 1826................................... 811, 023 182.................................... 983,410 1828................................... 1, 160, 888 1829.................................. 1,291,280 1830................................... 1,435, 446 1831................................... 1,514, 037 1832................................... 1, 652, 985 1833.................................. 1, 838, 646 1834............................... 1,943, 252 140 AGRICULTURAIL REPORT. VEARs. No. of bushels. 1835................................... 2,209, 867 1836.................................... 1,912, 858 1837.............................. 2,161, 287 1838.................................... 2,575, 033 1839.................................... 2,864, 718 1840.................................... 2, 622, 305 1841................................. 3, 340, 769 1842———V——V........................... 2, 291, 903 1843....... ͤ....................... 3,127,500 1844.................................... 4, 003, 554 1845.................................. 3, 762, 358 13466....................... 3,833, 581 1847................................... 3,951, 351 1848............................... 4, 737, 126 1849.................................. 5,083, 369 1850.............................. 4, 208, 919 1856616.................. 4, 614, 117 1855o)0)))) a ao au l uiu l·...... 4,922, 533 185555))o u uy1 lll llll l......... 5,404, 524 185ö4f4f ··„õo aln ½½llll·l i.. 5, 803, 347 1855.................................... 6,082, 885 185640q40h))nnnn⁰.... 5, 966, 810 185(...................... 4, 300, 000 Salt springs are found in almost every part of Kentucky. From these springs, or licks, with proper management, salt may be made in sufficient quantities for the consumption of all the inhabitants the Western country could support. Notwithstanding the high price of labor, and the imperfect manner in which the business of making salt was carried on, yet the average price of that necessary article, at those licks, for several years previous to 1795, was from 81 to§2 per bushel. The most noted of those springs, or licks, are—one on Salt Lick Creek, near the Ohio; the upper and lower Blue Springs, on Licking River. Drennon's Lick, on Kentucky River; Big Bone Lick, Long Lick, Bulletts Lick, and Mann's Lick. The method of pro- curing water from these licks is by sinking wells from 20 to 40 feet deep. The water drawn from these wells is represented to be as strongly impregnated with salt as sea-water. The salt-works in Southern IIlinois, althougn they are not worked at the present day, were once in successful operation, and supplied the country with this indispensable article, from its earliest settle- ments by the Europeans. The celebrated salt springs situated a few miles south of Equality, in Gallatin county, were known and worked by the Indians and French of Vincennes from the time the colonists commenced at that village, in about the year 1720, and still pour out volumes of water. But from the scarcity of fuel in that vicinity, the manufacture was abandoned. The“United States or Ohio Saline,“ at this day, stands in reserve as a check to regulate and keep down the price of imported salt. It ———— TOm le in the of dng cle, per Salt 0n ick ro feet 9 48 ked lied tle. few kel ists Out the TVO 1 SALT. 141 was in successful operation under Colonel lsnac White, in about the Year 1812. Other salt-works were situated„u Big Muddy River, not far below Murphysborough, in Jackson conuty, and on the east fork of Silver Creek, in Madison county, as well as on the upper branches of Little Muddy Creek. All of these works produced considerable quantities of salt, but much less than those at the Ohio Saline, like which, and most others in the State, they have fallen into disuse. Although salt springs abound in the States of Pennsylvania, Vir- ginia, Missouri, and Tennessee, from which considerable quantities of salt were manufactured by the early settlers for domestic purposes, very little at present is made in these States. Mines of rock salt also exist in Missouri, Utah, California, and in other parts of the Far West, which promise at some future day to become of vast account. But perhaps the most reliable source for obtaining salt in the United States is from the evaporation of sea-water by solar heat, all along the coast, from New Jersey to the Rio Grande. South of Cape Florida, salt can be economically manufactured wholly by this process, if the French method of concentrating it on a part of the works as hereinafter described, be adopted, and, if convenient points be selected both for making and shipping the article. North of that point, it can be made cheaply by the aid of“ graduation,“(technically so called,) and other analogous methods of increasing evaporation, if concen- trating it on a part of the works, as above, be not found sufficiently powerful in practice. The southern coast of Texas and the Florida Keys are peculiarly fitted for making solar salt without extensive artificial aids to evapo- ration, but most of the States and Territories in the Union have supplies of prine, and the climate is sufficiently hot and dry to bring them to saturation without fire, if care be taken to crystallize slowly aud in such a manner as the science of chemistry unfolds. Solar made salt can also be produced cheaply on the coast of Cali- fornia from San Francisco to San Diego. In fact, from the seasons being divided into dry and wet, that region is peculiarly fitted for salt-making by solar heat. The Great Salt Lake of Utah seems thestrongest and purest brine fountain known. Its water is generally at 220 Beaumé. Captain Stansbury records that he saw millions of bushels of salt crystallized on its western borders, and that he made use of the unstrengthened water of the lake successfully to cure beef. A singular salt lake, or pond, is found some 55 miles northward from Brownsville, in Texas, comprising 30 to 40 acres in extent. The salt is crystallized over the bottom of this pond to an unknown depth, with brine over it to the depth of one or two feet. Salt is cut out for use, but soon crystallizes again to the same level. The following table will exhibit the relative strength of the different brines from which salt is manufactured in the United States: 142 AGRICULTURAL REFPORT. At Nantucket, 350 gallons sea-water“ give a bushel of salt. Boon's Lick, Missouri.... 450 do do... Conemaugh, Pennsylvania,.. 3000. do.......do........ Shawneetown, IlIlinois,..... 280 do do....... Jackson, Ohio,,...... 213 do do........ Lockhart’s, Mississippi,.... 180 ͤ do do....... Shawneetown,(second saline,) 123 do-. do....... St. Catharine's, Upper Canada, 120 do do...... Zanesville, Ohio,.... 963 do do....... Kenhawa, Virginia,. 75 ͤ do do........ Grand River, Arkansas,.. 80 do. do........ IIlinois River, Arkansas 80... do do........ Montezuma, N. Y.,(old wells,) 70........ do......... do........ Grand Rapids, Michigan,.. 50 to 60 do do... Muskingum, Ohio. 50. do·o) do...... Montezuma, N. Y.,(new wells) 50 do do...... Onondaga, N. Y.,(old wells,) 40 to 45 do..dOo........ Onondaga, N. Y.,(new wells at Syracuse)h))) 30 to 35 doo. do....... Let us now briefly examine some of the principal processes for making salt by solar evaporation on a large scale; and as the French methods are believed to produce the best articles, and those pursued in that country without the aid of graduation being well adapted to the extreme southern part of the United States, we will begin with them. Besides many salt-works at brine springs in the interior, salt is ex- tensively manufactured along the Mediterrangan, and on the Atlantic side, principally around the mouth of the Loire, and the low coast in its vicinity. In the last-named region, where the tides rise high, extensive reservoirs are kept at high water by means of swing gates, which open at the flood and close at the ebb, being placed in a dam across some arm of the sea. Each of these reservoirs frequently supplies numerous salt-works. Salt-making is a government monopoly; the works are national property, and are divided into lots of from 30 to 500 acres, to suit the convenience of the persons who rent them. These works are so situated as to be commanded by the level of a principal reservoir, whether they be large or small, the sea-water flowing slowly from it into a series of lesser reservoirs and long winding conduits, till it comes to the crystallizing pans, between which, there are also long, narrow passages, each of the works being arranged with these smaller reservoirs and pans, wherein the salt crystallizes in such a manner that the incoming water flows over the strengthened brine from reservoir to reservoir, through the passages named, till it has evaporated to the point of saturation, when it is permitted to crystallize in a pan prepared for the purpose, It is then „Of the sea-water at New Vork, about three hundred gallons would give a bushel or salt. The following are the results of an examination of a portion of water taken from the East River, at very high tide: Specific gravity at 600 F., 1.02038. 1,000 grains contained 26.8 grs. of dry saline matter, namely: Carbonate of lime, 1.22; carbonate of magnesia, 0.5; sulphate of lime, 0.8; sulphate of magnesia, 1.72; chloride of magnesium, 2.26; chloride of sodium, 20. 3. ————.—— . SALT. 143 raked out and placed in piles to drain, whence it is removed to store- houses for use. As above stated, the crystallizing pans are to be arranged so that the brine can be made to flow from one to another through the passages, that a part of the series can be used for strengthening the brine when the weather is unfavorable; besides, the rapidity of the crystallization is greatly increased when the saturated brine is in motion. The distance that the brine flows from the main reservoir to the last pan is frequently more than 10 miles in the largest works, and seldom less than 3 in the smallest. This plan not only purifies the brine, and produces a salt free from the defects of other kinds of solar-made salt, but hastens the process of making to such an extent as to render it of the first importance in so variable a climate as ours. This plan enables the salt-maker to concentrate :. the evaporation of his whole works on as many of the lowest pans in the series as he may find the most advantageous, or the state of the weather requires, in order that at least a part of the accumulation may be made, even in the most unfavorable seasons. At many of the French salt-works, other plans are adopted to hasten ie the evaporation, such as pumping the weak brine into tanks 20 to 30 king feet high, and then letting it down in showers through fagots placed hodb in frames of that height, and which are frequently 50 by 100 feet, that or upwards, on the ground. Weak brine is also thrown into the air tb with machines similar to fire engines, and falls in showers on high hem. piles of brusn. Many of these plans for increasing evaporation are ex. in use on the Mediterranean, where, the range of tides being limited, antio the water necessarily has to be pumped up into main reservoirs, st in sufficiently high to command the level of the general works. igh In many parts of France, salt is made by collecting the mud during tes, the dry, hot season, from places where the sea occasionally flows over dam it, and placing it on thick layers of straw in an elevated position, antl after which the water is pumped on it, and leaches through the mud poly; and straw, finally descending through a system of fagots, to increase 30 to the evaporation. This brine is much stronger than sea-water when hem. it first leaves the mud and straw, according to the degree in which Of 3 the mud has been impregnated. ater Salt is also extensively manufactured in the interior of France from long brine springs, the strongest of which are in the vicinity of La peen Meurthe. These contain, on an average, 35 per cent. of salt. The eing system of graduation is pursued at many of these works. salt In the southern part of Germany, and, in fact, throughout the the greater part of that country, much good salt is made from sea-water, ages from brine springs, and from the solution of impure rock salt, these it brines being brought to the point of saturation with common salt in then some works after the French plan, aided by a system of fagots called — graduation,“ and by throwing weak brine into the air and letting it behe fall in showers on high piles of brush, and other analogous methods i to increase evaporation. The greater number of these springs, how- nesin ever, are far too dilute, with the existing prices of salt, to repay the 2ii cost of evaporation by means of fuel. At Salzhausen, for instance, the production of 100 pounds of salt presupposes the evaporation of 144 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. about 339 cubic feet of brine. At Schönebeck, the annual produce of upwards of 57,500, 000 pounds of salt is obtained by the evapora- tion of 19,000, 000 cubic feet of water. In all the brine springs, therefore, which are far removed from a state of saturation, the greater portion of the water is reduced in bulk by evaporation in the air,(graduation,) the smaller portion by boiling. The graduation house is intended to distribute the brine in the korm of rain, and expose it to the air in this state, whilst the action of the latter is increased by stopping and retarding the single drops as they fall. The brine is caused to fall from the trough or cistern A, as indi- cated by the following cut, into the tank K, the retardation is g 6 — Apparatus for Evaporating by Graduation. effected by means of a wall of twigs, or fagots, L, and its distribution in the form of rain by means of a series of perforated tubes and plugs, as shown in the following diagram. The motive power raises the brine into a large reservoir, generally placed in a tower, whence it must be en- abled to flow freely into the trough Aas it is wanted. By means of the horizontal pipes G C, the brine is conducted in a thin stream to the dropping channel B B, which extends throughout the whole length of the graduation, and from thence it falls, drop by drop vpon the wall SALIT. 145 „ of twigs L. This structure is composed of fagots of black-thorn. placed between the lath-work 11, in a horizontal even manner. The protecting board II, prevents the wind, which must pass through the thorns, from giving a wrong direction to the drops which are constantly falling on the outer side. That the air may exert its full influence, 71 77, Graduating Trough, or Cistern enlarged. the whole structure for graduation is erected in an airy place, and in a direction at right angles to that of the prevailing wind. It is ob- vious that this arrangement must expose the extended surface of the brine for a longer time to a constant current of air. If the wind changes, and threatens to carry the brine away from the wall and over the structure, the graduation must be reversed to the opposite surface of the wall of fagots; and this is done by a simple movement of the lever E, for which purpose it is attached to the wooden rod E F, supporting the boxes G G. The lever brings the wooden rod forward, and with it the boxes G G are moved into a position just under the horizontal pipes, so that their narrow lips at the back pro- ject over the cross channels H. Thus the brine is intercepted above the channels B and carried to the other side and opposite sur- face of the fagots, by a channel precisely similar to B. That the whole arrangement of spigots, channels,&c., may be easily managed, planks for walking are laid on both sides of A, and these are furnished with a railing. The erection for graduation here described, as it is practised in Salzhausen, is known as the“"one-walled“ graduation house, and is used in small works where building materials are scarce. The walls of thorns, however, are frequently made in pairs, as indi- cated in the annexed cut, and sometimes the outer surfaces m m, only 10 A 146 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. are used(surface graduation;) at others, the inner surfaces nn, are employed at the same time(cubic graduation.) The latter prac- tice does not quite double the effect, but(from observations made at Würrenberg), it increases it in the ratio of nearly 5 to 9. In 1= Walls of Thorns. each of these operations, the brine must be allowed to fall three, four, six, or even eight times through the fagots. For this reason, the graduation houses are partitioned into several compartments, the fore- most of which serves for the first, the second for the next fall, and so on. At Schönebeck, the effective surface of the fagot wall comprises 390, 000 square feet, and evaporates, on an average, during the day, 3.7 cubic feet of water from each square foot; therefore, in the year, (258 working days,) the whole evaporates above 44, 000, 000 hogs- heads, of 63 gallons each. According to an antiquated method, the graduation was effected by distributing the brine over flat, inclined wooden surfaces, or over ropes stretched backwards and forwards for a length of many thou- sand feet.* The thorn walls, introduced into Saxony from Lombardy, in the year 1559, have superseded, in Germany, every other plan. It is easily understood that graduation proceeds best with a mod- erately warm wind and sunshine, that a moist calm atmosphere is less favorable to it, and that in rainy weather, it is altogether stopped, Wwhilst the wind, when it acquires a certain force, is liable to carry the brine entirely away from the cistern. Frost, also, is prejudicial; for Ber- zelius observed that, below 270 F., sulphate of magnesia, with a portion of chloride of sodium, became converted into chloride of mag- nesium and Glauber's salt, and that this decomposition is not reversed when the weather becomes warmer. Salt, therefore, is not only lost in this manner, but the quantity of chroride of magnesium is increased, * Thus, for instance, at Moutier, in France, where salt is crystallized during the wholeèe sum- mer without any evaporation by fire, solely by graduation, the hot brine is caused to pass ten or more times over these ropes. SALIT. 147 5 Ars prac which is detrimental to the boiling process. Graduation, consequently, do at is limited to the more propitious time of the vear, and can then only h be practised from 200 to 260 days; and the quantity of brine allowed to flow over the fagots must be proportioned to the power of the wind. Nevertheless, a considerable loss is unavoidable during the graduation,(12.4 per cent. at Schönebeck,) which is partly occasioned by small drops being blown away, and by salt evaporating with the water. At Nauheim, a glass plate, removed at the distance of 600 feet from the building, and placed upon a high pole, was found cov- ered, after some time, with a thin incrustation of salt. The changes which the brine undergoes in passing through the fagots are various. The carbonates of the earths are dissolved in „ * the brine as bicarbonates; all the free carbonic acid, and half of that combined with the earths, escapes, partly in passing through the pumps, and still more during graduation; and the earths are de- posited as insoluble simple carbonates, whilst the greater portion of the gypsum crystallizes in consequence of the diminished amount of water.“ In consequence of these depositions, the thorns become gradually covered with a thick coating,(thorn stone,) consisting of carbonates of lime, magnesia, manganese, and protoxide of iron, with traces of metallic chlorides in variable proportions, which, inas- much as it at last fills up the interstices and stops the draught of air, renders it necessary to renew the thorn wall every five, six, or eight years. In the brine cisterns, precipitates of like composition fall as bdur a fine mud, sometimes accompanied by a greyish, thick, scum-like te mass, filled with bubbles, which is mostly composed of living infu- bore soria evolving large quantities of pure oxygen. The principal change nd 8 which takes place in the brine is naturally the progressive evapora- I tion of the water; and the manner in which this progresses, although dan variable on account of locality and the weather, may be seen from Foal, the following view of the graduation at Dürrenberg: A cubic foot of nogs brine contains of salt— edby.. Pounds, 8 In the beginning........................... 2. 5 fa After the first graduation....................... 3.9 3 J After the second graduation.............. 5. an After the third graduation.... dd„ 8 0 un The climate of our Middle States is more favorable to the system sles of graduation than any part of Germany, and equal to any portiim rhilst of France. The experience of those two countries is, that briles brine can be brought to the point of saturation without fire-heat at a Ber cheaper rate than with it, even if cheapness were the paramount, ith a object, which should not be. Moreover, the brine is well fitted mag. for making good salt when it goes through the solar process of evapo- rsed ration, which we have designated the French menhod, or througn a rlost process analogous to graduation, as pursued in Germany and in parts ased, of Italy and France. This fact has been acknowledged by the scien- u*GyLsum, according to Berthier, is most soluble in a brine of specific gravity 1.033, and 0s is, therefore, not deposited at first from very weak brine. 148 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. tific mem of Great Britain for the past half century. From the cool- ness and humidity of that country, they declare the inability of their people to make a good and safe antiseptic salt as cheaply as they can buy it. England makes salt only for the arts, for manure, and for exportation. Even what has been done in Massachusetts, and what is now doing at Onondaga, proves that good solar-made salt can be manufactured anywhere in the United States as cheaply as boiled. The saving to this country would count by millions of dollars if all the salt produced in New York and the Kanawha Salt Basin were of the kind and quality of the 500, 000 to 700, 000 bushels of solar-made salt now manufactured at Onondaga, even if it should cost more than boiled, which it need not. A word more as regards salt-making in the drier and hotter parts of our country. The most favorable localities of the eastern coast of the United States for salt-making by solar evaporation, without aids analogous to graduation, are on the coast of Texas, from the mouth of the Rio Grande to Galveston Bay, and more especially around Corpus Christi Bay; the average annual fall of rain in the last-named region probably not exceeding 30 inches. Xet, from the shallowness of the water on the coast, it is difficult to find places where salt can be made and shipped cheaply. The Keys along the Florida Reef also furnish many situations where solar-made salt can be produced and shipped to great ad- vantage. The climate may not be quite so dry as the southern coast of Texas, but this region generally furnishes superior facilities for shipping. For nineteen years previous to 1850, the fall of rain at Key West, at an annual average, was 31 ½ inches, but since then it has been greater. However, the experience of the writer of this article goes to prove that millions of bushels of the best solar-made salt can be yearly manufactured along this Reef, if the proper sys- tem be adopted, and due care be taken to purify and crystallize the brine. In two or three instances, I have crystallized salt in six weeks from sea-water, by the solar method. The brine traversed about 15 miles, and was up to saturation by the time it had arrived at the last receptacle in the series, at which point, it was pumped into carefully prepared crystallizing pans, situated on a higher level than the others. Besides hastening the evaporation, keeping the brine in slow motion seems to aid in depositing impurities. One un- acquainted with the business would be astonished at the quantity of impurities deposited from sea-water by this plan. In strengthening from 60 to 120, Beaumé, the brine precipitates a grey slimy mass, mixed with organic matter, and gives forth sulphuretted hydrogen. Further strengthening from 120 to 220, it precipitates crystalline sul- phate-of lime chiefly, and during this period bromine shows itself, especially if a little rains falls in the brine. This brings out the color to such a degree as to tinge various substances which come in contact with it. At 250 the brine stands at saturation, and crystal- lization is more perfect if it be kept in slow motion during the pro- cess. I have found it necessary to give great attention to the bottoms of the pans, to prevent the mixing of marl and lime-sand with the salt during the process of raking. But the greatest expense — cool. their jcan d for What 1' be dlel ik al re o made than parts ast Of taids nouth round anled pness t can tions t ad. Coast s lor rain en it this nade 8)8. ethe S ersed rired mped level the u. y cf ning nass, gen. slll self, the ne in stal- pro the F San 1 gende SALT. 149 of salt-making and preparing for market here consists in raking the salt from the pans, housing and protecting it from the weather, and delivering it to vessels. These items constitute seven-tenths of the whole expense. This shows the necessity of selecting convenient points for housing and shipping. Even in these hot and dry regions, many aids to evaporation may be adopted with advantage, such as throw ing the brine in showers on high piles of brush, and letting it flow over sloping surfaces of bare rock, according to the nature of the locality. Much brine that is saturated, or nearly so, may be saved, just before the summer rains commence, by pumping it into large tanks, where it can remain covered till the period arrives for crystallizing it on perpendicular ropes, as already described. It is probable that sea-water from different parts of the ocean pro- duces salt of unequal value. The fact is noteworthy that salt made from water of the Gulf Stream, which is used here, is held to be of superior quality, though it is certain that, in many places, this salt is manufactured with the greatest carelessness.* In Germany, they use a process by which a superior kind of salt must be obtained. After the saturated brine is heated, it is pumped into small tanks, which are arranged around the top of a frame from 20 to 30 feet high, and of suitable size, on the ground, from which, ropes are suspended perpendicularly, about 6 inches apart. On these the brine from the tanks is caused to flow in small streams, where it rapidly crystallizes. In twenty-four hours, the ropes become so loaded with salt that it requires to be knocked off. One would think this a- wasteful process; but Dr. Ure says: that, with care, it is not so, and my own experience confirms his statement. He further says that as much can be effected by this plan in twenty-four hours as by the other in three days. And this process of crystallizing must turn out a purer article than even by the slow, careful manner of effecting this in the pans, for the reason that all impurities of other salts are immediately drained off from the ropes when rejected by the forming crystals of salt, and have no chance to adhere to the surface, nor to fill a casual interstice, as is likely to be the case in other plans of crystallization. As sources of supply of common salt to the United States, neither France nor Germany is of much importance, as we import very little from either. In Spain, Portugal, and their dependencies, the process for making salt is still very imperfect. The water is let directly into the pans, or ponds, from whence salt is raked, without attempting to precipitate the impurities from the brine, or to hasten the period of raking by concentrating the evaporation of the whole works on a few of the last pans, in a series as above described, the superior dryness of the cli- mate rendering this not absolutsly necessary. In consequence of this, the common salt crystallizes in a half-floating mass of impurities and brine, impregnated with odine and bromine, which last sub- stances give a disagreeable snarpness and acridness to the salt, So * Water from the Gulf Stream, at Key West, varies in strength from 4½° to 50, Beaume, at different seasons, which is probably caused by rain water remaining on the surface for som time without mixing, or by the fresh water brought down the Mississippi and other streams. 150 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. much complained of in England. Even the St. Ubes, which is some: what better in quality, is manufactured with much the same careless- ness. At the works in that vicinity, the pans are kept full of sea- water during the rainy season, to prevent the bottoms from becoming fresh, and we are informed that but little trouble is taken to clean the pans, at the beginning of the dry season, from the vast slimy de- posit of the previous five or six months, the most of which, from the difficulty of cleaning it out, remains in the pans as an addition to the impurities that are deposited by the sea-water during the salt-making season proper. Salt crystallized in such a bed must drain and dry for a year or more beforé it is fit for use, and even then, it does not lose its sharpness of taste. These countries are extensive but variable sources of supply of solar-made salt to the United States, we naving imported from Spain, Portugal, and their Islands, in 1856, 1, 614,456 bushels.. At Turk's Island, some of the Bahamas, St. Kitts, and St. Martin's, with a few of the other British West India Islands, excellent salt is made at works where the French plan is carried out in part or in whole; but at many(probably a majority) of the works on those Islands the same carelessness prevails as with the Spanish and Portu- guese. But it is difficult to ascertain with certainty the system or systems adopted in those Islands in consequence of salt-making having greatly declined in Turk's Island since 1833, which was formerly one of the chief sources of supply of solar-made salt to the United States; and having sprung up recently in the Windward and some other of the British West India Isles, the isolation of which renders the sources of information uncertain. As a source of supply of solar-made salt, these Islands have been hitherto of the first consequence, We having imported thence, in 1857, 1,033, 601 bushels. We occasionally receive cargoes of solar-made salt from Curaçoa, Nucatan, and a few other places, in the Carribean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, all of which passes under the general name of Turk's Island; and which, whatever may be its appearance, is unquestion- ably unequal both in strength and purity. Thus we have given a rapid view- of the principal sources of supply of common salt consumed in the United States, with something near the quantity received from each source, and the methods of manu- facture at some of the chief places. It has been said that the amount of common salt consumed by a people indicates, in a measure, their comfort and prosperity. In our case, the sign holds good. About the end of the last century, it was estimated that in the provinces of France where they had purchased an exemption from the gabelle, or salt duty, the consumption of salt was 19 ⅓ pounds to each inhabitant, yearly; in other provinces, it was less; at the same time, it was estimated at 22 pounds in England. In our country, we consume more than 50 pounds to each person, annually. The following is a statement of the quantity of salt imported, . exported, and foreign salt consumed in the United States, in each year, from 1820 to 1857, deduced from official sources: —— 2 SALT. 1180 Iuosg u Jo uonuue eu S pousllqeaso sua euui Jo M/O& eu ueda„8f8I J0 Sda uoud uiu 101 Cluo 81 811L 9 292 ˙01 819 10† 892*004 9†9 IIF'9 982 701 280 118 687!012 129 Sg.-- gy8lo ob. ll 190 ‧68 00⁵† 011 876 ,†88 L0r 12I’'9 789 91 078 19 219 ·,178 SrI SIIo. rS8I.. Obh C 99139*80 ˙913 630 ·861 280 191˙·9 997 ˙9.8 316 ,31 967 ˙138 rot gaso... l'8sIl.. ob.00 9* ε2 9 †1 ‧56 106§00=l 70½ 191'8 929 ,II 666 ,18 927 gIOI goz asls OpeI.0pP....( 21·7*9 198 193 †I8 ·018 191 020 ⸗9 811˙,91 198 ,0† 260 1488 809 190 ·9..egel op. odl 101 19 991 ,511 862 ˙210⸗ 188·990 1 021:91 093 ,18 81 SEOI rI sol,, asl... ob 00 317˙89 981 ˙66 968 ·6 †8 889 308 ·9 231 ,51 811,17 219 7398 907 852 9 4881 95b 0. 976 ,18 126 ˙6 6 †8 ·911 289 690 9 841,8 180(65 129*32 999 9890 9 981 0p..C. 887 9† 092 931 9⁰9 †9 91I 918 ˙9 26 ·,05 63 ,66 160 ·999 d9g Ce.. 98A 5b.(l 100 ˙9 190 ˙68 960 9238 189 ·186 ·9 613, L6709 918 ˙688 940 8202 egsl p cl 115˙81 690 95 116 186 201 811 ·9 109 F†l 019 ,† 817 ·966 6219 2219 Saosl 0pb.. 1L6 ·15 210 49† 231 939 916 110 ˙9 881 6 098(63 016 589 9ze IrFosog esl opb.(. 878 192 L7*8 9† 981 139 199 921 † 2999 e 689 ,99 891 989 Ofg 78 e8I 0Op... 94 816 25858 88 7'15 916 199 081 ,13 ⸗9 190 0a¶% 998 101 616 ,149 950 5le.. Oas o... 622 90¼ 191 106 ·9 688 II 068 † 819 ,I2 lie 69.. 68SI.. 0p..900 102 ,76 5 671 9Z6 8 814 ˙01 808 18 697 L5 196 596 8 d28I ob. 0 B 1191 612 †91 99 710 ,91 9988 ,99 1⁰½˙ 9.9 685 Ooaer J68. bpb.. 20 399 0rO †ε,†◻⁵ 809 ˙8 089 ·08 890 149 02½ ⁷99 †---9gdI op..9. I(O(0?9 603 819 909 † g 61 789 ,0½ 921 ˙689 702 vIG.c8.. 0p..90 0s 269 9e9 grS † 999 ,11 99719 987 819 668„10† †..= zzs ob 0 e Hae ee! 096 910-9 e9 101119 998 10†ʃ 119 171„g2eI.. oP....00 B159 919 990 ·§90 169(561 83838 56 386 929 189 480 681. ob oll ———B— 004„6o 186 IIe e lee ls Or’ I2 120 609us 1 1 ˙6 6 ◻ 1281"0g 10Mlodos Sulbuo TueX onleA slousug onleA slousug onleA Slousngd onleA slousud dALDOdXAM TIVS OITSdNOG GANHSNOO TlVS NDIAHOA „QdTLdOdXd TIVS NPBIAdOd GATLdOdMI LIVS SAVdX 2lο.. /νο dνᷣ m εοινσ meηοντ 7 unr Pnsuο S u6dοs pu Po m⸗ 888. m Ok xtu. king 1981°71) 0281 WAs the and hich 7 1 near anu. y à our Was sod salt Was und. 8on, ted, 10ο Pooduν ν 5 ſinun 2½ 1 ꝛ2uιενιιοινασ eacl, .94218 Teiz u p es pPollod Jo 4818uoo IIvdoupad pus NIOX AeN Jo 7soAo& puen uo Sullepaod pe o d aus 0 pro Sgoto enu SouJ, aqunoo u ur Suealus Jo 4*1ou& Luu u e 010OuI Zul*oq oueodur eols zo ueoeq suu eAeu jJunoute T1 ½2ν'ↄpesuoloul KIIpuozs eAun es Jo odxe ano nete Asqo— IA 2I4 puulSud uIO 51eA slousnd 109 ˙II'II ue4 s11 pealodun ales pollod Jo aunoure ou JO 8 5 ⁵ 669 ,061 191 9491 998:166:1 198e80:,11 817 ,1 L192 1811 289 280% voz 291 11 z981.Op..·0 8 265 IIs 897 869 18 ¾, 596,I 1895'615 ,gI FS84 ,99 187·921 290 ,166 1 98 20,1. 881 pP C 618 991 810 ,989 189 ,369:1 818 ,128 ,%1 968 ·95 915„0 086 812,I z22 9ge 2.. 981 eb 00 83 950,601 L81 ,879 216 ,06,1 618 160 701 096 761 199 ˙09 926 ,OIE,I 948 S9l o-[... vesl op C. 8 651 ,611 198 ,919. 119,1O,I 198 ,810 ,01 gg8 ,11 731 ,85 727 620,I 186 990 0al. 3981. Op. od 918 ,68 919 ,195,I 368 01“I 069 ,110 01 L954 ˙6 06 Ʒ ‿ ze1 gII I 080,911 Oo[ zgS8I.op d. 8 Zy 19 190 f 008 ,950⸗1 029*09:8 069 35 999 ˙94 068 410 1 921 ,189998 le81.. 0oDd....00 8 L01 92 911:618 819:155,I 681,861,11 899 ˙6 970 I8 981 167 ,'I es8I Fae l. 0e8I. op. o0 8 216 38 890 ,618 639 F2rI 113 ,919 ,11 395 l 988:95 186 889 I zel Sæn I—l. 658 op. 00. A 18 94 9II612 999 130'1 L33 ,086 ·8 978 † 619(68 209(2po I vo9 ,696 5 6 SSI.. Ced. 00 88 ,5† T 203 116 1818 997 ,061 1 189 †l 2 72 195 209 ,968 909 ‚gCe... azel opb od 039 ,08 129 ,111 999 ,8 4 199 ,992 ·9 911,0 997 ,49 289 ˙89 4 21C g829„H 8.. 0bB 00 191 9† 009 IeI 698 ,888 098 915'8 vos l 199 19 999 1868 127 ge. g'53I. 0b 0. 991 1s 6 ½9 191 3II688 810 981˙8 007 618 131 29 19 1168 681 8rs's pslI(0s ounf Zulpus 180X enleA slousug uluA slousng onleA slousng onlvuA sSlousug SdVAX daTdOdXAd TLIVS OIISAHNOG dAKINISNOO LIVS NDIAdON CdTBMOdXd LIVS NDIGNON CALHOdRNI TLIVS A⁴ 20. 7. — Penunuod— LNANATVIS — BREAD CROPS. 153 BREAD(ROPS. CHARACTERISTIOCS OF WHEAT. [Condensed from“The Farmer's Magazine,“ London.] The general diffusion of wheat over so large a portion of each hemisphere is a peculiarity which entitles it to the first consideration. Other Cereals, such as rice or maize, have only a local importance; but wheat is comparatively the"staff of life' throughout the vast regions of the earth lying between 600 north and 600 south of the equator, with the exception of a belt on each side of the line and within the tropics, where, even, it is cultivated with success among the highlands at certain elevations on the sea-board. Before treating of what relates to the natural history, the production, and the com- merce of wheat, showing its beneficial and extensive influence on society, from the first committal of the seed to the earth to the manu- facture of its produce into the staple articles of food, let us show its moral and social characteristics, as bearing in its use on the progress of civilization. The operations and arrangement of Nature in the formation, support of life, and final disposal of the animal as well as of the vegetable creation, have been uniform and continuous from the foundation of the world. The earth is the acknowledged“ mother'“ of all living things, and the source from whence they derive the means of a prolonged existence; and when the mission to which they were appointed is fulfilled, it is to her bosom that, in one form or other, they are again consigned. Nor is man,"the lord of the creation,“ able to boast—so far at least as his material nature is con- cerned— a higher origin, a more refined source of sustentation, or a more noble end. Although, through the wisdom and goodness of his Maker, who„breathed into him the breath of life,“' a distinguished status has been appointed for him in the sphere of the material world, and a still more exalted destiny hereafter, these superior advantages, in no respect, have exempted him from the ordinary laws of organic existence. Respecting him, also, the decree has gone forth—“ Dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return; and in accordance with this fiat, he enters upon life in feebleness, like the rest of the animal tribes, rises, flourishes, and decays; and when his mission is accom- plished, and the time allotted to him exbired, his mortal remains resolve themselves again into their original elements, and mingle with the common mass of inorganic matter, to re-appear at some future period in new forms of utility and grace.. It was wisely ordained that man should subsist on the fruits of his own labor; that the bounteous universal parent should yield her stores only to the exercise of the skill and industry of the being whose superior powers and faculties have given him dominion ove the land and sea; and that on the persevering and intelligent appli 154 AGRIOCULTURAIL REPORT. cation of those powers should depend, as a general rule, the amount or degree of benefit he should derive from those stores. The hand of the diligent maketh rich, but the sluggard lacketh all things.“ And thus, by a just retribution, whilst the use of the talents bestowed upon man brings its own reward, its neglect entails poverty and want, misery and distress, in all their complicated and destructive forms. It is now a well-established fact that, in proportion as civiliza- tion has extended, human food is improved in quality, and increased in quantity and variety. The investigations of science, and the enter- prises of commerce during the last century have thrown great light upon this subject, by revealing the condition of the nomadic tribes in different parts of the globe. In regions further removed, or wholly shut out from intercourse with civilized life, uot only is the mode of existence so precarious as to exclude the possibility of the natural increase of the species, but the means of sustaining life are often of the most disgusting and repulsive description. Thus, in Australia, such are the exigencies of human existence that worms, grubs, and even nauseous reptiles are the common food of the natives, who are found to be wholly destitute of a knowledge of agriculture, even in its most simple form. This, perhaps, is the most extreme case of barbarism of which, at present, we have any knowledge; but as we ascend from them, we shall find the degree of that condition dis- tinctly marked, and rising as the food becomes more choice, abun- dant. and varied; while, in the state of utter barbarism, the preca- riousness of the supplies places the wandering tribes between the extremes of to-day's excess and to-morrow's destitution, those higher efforts of the mind which dictate reserve in the first case, as a pro- vision against the second, are as dormant as if they had no existence. Agriculture is the precursor of all the arts of civilization, the foundation of commerce, and the basis of national wealth. Of itself, it implies a property in the land, whether permanent or temporary, which at once raises the possessor in the scale of society. Closely connected with pastoral life, but more humanizing, it was practised by the patriarchs from the earliest ages; and we may trace its ame- liorating effects in the history of those venerable men. Where, even in the present day, can we find more real refinement of manners, more benevolence, or more sterling integrity and independence than were displayed by Abraham in the purchase of the land for a burial- ground, or in his yielding to his younger brother Lot the choice of pasturage for his cattle? What can be more touchingly fine than the salutation of Boaz to his reapers, or his injunction to them to drop the handfuls of ears' for the poor widow's daughter? In the oldest history extant, such instances are numerous. But to return toour times: with the advance of agriculture towards a science, we find an improvement in the character of those who con- duct it. Herein Great Britain, in proportion to her extent, has taken the lead of all the world, and aas both cultivated and consumed the largest amount of the most expensive products ot the earth, par- ticularly of wheat; and we find a corresponding amount of intelligence and civilization as the result. In Ireland, the potato, for many years, —˖— BREAD CROPB. 155 constituted almost the only food of the rural population. The con- sequence of thus living on one kind of food, was to lower the social standard of character, and to deaden that spirit of enterprise which js an essential element in individual as well as national prosperity. On the Continent of Europe, the lower classes subsist chiefly on the inferior Cereals, as maize, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat,&c. Even in France, the farmers who cultivate the wheat are generally too poor to eat it, except in its coarser form, and mixed with inferior grain. This is shown by the consumption of wheat in that country, which, with a population of 36, 000, 000, is about 136, 000, 000 bushels; whilst in England, with a population of 27, 000, 000, the quantity consumed is at least 168, 000, 000 bushels. In the central and northern provinces of Russia, and in Norway, rye and buckwheat constitute the principal food of the majority of the inhabitants, and, at times, a coarser food is prepared from the bark of certain trees, which, although to a small extent nutritious, is anything but palatable, and can only be tolerated in a country where civilization is at a low ebb. In Germany, wheaten bread is only eaten by the upper classes, rye and barley constituting the principal food of the rest. In the countries more south and east, maize is substituted, in a great measure, by the lower classes for rye,&c.; for, although wheat is grown in considerable quantities, it is too great a luxury for any but the rich, and what they do not consume is exported to England or France. In many parts of Asia, wheat may be, and is, grown to a certain extent, but it does not constitute the Iood of the masses of the people. In Persia and Northern India, Arabia, Nubia, Egypt, and Barbary, although great quantities are produced, particularly in the Delta of the Nile, maize, rice, and millet are the principal food of the people. In these genial climes and fertile lands but little skill or industry is required to pro- duce a crop. In Egypt, after the subsidence of the waters of the Nile, the seed-wheat or barley,&c., is scattered over the mud. If this has become dry, the seed is lightly ploughed or harrowed in, and no more labor bestowed upon it until harvest arrives. The pro- duce is very great, but here, also, its consumption is confined to the wéalthy. In China and Japan, rice is the chief food of all classes. The land is well cultivated in these countries, and agriculture has been espe- cially promoted by the Chinese Government for many centuries. In somé respects they have been in advance even of English agriculturists, as, for instance, in draining the lowlands by simple hydraulic means, and collecting the water, thus raised, into canals for the purpose of irrigating the uplands. The beneficial influence of this attention and respect to agriculture is seen in the high degree of civilization to which that people have attained, different, it is true, from that of Western Europe, from causes unnecessary to refer to here, yet which raises them far above many of the European States in social economy. The immense population, however, of that empire chiefly subsist on rice; while the richer classes, in addition to that grain, indulge in an endles variety of luxuries. The restriction of the former to so inferior a species of food has the effect of repressing and degrading 156 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. the mind. In Africa, rice and maize are used by the majority of the people, indiscriminately, with the exception of Egypt and Nubia. In South America, with the exception of Venezuela, Chili, and Peru, maize is almost the only food of the great body of the natives; and even in North America, especially in the United States, the same grain is generally eaten, as well as wheat. But the abundance of other kinds of food, and the variety of ways in which maize is pre- pared in the last-named country, render its use, even if it were more exclusive, less influential upon the manners. We have thus, very slightly, surveyed the means of subsistence of the principal countries of the globe; and if the history of the con- dition of each be considered in connection with the quality of the food by which the greater part of its inhabitants are sustained, we must come to the conclusion, either that the political and social con- dition of the people compel them to have recourse to the most ordinary description of food, or that the use of it tends to lower and enslave the mind; whilst a more healthful and expensive diet would have a corresponding beneficial effect. It is probable that both these causes may operate at once, and upon each other. But it is never- theless certain that the use of the most generous diet has an elevating effect upon the mind, and that in chis respect, the general use of wheaten bread as the most nutritious vegetable food, in substitution for a less expensive and less wholesome one, wherever it has pre- vailed, has tended o elevate the character and condition of the people, and fit them for a better discharge of all the moral and social duties of life.. Wheat is both a biennial and an annual plant, the former being sown in the northern hemisphere, from June to November, and is usually called“fall or winter wheat,“ and the latter from February to April, and designated by the name of March or spring wheat,“ accord- ing to the climate and elevation above sea-level in which it is culti- vated. This plant has a double set of roots, namely, the“seminal' and the“ coronal.“ The former spring from the germ of the seed, and nourish the young plant in its incipient stage, until the first knot of the stem or joint has acquired sufficient solidity and hardness to throw out the coronal roots, which invariably form just beneath the surface, when the wheat is sown to a proper depth, and, shooting obliquely into the soil, contribute to the nourishment of the plant. In a loose soil, the seminal roots strike downward to a considerable depth, and have been traced 6 feet below the surface, in a sandy soil, evidently in search of water. They are connected with the coronal roots by a pipe, which, in fact, is the first joint of the stem, the pipe being longer or shorter according to the depth at which the seed is buried in the earth. If this be superficial, no coronal roots are thrown out. This shows the advantage of deep as well as early sowing for winter wlreat, whereby it is protected more effectually from those accidents to which it is liable, especially the"root-fall,“ occasioned by the frost laying bare the roots. — ——.—— —9882--s—O— BREAD CEROPS. 157 The choice of seed, in wheat, as well as in other plants, is a primary question. It is here that, in ordinary cultivation, farmers often deviate from Nature. The seeds of the wild wheat, except in a few instances, are sown where they are ripened. Unless conveyed by the winds or by animals, they are reproduced for a series of years on the same soil, in consequence of which the plant yields small seeds— per- haps degenerates. The farmer, to improve upon Nature, avoids these ill results by changing the soil; by carefully manuring his land; and by varying his seed. He notes, too, that in this alteration of seed, cer- tain facts with respect to new wheat are to be regarded as benefits. The sced should always be chosen from a poor soil for the seeding of a richer one, and from a cold climate for cultivation in a warmer. By acting contrary to this rule, we induce disease and a shortness in the yield. In Gloucestershire the hill-farmer chooses seed from the exposed chalk Wolds of Wiltshire, while the vale-farmer procures his seed-wheat from the hills. But in the same manner as spring- wheat may be cultivated into a winter variety, so may any kind of vheat become acclimatized by careful cultivation, which, however, sometimes entails a slight change of form; and hence have arisen tall and dwarf varieties, early and late forms,&. New varieties of wheat are constantly becoming in fashion with the agriculturist; but it must not be concluded that this is the result of caprice, as it is the nature of derivative plants to lose some of their qualities after a long career of changes; hence varieties are always useful as a change, and the more distinctive these are the better, if adapted to the climate and soil. The variety of the seed-wheat, however, is not the only material consideration: the prévention of disease in it has long engaged the farmer's attention. He strives to prevent blight, and commonly with success, by immersing the seed in brine, or solutions of sulphate of copper,&c.; the beneficial effect of which he attributes, perhaps with correctness, to the fact that these substances kill the minute sporules, or seeds, of the fungi, which have attached themselves to the wheat, and are the origin of the parasites that constitute the blight. But the experiments upon this subject, by Professor Buck- man, seem to warrant the conclusion that the beneficial action of these steeps depends upon their destroying the germinating power of malformed and diseased seeds; and he recounts some facts which he thinks show that the pickling of wheat destroys it, so as to pre- vent germination when the seed is diseased or ill-formed; but that, if perfect seed were always employed no pickling would be neces- sary, as diseased progeny must result from an imperfect stock in plants, as well as in animals. The depth at which the wheat-sced is most beneficially placed is a question, in general, not very carefully regarded. If we follow Nature here, we shall find her seeds mostly dispersed, or germinating at, or near the surface; and it has been ascertained, in the case of some kind of seeds, that if shaded from the direct rays of the sun, they germinate better than in any other situation. As with our field operations, however, it is not possibls to leave seeds thus exposed to 158 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. their various enemies, and as it is necessary to cover them with earth, the next inquiry which promises to be interesting is, what depth from the surface happens to be practically the best for wheat? Now, the experiments of Professors Buckman and Petri seem to con- cur in placing the depth at from one to two inches, as that possessing the maximum advantage. The result of the experiments of Petri is shown in the following table, who sowed given quantities of wheat at different depths: SEED SOWN TO THE DEPTH O0P— Came above ground in— Proportion of plants which came up. z inch 11 days Seven-eighths. 1 inch 12 days... Aall V 2 inches.. 18 days Seven-eighths 3 inches 20 days.. Three fourths A inches 21 days One-half. 5 inches. 22 days Three-eighths 6 inches 23 days One-eighth= Here it may be observed that the number of plant-producing seeds decreased as the depth below an inch increased; and in some re corded experiments with barley a similar progressive rule was found, until, when sown at a depth of 12 inches, it entirely ceased to pro- duce plants. If the depth materially influences the germination of the seed, so, also, do the climate and the period of the year in which they are sown. In an experiment by Professor Buckman, who sowed the same variety of wheat(red Lammas) in plots on the same soil, in each month of the year, the results are tabulated as follows: DATES. Height. Length of ears. Remarks. 1851. June 3 feet 5 inches 3 inches CGlean straw..... July..... 2 feet 10 inches.. 2 inches.. Glean straw....... August.... 4 feet l inch. 4 inches-. Glean strac.. September- 3 feet 11 inches-. 4 inches.— Clean stiaw Oetober.. g feet 10 inches.. 4 inches... Rather blighted.... November 3 feet 9 inches. 4 inches.. Rather blighted.. Decenlber 3 feet 10 inches- 3 inches.—„. Much blightecd...= 1852.. Janulary...... 3 feet 10 inches- 3 inches Much blighted February= 3 feet 6 inches- 4 ½ inches- Much blighted..= March Failed as a crop, but some ears ripened April—..- May— In the above experiment, it may be remarked that the winter was mild and wet, and that all the samples were gathered in August. an BREAD CROPS. 159 One of the characteristics of winter wheat is, that it sends out new roots and fresh fibrils in the spring, at the same time tillers and forms tufts, each shoot of which also takes root, like the central blade; and all this seeond growth occurs just when the spring wheat is coming up. In spring wheat, there is little disposition to tiller; as the growth is quick, the root has no period of rest, and therefore its fibres and fibrils are regularly developed, and have no fresh impulse of growth like wheat which has stood the celd winter, and is prepared to meet the milder season of spring with an invigorated constitution, and an appetite that requires new roots and fresh rootlets to supply it. It is on this account that winter wheat can be transplanted in spring with but little check to its growth, and even the tufts can be divided into slips which, indeed, may be a useful mode of augment- ing a crop in experiments upon varieties rare and new. When wheat has been sown as early as possible, at the required depth and at a proper season, the following changes take place: The grain begins to absorb moisture from the soil, and consequently in- creases in size. In a few days, the embryo becomes enlarged—the lower part soon protruding as a rootlet—the upper as a bud—-which will quickly develop leaves. Coincident with this, proceed the chemical changes in the cotyledon, from which the germ is supplied with its food, until the roots on the one hand, and the leaves on the other, become capable of acting—the one as purveyors and the other as eliminators of the food with which the plant may be surrounded, in the soil and in the atmosphere, and upon which its after welfare depends. If wholesome food for the plant be in the soil, it progresses favorably; if the reverse, disease or dissolution will be the result. If the supply of this be insufficient, the produce will be small; if too great, the effect will be blighted leaves and straw, with too small a proportion of grain. If bad seed be sown, there will be a sickly and malformed plant, resulting in diseased and consequently blighted grain. All this, however, depends upon the nature of the air which the plants are compelled to breathe; if full of noxious vapor, they die. A small quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphurous acid gas, and muriatic acid gas, mixed with the atmosphere which comes in contact with the wheat plants, acts as a poison, and thus prevents them from being grown in the vicinity of certain chemical and manu- facturing works, or from caverns, or other parts of the earth from which these gases are evolved. On the subject of"tillering,“ it may be remarked that the tillers spring from the seminal roots, but not from the coronal, the latter of which has been confidently laid down by respectable authority. The latter, so far from being an essential appendage to the plant, are en- tirely accidental in their formation. They proceed from the first knot, or joint, formed in the stem, provided that knot is beneath the sur- face; but if, as is frequently the case, it is above the surface of the soil, more coronal roots are formed, and the plant is wholly supported by the seminal roots, which, in all cases, constitute its main organs of nourishment. The establishment of this fact greatly strengthens the arguments in favor of deep sowing, by which the chance of the forma- 160 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. tion of a joint below the surface is rendered more certain, and which also insures the formation of coronal roots. These, undoubtedly, are of great utility in imparting a more firm hold of the soil, as well as additional nourishment to the plant, and consequently lessen the danger of its being lodged.— The applicability of the system of the transplantation of wheat, and the separation of the tillers from the main stem, to the general practice of husbandry, is a question which requires time and con- sideration to solve. At present, the mind of the great body of agri- culturists is engaged on the subject of machinery, stock-breeding, and under-drainage; and the more abstruse one of the physiology of plants, and the increase of their reproductive powers is confined to the application of various kinds of manures. The latter is certainly based upon chemical principles of very great importance, and being of easy solution, as well as of less complicated practicability, has been generally adopted. But the natural history of the powers and proper- ties, the habits of plants and principles of vegetation are even of more importance than the quality and appropriateness of fertilizers; but owing to the thought and study they require, and the tediousness of the processes by which results are obtained, very few indeed will be found to give them attention; and successful experiments of those who have made the investigation are often suffered to fall to the ground. It is anticipated, however, that the time is not far distant when the reproductive powers of our Cereal plants, especially wheat, will become the great question of the age; and that it will be found quite possible to increase their produce above what is now obtained, to at least two-fold. It would be gratifying to see the attention not only of men of science, but that of the landed interest, or at least that portion of it which are most forward in agricultural affairs, di- rected to this question. The consumption of Cereal food is rapidly increasing throughout the civilized globe, and must continue to do so in geometrical ratio with the growth of population; and as the first law of Nature,"'increase and multiply,“ is obeyed both in letter and spirit, one may look for the time when, without a proportionate production, the teeming millions will find difficulty in procuring bread. D. J. B. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF INDIAN CORN. BY OCHARLES T. JACKSON, M. D., OP B0STON. Having been instructed by the Commissioner of Patents“˙to de- termine the per-centage of starch, dextrine, gluten, and oil contained in the grain of the King Philip, Tuscarora, Wyandott, and White Gourd-seed or Horse-tooth corns,“ I procured well characterized samples of those varieties of maize, and submitted them to chemical analysis for the separation of the above-named proximate principles. In addition to those, I was required by my instruetions to separate, BREAD CROPS. 161 I have determined the proportions of caseine, albumen, and glucose contained in the corn, believing the results would prove interesting, both to men of science and practical farmers. In each analysis, about 600 grains of the corn were operated upon, in portions of 200 grains for each principal test. In one instance, the analysis was entirely repeated on a fresh sample of the King Philip corn raised last summer, the first analysis having been made on dry seed corn, in which I feared the oil had become desiccated, or oxydized. The specimens of Wyandott and Gourd-seed or Horse- tooth corn, were of last summer's growth. The Tuscarora corn was of the crop of 1856, grown near the borders of Connecticut River. The King Philip corn was obtained from Braintree. KING PHILIP CORN. This is an eight-rowed variety, and has a moderate-sized grain. The ears are long, slender, and uniform in size from base to tip. The grain has a deep orange color, and is a hard or flint-corn. It is very prolific, and much liked by our farmers on that account, and also for its quality of keeping sweet, when ground into meal. It is not suitable for starch-making, nor for rapid cooking, since it is very difficult to soften by the action of water.. The results of the analysis of a sample in a dry state were as follows: Water............................... 10.0 per cent. lat Oil................................. 4.0 46 Gluten, or zeinre:........ 5.0 4½ Dextrine and glucose.................... 1.5 64 Caseine and albumenn... 2.0 46 Starchn............................... 63. 6 44 Celluloowowoooo„o0odqd4etw)... 12.8 44 Undetermined, ash, EKooo,,. 1.1** 100.0 Another sample of the crop of 1857, from Braintree, gave:— Water................................. 12.9 per cent. Fat Oil................................. 4. 2 66 Gluten, or Zeine......................... 5.5 44 Dextrine and gluoose..... 1.5 Caseine and albumenn... 2.1* Starch........................... 54.5 44 Cellulose............................... 17.3 44 Undetermined, ash,&C.................. 2.0 100.0 WYANDOTT CORN. rhis variety of corn is extremely beautiful, being perfectly milk white. It is twelve-rowed with a medium-sized grain, very soft and 11 A 162 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. starchy, and having, as shown by analysis, but little cellulose in the form of epidermis and oil-cells. This corn grows admirably in the Southern and Middle States, and is especially adapted for the manu- facture of corn starch, used chiefly for food and for making meal that may be quickly cooked. It js the best variety for feeding horses and cows, as it is so easily crushed by their teeth, and is almost wholly digestible. fpme following are the results I obtained by analysis: Water, separable at 2120 TT4.... 15.30 per cent. Fat oil, soluble in ether......·... 3.60 Gluten, or zeine, soluble in alcohol........ 4. 80** Dextrine, soluble in water, çl....... 1.40*4 Caseine, precipitable by acetic acid....... 2.00 Albumen, coagulable by heat and by alcohol. 1.00** Glucose,(grape sugar,)............. 0.25* Starch, deposited from water 62.05* Cellulose, insoluble matter......... 6.30 4⸗ Undetermined, ash, Kobnt.. 3.30** The starch-maker will optain by his processes between 50 and 60 per cent. of starch from this grain.. I would observe, that the meal of these white, soft, starchy corns is more liable to become musty and sour than that of the flinty corns, and that it is better to keep it in the ear in a dry place until it is wanted for grinding, when only that required for a week's use should be sent to mill. These white, soft corns are best for rapid cooking into puddings and corn-bread, the meal cooking nearly as soon as that made of wheat flour. TUSCARORA CORN. This is an eight-rowed variety, but its grain is very large, and the cob proportionally small, and of a red color. The kernel is white, but not quite so pure as the Wyandott. It is preferred in New York to all other corn for making starch, and is raised expressly for that purpose. It may be advantageously raised in the Middle and South- ern States, but is a rather late crop at the North, though it does not fail to ripen in seasons of average warmth and duration. Like the Wyandott, it will be found far better food for horses and neat cattle than any of the flint corns, and is much liked by those people who have used its meal in making puddings and bread. My analyse, of specimens raised on the borders of the Connecticut river, in Massachusetts, gave the following results: Water................................ 8. 2 per cent O1...................................... 3.5 66 Gluten.................................. 4. 8 66 — * BREAD CROPS. 163 he Dextrine and glucose...................... 1.7 per cent mn. Caseine and albumen...................... 3.0 1 et Stareh................................... 66.3 64 an Cellulose................................ 11.5 66 l Undetermined matters, ash, K... 1.0 100.0** 6 Another sample of the crop of 1857, from Braintree, was analyzed, and gave of— Watel.................................. 12.9 per cent. 2 Trat Oil.................................. 4.2 6c Gluten, or zeitininoenn....... 5.5 4e Dextrine and glucose................... 1.5 44 Caseine and albumen........ 2. 1 46 StarCl................................... 54. 5 46 Cellulose................................ 17.3 44 Undetermined, ash, Klt...... 2.0 100.0 d60 Jeh GoURD-SEED OR HORSE-TOOTH CORN. lnt The gourd-seed or horse-tooth corn is an eighteen-rowed South- unti ern variety, with pitted grains, from the contraction of the starch ip uSe drying. The ear is short, stumpy, and closely packed with grain, The kernels are very large, and hence its name. They are nearly inggs white, and the flinty portion of the grain on its sides is transparent e ok and nearly colorless. A specimen of Virginia growth yielded on analysis— Water................................ 18.20 per cent. Fat ofl............................... 2.990 Gluten, or Zeine.......................... 2.10 66 tho Dextrine and glucose.................. 2.65 hite, Caseine and albumennn...... 1.35 e Vork; Itarch.................................. 53.50** that Cellulose............................... 17.50 uth⸗ Undetermined, ash, Cl....... 1.80** Iot the 100.00* tttle rh It is probable that this corn had not been so thoroughly dried as oni the other samples I have analyzed, and that, when kept under the same conditions as the Wyandott, it would not yield more water than that variety. Analysis shows, however, that it is not so nutritious as t. the other varieties here reported. The following table shows the results of the foregoing analyses, in order that they may more readily be compared with each other: —— f A 2 3 he-1981 ul posful 884A BTISILA UIOI 8m Kip v u 1dol uoed zou pell uroo Sd.I, 81 9 41 89 98 1 99 ½ 1˙³ 6 56 z 8I O-esou 10 poos-banon A4 uOol Käp v ul 2ded uood.sSaqosn o — gou pull puu 1e81 ul posel SuA oldures sill, 0 ˙ 8 ˙1II 9*9 1˙5 6 1 96 8 † 6 23 essuIN PuulslI —.9981 J0 doxo audz Jo puu äp sex& uoOo SI, 8˙21 9‧99 0˙³ 9˙1 0˙9 0**† 00I opoud uio däd 9981 un 81108 ☛ postel ses ip onlnb sud oll eldures sIu.I. 01 9 11 9 ‧99 0 8 4 1I 8 ‧* 9 ‧9 2 ‧8 n oessuI- snI, „SoIqua eur ols se SISCleun ur 4 poqeludos usuoul 12[10304 1AIS 010l O1 0ulosvo pus uaudlu esoonls'eupuxop ed. 8 ‧8 9 9 90 ‧29 0‧98 99 1 8* 9 ‧9 g' Sulse A 30pue A ö“ 8 8 93. R 25 5 g 5 5. 2 5. 8 8 eSAiu FE 3 5 8 5 8 E E 7 SAIIMHIMVA g5 S 8& 5 2 S. SE„ B E 2. 4 ·os f-νᷣ uνoood 2d2 ux 26peu*- 10d ſo 2unsα BREAD CROPS. 165 ANA=YSES OF THE CHINESE YAM, MEROCER POTATO, AND CHUFA. BY CHARLES T. JACKSON, M. D., 0F B08T0N. In accordance with instructions from the Commissioner of Patents, I have determined the proportions of starch in the Chinese yam, (Diĩoscorea batatas,) and in the Mercer potato; also the amount of nu- tritious matter contained in the Chufa, or“* Earth Almond'(Cype- rus esculentus.) CHINESE YAM. l find the Chinese yam to contain the following ingredients: Water.................................. 80.52 per cent. Starehhbwh„hwhhhhhhhnlh ·...... 9.93 6e Cellulose and fibrous matter............... 3.65* Sugar.................................. 0.45 64 Fat Oil................................... 0.12 66 Albumen................................ 1.27 45 Mucilage,(gum,)...................... 5... 3.20 4½ Mineral matter,(ash,)..................... 0.86 4⁶ 100.00* I present this full analysis, believing it will prove valuable to the public, and interesting in science. MERCER POTATO. The Mercer potatoes submitted to me for analysis for starch were obtained in January last. This esculent, though excellent for cook- ing, is not adapted for starch-making, since it changes color by atmos- pheric exposure, and the dark-brown coloring matter is very diffcult to separate from the starch. I found 100 parts, by weight, of these potatoes to yield— Water.................................. 75.80 per cent. Starch................................... 12.54 84 Cellulose................................ 3.62 64 Other matters not separated............... 8.04* 100. 00 CHUFA. The chufa, a curious and, as I believe, valuable plant, has inter- ested me greatly, an I have made a very minute analysis of its tuberous roots, which, from their composition, must be regarded as highly nutritious, both for man and animals. 166 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. The following are the results: Water..............⁊.............. 15.50 per cent. Fibrous matte..... 21.45 4 Starchh.............................·.. 27.00 64 A peculiar sugar,(like manna,)...... 12.25 44 Wäax....................... 0.50 5 Fat Oil... ·............... 16.65 8e Mucilage, or gum, with a little albumen... 6.65 100.00 When these tubers are beaten to a paste, and mixed with water, a gemarkable emulsion is formed, which, after straining, resembles milx in appearance. The fat at length rises to the surface, and looks like cream, while most of the starch subsides to the bottom of the vesssl, but enough still remains suspended to give the emulsion the appearance of thin or skim-milk. Thus mingled with water, the most nutritive ingredients of this plant may be taken as a drink. It is much used in this manner by the Spaniards, and I have no doubt will be so employed in this country. This emulsion may be sweetened and flavored so as to make it very agreeable to the taste. The chufa tubers cannot fail to prove a most valuable fattening food for animals, and they are much relished by swine and poultry. It is practicable to obtain a considerable proportion of oil from these tubers by pressure, after which the remaining cake will still serve as a valuabje food for stock, and add to the richness of the milk, if fed to cows. TEA-CULTUR. ON THE PRACTICABILITY OF THE TEA-CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. That an article so generally regarded as a prime necessity by every civilized nation should be restricted in its production for centuries almost entirely to the country of its origin, although corresponding regions with respect to soil and climate have been open to its intro- duction and culture, is an anomaly in the physical and social history of the globe. The tea of China, though acknowledged by most per- sons as a luxury, and by some even as food, is a commodity from which the people of no country should be deprived. On the con- trary, it may not be improper to repeat what was stated in a former volume, that in this case, as well as in most others, it is the policy of every government to gratify the wishes of its people, and to facilitate the acquisition of this luxury by its economical importation, or, what would be far more desirablo, to extend the production to its own soil. bles 0s the Most vill ened ring Utry. hese e 3s ed to TEA-CULTURE. 167 As to the expediency in the United States of such a measure as that, last named, little more need be said than that most of our citizens will have it, cost what it may, and millions of dollars will annually be paid for its importation, until its extensive culture shall be estab- lished in our soil. From the supposed general resemblance of the soil and climate of the tea districts in China, and those of certain regions in our Southern States, various attempts have been made by private individuals to introduce this plant, which, in all cases, ultimately resulted unsuc- cessfully, either from accident or the want of an àdequate knowledge of its culture, but more particularly of the manipulation of the leaves when grown. Thus, tea was introduced into Georgia in the year 1772, and more recently into South Carolina in 1848 and 1852. GEOGRAPHVY, SOIL, AND CLIMATE. In the event of the successful introduction of tea-culture into this country, it will first be necessary to acquire a more accurate knowledge of the soil and climate of the regions which produce tea in China or India, and then to select localities possessing similar conditions of soil and climate in the United States. Although the dominions of the Emperor of China extend over twenty-three degrees of latitude— from 180 to 410 N., and twenty-five degrees of longitude, from 980 to 1230 E.—embracing a soil varied in surface, elevation, and compo- sition, and a climate purely tropical as well as temperate and Al- pine, until quite lately the culture of the tea shrub has been con- fined principally to that portion of the territory lying between lati- tude 250 and 310, and the best tea districts are those between 270 and 310. This part of the empire has been represented as wholly under cultivation, but, on the contrary, more than half of it lies in a state of Nature, and has never been disturbed by the hand of man. The tea-plant is not only found in China and Japan, chiefly in a cultivated state, but is indigenous in the mountains which separate China from the Birmese Territories, especially in Upper Assam, bor- dering on the Province of Yun-nan. It is also cultivated in Nepal, at an elevation of 4, 784 feet above the Bay of Bengal, in latitude 270 42/ N. Within a few years, the government of British India has in- troduced tea cultivation into the North-western Provinces and the Punjob. At the present time, there are about 1,500 acres under cul- tivation in these districts. The tea manufactured is all sold in India, and brings high prices at the government sales, when it sometimes sells for 68. or Ts.(from§1 50 to l 75) per pound. From the success which has been met with in the above-named Provinces, as of the Assam Tea Company, this plant is now beginning to be cultivated by private individuals. For the last twenty years, tea of fair quality has also been produced in considerable quantities in Brazil. In order that the reader may form an opinion of the soil and cli- mate requisite for the culture of tea, the following abstract has prin- cipally been made from“ Two Visits to the Tea Countries of China 168 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. and the British Tea Plantations in the Himalaya,“ published in 1853, by Robert Fortune, the gentleman to whom reference is made in another part of this volume. In beginning with the Southern Provinces, which, of course, are tropical, and differ in many respects from those of the North, both with regard to the soil and the nature of the plants cultivated, it may be statéed that the land on the mountains is of the poorest descrip- tion. Rocks of granite are seen everywhere protruding themselves above the scanty vegetation, whilst the soil itself is composed of dry sunburnt clay mixed with particles of granite in a decomposing or disintegrated state. Nearly all the hilly portions of the south of China are in a state of Nature,“"'stern and wild,“ where the hand of man never attempts agricultural operations, and where it is almost impossible he ever can. Here and there, near the base of the hills, thé far-famed"'terrace cultivation“ may be seen, where the natives grow small patches of rice and other vegetables, such as sweet po- tatoes, pea-nuts,&c., but the quantity of land in this part of the country, used for such purposes, bears but an extremely small pro- portion to the vast tracts in a wild state. At Amoy, and over all that part of the Province of Fokien, the mountains are even more barren than those of Quan-tung. On some of the hills, on the island of Amoy, one may wander for miles scarcely seeing a weed. On every side, there is nothing but masses of dark crumbling granite and red, burnt-looking clay. This, however, seems to be the northern boundary of the most sterile part of the empire. On reaching the river Min, near Foo-chow-foo, there is a great change visible in the vegetation of the hills, caused by the richer components of the soil. This remark applies to the northern portion of Fokien, and to the whole of the Province of Chekiang. Hills occur near the mouth of the Min, at least 3,000 feet above the level of the sea, which are under cultivation quite to the summit. The soil here is composed of a gravelly loam; and, though far from rich, is much deeper and contains more humus, or vegetable mould. The addition of this vegetable matter renders the land sufficiently fertile to repay the Chinese farmer for the labor expended in bringing the crops to maturity. Some hills, of course, are much more productive than others. The tea districts, for instance, both in the Provinces Fokien and Chekiang, are not only more fertile, but are very differ- ent from what they are often supposed to be. The soil of the valleys or plains varies quite as much in different Provinces as it does on hills. The level of these valleys or plains is generally very low, in many cases lower than that of the rivers and canals. About Canton and Macao, and in fact over all the Provinces at the South, unless, perhaps, in the vicinity of large towns, where the natu- ral character of the soil has been altered to a certain extent by the in- fluence of manure, it consists of a strong stiff clay, mixed with a small portion of sand, but containing scarcely any vegetable mould. As the hills lose their barrenness, 400 or 500 miles to the northward from Hong-Kong, a visible change also takes place in the soil of the valleys — 4, —õ—— TEA-CULTURE. 169 88 and plains. In the district of Min, for instance, instead of being almost entirely composed of strong stiff clay, it is mixed with a considerable portion of vegetable matter, and is an excellent strong loam, capable dre of producing good crops. As a general rule, it may be observed that oüh the lower the valleys, the more the soil approaches in its nature to the M stiff clay of the South, and vice versd. For instance, the Shanghae rl. district is several feet higher than the level of the rivers and canals. ves and than that of Ningpo, and the soil of the latter consists more of ſdry a stiff clay, with less vegetable matter in its composition, and is far I from being so fertile as the cotton region of Shanghae. The soil of Sung-lo, or Sung-lo-shan, a hill, or mountain, elevated 1* from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the level of the plains, famous in China h as being the place where the green-tea shrub was first discovered, is Ä very barren, and, whatever formerly may have been the case, cer- ir tainly produces but little tea now. But the low lands of this district, Do. and those of Mooquen, situated a few miles further south, produce the the greater part of the fine green teas of commerce; hence the dis- . tinction between"hill-tea'' and“ garden-tea,“ the latter simply that applying to those teas which are carefully cultivated in the plains. Trel The soil here is a rich loam, not unlike that of the cotton lands of dc Shanghae, but more free in its texture, being mixed with a consider- ver able portion of sand. The rocks in this part of the country chiefly red consist of Silurian slate, upon which rests a red, calcareous sandstone berl similar to the new red sandstone of Europe. This sandstone, as it crumbles to pieces, has the effect of giving a reddish tinge to the rreit barren hills. Cher Some 200 miles east of Sung-lo is the beautiful island of Chusan, rticn which is about 20 miles in length and 10 or 12 miles in breadth at, Hilb the broadest part, and consists of a succession of hills, valleys, and erd glens. The soil of the hills is a rich gravelly loam; in the valleys, it Tne is more stiff, from having less vegetable matter mixed with it, and rich from being almost continually under water. The rocks of granite, how- Te ever, of the same kind as those noticed on, the barren southern hills, rülb also exist here; and, although they are generally covered with soil „he and vegetation, they have doubtless been at some former time as bleak and barren as those of Quan-tung. On entering the Bohea tea-lands about Woo-e-shan, it is found er— khat the soil varies considerably. The rocks consist of clay-slate, in which occur, disposed in the form of beds or dykes, great masses of quartz, while granite of a deep black color, owing to the mica it con- 8 tains, which is of a fine, deep, bluish-black, cuts through them in h all directions. This granite forms the summit of the principal 1 mountains in this part of the country. Resting on this clay-slate are the sandstone conglomerates, formed chiefly of angular masses of quartz, held together by a calcareous base; and alternating with these con- maii glomerates, there is a fine calcareous, granular sandstone, in which 9 3l beds of dolomitic limestone occur. The soil of these tea-lands consists Mlan of a brownish-yellow adhesive clay, which, when minutely examined, 19 is found to contain particles of the rocks enumerated above, and a considerable portion of vegetable mould. It has always a large pro 170 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. portion of the latter in its composition in those lands which are very productive where the tea-shrub thrives best. In the gardens on the plains, at the foot of the hills, the soil is of a darker color, and contains a greater portion of vegetable matter, but generally it is either brown- ish or reddish-yellow. As a common practice, the Chinese prefer land which is moderately rich, provided other circumstances are fa- vorable. For instance, some parts of Woo-e-shan are exceedingly sterile, and produce tea of very inferior quality. On the other hand, a hill in the same group, called Pa-ta-shan, produces the finest teas about Tsong-gan-hien. The earth on the hill-sides is moderately rich; that is, it contains a considerable portion of vegetable matter, mixed with the clay, sand, and particles of rock. By far the greater portion of the tea in this part of the country is cultivated on the warm sloping sides of the hills, that grown in gar- dens on level land being more luxuriant; but these gardens are always a considerable height above the level of the river, and consequently are well drained. It will be observed, therefore, that the tea-plant on Woo-e-shan and the surrounding country grows under the following circumstances: 1. The soil is moderately rich, of a reddish color, well mixed with particles of the rocks of the district. 2. It is kept moist by the peculiar formation of the rocks and the water which is constantly oozing from their sides. 3. It is well drained, owing to the natural declivities of the hills, or, on the plains, by being a considerable height above the streams. These appear to be the essential requisites, as regards soil, situa- tion, and moisture. It was further ascertained that the tea-shrub will not succeed when planted in low, wet land; and this, doubtless, is one of the causes of the want of success in the culture of this plant.. On noting the climate of the tea districts of China, by commencing at the South, it will be seen that at Hong-kong, during the months of July and August—the hottest in the year—the maximum heat is 940 F. and the minimum 800. The difference between the heat of day and night is usually about 100. In winter, the thermometer some- times sinks as low as the freezing point; but this occurrence is rare. Even in the midst of winter, when the sun shines, it is scarcely endurable for an American or European to walk out except in the shade. The air is so dry at this period that it is difficult for one to breathe. At other times, in winter, the wind blows cold and cutting from the north, and the houses cannot be kept comfortable without fires. In truth, at all seasons the climate is liable to sudden changes of temperature. Near Canton, some miles further north, snow some- time appears on the adjacent hills. The influence of the sea, how- ever, in this part of the empire has a tendency to check the extremes both of heat and cold. At Shanghae, some 600 miles north of Hong-kong, the extremes of heat and cold are much greater than those experienced in the provinces at the South. It appears from careful observations, kept at Shanghae, that, in July and August, the heat is at its maximum, the thermometer —,“ — ——— ——————,— TEA-CULTURE. 171 sometimes indicating a temperature of 1000 for several successive days. At the end of October, the mercury often sinks as low as the freezing point. December, January, and February are the coldest months in the year. In the winter of 1844- 45, the mercury fell as low as 260. On the night of the 18th of December, and again on January the 4th, the instrument indicated 240. But that winter was represented by the Chinamen as peculiarly mild, so much so that the usual supply of ice could not be procured. In ordinary years, the ponds and canals are frequently frozen several inches in thickness, and afford a plentiful supply. Therefore, in most years, it may safely be assumed that the thermometer sometimes stands at 120 or 200 below the freezing point. Snow frequently falls here in winter, but the sun is too powerful to allow it to lie long upon the ground. The months of April, May, and June are delightful; and although the sun is hot in the middle of the day, the air is agreeable and soft in the afternoon, and the evenings are cool and pleasant. During the autumnal months, the atmosphere is also cool and bracing, and the sky serene. The sun, for many days, and sometimes for weeks together, rises clear, runs his course, and sets in a cloudless sky. From the end of April to the middle of September, the prevailing winds blow from the south-west. During the remainder of the year, they are northerly and easterly, thus forming what are called the south-west and north-east monsoons. The last-named winds blow with great regularity in the south of China, but are more variable towards the north. In the latitude of Chusan and Shanghae, although the monsoons prevail, the wind not unfrequently comes from all quarters. In the end of the summer season, that is, from July to October, the country is frequently visited by dreadful gales, called tννρehoons, which commit most fearful ravages both at sea and on land. The wet and dry seasons in the southern and tropical parts of China are more decided in their character than they are in the northern portions of the empire. At Hong-kong, and in the provinces of the South, the winter season, that is, from October to March, is generally dry, more particularly during November, December, and January. The wettest months in the year are those near the change of the monsoons, in May and June, and again in September, when the rains fall in torrents. In the North, the rains also descend copiously at the change of the monsoons, more particularly in spring, at which time they are of the greatest utility to the newly-sown crops. Those parts of China, however, which are included within the temperate zone, cannot properly be said to have a wet and a dry season in the same sense as these terms are generally understood in the tropics. The winter months, which are dry at Hong-kong, are far from having the same character at Shanghae, where, for instance, there are frequently heavy falls of continued rain and snow. During the dry season, the sky for days and weeks together is without a cloud, and in the even- ing, vegetation is refreshed with copious dews. In applying the foregoing data to the United States, with the view of comparing their soil and climate with those of China, it would 172 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. appear that the districts best adapted to the growth of the tea-plant would embrace the secondary or hilly tracts which lie between the Appalachian Mountains and the alluvial flat lands bordering on the tidal waters of Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, and Alabama, ex- tending probably into Florida, and to the undulating portions of the temperate regions of Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Kentucky, and Tennessee. In traversing this belt of country, we recognize a series of eruptive and metamorphic rocks, silurian slate, tertiary and chalk formations, generally overlaid with soils composed of the fragments or particles of the same class of rocks existing beneath them, inter. mixed with variable proportions of humus or vegetable mould. Here, too, the climate for the most part is agreeable and favorable to health, the thermometer seldom ranging as low as 120, and not higher than 1000 F., in any portion of this tract; and in some parts snow is rarely seen. In the upper or more inland country, however, it sometimes falls to a depth of 5 oOr 10 inches, but the cold weather is not of very long continuance. Winter seldom commences before the beginning of December, and usually terminates in March. The spring is often rainy, although in many years fair weather prevails. The sum- mer, though refreshed by enlivening breezes, is inconstant, being sometimes hot and dry, and at others accompanied by rains, with thunder and gusts of wind—the rains often so heavy as to deluge the fields. The autumn is usually fine and clear, except at the equi- noctial periocd. The climate of a portion of Texas and Louisiana, however, differs considerably from that inland from the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, having comparatively little rain from March to October, though gusts of wind, with thunder, sometimes occur, attended by more or less rain. The winter is warm and mild, snow being seldom seen, except on or near the higher table-lands, or mountains, and the nights are cool and refreshing throughout the year. IDENTIFICATION OF THE BLACK AND GREEN-TEA PLANT. In the edition of Mr. Fortune’'s’“ Wanderings in China,“ published in 1846, are some observations upon the plants from which tea is made in different parts of the Celestial Empire; while acknowledging that the Canton pjant, known to botanists as Thea bohea, was distinct from the more northern one, called T'hea viridis, he endeavored to show that both black and green teas could be produced from either, and that the dissimilarity of appearance, so far as color was concerned, depended wnly upon manipulation. In proof of this, he remarked that the black- tea plant, found by him near Foo-chow-foo, at no great distance from the Bohea hills, seemed identical with the green-tea plant of Chekiang. These observations were met by the objection that, although he had been in many of the tea districts near the coast, yet he had not seen the more extensive ones inland which furnish the teas of commerce. Since that time, Mr. Fortune has visited both the green-tea coun- try of Hwuy-chow and the black-tea districts about Woo-e-shan; and. during these long journeys, he verified the opinions previously formed. It is quite true that the Chinese rarely make the two kinds of tea in TEA-CULTURE. 173 the same district, but this is more for the sake of convenience and from custom than for any other reason. The workmen, too, generally make that kind of tea best with which they have had the most prac- tice. Although this may generally be the case in the great tea districts, there are some exceptions. It is well known that the fine Moning districts near the Poyang Lake, which are constantly rising in importance on account of the superior character of their black teas, formerly produced nothing but green teas. At Canton, green and black teas are made from the Thea bohea at the pleasure of the manufacturer, or according to the demand. CULITIVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF TIIE TEA PLANTATIONS. In the plack-tea districts of China, as in the green, large quantities of young plants are yearly raised from seeds. These seeds are gath- ered at maturity, in October, mixed immediately after, and packed in sand and earth, in which they are kept during the winter months. In this manner, they are preserved fresh until spring, when they are thickly sown in some corner of the farm, whence they are afterwards transplanted. Sometimes, they are sown in rows, where they are destined to grow, and consequently do not require to be removed. When about a year old, the plants are usually from nine inches to a foot in height, and are ready for transplanting. They are set in rows about four fect apart, in bunches, or hills, three or four feet asunder along the rows, with five or six plants to each bunch. In some cases, however, when the soil is poor, as in many parts of Woo-e-shan, they are planted very close in the rows, and appear like hedges when fully rown. 85 The young plantations are always made in the spring, and are well watered by the rains which fall at the change of the monsoon in April and May. The damp, moist weather, at this season, enables the plants to establish themselves in their new quarters, where they afterwards require but little care, except in keeping the ground free from weeds. When the winters are very severe, the natives tie straw bands round the young tender shrubs to protect them from the cold, and to prevent them from cracking or bursting from frost or snowW. A tea plantation, when seen at a distance, looks like a little shrub- bery of evergreens. As the traveller threads his way among the rocky scenery of Woo-e-shan, these plantations, which are constantly seen dotting the hill-sides, afford a pleasing contrast to the strange and often barren surface by their rich, dark-green leaves. When young, they are allowed to growW unmolested for two or three years, or until they are well established and producing strong and vigorous shoots. The practice of plucking the leaves is very prejudicial to this shrub, and the natives always take care that the plant shall be in a vigorous and healthy condition before this operation is commenced. Even when the plantations are in full bearing, they never take many leaves from the weaker plants, in order that their growth may not be checked. For, under the best mode of treatment, and on the most congenial 174 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. soil, they ultimately become stinted and unhealthy, and are never profitable when old. Hence, in well-managed tea-districts, the natives annually remove old plantations and supply their places with fresh ones. The first crop of leaves is usually taken from the plants the third year. When under cultivation, they rarely attain a greater height than three or four feet. The length of time which a tea plantation will remain in full bearing depends, of course, upon a variety of circumstances, but, with the most careful treatment consistent with profit, the plants will not be of much value after ten or twelve years of age; in fact, they often dry up, and the space must be replanted within that period. MANIPULATION OF THE TEA LEAVES. It is not the intention of the present paper to enter minutely into the subject of the manipulation of black and green teas. These methods, it may be stated, differ from one another in several particu- lars, which are quite sufficient to account for the difference of color. It would seem scarcely necessary to remark that both kinds of tea are gathered from the shrubs in the same way, and are made from the same description of leaves, namely, those which are young and recently formed. Green Tea.— When the leaves intended to be made into green tea are brought in from the plantations, they are thinly spread out on flat bamboo trays, in order that the superfluous moisture may be evaporated. They remain only for ashort time exposed in this man- ner, say, generally, from one to two hours. This, however, depends much upon the state of the weather. In the meantime, the roasting pans have been heated with a brisk wood fire. A portion of the leaves are then thrown into each pan, and rapidly moved about and shaken up with both hands. They are immediately affected by the heat, becoming quite flaccid and moist, and giving out a considerable vapor. In this state, they remain four or five minutes, when they are quickly drawn out and placed on the rolling table. Next commences the rolling process. Several men, stationed at the table, divide the leaves among them. Each takes as many as he can press with his hands, and makes them up in the form of a ball, which is rolled upon the rattan-worked table, and in this manner becomes greatly compressed, the object being to get rid of a portion of the sap, or moisture, and at the same time to twist the leaves. These balls are frequently shaken out and passed from hand to hand until they reach the head workman, who carefully examines them to see if they have acquired the requisite twist. When he is satisfied of this, the leaves are removed from the rolling table and shaken out upon flat trays, until the remaining balls have undergone the same process. In no case are they allowed to lie long in this condition, and some- times they are removed at once to the roasting-pan. Having been thrown again into the pan, a slow and steady char- coal fire is kept up, and the leaves are put into rapid motion by the TEA-CULTURE. 175 nands of the operators. Sometimes they are thrown upon the rattan- table and rolled a second time. In from an hour to an hour and a half the leaves become well dried, and their color fixed;“ that is, there is no danger of their turning black. They are now of a dullish green, but afterwards become brighter. This process, it is to be understood, does not apply to teas which are artificially colored. As the most particular part of the operation is now finished, the tea is put aside until a larger quantity has been made. The second part of the process consists in winnowing and passing the tea through sieves of different sizes, in order to get rid of the dust and other impurities, and to divide the tea into classes, known by the names of twankay,“„hyson skin,““"hyson,““„young hyson,““ gunpowder,“&c. During this operation, it is“refired,“ the coarse kinds once, and the finer sorts three or four times. At this stage the color has become more decided, and the leaves of the superior kinds are of a dull bluish-green. Thus it will be observed, with reference to green tea, that, first, the leaves are roasted almost immediately after they are gathered; second, that they are quickly dried off after the process of rolling. Black Teu.— When the leaves designed to be manufactured into black tea are brought in from the plantation, they are spread upon large bamboo mats or trays, and dre allowed to lie in this state for à considerable time. If brought in at night, they remain upon the trays until the next morning. They are next gathered up by the workmen with both hands and thrown into the air, in order to sepa- rate as they fall. In this manner, they are tossed about and slightly beaten or patted with the hands until they become flaccid and soft, when they are cast into heaps and allowed to remain in this con dition for an hour, or, perhaps, a little longer. When examined, at the expiration of this period, they appear to have undergone a slight change in color, are soft and moist, and emit a fragrant smell. The next part of the process is exactly the same as in the manipu- lation of green tea. The leaves are thrown into an iron pan, when they are roasted for about five minutes, and rolled upon the rattan table. After being rolled, the leaves are thinly shaken out on sieves, and, exposed to the air out of doors. For this purpose, a frame-work made of bamboo is seen in front of cottages among the tea hills. In this condition, the leaves are allowed to remain for about three hours, while the workmen are employed in going over the sieves in rotation, turning the leaves and separating them from each other. A fine, dry day, when the sun is not too bright, seems to be preferred for this part of the operation. 8 The leaves having now lost a large portion of their moisture, and become considerably reduced in size, are removed into the factory, where they are again put into the roasting-pan for three or four minutes, and taken out and rolled as before. A charcoal fire is now got ready, over which is placed a tubular basket, narrow in the middle and wide at each end. A sieve is dropped into this tube, on which the leaves are shaken to a thickness of about an inch. After five or six minutes of careful watching, the leaves are removed from the fire 176 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. and rolled a third time. As the balls come from the hands of the roller, they are placed in a heap, until the whole batch has been rolled. They are again shaken on the sieves, and set over the fire a little while longer. Sometimes the last-named operation, namely, heating and rolling, is repeated a fourth time, or until the leaves have assumed a dark color. When the whole batch has been gone over in this manner, it is thickly placed in the baskets, which are once more set over the charcoal fire. The operator now. makes a hole with his hand through the centre of the leaves, in order to allow vent to any smoke or vapor which may rise from the charcoal, as well as to admit the heat, and then covers the whole with a flat basket. Previous to this, the heat has been greatly reduced by covering up the fire. The toa now remains over this slow fire until it is quite dry, being care- fully watched, however, by the manufacturer, who every now and then stirs it up with his hands so that the whole mass may be equally exposed to the heat. The plack color is now fairly produced, but afterwards improves. The after processes, such as sifting, picking, and ¹refiring,“ are carried on at the convenience of the workmen. Thus it will be seen, with reference to the leaves which are to be converted into black tea, First, that they are allowed to lie for some time spread out in the factory, and before they are roasted. Second, that they are tossed about until they become flaccid and soft, and then left in heaps, and that this also is done before they are roasted. Third, that after being roasted for a few minutes and rolled, they are exposed in a soft and moist state for several hours to the air. Fourth, that they are at last dried slowly over charcoal fires. The differences in the manufacture of black and green teas are therefore most marked, which will fully account for the variations in color, as well as for the effect produced on some constitutions by green tea. MoDES OF PACKING AND TRANSPORTATION OF THE TEA. The tea-farms in China are generally of small extent, no single one probably producing more than 600 chests of tea. What are called echops,“ or parcels, are not made up by the small farmers, but in the following manner: A tea merchant, for instance, from Tsong- gan or Tsin-tsun, either goes himself, or sends his agents, to all the small towns, villages, and temples in the district, to purchase teas from the priests and growers. When the teas so purchased are taken to his house, they are mixed together, keeping those of different. qualities as much as possible apart. By this means a chop of 620 or 630 chests is made, and all the tea of this chop is of the same descrip- tion or class; sometimes a chop is divided into two packings, consist- ing generally of 300 chests each. If it were not managed in this way, there would be several kinds of tea in one chop. The large merchant in whose hands it now is, has to refire it and pack it for the foreign market. When the chests are packed, the name of the chop is written upon each. Year after year, the same chops, or rather those having the same names, find their way into the hands of the TEA-CULTURE. 177 foreign merchant. Some, consequently, have a better reputation, and command a higher price than others. It does not follow, however, that the chop of this year, bought from the same man and bearing the same name as a good one of last year, will be of equal quality; for it is by no means unusual for the merchant who prepares and packs the tea to leave his chests unmarked until they are bought by the man who takes them to the port of exportation. This man, knowing the chop names most in request, can probably find a good one to put upon his boxes; at all events, he will take care not to put upon them a name which is not in good repute. A chop of tea having been purchased in the neighborhood of Woo- e-shan, for instange, by one of these merchants, a number of coolies are engaged to carry the chests northward, across the Bohea Mount- ains, on their way to Canton or Shanghae, the ports of exportation, by the way of Tsong-gan-hein and Hokow, or rather to the small town of Yuen-shan, a few miles from Hokow, to which it is sent by boat. If the tea is of a common kind, each coolie carries two chests slung over his shoulders, on his favorite bamboo, as indicated in the following cut: Mode of Carrying Common Tea. Whenever he rests, either on the road or at an inn, the chests are set down upon the ground, which is often wet and dirty, and conse- quently they are liable to get soiled. The finest teas, however, to preserve them from injury, are never allowed to touch the ground while on their journey, but are carried on the shoulders of the coolies in the following manner: Two bamboos, each about 7 feet long, have their ends lashed firmly to the chest, one on each side. The other ends are brought together so as to form a triangle. By this means a man can carry the chest upon his shoulders, with his head between the bamboos in the centre of the triangle. A small piece of wood is lashed under the chest to give it an easy seat. The accom- panying sketch will give a better idea of this curious mode of carrying tea than any description. 12 A 178 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. When the coolie who bears his burden in this way wishes to rest, he places the ends of the bamboos upon the ground and raises them to a perpendicular. The whole weight now rests upon the ground, * —— Mode of Carrying Finest Tea. and can be kept in this position without much exertion. This is very convenient in coming up the steep passes among the mountains, for in some of them, the coolies can only proceed a few yards at a time without resting, and if they had not a contrivance of this description, the loads would have to be frequently put down on the ground. When stopping at inns or tea shops for refreshments, the chests car- ried in this way are set up against the wall, and rest upon the ends of the bamboos. Hokow is a large and flourishing town, situated on the banks of the river King-keang, abounding in tea hongs, which are resorted to by merchants from all parts of China. Many of these men make their purchases here without going further, while others cross the Bohea Mountains to Tsong-gan-hien. The teas, having arrived at Hokow, are put into large flat-bottomed boats, and proceed on their journey either to Canton or Shanghae. If intended for the Canton market, they are conveyed down the river in a westerly direction, towards the Poyang Lake. They are conducted to the towns of Nan-chang-foo and Kan-chew-foo, and then suffer many transhipments on their way to the pass of Ta-moey-ling, in that part of the same chain of mountains which divides Kiang-see from Quan-tung. At this pass, the teas are again carried by porters, the journey requiring a day, when they are reshipped in large vessels, which convey them to Canton. The time occupied in the entire transport from the Bohea country to Canton is about six weeks or two months. If intended for the Shanghae market, the tea boats proceed up the river King-keang in an easterly direction to the town of Yuk-shan. This stream runs very rapidly, and, upon an average, at least four s pery 18 r à b jptim romnd ts car- e ell of the to by e tleil Bohes Lokom. vurne arket rds te fo0 anü Tay ih untallö eas Afe hey Ii de tne nton S up the eShal. st bol TEA-CULTURE. 179 days are required for this part of the journey. In coming down the river, the same distance is easily accomplished in a day. When the tea chests arrive at Xuk-shan, they are taken from the boats to a warehouse. An engagement is then entered into with coolies, who carry them across the country in an easterly direction to Chang-shan, in the same manner as they were brought from Tsong-gan-hein to Hokow. The town of YXuk-shan, it will be observed, is at the head of a river which flows west to the Poyang Lake, while that of Chang- shan is situated on an important river which falls into the bay of Hang-chow on the east. Travellers in chairs accomplish the distance easily in a day, but coolies laden with tea chests require two or three days. When the teas arrive at Chang-shan they are put into boats and conveyed down the river to Hang-chow-foo, occupying five or six days. At Hang-chow-foo the chests are transhipped from the river boats to those which ply upon the canals, and in the latter are taken on to Shanghae, which occupies about five days. In retracing the route which the black teas have to travel on their way from Woo-e-shan to Shanghae, the distance travelled and time occupied will stand thus: ROUTES. English miles. Days. Tsong-gan-hein to Hokow. ⏓cœ( D D 93 ⅔ 6 Tlokow to Nuk shan 60 4 Auk-Shan to Chang-shan. 33 ⅓ 3 Chang snan to Hang-chow-foo 266 ½ 6 Mang-Chow-ſoo to Shanghae. 166 5 Say e... 620 24 In calculating the time, it will be necessary to allow about four days Consumed in changing boats, for bad weather,&. This will make the whole journey occupy twenty-eight days, which is about the average time. DYEING GREEN TEAsS. As many persons in this country, as well as in Europe, have a peculiar taste for“ colored'' green teas, the following account of the coloring process, given by Mr. Fortune, as practised in the Hwuy- chow green-tea district upon those teas which are destined for the foreign markets, may not prove uninteresting to the American reader. The following is extracted verbatim from Mr. Fortune’s Note Book: „The superintendent of the workmen managed the coloring part of the process himself. Having procured a portion of Prussian blue, he threw it into a porcelain bowl, not unlike a chemist'’s mortar, and crushed it into a very fine powder. At the same time, a quantity of gypsum was produced and burned in the charcoal fires which were then roasting the teas. The object of this was to soften it in order 180 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. that it might be readily pounded into a very fine powder, in the same manner as the Prussian blue had been. The gypsum, having been taken out of the fire after a certain time had elapsed, readily crum- bled down, and was reduced to powder in the mortar. These two substances, having been thus prepared, were then mixed together in the proportion of four parts of gypsum to three parts of Prussian blue, and formed a light-blue powder, which was then ready for use. This coloring matter Was applied to the teas during the last pro- cess of roasting. About five minutes before the tea Was removed from the pans—the time being regulated by the burning of a joss- stick—the superintendent took a small porcelain spoon, and with it he scattered a portion of the coloring matter over the leaves in each an. The workmen then turned the leaves rapidly round with both hands, in order that the color might be equally diffused. „During this part of the operation the hands of the workmen were quite blue. I could not help thinking that if any green-tea drinkers had been present during the operation their taste would have been corrected, and, I may be allowed to add, improved. It seems per- féctly ridiculous that a civilized people should prefer these dyed teas to those of a natural green. No wonder that the Chinese consider the natives of the West to be a race of parbarians.“ One day an English gentleman in Shanghae, being in conversa- tion with some Chinese from the green-tea country, asked them what reasons they had for dyeing the tea, and whether it would not be better without undergoing this process. They acknowledged that tea was much better when prepared without having any such ingre- dients mixed with it, and that they never drank dyed teas themselves, but justly remarked that, as foreigners seemed to prefer having a mixturè of Prussian blue and gypsum with their tea, to make it look uniform and pretty, and as these ingredients were cheap enough, the Chinese had no objection to supply them, especially as such teas always fetched a higher price! 61 took some trouble to ascertain precisely the quantity of color- ing matter used in the process of dyeing green teas, not certainly with the view of assisting others, either at home or abroad, in the art of coloring, but simply to show green-tea drinkers in England, and more particularly in the United States of America, what quanti ty of Prussian blue and gypsum they imbibe in the course of one year. To 14 ⅓ pounds of tea were applied 8 mace 2 ¾ candareens of coloring matter, or rather more than an ounce. In every hundred pounds of golored green tea consumed in England or America, the consumer actually drinks more than half a pound of Prussian blue and gypsum. And yet, tell the drinkers of this colored tea that the Chinese eat cats, dogs, and rats, and they will hold up their hands in amazement, an pity the poor Celestials! rwo kinds of Prussian blue are used by the tea-manufacturers— one is the kind commonly met with, the other I have seen only in the north of China. It is less heavy than common Prussian blue, of a bright pale tint, and very beautiful. Tumerio-root is frequently em- ployed in Canton, but I did not observe it in use in Hwuy-chow.“ — ale Rel ruu vro erin Juo pyr DFed jos thit eaeh dot Welo kers hech g bR- dteds göider rersa- what ot be 1that iugre gelres haring tt oh 1 the N tebs fedbr rtuulh inthe land mantitf 3 ſedl doridg s d NSunel T at cats nt, 1 nrer rin 1' ne, 9l4 tly 14 ¹ W. „ S0RGHUM CANES. 181 From the foregoing it would seem that we havę a soil and climate possessing the conditions necessary for the production of the tea- plant in a large portion of our territory, and that it only requires en- terprise, capital, and intelligence to bring this branch of industry into successful competition with the Celestials. To meet the objection often raised against the profitable culture of tea in this country, of the very low wages in China as compared with our own, it may be stated that, with improved machinery and other appliances for manipulating and preparing the article, which would result from American skill, with the aid of a few Chinamen, at first; our facilities for transporta- tion to a ready market, and the robust, well-fed laborers, there can be little doubt that we can out-rival, at least for local consumption, the primitive utensils, tedious manipulations, the want of railroads, canals, steam navigation, and even of common roads, and consequent expensive transport of the enfeebled and poorly-fed Asiatics, to say nothing of extra packing, transit and export duties, port charges, cost of putting on ship-board, freight, insurance, interest on capital invested, cartage, storage, commissions, profits of the importer and venders, as well as the cost of transportation to the place of consump- tion in the United States. * SORGHUM(ANES. REPORT OF THE UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL SOCIETV. Conformably to the resolutions adopted by the United States Agri- cultural Society, held at the city of Washington in January, 1857, the committee appointed to investigate and experiment upon the Sorgho sucré, or Chinese Sugar-cane, with the view of determining its value for the purposes of syrup and sugar-making, soiling cattle, use of the seed for feeding stock, for bread-making, and for the manu- facture of paper, and alcoholic liquors, beg leave to report as follows: Agreeably to the requirements, there was imported from Franee sufficient sorgho seed to plant 100 acres of land. This seed was placed in the hands of a number of individuals in different sections of the country, who cultivated it under various conditions of soil, climate,&. From the results of their experiments, in ninety localities, between New Brunswick, in the British dominions, and Mexico on the one hand, and between Florida and Washington Territory on the other, though contradictory or conflicting with each other in some instances, the committee arrived at the following conclusions: 1. The soil and geographical range of the Chinese Sugar-cane correspond nearly with those of Indian corn, and it thrives with great luxuriance in rich bottom lands, or in moist loamy soils, well manured. It will also produce a fair crop on dry, sandy, or gravelly 182 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. soils too poor to give a remunerative crop of other plants. On the latter class of soils, however, it proved more profitable to the culti- vator where there had been applied a moderate quantity of bone- dust, wood ashes, poudrette, phosphated guano, gypsum, or super- phosphate of lime. 2. This plant endures cold much better than corn, and resists without injury the ordinary autumnal frosts. It will also withstand excessive drought. In favorable seasons, when planted early in May, it will ripen its seeds in September, if the soil be dry and warm, in many parts of the extreme Northern and New England States, and in October in the Middle and Southern States, when planted as late as the 20th of June. At the extreme South, it may be planted successively from January into July. 3. The cost and culture of this plant, does not differ essentially from that of Indian corn. The seeds require to be planted at dif- ferent distances apart, according to the strength of the soil. On light, moderately-rich land, it succeeded best when sown in rows or drills 3 feet apart, with the plants a foot asunder along the drills, or in hills with a corresponding number of stalks to each; but on richer land, it has been found preferable to plant the hills 4 or 5 feet asunder. If cultivated exclusively for soiling or dry fodder, the seed may be sown broad-cast or in drills, and treated in the same manner as Indian corn when grown for that use. 4. The height of the plant when fully grown varies from 6 to 18 feet, according to the locality and the condition of the soil; the stalks ranging from half an inch to two inches in diameter. The weight of the entire crop to an acre, when green, varies from 10 to 40 tons. The amount of seed to the acre is reported to range from 15 to 60 bushels. 5. During the earlier stages of the growth of this plant, say for the first six or eight weeks, it makes but little progress, except in penetrating the ground with its roots, which occasioned so great disappointment in some cultivators that they exterminated it from their fields, and replanted for other crops. From the natural ten- dency of the genus to which it belongs to sport or run into varieties, many persons have come to Wrong conclusions with a belief that the seed was impure or mixed. The period of growth varied from ninety to one hundred and twenty days; the seeds often ripen unequally in the same field. 6. The yield of juice in weight of well-trimmed stalks was about 50 per cent. The number of gallons of juice required to make a gallon of syrup varied from 5 to 10, according to the locality, the nature of the soil on which it was produced, and the succulent con- dition or maturity of the canes. In the Province of New Brunswick it required 10 to 1; in the rich bottom lands of Indiana and Illinois about 7 to 1; and in light lands in Maryland and Virginia, 5 gallons to 1 of syrup. The yield of syrup per acre varied from 150 to 400 gallons. The amount of pure alcohol produced by the juice ranged from 5 to 9 per cent. In cases where the plant was well matured and grew upon a warm, light soil, the juice yielded from 13 to 16 * 4 — — the ult. Old⸗ per. sists tand i arm, aates ed a anted tialy t dil . Un WsS Ok rin richer der. ay be ler à to 18 the The 10 to from —- ay for vept in grest it fron al ter. rieties nat tlà Vinety rälly i abodt make3 ty t at Col- Dswich Tlinos gillon hto 400 rnge naturel 3 v SORGHUM CANES. 183 per cent. of dry saccharine matter; from 9 to 11 per cent. of which was well-defined crystallized cane-sugar, and the remainder, un- crystallizable matter, or glucose; but that taken from stalks obtained n rich low-lands, luxuriant in their growth, yielded considerably ess. 7. A palatable bread was made from the flour ground from the seeds of this plant, of a pinkish color, caused by the remnants of the pellicles, or hulls, of the seeds. 8. By accounts from all parts of the country, this plant is universally admitted to bea wholesome, nutritious, and economical food for animals; all parts of it being greedily devoured, in a green or dried state, by horses, cattle, sheep, poultry, and swine, without injurious effects; the two latter fattening upon it equally as well as upon corn. 9. Paper of various qualities has been manufactured from the fibrous parts of the stalk, some of which appear to be peculiarly fitted for special use, such as bank notes, wrapping paper,&c. From the above summary, the committee are of opinion that the Sorgho sucré possesses qualities which commend it to the especial attention of the agriculturists of all parts of the country, as the pre- ceding facts have demonstrated that it is well suited to our national economy, and supplies what has been long a great desideratum. All of which is respectfully submitted. D. JAY BROWNE, Chairman. ON THE IDENTITY AND HXBRIDITY OF THE CHINESE AND AFRICAN SUGAR-CANES. [Condensed from the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History.] The subject of the hybridity of plants has lately received careful attention. The question has arisen, whether they would mix by cross- fecundation so freely, and exchange peculiarities when they are of different species, as they do in varieties of the same species. Does not this hybridity point to identity? Attention is called to grasses which grow broad-cast in our fields; they do not hybridize naturally, nor so perfectly as to become diversified in inextricable series of gradu- ated forms. The Poas, Panicums, and Festucas, which abound in our meadows, do not interchange their specific peculiarities, but grow side by side, and maintain their identityK. Yet the different species and varieties of Sorghum are no sooner cultivated in proximity to each other—the Chinese Sugar-cane, Broom corn, and Dourah corn, for instance—than the three amalgamate and produce an offspring com- bining the characteristics of all. Again, from a series of interesting experiments recently made by Mr. Charles Naudin, on the cultivated pumpkins and squashes, he arrived at the conclusion, after particularly éexamining those changes which artificial impregnation will produce, that nearly all of those grown in our gardens may be referred to a single species. It has often been asserted that cucurbitaceous plants should not be cultivated together, as they would injure each other. 184 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. This gives rise to the question, whether a fruit of one and the same season can acquire by cross-fecundation the peculiarities of another fruit, or whether it is necessary that the seed produced from such cross should be cultivated to result in any change. The former, it appears, has proved to be the case. The influence of the pollen on a fruit of the same year is such as to communicate to it the charac- teristics of the plant furnishing the pollen. The sports and varieties of Indian corn have a strong bearing upon the specific identity of the varieties of Sorghum under consideration. Though some botanists have made species out of the varieties of corn, it is generally believed that these are all the results of the cultivation of a single species. One peculiarity, in particular, in this respect, may here be mentioned: a corn plant has been found growing appa- rently wild, with the grains entirely covered by glumes, or husks, which project beyond it. It is also known that, by continued culti- vation, these glumes disappear, or become so abbreviated as to allow the grains to be uncovered, as in our common varieties. A similar difference is to be seen in the various forms of Sorghum. The Dourah exhibits this abbreviation of glume and prominence of grain the most, and is the variety believed to have been the longest under cultiva- tion. Thirty-one specimens were laid before the Society, grown in this country, the seeds of which came originally from widely-separated localities. The differences they exhibited were in the color, shape, and hairiness of the glumes; the color, shape, and prominence of the grains beyond the glumes, and the open or compact growth of the panicles. Had these differences of shape been attended simply by a difference in color, and that color invariably accompanied by the same hairiness and projection of seeds, there would have been strong ground to establish specific distinctions. But, such was not the case. The specimens placed side by side exhibited a complete graduation be- tween the extremes of the series. Those which varied most in shape were similar in color; and those which differed in color were identical in shape. The hairiness and degree of projection in the grain were co-existent with the extremes of shape and color. There were four varieties of especial interest. The seeds of Chinese Sugar-cane, planted between those of Broom corn and Dourah, produced plants apparently partaking equally of the characteristics of those on each side. The eighteen varieties of African Sugar-cane,(imphee,) thought to be so distinct that different native names had been given them, presented every intermediate form. Some glumes were nearly white, others speckled with brown and black; and some again were all brown, while others were all black. Some had ovate pointed glumes of va- rious hues; others had obtuse glumes, with a broad scarious point, or rounded glumes, with no point, through the same series of color. The grains were either inclosed or exserted through the whole series, irrespective of color or form. Some of the varieties exhibited a pe- culiar appearance from a persistence and prominence of the sterile spikelets, being in some instances scarcely visible, or not appearing at all. As color and pubescence are among the least reliable of bo- tanical characters, they should have but little weight in determining the distinction of plants so closely allied. =BS —— =ä= ͤ= SS —.,—— SORGHUM CANEsS. 185 With the preceding facts before us, it is to be inferred that the Chinese and African Sugar-canes, Broom corn, and Dourah, are only varieties of a primitive species, the Andropogon sorghum, of authors; or, allowing the genus Sorghum to stand, Sorghum vulgare, the estab- lishment of which will answer many of the questions that have been asked regarding the economical value of these plants. If they be of one species, they would, of course, hybridize, and exchange whatever properties they possess. The saccharine secretions of one variety will be diminished by cross-fecundation with another not producing an equal amount; and the saccharine qualities peculiar to one may be lost by planting in a soil or climate differing from that which has brought them forth in unusual quantity. If their cultivation as a forage crop and a syrup and sugar-producing plant shall prove profitable, the use of the grain in the form of flour, as well as food for stock, may considerably diminish the cost of production. D. J. B. OHEMIOAL RESEAROCHES ON THE CHINESE AND AFRICAN SUGAR-CANES. BY CHARLES T. JACKSON, M. D., OF B08STON, MASSACHUSETITS. On the 16th of September, 1857, Iobtained from Braintree, Mas- sachusetts, a quantity of unripe canes(No. 1) of Sorghum,(Chi- nese variety,) just as they were about to flower. Two pounds of these canes gave, in a screw-press, 10 ounces of juice, or 31 ¼ per cent. I observed a considerable deposit of white starch from the juice of these plants, and on collecting it and applying the usual test of tincture of iodine, it was converted into the rich blue iodide of starch. I was able to determine by microscopic research the kind of starch to which this belongs. It was found identical with that from young Indian corn(Zea mays.) Last year, while making my re- searches as published in the Patent Office Report of 1856, I discovered the presence of starch in the unripe plant and in its expressed juice. This year, these results are fully confirmed. Having filtered the juice, to remove, as far as practicable, all the starch, globules, and other mechanical sediments, I took its specific gravity, and found it to be 1.044, from which it was calculated to contain 11 per cent. of saccharine matter. By direct experiment, I obtained 10 per cent. of dense syrup, made as dry as possible in vacuo, over sulphuric acid. It was found that this syrup would give no crystals of sugar. On re- dissolving it in alcohol, a considerable quantity of gum, or dextrine, was left, and the alcoholic solution, slowly evaporated in a desiccated atmosphere, gave a mass of scopiform acicular crystals of grape or fruit-sugar, without any crystal of cane-sugar. These experiments were repeated on another portion of the juice, with a variation of the methods of operating, and the same results were again obtained. No. 2. I procured from Newton Centre some specimens of Sorghum 186 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. plants and juice on the 18th of September, at a time when they were just flowering, and found that they yield only grape-sugar in this stage of their growth. The juice of these canes, after it is filtered, has a specific gravity of 1.036, and by calculation, it should contain 9 per cent. of saccharine matter. I obtained, however, only 7. 8 per cent. from one portion, and 9. 36 per cent. from another. The juice of these unripe plants deposits much starch, and contains, also, dextrine or gum. Two thousand grains of the juice evaporated in vacuo gave 186 grains of extract, or 9.36 per cent; but, on solution of the saccharine matter, in hot alcohol, a large quantity of dextrine and starch remains behind. October Tth. Tagain obtained from Newton Centre a quantity of the juice of the canes then grinding, which had just passed through the stage of flowering, the young seeds having begun to form. The juice of these plants, after filtration, had a specific gravity of 1.0492 at 550 F.; hence, by calculation, it should contain 12 per cent. of saccharine matter. An imperial pint of this juice, weighing 1 pound 4 ¼ ounces, op- erated upon after Wray's patented method, gave 2 ½ ounces of thick, dark molasses, but Qo crystals sugdr. Two hundred grains of the filtered juice, treated with lime, enough to neutralize the acids, boiled and filtered to remove the feculent matters, and the clear juice then evaporated to thick syrup, in warm sand, in vacuo, gave 202 grains of extract, or 10 ½ per cent. This acted upon by hot alcohol, which dissolved the saccharine matters, left starch, and gum, or dextrine, and the alcoholic solution evapora- ted in a desiccated atmosphere, gave a solid mass of fibrous, or acicular crystals of pure grape-sugar, without any caue-sugar discoverable under the microscope. Sixteen fluid ounces of the clarified juice were set with a little yeast to ferment, and were then distilled, and the re- turns were fermented over again, and distilled a second time. The result was that the absolute alcohol obtained from the juice was 4.9 per cent. By experiment it was found that it is necessary to defecate the juice of the Sorghum before setting it to ferment, otherwise the vis- cous fermentation sets in, and converts all the sugar into lactic acid and mannite. Hence, when either vinegar, alcohol, or wine, is to be made from the juice of this plant, it must first be clarified, or defeca- ted by lime and heat, and then filtered. When this is done, the juice is readily made to undergo the vinous fermentation by the addition of a little brewer's yeast, and afterwards the returns will serve for yeast to any quantity of the juice that it may be desired to ferment. I mention this, because I know that many persons, unawaré of the above-named facts, have lost the Sorghum juice they had endeavored to ferment both for vinegar and wine. At the proper temperature, the Sorghum juice will undergo the vi- nous fermentation in from three to five days. November 6th. Treceived from the Patent Office a series of samples ley rin viiy vine ton lnds 186 Arine äils Rtb A the juier dii larius 88 0' wits Woe dcdleut TVaru atteld raporr dlecle rerable ee welt the r. . Tue lce W ate d the ſ tic uil bwb delecr VnDl ergarb bat 1 ib errorit the ii ample SORGHUM CaANES. 187 of the Sorghum saccharatum, all of which came to hand in good order. They were numbered as given below. No. 3,(African variety.) Juice was expressed from one pound of the stalks by means of a screw-press, and 5 ¼ ounces obtained. After filtration through paper, it had a specific gravity equal to 1.065, from which it was estimated to contain 16 per cent. of saccharine matter. By experiment, I obtained 15.9 per cent. The sugar crys- tallized beautifully in the course of two or three days, and was found to be wholly of the cane-sugar type, the crystals being rhombic prisms, six-sided prisms, and the other usual secondaries of the primary rhombic prism. A little starch was found in the bottom of the glass which received the expressed juice. No. 6,(African.) One pound of the stalks gave 7 ¾ ounces of juice, which, after filtration, had a specific gravity of 1.0476, and hence was calculated to contain 12 per cent. of saccharine matter. It yielded by experiment 12.6 per cent. of thick molasses, which does not crys- tallize, and contains much gummy matter. The experiment was re- peated on another portion of the juice, evaporation being effected in vacuo, but the same results were obtained. Hence, there is no doubt that this plant, when unripe, contains, like the first-named specimen, only grape-sugar.— No. 7,(African,) gave, on pressure of a pound of stalk, 5 H ounces of juice, which, when filtered, had a specific gravity of 1.06, and should contain by estimation 15 per cent. of saccharine matter. By experiment it was found to yield 14.3 per cent. of thick syrup, which, in a few days, struck into crystals of the cane-sugar type, and but very little molasses remained among the sugar crystals. No. 9,(Chinese.) A ripe plant. One pound of this specimen yielded in the press 8 ¾ ounces of juice. Some starch granules were found, as a sediment, in the receiving vessel, but not so much as usual. The filtered juice had a specific gravity of 1.062, from which it was estimated to contain 15 per cent. of saccharine matter. It yielded, however, 16.6 per cent. of thick syrup, which crystallized almost wholly into cane-sugar, the whole mass becoming solid with crystals. These were examined by the microscope, and their angles measured, so as to be sure of their type. Two thousand grains of the above-named expressed and filtered juice, limed, defecated and filtered, on evaporation in vacuo, gave a thick syrup, which being treated with hot alcohol, to dissolve out the sugar from the gum, gave, on slow evaporation of the alcohol in dried air, 180 grains of crystallized cane-sugar, while 17.4 grains of gum(dextrine) and starchy matter remained undissolved with the salts and lime. On combustion of the organic matters, there remained, of salts, 3 grains; which consisted of— Phosphate of lime.................................... 0. 11 Carbonate oOf lime.................................... 1.35 Salts,(phosphate of potash,).......................... 0. 11 3.00 188 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. The lime separated as a carbonate was evidently that which was in- troduced in defecating the juice. The other salts belong to it as con- stituents of the sap. No. 11,(African.) One pound of the stalks gave 6 ounces of juice, which, after filtration, had a specific gravity of 1.0505, hence should contain 13 per cent. of saccharine matter. On experimental trial, it was found to yield 14.6 per cent. of thick syrup, which crystallizes perfectly into cane-sugar, leaving but little molasses among the crystals. Prom these researches, Tam fully satisfied that both the Chinese and the African varieties of Sorghum will produce sugar of the cane type perfectly and abundantly, whenever the canes will ripen their seeds. The Chinese variety is certainly preferable for this country, particu- larly for the Middle and Northern sections of the United States. During the past summer, these plants have not had a fair chance, since it has been very cold, and unsuited to the development of the crop. I trust the farmers of the Northern and North-western States will not be discouraged, but will try again, when they may not only make a syrup, or molasses, but also good crystallized sugar. If vacuum apparatus could be applied to this manufacture, it would be far more sure to succeed, and perhaps in the operations of a large farmer, it may not prove an unprofitable investment to set up vacuum pans on his estate expressly for sugar-boiling. If this cannot be done, we have only to caution the experimenters against burning the syrup, and to ask them to wait at least a week before they expect to see their sugar granulate. The results of experiments on the production of alcohol are given in the annexed table, and the processes being all exactly like the one dekaülod in the first part of this Report, I refrain from repeating tem. „—,,„—= 189 9 1 9 2 Uors oN 0.8 0dir LäN pozLLorsKlo IIoA⁴l oue-H uorSuruse A IV PozlILe. 8 Uorus ON-= odär earn So Ie Clauou oued 9·‧91-H9: or Suse A esouldo Uores O 08 odin KIruON pSzesKro IloA oued Ppfl-H:C or Sulse A uoIIIV 3.SIIv Ho-urs elaa- 99— AITI AIIG odeapd 9 ‧21-HC uorSurdse A uOIV 8.SIIVI doauhs ouc h 0dII KLreON DPzLsao IIoAl eued 6 ‧91-H uorSusu AA OIIV o-us Honu Ssplolx 8I 40Qudog ue-*u, SeeSurenon asn-. Kluo oduap 99 ·‧6 8SuIL 214 uo, AeN esouldo 2 Uouzs Honur sDlorx ‧91 10udos uoe poxoAog 40 60NN luo oderp 701==ssel eoarueed osouluo E 9 —. 2 8 5.8 5 8 E 85. 55 3³ 5,8 8 5 5. 15 3 5 auuld zo S SXTBUIO 8, Ol3 Jo°5 8 uSns Jo 1040u 10 5 2= 5. 8'SAIIIIVOOIT'SdIIHIMVA 4 60 8 8 8 g 2. 5 28. F8 55 8 F 8 5 8 8 . S0sſꝑ Huνροοο. ⁷⁴ν ꝶι ſ S,,[5 f.dbden 4*⁴“—— . Sh S=SS SSg 3 3== 2 s5'=== 2= S= 3S== 3 3. Z= 2 190 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR AND SYRUP FROM THE JUICE. Omitting, as of no immediate practical value to the manufacturer, the more refined processes, which were employed in determining the amount of saccharine matter in the juice of this plant, I now describe a cheap and economical method of syrup and sugar-making, which may be used by the farmer. In the first place, it is necessary to filter the juice of the plant, as it comes from the mill, in order to remove the cellulose and fibrous matters, and the starch, all of which are present in it when expressed. A bag filter, or one made of a blanket placed in a basket, will answer this purpose. Next, we have to add a sufficiency of milk of lime(that is, lime slaked and mixed with water) to the juice, to render it slightly alkaline, as shown by its changing tumeric paper to a brown color, or reddened litmus paper to a blue. A small excess of lime is not injurious. After this addition, the juice should be boiled, say for fifteen minutes. A thick greenish scum rapidly collects on the sur- face, which is to be removed by a skimmer, and then the liquid should again be filtered. It will be of a pale straw color, and ready for evaporation. It may now be boiled down quite rapidly to about half its original bulk, after which the fire must be kept low, the evaporation to be carried on with great caution, and the syrup con- stantly stirred to prevent it from burning at the bottom of the kettle or evaporating pan. Portions of the syrup are to be taken out, from time to time, and allowed to cool, to see if it is dense enough to crys- tallize. It should be about as dense as sugar-house molasses, or tar. When it has reached this condition, it may be withdrawn from the evaporating vessel, and be placed in tubs or casks to granulate. Crystals of sugar will begin to form generally in three or four days, and sometimes nearly the whole mass will granulate, leaving but little molasses to be drained. After it has solidified, it may be scooped out into conical bags, made of coarse open cloth, or of canvas, which are to be hung over the receivers of molasses; and the drainage being much aided by warmth, it will be useful to keep the tempera- ture of the room at 80° or 900 F. After some days, the sugar may be removed from the bags, and will be found to be a good brown sugar. It may now be refined by dissolving it in hot water, adding to the solution some whites of eggs,(say one egg for 100 pounds of sugar,) mixed with cold water, after which the temperature is to be raised to boiling, and the syrup should be allowed to remain at that heat for half an hour. Then skim and filter, to remove the coagulated albumen, and the impurities it has extracted from the sugar. By means of bone-black, such as is prepared for sugar refiners, the sugar may be decolored by adding an ounce to each gallon of the saccharine solution, and boiling the whole together. Then filter, and you will obtain a nearly colorless syrup. Eyvaporate this, as before directed, briskly, to half its bulk, and then slowly until dense enough 69 crystallize, leaving the syrup, as before, in tubs, or pans, to gran- ulate. — 67 Ck. gcthrr nup deserie g Vüü llnta d fr pressel auwe liwe 1 u exbe ne KM 1 r i- d tlé w. tle liui and mai Ftohm tlon i Frop ch tle ketk out k Mto of es, Or fon granslt. fpor dh gbut li de Scoohei V3s nu e dräüne e tempels Sugar II ood br er, alle pounä re Kit SORGHUM CANES. 191 This sugar will be of a very light-brown color, and may now be clayed, or whitened, by the usual method—that is, by putting it into cones and pouring a saturated solution of white sugar upon it, so as to displace the molasses, which will drop from the apex of the inverted cone. The sugar is now refined as loaf sugar. The methods here described are the common and cheap ones, such as any farmer can employ. It may be advantageous, when operations of considerable extent are contemplated, to arrange a regular system of shallow evaporating pans for the concentration of the syrup, similar to those now used in Vermont for making maple sugar. It is evident that no ordinary methods can compete with those of a regular sugar refinery, where vacuum pans are employed, and evapo- ration is consequently carried on at a very low temperature. If the planter should raise sufficiently large crops to warrant the expense of such an apparatus on his farm, he would not fail to manufacture larger quantities of sugar, and to operate with perfect success in sugar- making; but this can be done only in the Southern, Middle, or Western States, where extensive farming is common. Those who wish to have their brown sugar clarified can send it to some of the large refineries, where the operations may be completed and the sugar put up in the usual form of white loaves. A very large proportion of our agricultural people will doubtless be satisfied with the production of a good syrup from this plant. They may obtain it by following the methods described in the first part of this paper, or they may omit the lime and make an agreeable but slightly acidulous syrup, that will be of a lighter color than that which has been limed. This syrup is not liable to crystallize, owing to the presence of acid matter. The unripe canes can be employed for making molasses and alcohol, but, as before stated, will not yield true cane-sugar. ANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF THE CHINESE VARIETXY. I received from Washington an entire plant of the Sorghum sac- charatum, with the request that I should determine the composition of the inorganic matter, or ashes of the seed, as well as that of the roots, stalk, and leaves. The plant, as received in its fresh and ripe condition, weighed 3 pounds 1 ounce, or 49 ounces, avoirdupois. When thoroughly dried, in a current of air heated to 2120 F., it weighed 15 ounces, and the loss of water thus ascertained was 34 Ounces. The seeds separated from this plant weighed 2¼¾ ounces, and the rest of the plant 12 ¼ ounces. On burning 1,000 grains of the seeds, I obtained 27. 8 grains of grey ashes; and, on analysis, I find the following constituents: Grains. SiliCa........................................ 10.000 Phosphoric A.1G.............................. 6.740 Lime.......................... 6............. 0.200 192 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Grains. Potash................................. 4.060 SOda......................................... 2.270 Chlorine..................................... 0.018 Sulphuric acid.......................... 0.222 Oarbonic acid...................... 0.600 Oxydes of iron and manganese, with loss........ 0. 110 27.80 The 12 ¼ ounces, or 5,359 grains of the dried plant, without the seeds, burned in a platinum dish, gave 205 grains of grey ashes, which yielded, on analysis:“ Grains. Silica....................................... 85.854 Phosphoric ACid............................... 18.245 Time........................................ 33.986 Magnesia................................... 2.870 Peroxydes of iron and manganese... 3.034 Potasfl....................................... 30.358 Sodͤo..................... 14.534 Chloriieoeo:,................... 1.693 Sulphuric ACid................................ 7. 702 Carbonic acid................................. 6.560 1 204. 836 Loss............................ 164 205.000 — The above analyses show what the plant appropriates of the min. eral ingredients of the soil, and what must be supplied to the field, if deficient in saline matters. 4“ INVESTIGATION OF THE SUGARBEARING CAPACITX OF TIHIE OCHINESE SUGARCANE. BX PROFESSOR J. LAWRENOCE SMITH, OF LOUISVILLE, KENTUOCKY. On investigating the sugar-bearing capacity of the Chinese sugar- cane, the first step required was to ascertain the true chemical constitution of the juice extracted from the plant. From various conflicting statements on the subject, nothing satisfactory could be gleaned, some of the best authorities insisting that there was not any crystallizable sugar in the juice, or but a very small portion, while others, equally as strong, held the contrary opinion. It is well known that there are two kinds of sugar of common SORGHUM CANEs. 193 occurrence, namely, glucose, or grape sugar,(a sugar moderately sweet and difficult of crystallization,) and cane sugar, with a very sweet taste and easily crystallized. The first form of sugar occurs most abundantly in fruits—the latter in the sugar-cane, the beet-root, maple, melon,&o. I would remark, in addition, that cane sugar is easily convertible into grape sugar, and in all processes for ex- tracting the former, one important aim is to prevent this transforma- tion. For instance, were we to take the juice of the sugar-cane, (containing about 20 per cent. of crystallizable sugar,) and concentrate it without subjecting it to the action of lime or some other defeca- ting agent, fully half of the sugar would be rendered uncrystallizable, and there would be only a small yield of sugar, but a large amount of molasses. For this reason, in regarding the sugar-yielding capaoity of any vegetable, the two facts to be considered are, first, the quantity of cane sugar it contains, and, secondly, the amount and character of the impurities associated with the sugar; for the latter, during the concentration of the juice, may give rise to the alteration already mentioned, or they may prevent the sugar from crystallizing without altering it. The juices of the sugar-cane, beet-root, and maple, present about the best conditions of any of the vegetable juices for furnishing sugar, and according to the care and skill exercised in the warking of them, so is the yield of sugar. Without further preliminaries, I will proceed to state the results of the investigation of the Sorgho suoré, as far as possible to make it at the present time. Owing to the season being far advanced, when he experiment was commenced, it was impossible to undertake any- thing more than a chemical examination of the juice, as the frost had already affected most of the cane which was not cut. Here I would remark, that it is of the utmost importance to examine plants perfectly fresh and unaltered, if we expect correct results in relation to the crystallizable sugar they will produce; and it is a well-known fact that even the broken and bruised canes of a field will deteriorate the juices, if passed through the mill with the perfect canes. Even on the surface which is cut, an alteration commences, at once the sugar is changed, and this alteration gradually creeps from the cut ex- tremity into all joints of the stalk. I have verified this fact in rela- tion to the sorgho. By examining different joints, after it had been cut two or three weeks, the results were as follows, the joints being numbered from the extremity next to the roots: JUIOE FROM JOINTS. Crystallizable sugar. Uncrystallizable sugar. Ist joint contained.. 6 per cent.— 7 per cent. 3d joint contained... 8 per cent. 4 per cent. 5th joint contained........- 9 ¾ per cent. 3 per cent. Hence it is evident that no time is to be lost, after cutting, in ex pressing the juice. 13 A 194 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Not being able to supply myself with the fresh cane as needed for examination, the structure of the plant, with reference to its sugar- bearing cells, was not investigated. My inquiries, therefore, were directed to the more important study of the composition of the juice. Some of the sorgho, perfectly matured and recently cut, was com- pressed, and the juice submitted immediately to analysis. The pro- cess adopted for ascertaining the quality and character of sugar is the only one that can be relied on for anything like accurate results. It is known as the process by polarized light, in which the juice to be examined is first made in a few moments as transparent and colorless as water, and that without the agency of heat. The juice as com- ressed is of a light-green color, opaque, and largely mixed with cellulose tissue from the plant. It is readily clarified by acetate of lead, and when thus submitted to examination by Soleil's polarizing saccharometer, three specimens gave the following results: No. or srECDHNN. Crystallizable sugar. Non-crystallizable sugar. 1st 10 per cent. 1 ½ per cent. 2nd 9 ¼ per cent. 2 per cent. 3rd 10 per cent. 2 per cent. This result settles the question that the great bull&f the sugar oon tained in the sorgho is erystallizable or cane sugcr Proper. The difference of opinion which has existed on this subject, doubt- less arose from the fact that different degrees of care had been taken in the concentration of the juice, or that a more or less perfect pro- cess of defecation was resorted to, sometimes rendering the juice altogether uncrystallizable, while at others, it furnished a reasonable quantity of sugar. 3 1 W. The results obtained in the analysis of liquids containing sugar by polarized light are especially valuable, as the impurities which may be associated with the sugar in no way affect the accuracy of the analysis, the only requisite being to render it perfectly transparent. Besides the sugar and water contained in the sorgho, the following constituents are found: Cellulose, woody fibre, pectine, pectic acid, albuminous matter, phosphates, sulphates, oxalates, potash, soda and lime salts, starch, and aromatic matter(probably a volatile oil.) Owing to the complex nature of the juice, and the difficulty of its examination, some of the constituents(existing in small quantities) may have been overlooked, but the prominent ones are those re- corded in the above list.— 8 Further examination made upon pieces of the stalk showed it to be constituted as follows: Sugar„............⸗ Woody fibre, salts, K...„...... 12.4 — So, were it possible to compress all the juice from the cane. there led ie Sugn. Wehk ejie as ehn. de pr- donr d resllb ce to eolonles W col- ed vit detate l dhrinn et doxdr een lal Mfect dde jür ressoleh' 1 1 Flichu 2ly 1 k anspän e toluud- SORGHUM CANES. 195 would be a yield of 87.6 per cent. In some operations, by compres- sion, I have obtained a yield of 66 per cent., but I do not think that the ordinary method of passing the cane between rollers furnishes over 50 per cent. of juice. 1 The following table gives, at a glance, the composition of the Sorgho sucré, the sugar-cane, and the beet-root: Sorgho. Sugar-cane. Beet-root. 1 Water.„„„ 75.6...... 72.1. ⸗ 83. 5 Sugars....... 12.0. 18.0... 10.5 . Woody fibre& salts. 12.4.. 9.9....... 6.0 6 b 1900. 100.0 100.0 Satisfied as to the composition of the sorgho juice, the next step was to examine into some process of separating the sugar. The first method tried was the one transmitted from the Patent Office, and pro- posed by Leonard Wray. It consisted in treating the cold juice with lime, filtering, then treating with a solution of nut-galls, filtering, again treating with lime, filtering and evaporating to proper consist- ency, and allowing it to crystallizse. This method did not succeed in my hands, the juice becoming very much blackened. All subsequent experiments were made with those methods already successfully prao- tised on the juices of the sugar-cane and beet-root. The first of these methods is to take the fresh juice, heat quickly to 1300 F., add suffcient lime to enable the solution to act on red- dened litmus paper, filter, evaporate about a third of the liquid, filter through well-washed animal charcoal; evaporate at a tempera- ture not exceeding 2200, and when suflficiently concentrated, set aside to crystallizse.“ A second method, which I prefer to the one last mentioned, is to warm the fresh juice rapidly to 120“; then add to each gallon of juice 3 ounces of lime, first slaking it with five or six times its weight of water, then bringing the temperature up to 2000. It is then filtered and carbonic acid passed through the juice, afterwards filtered and evaporated to a proper consistency for crystallization. Fach time that the juice is flltered, if it be allowed to pass through well- washed animal charcoal, the syrup may be made very clear, and the sugar prepared from it will be perfectly white. During the evapo- ration, the temperature should at no time exceed 2150. 1 It often happens that we have to wait days and even weeks for the crystallization to take place; but it may always be hastened by adding to the thick syrup, when cool, a few grains of brown sugar, or a little pulverized white sugar. I do not profess to give the methods described as those best adapted to the extraction of sugar from the sorgho, but there are others, not yet experimented with, which may succeed better. Al- though much of the sorgho syrup which I have tasted is far from being agreeable, yet, when properly prepared, it cannot be readily distinguished from that of the sugar-cane of the tropics. It must not be forgotten that sugar-making is an art, and cannot be 196 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. practised by every one with a mill and a set of kettles; and, more- over, that the sugar-mak ing at present js a vast improvement on that of former days, and where these improvements are not employed, the process is carried on to a disadvantage. Also, in extracting sugar trom one vegetable, we are not to expect to apply successfully those methods practised on other vegetables. It was not by applying to the beet-root the method of extracting sugar from the cane that France is now able to produce 120, 000, 000 pounds of sugar from that root, a quantity equal to one-half of what is consumed by her entire population of 30,000, 000. Besides, it was not in a year or two that the beautiful and economical processes now employed were brought to their present degree of perfection. What was necessary for the beet-root is doubtless required for the sorgho, namely, a thorough study of its nature, with a process of extracting the sugar specially adapted to it..“ In regard to the economical results to arise from the cultivation of the Chinese sugar-cane, I have no data upon which to form a correct opinion, as it would require an entire season, at least, to go over the subject, and to examine the plant in its different stages; also to ex- amine its fixed principles, and ascertain its exhausting effects on the soil. As already stated, the cane examined was in a perfectly ma- tured state, but I have been informed that, in the earlier stages there, is more sugar in the plant. ff this be true, an investigation should he made of its sugar-bearing qualities in the different periods of its growth. The economical value of this plant, in regard to its sugar or syrup. is far from being settled, even should the syrup be readily converted into sugar. It grows in a temperate climate, it is true, but so does the beet-root, which, under skillful cultivation and a well-directed manufacturing process, will yield from 1,300 to 2,000 pounds of sugar to aHn acre.“ The following are the most important facts established by the present inquiry: ö“ *1. The sorgho contains about 10 per cent. of crystallizable sugar. 2. The sugar can be obtained by processes analogous to those em- ployed for extracting sugar from other plants. 3. The uncrystallizable sugar forms rapidly after the cane is fully ripe and recently cut.““ The present investigation, Iregard only as preliminary to the proper study of the plant in question. Some of the points yet remaining for investigation are- First, the composition of its ash, compared with that of the sugar- cane, in order to learn its requirements of soil, when compared with those of the latter. Ia„.„ Secondly, the analysis of the plant in certain stages of its growth, and from different localities, to learn when it contains the largest amount of sugar, and what latitude is most favorable for its develop- ment. 8 Accompanying this report are specimens of syrup and sugar; the former transparent and of a light wine-color, the sugar perfectly white and fine-flavored. Uüko. A tut ged, he g Iar ly ow Nuu ane thd dar bn dvywx Fear d fed wär Jebrsonn Rmdlh,! te ohr jnäni SORGHUM CANEsS. 197 CONDENSED CORRESPONDENOE. Statement JoHN D. WHITE, Tuldp, Dallas countg, Arkansas. On the 26th of May, Iplanted one-eighth of an acre with the Sorgho sucré on ground which had been previously prepared for potatoes. The ridges were 3 ½ feet wide, and the seeds were sown some 2 feet in the drill, from three to eight seed in a hill. The soil was a light-grey sand, and this was the fourth crop. No manure was used, and the land was of that quality which would yield about 20 bushels of corn to the acre. I ploughed and hoed the crop on the 9th of June, and again on the 30th, after which, we had no rain until the 1st of August, which did not seem to affect it in the least. The plants continued to grow as luxuriantly as though the season was as favorable as possible, while every other species of vegetation was literally parched up. The ther- mometer ranged 1000, and upwarrddddvdßsßs. The first panicles appeared about the 20th of July, and ripened the 24th of August. I commenced cutting the cane and crushing on the 2d of September, at which time the average height of the plants was 12 feet. Twenty canes of average diameter, and 9 feet high, weighed, in a green state, 42 pounds, and yielded a little over a quart of juice, which afforded about 17 per cent. of syrup. I made about 14 gallons, pronounced by those who tested it equal, if not superior, to the best golden syrup. 1 Owing to the inefficiency of my mill, I did not grind more than half of the cane; and Ithink at least one-fourth, and that the best, of the juice remained in the stalks. My mill was a temporary affair, made only for experimenting. It consisted of two small rollers turned by hand, and the bofling was done in a common clothes boiler. So simple is the process, that any person of the most ordinary comprehension is competent to conduct it. I was unsuccessful in several attempts to make sugar, which may be partly attributable to the failure in ex- tracting the richer part of the juice in the crushing process. As a result of my experiment, I have satisfied myself that an acre will produce 200 gallons of syrup. My cane shot up new suckers, and promised a second crop, but the frost of the 29th of October destroyed them. They were then just about to put forth panicles, and had already survived several heavy frosts. Stock still eat it with evident relish. Cattle, sheep, and horses are fond of the cane, which possesses excellent fattening properties. Hogs also will eat it voraciously, even after it has been crushed. In ordinary seasons, the cane may be planted towards the last of March, and thus leave ample time for two crops. The yield of seed is about 30 bushels to the acre. I estimate the cost of cultivation at about the same as of Indian corn; the gathering at something more. The fodder is superior to that of corn, and in a green state, cattle much prefer the cane. It yields more to a given space of ground, and is a better crop for soil- ing than anything I have ever tried. 1 198 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Slatement ꝗf GEoRGE E. SMYTH, of Athens, Qlark counigy, Georgia. l put down one and a half acres in the Chinese sugar-cane—one. half of the seed in light, sandy soil. the rest in stiff clay. The seed was sown on the 24th of March, in four-foot rows, 1 ½ in drill, and manured with stable and cow manure. The crop came up scattering, and was hoed and replanted about the 1st of May. I found that its growth was retarded somewhat by drought, but the plants were not at all injured by slight frost. The panicles first presented themselves on the Ist of August, and opened successively thereafter, and about the 21st they were fully ripe. The stalks attained 12 feet in height, and an average diameter of an inch. I only pressed out the juice of about three-fourths of an acre of the crop, which produced 15 gallons of good syrup. Some crystals were seen in the syrup, but I could not separate them. ¹ As. The crop was harvested when the stalks were nearly all yellow, tinged with red. After lying by a week, it was carried to an iron- roller mill, pressed, and boiled immediately. Much of the juice was lost through imperfection in the rollers.“ Up to December Ist, my cows were eating the stalks greedily, without their having been previously cut up. I should judge that the cost of production per acre would be about 86, and syrup of the same quality as mine sells here at from 80 cents to l a gallon. If the plants are allowed sucker, by cutting its first crop early, it will produce more syrup to the acre. Statement ęf SAMUEI LOGAN, V Blandinsville, Me Donough counkg, I Ninois. The Sorgho sucré seed, sent me from the Patent Office, grew finely, and the plants attained an average height of 12 feet, although the season was remarkably dry. 2 uef The crop of seed was a heavy one, which I intend planting the coming season, as, from satisfactory proofs, I believe it to be profit⸗ able, regarded either as a forage crop or for syrup or molasses-making purposes. 22 v Statement of Bx-AMIN WHTTAKER, O Warsaad, Hancock countg, Illinois. Idevoted three-fourths of an acre of good wheat land to the culture of the sorgho, planting the seed at three different periods, May 17th and 236d, and the 2d of June. The ground selected was a high ridge, clay soil, one mile from the Mississippi River, and had been under cultivation ten years. A distance of 3 ½ feet each way was observed in planting. No manure whatever was used with the crop, and it received the first ploughing on the 13th of July, when the plants were knee high. On the 16th and 18th of July, when the mercury stood 1023, Indian corn suffered very much, but the sugar-cane did not wilt in the least. About the 20th of August, it put forth seed- heads, which turned purple on the 22 of September, and ripened —)“——— 5 —— — ͤ ͤS —— —— 2 22 8ORGHUM CANEsS. 199 about the 10th of October. The plants, when cut, were from 10 to 11 feet high, the tallest 12 feet, the diameter from 1 to 2 inches. In crushing the cane, I used wooden rollers, and found, by experi- ment, at several different times, one hundred stalks produced 11 gallons of the juice, 4 gallons of which made a gallon of excellent molasses. The quantity of molasses may vary with the skill and economy of the producer. All my experiments have been entirely satisfactory. 13 8 61 I might further add that I have also ascertained, by actual trial, that the cane is not so sweet on the rich prairie land, but grows larger aud higher than in other locations. My sugar-cane took the premium at the county fair, as the richest in saccharine properties, and my molasses the premium of§5, as the best exhibited. 1“ Statement y E. H. BowuAx, Y Edgington, Eoch Ialand counly, Ilinois. I cultivated an acre of deep, rich prairie loam in sorgho, in four-foot rows, 12 inches in row, on the 23d of May. It was hoed twice, June 15th and 30th, and on July 10th ploughed, and followed by the hoe. On the side of the patch, next to a wheat field, I found the plants attacked by the chinch-bug. It stood drought better than corn, and was not damaged by white frost; a wet autumn retarded ripening and weakened the sap. It put forth its panicles on the 20th of August, yet in October they were not matured. The plants averaged about 10 feet in height, and an inch in diameter. The crop yielded 500 gallons of juice, which was converted into 100 gallons of syrup.“ My mode of proceeding with the crop was this: I caused it to be cut, and shocked, like corn, before frost; my mill was of iron, with cast-iron rollers, 15 inches in diameter, and driven by a steam engine. My horses, mules, and cattle have had no other fodder to this date, (December 25th,) and do well. Statement of JosspH B. ELIIOTT, F Burnettsville, White countg, Indiana From a small package of the cane seed, received last year from the Patent Office, I raised sufficient to plant 50 acres. I had no conveniences at the time for making syrup, and, there- fore, did not attempt it. No other use was made of the crop than as food for my cattle. Next season, I intend manufacturing the syrup, and to experiment further with the plant as a fodder. I observed, last year, that my cattle ate it with the greatest avidityyʒ. I presented each of the members of an agricultural society in the neighborhood, to which I belong, with sufficient seed to plant half an acre; and I have also scnt quantities over the county, wherever 1 have had an opportunity, for experiment. W 200 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Statement of JàAMES FERGUSON, Indianapolis, Marion countgj, Indiana. I planted the seed of the sugar-cane on the 13th of May, in hills 3 ⅜ by 2 ⅞ feet asunder, putting six grains to the hill. About the 22d, it came up; on the same morning, and also on the 30th and 3lst. of May, there were severe frosts. They had the effect of killing potatoes, beans, and corn, in the garden, very near the sugar-cane, the blades of which were bitten, but no cane, that I could perceive, was killed outright. I cultivated it with the same care and in the same manner as Indian corn.“ The season was remarkably dry and unfavorable for farming pur- poses, more so than any that had preceded it probably for thirty years. Many fields yielded but 10 to 30 bushels of corn per acre. My crop was from 40 to 45 bushels. I mention this for the purpose of facilitating a comparison between the two, and so determining the relative utility of the plants. The frost of the 22d of September was so severe as to kill all the tender plants of the garden and fields, including the unripe corn, which was found black and rotted. The sugar-cane escaped in a a measure; most of the blades were killed, and the stalks were bitten in some cases; but, after a few warm days, it put out side shoots, sprouted at the roots, and matured other seeds; much of the first was ripe when the frost occurred. 1 I now cut about my arms twice full of the cane, and passed it through an ordinary wooden apple-mill of one-horse power, and ob- tained from it 3 or 4 gallons of juice. This, at the stage for straining and clarifying, was as sweet as the maple syrup. It was raised to a temperature of 1900 or 2000, clarified with milk, and skimmed. The white of eggs, blood, or any substance rich in albumen, which coagulates and floats in high heat, answers as well. The juice was reduced to about three-fifths or one-half its former quantity, making a syrup of nearly the same consistency as maple molasses. Undoubtedly the richest part of the juice, in saccharine properties, was not ex- pressed from the cane, owing to the imperfection of the mill. To this, I partly attribute my failure in making sugar. Another probable reason was the accidental burning of the syrup; the frosts might pos- sibly have assisted; yet I think that, if the other processes had been successfully conducted, the frost would not be found to have injured it materially, if at all. 3“ The taste of the molasses produced from the sorgho is excellent. In this opinion, I am sustained by scores who tasted it at our Miami county fair. No hill in planting contained more than six grains; yet it so sprouted that few, or none, had less than six stalks from 8 to 10 ¾ feet high. 1 cut nine well-matured stalks from a hill, with the seed fully ripe on all. I did not attempt to gather or use all my crop, because of the imper- fection of my mill, and the inconvenient distance of the field from my residence. 1 8n I have no doubt of its great value, as a saccharine plant, in this latitude, 400 north, and 1,000 feet above the ocean. I should judge . SORGHUM CANES 4 201 üe h rhat about double as ma- 4 1G many canes as f cor in ul an acre. A 4 as Oi Corn stalks 1 3 gut ofevory Ppod sugar-mill will get from 7 0 t0 15 be Broden upon a1zE its weight in o hanndehae aae and tha uice will nako oü a por cente, it will Pay better muolass6. Even should it make b alf r than corn at an. joe j 4 ut 20 deane 1nlellu y price it has ever borne 14 Statement y J. Baurlvrt,& Wast Lehanom Varren eom unm I planted the So ho ms dn anon, Warren county, Indiana. cormefield, about: e o sucré on the 17th of Ma j lin manner as Don 3 foot apart each way, Olwahung it Om dhe— eun 1aml as ornegf he ground was a gravelly 5* in the same une tudle p. This was the second y clay soil, fresh, but 1 muamnn of any kind was 1eoideropwatan clearing; therefore, no naned betore phenbinge uasd upon its but the ground was well pre- Ab M) Custom 1s to herrow each wa ga nuch way with a shovel plough 4 awuh a one-horse harrow, and go deln the2 times in a row. The ground w iest tüne tavjoo, and the second ſan 3 meneh 688 of June; the soil was aaernerfeme rain elns anti Mt 4 mmohoa, nehene i had been ploughoed. After thi o a depth of about whieh lacted Pioughedl. fter this, th Rdtt 19 period, which lasted until the latt, this, thero was another 4 another good shower. 0r 9 e latter part of August, when weii had killing frosts, wmhe— 14th, and 15th of hen per a hunh matured perfectly. an 1 which, the seed of the berch diee heendin nhle mchi cen eeeee enl. are helb 1 mjuradh. bat the leaves generally neh tage, nor the seed, were at d. M did not try to extroct the Dharime n v tenting myself with the acaum abeharine matter from the stalks, con- jiem planting the seed, namely, th vahement of my immediate object i juid raising tho Cro 1. dly, the prac icability of readil 2 O 1n — this latitud f readily and profitabl müiih would yield abnkiqan atitude. I am satisfied, h 3 loudtch gathered abo ndance of rich saccharine juice. however, that it, ut a peck of good juice. From my plants, I s nit next season, on a. 82⁰ 1 heavy seed which I. P 8, — piece of rich, sandy b ,d, W hlc design plantin n 4 intend to attempt the f ioh aandy Hotkonn a and from the cros — 3*4 es. ugdtn 4 Mad bal 1 Statement P ge 8⸗ 27ʃ ETER H. B 3 1 The Chi nese sugar eede vron v Panora, Guthrie countgj, Jowa. 1 Ish“ rospers well in thi h dehonna atinats en ignebt S09 alt hunaoh en e, „ appearanee and taste, is very much 8 DenBerd, lIike new honey. nus 413 G head Statemeni& Amnanax C. Hanr, Y. Flag Spring,(Cumpbel 4 iell in The soil was a black, rich 1 /)õ. the woods. Before th„rich, loamy creek bottom, second u an 4 ietorn e land awas eleared, the timber Ai earnchwmm ud ji 3 Early in May, the ground Wrs proke:.. roken up with a shovel plough and 202 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. two horses; then furrowed out deep with the same contrivance, and planted, three or four cane seeds to the hill. In the after cultivation, nothing was used but the hoe, and that only for the purpose of stir ring the surface and cutting the weeds on two occasions, the ground being kept level, as it was very dry all summer. There were thirty- seven hills and two hundred and sixty-six canes. Some of the original stalks threw up from one to five suckers each. On the south side of the row of cane, were potatoes, and on the north corn. On the 1st of October, I cut the cane up close to the ground, and set it up by the side of a corn rick, in the open air. In November, I cut off all the seed-heads, which were most of them quite ripe. During that month and the succeeding, I fed out to the cattle and gave away the most of it; 8o that three months after it was cut, and all that time exposed in the field, I had but eighty-eight canes left, which I carefully weighed, in order to ascertain what quantity of dry fodder may be raised to the acre. AVe The result was, that about 19,844 pounds, or 9 tons of green plants, and 1,844 pounds of dry leaves, may be obtained per acre. I found that, in comparison with corn fodder, the sugar-cane is surprisingly heavy; that it loses very little weight by drying, and that cattle are extremely fond of it. Discovering these qualities in the sorgho, I began to appreciate its importance to the farmers of this region, simply as a forage crop, apart from its greater value as a molasses and sugar-producing plant.— 1 T raised 1 ¼ pecks of good seed, of which I have given away a gal- lon within a circuit of 20 miles, and still have frequent demands, which I am always willing to supply. I have also sent small quanti- ties to Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Iowa. Statement ꝗf J. W. MARTIN, N Loganport, De Soto parish, Louisiana. In the latter part of spring, I received from the Patent Office a small paper of the Chinese sugar-cane. Being very late in the season, I concluded to plant but few seeds. On the 29th of June, I put down twenty seven seeds, from which I gathered one peck, fully matured; and, had the frost not visited us for a month later, I would have saved one-third more. I have distributed the seed generally through our parish. I fod the blades to my horse, and the cut stalks to my hogs, and they appeared to be remarkably fond of it. 1— ek es Tshall plant about half an acre early this spring. I think it well adapted to this section of the country. Statement of Ozlàs NoncRoss, Y Belchertouon, Hampshire countgy, Massa- I set apart about 6 square rods for experiment with the sorgho. This ground was a dry, pebbly soil, naturally poor, but for six years had been largely manured with coarse, raw stuff, from the hog-st. and cow-stable, and well ploughed under every spring. SORGHUM CANEsS. 203 May the 25th, I planted the seed at distances of 4 feet between the rows, and 3 feet between the hills in the rows. The cane was hoed June the 10th and 22, and on the 4th and 15th of July. There ap- peared some slight marks upon the plant of an attack from the stock- worm, as it is termed, which resulted in no injury. I find the cane grows but slowly in wet, cool weather, such as constituted the pres- ent season, and thrives best when the season is dryest. The first seed-head made its appearance August the 20th, and they were all out by the 25th; some had well hardened by the 1st of October. The seed will ripen after cutting, in most cases, if due care be taken of it. The average height of my plants was from 11 to 13 feet; very few stalks fell short of 10 feet. The butt ends average 1 ⅓ inches in diameter. I estimate the weight of the green plants to be about a pound, avoirdupois, per square foot; equal to 21 tons to the acre. In drying, the plants lose about one-half of their weight, when green. Properly cured, they amount to about 10 ¾ tons per acre. I have not yet ventured the cost of machinery, preferring first to ascertain the practicability of raising the crop successfully; and, by testing its value in other respects, determine whether or not its cul- tivation will be profitable. In gathering the crop, we cut it up with the corn-cutter, and cured it for forage in the same manner as we do Indian corn. The cost of raising the sugar-cane on our plain lands is about 810 per acre, without estimating the value of manure, which may or may not be necessary. In this climate, we think the seed and fodder best secured by cutting up before severe frosts; slight frosts will not in- jure it. ö““ Statement f JAuEs F. C. HxDE, Newton Centre, Middlesex county, 1“ Massachusetts. My sugar-cane seed was planted on half an acre of light loamy soil, poor, in consequence of having been let out for a number of years. A compost of stable manure and muck was well applied, and the seed planted on the 20th of May, in hills 2 feet by 3 ⅜ feet apart; and, in drills, rows 3 ⅓ feet apart, plants 4 to 6 inches apart. The plants were hoed about the 15th of June, and in the course of their growth, were injuriously affected by excessive moisture. The leaves and panicles were killed by frost about the lst of October, but the stalks were not at all damaged. The 1st of September, the pani- cles appeared, but did not eventually ripen. The average height of the stalks was 12 feet, and the diameter of the largest of them 1 ¾ inches. 4 s I obtained 1,600 pounds of dry fodder from the leaves and tops of my half acre; and 750 gallons of juice, which made me 90 gallons of excellent syrup and a small quantity of sugar. I had the cane cut and laid in piles until wanted for the mill; then stripped, and the tops cut off 3 or 4 feet from the end; the stalks were then run through the rollers, each of which weighed 1,200 pounds, worked by two or four 204 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. horses. The juice thus expressed was poiled down, in common potash kettles of large size, until it became a syrup of proper consistency. The juice is very rich in saccharine matter, yielding from one-fourth to one-fifth of its bulk in molasses. I believe the Chinese sugar-cane to be one of the most valuable plants that has been introduced for many years—second in importance to few things that a farmer can grow. Another year, it is desirable that careful experiments should be made with it, in order to test its comparative value as a field crop. Being so rich in saccharine properties, it is a fine article for cows, pigs, and horses, which will eat the stalks, as well as the leaves, with the greatest avidity. The seed, when ripened, is good for fattening poultry. Statement o DRURY SUMRALI, f Paulding, Jasper eounty, Mississippi I planted one-fourth of an acre of rich prairie land with the sorgho, on the 15th of April, in drills 4 feet wide and 18 inches apart. It put forth its panicles the Ist of August, and by the last of the month, the seed was entirely ripe. The plants averaged from 10 to 12 feet in height, and were about an inch in diameter. I then gathered the crop, cutting off the panicles, which produced 50 bushels of seed; and that portion which I designed as forage, I had stacked, butt ends down, to poles 10 feet long, stuck upright in the earth. Here it was suffered to remain three weeks before I hauled to the barn. My horses and cows ate the fodder and chewed the stalks apparently, with great relish; and I found that if hogs are turned into the field, when the seed becomes ripe, they will eat greedily and fatten very fast. The weight of green plants I estimate to be 20, 000 pounds to the acre, and when cured, one-half. My crop brought 860 for the molasses alone, 200 gallons of which I manufactured, and which readily commanded 30 cents per gallon. Statement of H. A. BAILEY, Chantilly, Linooln countꝗ, Missouri. I cultivated about three-fourths of an acre of deep loam and light chocolate soil in the Chinese sugar-cane. The seed was sown on the 21st and 23d of May, 4 feet apart; on the 9th of June, it was worked with the hoe; on the 16th, with hoe and plough; on the 26 of July, with the plough; and again on the 19th of Julhy. It put forth its panicles about the 1st of September, and by the 15th of October the seed was fully ripe; the height of the plants averaging 12 feet, and thickness 1 ⅓ inch in diameter. The stalks were well matured before frost, and when cut, in their green state, would weigh 9,644 pounds to the acre; cured, 5,322 pounds. The yield of seed was about 10 bushels, 7 ¾ bushels of which I saved. I should state the amount of juice to the acre(at the rate produced in my experiment) to be 1, 298 gallons; of syrup, 162 ¾ gallons; the cost of production per acre, including price of seed, 85 40. The result enables us to approximate the amount of profit per acre from the culture of the sugar-cane, as follows: — 80RGHUM CANEsS. 205 162 gallons of syrup, at 40 cents a galhln. 864 80 I ½¾ bushels seed. at S1 per bushoeelͤd-e... 7 50 72 30 Deduct cost of cultivation, price of seed, CL 5 40 Net profits per acre, not including value of stalks, blades, &c., as forage............ 66 90 My crop was cut with the common corn-knife, stripped, and passed through the mill, which has two vertical rollers, 10 inches in dia meter, and 18 inches long, worked with one-horse power. I should have mentioned, that I found moisture caused the plants to sucker and stool; but that drought had no perceptible effect upon them. Cut and salted, the crop makes excellent forage for horses and cattle; and, while green, the seed is good for all kinds of poultry. Statement of B. A. ALDERSON, O St. Chaules, St. Charles countg, 1 Missouri. Iplanted about one-eighth of an acre of the Chinese sugar-cane. The soil was light and loamy, very little manured; that which was used having been obtained from an old stock lot on a part of the land. On the 24th and 28th of May, I planted the seed in drills, like broom-corn, the rows about 3 ½ feet apart. On the 15th and 30th of June it was hoed, and ploughed with double shovel. Neither moisture nor drought had any injurious effect upon the crop. By the 25th of Sep- tember, the seed had ripened; the plants having then attained an aver- age height of from 12 to 14 feet, with a diameter of from 1 to 1⅞ inches. The mode I pursued in the manufacture of the syrup was as follows: The cane was topped, stripped of the blades, and, in grind- ing, was all run through the mill at least three times. I employed a wooden mill, somewhat like the old-fashioned cider-mill, with two upright rollers, 13 inches in diameter, and 18 inches long; a foot of the lower end turned smoothly, and the upper 6 inches fluted, so as to work into each other, and to insure a regular rotary motion. To a swape, I attached one horse, which was amply able to do the work. The wooden journals of the rollers all worked on sheet tin, which destroyed most of the friction consequent upon wood working against wood. This imperfect machine would grind 100 gallons of juice a day. I made, in all, some 25 gallons of good molasses. The boiling was done in copper, brass and iron kettles, all seeming to answer the purpose equally well. The first parcel of thirty stalks, ground four times, gave 2¾ gallons. The second thirty stalks, ground five times, gave 3 gallons. The third thirty stalks, ground five times, gave 3 gallons. The fourth thirty stalks, ground six times, gave 2 gallons, 3 quarts. and 1 pint. 206 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. The ſifth twenty stalks, ground seven times, gave 2 ¼ gallons. The sixth sixty stalks, ground eight times, gave 5 gallons and 1 pint. The amount of juice from two hundred stalks of cane was thus 19 gallons, averaging nearly a gallon of juice to every ten stalks, and leaving a very perceptible quantity of juice in each lot ground. The first lot had been cut thirty-six hours; the second lot, five days; the third lot, six days; the fourth lot, ten days; the fifth lot, ten days; the sixth lot, about fourteen days; average time cut, seven to nine days. I find that it yielded juice somewhat in proportion to the time it had been cut; the ends having become dry, in some cases, at least a foot down the stalk. The 19 gallons of juice, when boiled down, made 2 gallons, 1 quart, and x pint of good molasses, which is equal to a gallon of molasses to 8 ½ gallons of juice. The stalks of cane used in the experiment averaged from 10 to 11 feet long, and were from 1 to 1 ¼ inches in diameter. The large stalks vielded the most juice. Therefore, in cultivating the crop, the stalks should have sufficient room in the drills to allow of their growing to full size. If there be seventy rows, 3 feet apart, allowing one stalk to each foot in the drill, the yield of juice will be 1,463 gallons per acre; and 8 gallons of juice to 1 of molasses will yield 183 gallons per acre. A proper mill for grinding the cane would consist of three cast-iron rollers, placed horizontally, so that the cane, when passed through the mill, would come out quite dry. Then, a set of iron kettles, made broad and shallow, ranged in a furnace, so that evaporation might be accomplished rapidly, would be a near approximation to the true methiod of grinding the cane and making molasses.— I may add, as the result of my exepriment, that the cost of pro- ducing the crop is the same as that of Indian corn; that the yield per acre is from 180 to 200 gallons of syrup; and that the farmers of Missouri can make their own molasses and scarcely feel the loss of time. K 8 Bees are fond of the juice, and cows, hogs, horses, and poultry eat the whole plant with avidity. e Statenent f M. S. KIMBAII, Gf Fulton, Osuego oounty, Neu Vork. From the sorgho seed sent me, I only succeeded in raising the heads; not a seed ripened, although I took especial care to protect the plants from injury by frosts. With an imperfect crusher, I expressed sufficient juice, when boiled down to the required consistency, to make 113 gallons to the acre of thick, heavy molasses. There remained in the cane yet three- fourths of the juice, which I failed to extract. The appearance of this syrup was good, but it possessed a dis- agreeable flavor, which I could not remove, though various expe- dients were tried. pe delh de dak ehin dty ani per den, peräen eastiun I kettks apoxttn ol thh t om. the rul kIn lthebs 1 rain “ EN ing h 0 kt en lolt lne ae fet threr 1 46 ”s erpe SORGHUM CANEsS. 207 Statement of HENRy N. BRüSH. Brush's MWills, Franklin county, Neao Vork. I planted a small patch, a rod square, in the Chinese sugar-cane, more from curiosity than from any expectation of its growing. Al- though the last season was very unfavorable, even for corn, yet the sorgho flourished remarkably well, and withstood the early frosts better than corn; being comparatively green, when corn growing near it was entirely cut down. Encouraged by this success in its growth, late in November, I attempted by the aid of very rude apparatus to crush the cane, and obtained sufficient juice for nearly 12 quarts of excellent syrup. I regret that the seed did not ripen, as I desire to cultivate the cane on a larger scale, and would have had abundance of seed for the purpose had it matured. Statement JAMEs H. HoPKINsS, f Westmoreland, Oneida county, Nee Fork. Owing to the wetness and lateness of the season, the sorgho was not planted until the 15th of June. The soil was a light gravelly loam, of rather poor quality— green sward freshly turned over. Upon the same land, adjoining, or rather surrounded by the sugar-cane, I grew 40 bushels of corn to the acre, and 20 bushels of beans, without manure. I put down half an acre of this land in the sugar-cane, from 3 to 4 feet apart, and worked July 16th with horse cultivator; hoed with the horse-hoe on the 20th of July, and again, by hand, on the 27th of July. The crop grew slowly until the last of August, then quite rapidly until frost. Moisture injured it from first to last; frost killed the leaves, but had the effect of making the cane sveeter. The panicles presented themselves about the 20th of September on a small portion of the crop; but the greater part never blossomed, and the seed did not ripen. The average height of the plant was about 6 fost, and the diameter 1 inches. E There was so much rain during the season that I ould not dry the crop thoroughly, but drew it to the barn in a partly cured state. I judge it to be a very difficult plant to cure at any time, owing to its great juiciness; but my half acre yieded of imperfectly cured forage 3 tons— being 6 tons to the acre. My field was not sufficiently ad- vanced for sugar-making purposes; yet I experimented upon a few stalks, started in a hot-bed, and made a very small quantity of supe- rior syrup. I would mention, as a peculiar circumstance, that my sorghum, which, before cutting up, was no sweeter than common Indian corn, afterwards grew very sweet, and remained so, save in the joints, many of which became slightly acid. I preserved the crop in this state and directed it to be cut up at the 208 AGRICULTURAI, REPORT. roots—the same as Indian corn— and shocked, by placing four small bundles to the shock, and then left in the field until freezing weather, when it was drawn to the barn. The entire crop was fed to my milch cows; they ate it with avidity, consuming the entire plant, without the waste of a particle. My horses, calves, colts, and all stock to which it was experimen- tally fed, appeared very fond of it. Pshould estimate the cost of the production of the crop to be 85 per acre, aside from interest on land. The value of the crop, as forage, I should set at§25 per acre. Had I planted two weeks earlier, upon warmer land, and had the season been an ordinarily dry and warm one, I have no kind of doubt I should have raised a crop of double the value of the present. Ithink the sorghum very desirable, as a forage crop, particularly. It is relished exceedingly by all kinds of stock, and is excellent for the production of milk. I place great value upon it as a change, or variation in food, alternated with other forage. My opinion is that it will do best planted in drills, producing most to the acre in that way. Statement of M. J. MupoE, ꝙ Nineveh, Broome coumlg, Neuo Fork. Isowed 36 square rods of warm, gravelly green sward, for soiling cows; and half an acre of clayey loam I planted with sorgho seed, at distances of 3 feet each way. The crop was put down on the 28th of May; common unrotted barn-yard manure was applied, 30 loads to the acre, and turned under 8S inches deep; and on the 19th of June and 14th of July, the crop was well worked. An unusually wet season had the effect of somewhat retarding the growth of the plants, and a severe frost, September 24th, injured the panicles and leaves, but did not at all affect the stalks. In conss- quence of this frost, none of the seed ripened; I obtained, however, some from seed sown in a hot-bed the 25th of April, which matured, and afforded ripe seeds about the 20th of September. The cane grown in the field averaged 10 feet in height, and about an inch in diameter. Estimated from the weight of plants in six aver- age hills, Ishould conclude there were about 20, 000 pounds of green plants to the acre, and about 8,000 pounds when cured, similarly estimated. The quantity of juice obtained was at the rate of 960 gallons to the acre, and syrup at the rate of 96 gallons. I did not succeed in making sugar. The cane not being sufficiently ripe, the syrup would not granulate. The refuse part of the syrup, about 10 gallons, made very good vinegar. My mode of proceeding, in the manufacture of the crop, was as follows: I cut off the tops at the second joint below the panicle, stripped off the leaves downwards, and then cut up the stalks with a corn-cutter, for grinding,&. The machine employed for this purpose consisted of three wooden rollers, each a foot in diameter, turned with a swape, which was propelled by a horse. This mill was capable of expressing 300 gallons of juice a day, and cost about§10. ur l weätde. ridtn periwen. dad th dfn M. larh. nt tr hh daugs d lcing un eu h. tor sub do Költ the M und dhe mSil Nf- s df gt Mle te 1¹m 1 ip l b ) dhont! 1 2 ps b e mi IW rih. is 9 rvel rapabled 1 SORGHUM CANES. 299 The sorgho is manifestly better for soiling than sown corn; horses and cows eat it with avidity, and the fodder will pay for all work up to the time of crushing. In clarifying the syrup, I used lime and new milk. The cost and value of the crop may be thus approxi- mated: Labor, per acre,§16 50; value of fodder,§16 50, which pays for the labor; syrup, worth§72; crushed stalks, worth§5 for manuring purposes,&c.; manufacturing,§20; whole value, 593 50; whole cost, 837 50; to which§20 for use of land and manure, making 857 50, leaving a balance of 36 profit. Swine are very fond of the stalks in a green state. I think that if the sorgho were planted in good ground, 3 feet apart, and about four stalks in the hill, in a more favorable season, it would suit this latitude perfectly, and ripen fully. Statement 0 JoHlα△ W. BAIIEV, Cf Plattsburgh, Clinton county]j, Nauo Vork. I planted 11 rods in the Chinese sugar-cane, at distances of 3 by 1 ½ feet apart, on the 22d of May. The soil was a gravelly loam, wan clay sub-soil, and limestone abundant. I applied stable manure moderately to this piece of land, which was sufficiently fertile, without manure, to produce from 50 to 60 bushels of corn to the acre. At the rate of about 10 two-horse wagon loads only were employed. On the 20th of June and the l13th and 25th of July, the crop was worked in the manner of Indian corn, namely, by running the horse cultivator through, and following with hoes. The month of June was cold, and the plants made very little progress, being on the Ist of July only about 4 inches high, and yellowish in appearance. The warm weather after July, however, brought them out finely, and the panicles put forth on the 10th of September. They failed to ripen sufficiently, in consequence of the uncommonly wet season, and the white frosts of the 1st and 2d of October. The unfavorable weather did not kill the leaves, curl them, nor had it any other detri- mental effect than to arrest the development of the seed. The full- grown plants are far less affected by frost than Indian corn. My crop was cut up on the 17th of October, after several frosts, and only about 3 feet of the tops and top leaves exhibited any evidence of injury from them. The lower leaves and stalks were as green and perfect as possible. The average height of the canes was 190 feet, and the diameter about an inch. The amount of juice expressed was at the rate of 1,091 gallons to the acre, making syrup at the rate of 116 gallons. I used the common cider-mill for pressing out the juice, and proceeded with the crop in this way: after stripping off the leaves, I cut off about 2 feet from the top, and then cut up the stalks near the ground, with a- corn-hook, tied them in bundles, and hauled them to the mill. The cane was then passed between the crushers by hand, the juice run- ning into a tub, and the crushed cane passed off. The cost of cultivation is the same as corn, and I think, if a proper mill and boiling apparatus were provided, it would pay equally well. 14 A 210 AGRICULTURAI. REPORT. Satement ISAAC S. FRENCH, Loudon Ridge, Merrimack countyj, Neuo Hampshire. The Chinese sugar-cane has been tried to some extent with good success in making syrup, but no sugar has been produced from it in this region, as far as my knowledge extends. I have the opinion that it is better adapted to feeding stock than for the purpose of making syrup. Statement L. F. WiIIIAMS, Faison s Depôt, Duplin countyj, North Carolina. I planted seven rows of the Chinese sugar-cane, each row 25 yards in length, in ordinary corn land, inclined to be stiff. I applied 2 one- horse loads of yard manure, and planted the seed on the 18th of May, in drills 5 feet apart, and the plants 2 feet asunder in the drills. The crop was worked when occasion re quired, and withstood drought better than Indian corn. The sorgho, in my opinion, and that of my neighbors, should be planted as early in March as the season will admit; and the last of September it should be cut for making syrup. My little crop afforded me from 15 to 20 bushels of good seed. My mill consists of three upright rollers, a foot in diameter, with cogs to suit, at the upper ends; the middle one turned, by fixtures to the top, by horse power, and a proper receptacle provided beneath to receive the juice. It is a simple contrivance, costing from 815 to 620. A fair average yield for our region we may set down at 250 gallons of syrup. About 6 gallons of the juice will make 1 of syrup. It will be universally planted in this region next season, as every- body seems delighted with it; in fact, it is just the thing we require. Statement of THoMAàs W. GoRpDoN, Georgetouwn, Broun countyj, Ohio. I divided the sorgho seed sent me into two parts—three-fourths in one parcel, and one-fourth in the other. Both of the gentlemen who raised it for me planted in drills 10 inches apart. One-fourth was planted in rows 4 ½ feet apart; in this manner about 44 rods of ground were planted, from which was obtained 80 gallons of syrup. The soil cultivated was limestone hill-side, gently sloping south. The seed- heads were not removed from this portion of the cane. About one-third of the other seed(the three-fourths) did not come up well, and the panicles were subsequently destroyed by incessant rains, the crop being overflown, and thus retarded in growth and overtaken by late frosts. A little of the other two-thirds was de- stroyed by a worm, which cut through the centre of the stalk when it was from 6 inches to a foot in height. These seed-heads were not removed. This part of the crop produced 126 ¾ gallons from a little less than half an acre. A portion of this crop was materially injured nth. Nar it ghu ltou tock tun aty Nan TA rn led lon- d hrils I ghtbetr Aoull tne Wtä op ührt neter vy bän ed beleut fron glöt w dt A , S eſe we equle punty l elourtbi dlemen E four m 80! og gll u . Thes 1 Tle w 1 1 8 rvnt ha 1 5 n stalk Tle w wa rom alt U- uijn. SORGHUM CANES. 211 by heating in the pile before it was ground. A part of it lay for three weeks, and we were compelled to cut from each stalk the best part of it, in order to avoid juice which had partly soured. I after- wards tried some of this heated cane, which had been raised by a neighbor, and discovered that it made as much and as good syrup as that which had not undergone such change; there being no per- ceptible difference in the taste. Frosted cane produced a little less juice, but about an equal amount of syrup as that not frosted. I had one-eighth of an acre deprived of the panicles. The lateness of the season, last year, prevented the plant maturing after the panicle was cut off; and this season, I only obtained 20 gallons of syrup from one- eighth of an acre. Statement of JoHx A. LAàwRENC, f Plain P. O., Wauyne county;, Ohio. Iselected 40 rods of ordinary clay soil, marked it out with a plough, and sowed the cane seed on the 22 of May. I made the furrows too deep, which Tascertained from the circumstance that when rain fell it produced a crust upon the surface, which wholly prevented the growth of the greater part of the crop— about one-fourth of it only making its appearance. It would be better to plant it on the ridge. Iput in the seed 3 by 3 ½ feet apart in the hills, and in June, went through it with the cultivator and hoe, and again in July. Barn-yard manure was applied to the soil, but the season being very late, the panicles did not appear until August. Drought has apparently no effect upon the crop, but too much rain evidently impedes its growth. One frost in the fall does not harm it for syrup. In a favorable season, the seed, I believe, would ripen; but owing to the early and severe frosts of the present one, all the seed, I fear, are more or less injured. The plants attained 10 feet in height, and averaged in diameter about an inch. At the rate of from 400 to 500 gallons of juice to the acre were expressed from the stalks, and I should estimate the quantity of good syrup procurable i in a favorable season at from 160 to 200 gallons to the acre. Towards the last of September, I cut the cane up, and cut off the panicles about 10 inches from the top—that portion which, in most, instances, is very bitter, and spoils the syrup, if pressed. Ithen run the stalks through a pair of wooden rollers twice, once being insuffi- cient to extract the best juice in the cane. The fodder is excellent for stock. To plant, hoe, cut, express the juice, and boil into syrup, for the above, cost me 84; making 8 gallons of syrup, worth 81 each, giving a clear gain of one-half net profit, or from§80 to§100 per acre. I would repeat, that the cane should be planted on a light ridge, as much moisture is a great injury to it, and the plant will pay as fodder alone. SGatement JosEPH MoOINTIRE, Gꝙ Lexingkon, Fichland counly, Ohio. My experiment was only with about 10 square feet of sandy loam planted May 12th, at 6 inches distance in drills, and worked just as 212 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. needed. The plants stood drought very well, but did not come to perfection. They attained the height of 3 feet only, and of course produced no seed. The green plants weighed about 50 pounds; they were fed to my horses, which devoured them greedily. They can be grown at a cost of about§10 per acre. Statement of JoHN BoxYDEN, of Broollyn, Cugjahoga countyj, Ohio. About the 15th of May last, I planted 5 square rods of sandy land, in good condition, with the sorghum. It came up well, but cold weather retarded it for a long time; it finally grew to the height of 10 or 12 feet, but did not ripen, in consequence of frost. About the 1st of October, I began to cut the cane, press out the juice, and boil it down to syrup. The result was, 6 gallons of as pleasant molasses as that of New Orleans, though not so clear, owing to not having been properly cleansed. I used lime for the purpose, but should have had recourse to sub-carbonate of soda, which I think far better. Owing to the inefficiency of the mill, I did not obtain more than three-fourths of the juice. I should think that about 200 gallons of syrup can be produced to the acre. I succeeded in getting a small quantity of the syrup to granulate. gtatement& J. P. KTLAND, N Cuyjahoga county, Cleveland, Ohio. The Sorghum saccharatum promises to effect an important change in the condition of the people of the United States, in more than one particular: 1st. In supplying them with a cheap, abundant article in the way of sweetening. 2d. In fattening cattle and swine, it may become as valuable as maize. 3d. In yielding milk, especially from cows in the vicinity of cities. 4th. In affording food for all kinds of grazing stock; for sheep, it must be as valuable in winter as in spring. zth. Both fermented and alcoholic liquors will doubtless be ob- tained from it, in great quantities, and perhaps of better qualities than those now in common use. The plant will flourish as far north as this locality, and anywhere in the vicinity of the lake will mature its seeds. Statement Of HENRY WHEELER, Hardin, Shelby county, Ohio. I planted the Chinese sugar-cane seed about the 20th of May. The crop grew finely, until arrested and considerably injured by premature, severe frosts, which prevented the ripening of the seed, but did not seem at all to affect the quality of the molasses produced. I think the use of this plant, as a fodder, will supersede the —— —-—,——— ole h eodR te Ghu k Gh rell nd bigt Nhon les ul Nletod- g wu dese tbüok ore a galh 9 AIl M Gü ut Gan tban w Rtlem Anul mdfcis rShxey! wit 3 Tulle uyf 8ORGHUM CANEsS. 213 necessity of cutting the blades,&c., from corn-stalks, as stock eat the cane, leaves and all, in preference to any other kind of forage. The syrup I have made, I regard as superior to the best molasses from the South. Statement o Jon T. MERIMAN, Burton, Geauga couatyh, Ohio. I planted an acre in Chinese sugar-cane, applying about 20 loads of ordinary yard manure to the soil, and ploughing up clean. I sowed three seeds to the hill, at distances of 4 feet by 20 inches apart, and hoed twice. The season was very wet, and consequently unfavorable to the crop. The seed came up about the 18t of July, and the plants grew rapidly, in due time putting forth panicles; but owing to the heavy frost just as the cane blossomed, the seeds never ripened. I had the land measured by a committee, appointed to decide, and the weight of the green plants ascertained, they estimated it at 34,067 pounds to the acre. A portion of the cane was then crushed, the juice boiled down, which yielded about 40 gallons of thick syrup; the remainder of the cane, I reserved for fodder, and it proved to be of the very best de- scription. My horses and cattle ate it with the greatest avidity. I kept eleven head of cattle eight weeks upon it, and my cows gave as much and as good milk as from summer feed; the butter, also, which it produced, was of the best quality. At the same time, I raised a fine crop of turnips among the cane. I would recommend that turnips should be sowed immediately after the last hoeing which the cane receives, and I think in every instance they will produce well, without the least injury to the cane. Statement W. C. HAMPTON, f Mt. Victorg, Hardin countyj, Ohio. I planted fifteen hills of sugar-cane seed in my garden. It grew with great vigor, notwithstanding the severest drought, and attained the height of 8 feet. It fully matured its seed, standing the fall frosts much better than Indian corn. A part of my small crop was made into molasses; and I am fully convinced that, with good culture, and the proper means of manufac- ture, it would yield about 400 gallons of molasses to the acre, equal in every respect t the best New Orleans. It produces seed abundantly, which, as food for animals, would of itself repay the cost of cultivation. Statement F. AvERY, Delaware P. O., Delaware counkyj, Ohio. The 25th of May, in good, clayey, upland soil, I planted the sorgho over a surface of one-fifteenth of an acre. The land was not manured this season; but three years ago, it received a sufficient application of barn-yard manure. 214 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. The rows were 4 feet apart- and drilled 8 inches, but not more than two-thirds of the seed germinated. The crop was hoed in the latter part of June. The plants reached an average height of 12 feet, and were about 1 inches in diameter. The season peing some three weeks later than usual, the cane had not entirely ripened when the period for its manufacture arrived. My method of treating the crop was this: I first cut off the pani- cles, and then, with a thin board, constructed with an aperture an inch wide by 12.inches long, I stripped the stalk of its leaves. Next, I cut the cane and hauled to a wooden mill, with three cylinders, 12 by 8 inches,. arranged vertically. The machinery was quite im- perfect, and did not express more than three-fourths of the juice. From my small experiment, and what I have seen of it the past season, I think the cost per acrè, including its manufacture into syrup, will not exceed§32; and 250 gallons of syrup— a fair yield—at 30 cents a gallon, amounts to§75; making a net profit per acre of 43. My small crop produced me 241½ gallons of excellent syrup. —n:n n y——— Statement JAMES CASSII, of Huntsville. Loqan count,j, Ohio. On the 5th of June, I planted 60 rods of black loam and sandy clay soil with the sugar-cane seed, 3 ½ by 3 feet apart, which I have since been convinced is too close. The crop was hoed on the 15th of July, and again on the 15th of August. The panicles appeared about the 10th of September, but did not ripen, owing to frost. The plants were not otherwise injuriously affected, the season not being unfavorable; that is, either too wet or too dry. When suffciently matured, the crop Was cut up, stripped of blades- and seed-heads, by hand, and passed through a mill, consisting of two wooden rollers, in a vertical position, and turned by horses attached to a swape. The cost of the arrangement was about§6. The average height of stalks raised by me was 113¾ feet. I found the machinery I employed very defective. Notwithstanding this, I succeeded in procuring 300 gallons of juice, which, after boiling, gave me 30 gallons of excellent syrup. The entire cost of producing 30 gallons of the syrup was 812. I would recommend that a wider distance be observed in planting the seed than I selected in my experiment, say 4 by 2 feet apart; that the plants be thinned out to three in a hill, and not manufactured until fully ripe Had my machinery been more perfect, I could readily have pro- cured from the 60 rods 60 gallons of good syrup, which is at the rate of 160 gallons to the acre. Mn I tl abaut s kiet lorih pan. pure a Jext linder lie i ller. le pa yr jell-A er del Nuo. d sai- 1L n läd „tüt jwiung d Wetl f is 1 SORGHUM CANEsS. 215 Stcuement f D. H. ScHoFIELD, Olive, Noble countg, Ohio. I planted about 2 rods of clay loam, rich bottom land, that had beem cleared fifteen years, with the Chinese sugar-cane, which was the first crop sown upon this piece of land. It was put down the 23d of May, in rows 3 feet apart, the hills 18 inches asunder in the row. It was hoed, without ploughing, on the 10th of June, and on the 17th of June it was ploughed and slightly hoed. The season was extremely wet, and altogether unfavorable, there not having been a drought of ten days therein. The sugar-cane stands incessant rains remarkably well; turns somewhat yellow in cold weather, but recovers perfectly as it moderates. Mine put forth its panicles entire by the 5th of September, and by the 12th of Octo- ber, I adjudged them fully ripe. The average height of the stalks was 12 ¼ feet; some of them reached as high as 15 feet, and were about an inch in diameter. My 2 rods yielded about 40 gallons of juice, which produced about 8 gallons of the syrup. The cane was cut close to the ground with a corn-cutter, and hauled directly to the mill, where the blades and tops were stripped off. I employed a common cider-mill, and treated the juice in every respect like that of the maple. Here the cost of production would be about the same as corn, namely, ploughing an acre,§2; harrowing and crushing,§1 50; ploughing and hoeing three times, 55— total,§8 50. Statement JolN MIILER, Of Millersburg, Holmes countę, Ohio. I sowed the sorgho seed in a sandy soil, over a surface of 10 square rods, on the 23d of May, using about 2 wagon loads of stable-manure during the production of the crop. The plants were distant 4 feet by 2 apart. The season was very dry until the 23 of September, after which, frost set in, preventing the ripening of the seed. The stalks averaged 12 feet in height, and were about 1 ¼ inches in diameter. I used three cogged rollers in my mill, and succeeded in expressing 304 gallons. Statement of CHARLES A. PETTIBONE, of Girard, Frie countgj, Penn- spluanid. The season has been a late and very unfavorable one, not more than one-third of my crop growing, and none of it maturing suffi ciently to afford ripe seed. That which did appear, however, grew so thriftily as to vie in stoutness with good Indian corn. 1 was able to convert but a small portion of the cane into syrup; so, in order té estimate the probable quantity which may be produced to the acre, I was necessitated to measure a part of the ground exhibiting an 216 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. average yield, and to obtain a result by calculating its proportion to the acre. phe soil was a sandy gravel, and the seed was planted 3 feet, inches apart, on the 28th and 29th of May, and well worked July the 4th and 5th, and from the 20th to the 25th. The panicles ap- peared in the early part of September; the plants were from 8 to 10 feet high, and about 1¾ inches in diameter, when heavy frosts set in, which killed nearly all the crop, yet by no means unfitting it for the production of as good a syrup, and probably a greater quantity, than is procurable in its green stage. J erected a mill, at an expense of about§150, which will make 1 ⅓ barrels of syrup per day. It takes more force to crush the cane than was expected; consequently, as at present constructed, my water power is quite inadequate to the accomplishment of a satisfactory result. The syrup we have made, notwithstanding all these dis- couragements, is equal to any from the South. I prefer the taste of the syrup I have produced to any I have tried which was obtained in the green state of the stalk. I should judge that it takes from 5 to 7 ½ gallons of the juice to make a gallon of syrup. The mill I used was furnished with two cast-iron rollers; and the crushed cane, after its passage through, was fed to horses and cattle. forage that grows. Altogether, I think there has been no plant introduced into our country for the last quarter of a century that has so well realized my expectations as the Chinese sugar-canc. This is the result of my experiment: 80 gallons of syrup, at 62 cepts per gallon. 850 OCost of cultivation, harvesting, manufacture, use of lands,&c.. 40 .. 10 Balance, which is net profſt....... of JofN F. WoLPINGER, of Milton, Northumberland county, Pennsglwanid. On the Ith of May, I planted, in a mellow, sandy loam, two rows of Chinese sugar-cane, in hills about 2 ⅛ feet apart each way, with six or seven seeds to the hill, and from 1 to 1¼ inches deep in the ground. On the 23 of May, the plants made their appearance, and on the Ist of August, the points of the tassels presented themselves. The sharp frost of the 1st of October stopped the growth of the canes, when they were from 10 to 11 feet in height, and averaging an inch thick at the base. The seeds, notwithstanding, continued developing until fully matured. The Sorgho sucré stands the climate of Pennsylvania finely, retain- ing its color and luxuriance of growth under a drought that very soon parches and destroys Indian corn. It will also ripen seven or more stalks to the hill, thus producing double the quantity of fodder from the same extent of ground that can be obtained from corn. The Statement They eat it more readily than any other Mabel ale thu y Wta taetn lede d- tast Ohtaübet jlie with i rnun ayob to er Mredlee — —— 1 11 1 nd onfsti iih Guc guuni Dd 1” e T he eue g AM M efdlpin p, Mr verſ3 vor vnt ſder m rI- „ 80RGIUM CANEsS. 217 stalks, both in a green and a dried state, abound in a rich saccharine juice, which seems to contain a large amount of fat-forming and milk- producing material. Milch cows and hogs eat it in preference to any other food. Statement o A. E. CARSoN, Carmichael's, Greene county, Pennsylvania. T planted about 250 square feet of rich sandy loam in the Chinese sugar-cane. It came up well, and grew finely until affected by frost, which was just before the seed matured. Nevertheless, I am confi- dent that it will grow to perfection in this latitude. The ground I planted, produced about 7 gallons of good, thick, well- flavored syrup. It would be difficult for one unacquainted with the article to distinguish it from sugar-house molasses. Satement J. B. GARBER, Columbia, Lancaster countgj, Pennsyluania. I chose a limestone soil, which had been in potatoes three previous seasons, and had not been manured, for raising the sugar-cane. The crop was planted on the 16th of May, two weeks later than it shoulé have been, in drills, from 10 to 12 inches apart. A short drought affected the cane much less than my Indian corn. From the middle to the last of September, the panicles appeared, anc. the main stalks had ripened about the last of October. The average height attained by the plants was 14 feet, and thie diameter from three-fourths of an inch to 1 ¼ inches. From my quarter of an acre, which was the extent of my planting, notwithstanding ful. half of the crop was smothered by the weeds when it first appeared above ground, I succeeded in expressing about 420 gallons of juice, and making 70 gallons of very thick syrup, or a gallon of syrup to every 6 of the juice. Much of the cane being too green when frost was approaching, at the period it was cut, I did not, in consequence, attempt the manu- facture of sugar, as I was aware the unripe juice would not granulate. For the same reason, I am unable to state with precision the yield of ripe seed, but I do not think from 30 to 50 bushels per acre an over- estimate. The machinery I made use of was a three-cylinder cast-iron crusher attached to my threshing horse-power. The juice, previously strained, was boiled in common copper kettles about six hours, with about 4 table-spoonfuls of lime to every 30 gallons of juice I made no use of the sorgho as a forage crop, but I found my hogs remarkably fond of chewing the cane after its passage through the crusher. I should estimate the cost of production— harvesting, crush- ing, and boiling—to be very little, if any, more than raising, har- vesting, threshing, and preparing for market a crop of Indian corn. An average yield is about 300 gallons of syrup to the acre, which. at 50 cents a gallon, amounts to ½150. 218 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Siatement f WILIIAM DENNISB, of Applebachville, Bucks county]], Penn- Slwania. On the 26th of May, I planted in sorghum about one-eighth of an acre of strong, sandy loam, with a sub-soil of sand. gravel, and clay. The rows were about 3 feet apart, and the hills 6 inches. Hen manure was applied to a portion of the land, and ordinary barn-yard manure to the rest, with about the same result. The ground was thoroughly worked once only, on the 21st of June. Last season was very dry, and the present is moist, yet I perceive no difference in the growth of the cane, which seems to thrive as well this as it did the preceding year.— The first slight frosts did not injuriously affect the plant in any way, and the heavy frost of the 1st of October merely killed a portion of the leaves, without damaging the stalks. About the last of August, the seed-heads appeared, and were ripe che 18t of October, when the plants averaged from 12 to 14 feet in aeight, and from 1 to 1 ½ inches in diameter. I cut the crop near the ground with the corn-Knife, stripped off the eaves and seed-heads, and passed the stalks twice, some of them three times, through a cider-mill. I found the mill almost useless for the purpose, as by far the greater portion of the juice was retained in the stalks. The little I succeeded in obtaining, I strained carefully and boiled with a small quantity of lime in an iron boiler, removing the scum as it rose to the surface, until it became of proper con- zistency, and made a Very good syrup. Statement of P. H. HEILEN, O Vniontoꝛvn, Fayette oountgj, Penns lvaniq. With the seed sent me from the Patent Office, and that obtained from other sources, I was enabled to plant 2 acres with the Chinese sugar-cane. The land selected was rather sandy, with. considerable coarse sand- stone, the sub-soil clay, with limestone at some depth. Its situation was upland, lying to the south. The ground was manured with coal ashes and stable manure, abundantly laid on, and ploughed under. May the 26th, the seed was sown, at distances of 4 by 2 feet apart; the crop hoed the 20th of June; ploughed with a three-shovel plough, and hoed July 6th. The frosts towards the last of October killed the blades, but did not injure the stalks. About the 1st of September, the panicles ap- peared, and were fully ripe by the 20th of October. The plants then averaged 11 ⅞ feet in height, and were from seven-eighths of an inch to 1¼ inches in diameter. I procured from Oincinnati a mill with boilers, which cost me 8100. It has three cast-iron rollers and three kettles, also of cast-iron, de- signed for boiling and clarifying, two of them holding 30 gallons each, and the other 50 gallons. ühf d Ik ceifen 6Swdl tum! Aerin rete nh lt betu ed dlih w0l lun welei- SRtälll lerreäif remofde oper dl nusſtui tobtelr e Clla arxear S Stutdl 3 Dard 6 gel 3 de Nü ih. dut d 8 p ſant ie ome t Me T t⸗jrol,— lons ead- SORGHUM CANES. 219 The crop produced at least 3,000 gallons of juice, though all that the stalks contained was not obtained. The syrup was elarified by boiling, then permitted to stand twenty minutes, afterwards skim- ming it carefully and pouring it off. I found that 7 gallons of the juice made a gallon of good syrup; at which rate, the amount I produced to the acre was 427 gallons, and this without crushing all the cane, a large portion remaining until it became frozen, and unfit for manufacture. I have no doubt the cane will be of great value in all corn-growing regions. Ithink it will fatten hogs as well as corn, and an acre is worth more for that purpose; it is as good for swine as clover pasture after the juice is pressed out of the stalks. The cultivation costs about the same as corn. Statement AsA MANOHESTER, Independence, Washinglon counky, Pennsylvania. The land upon which I sowed the sugar-cane was a mixture of gravel and clay, and middling rich. I planted it in rows 3 ⅞ feet apart, each way, alongside of corn, working and hoeing it at the same time and manner as that crop. The season was very wet, yet the cane grew excellently, attaining an average height of from 10 to 12 feet, with a diameter of about an inch. A severe hail-storm visited this region, injuring more or less the growing crops; corn was damaged somewhat, but the sorgho escaped entirely. The seed-heads appeared on the 1st of September, and ripened about the 15th of October. A portion of the crop sowed upon bottom land did not do so well as the rest. The machinery and fixtures employed were very imperfect, yet I obtained 200 gallons of good syrup, and the experiment is regarded throughout this county as entirely successful, far surpassing expecta- tions. My crop was ground in a common cider-mill, and the crushed stalks were fed to the horses, which ate it greedily, Sheep partook of the blades with apparent relish. I think it would be excellent food for them in the winter, when they could not obtain grass; it would have the effect, in my opinion, of rendering them healthy. Ratement WILILIAM S. MELIINCER, ́ Monongahela Citg. Washington countg, Pennsplvanda. I planted 2, 880 square feet of ground, on the 14th of May, with a portion of the sugar-cane seed I had obtained. The soil selected was limestone; the plants 3 feet 6 inches apart, and the crop worked 220 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. three times, namly, the 3d of June, 17th of June, and, lastly, on the Ist of July. The cane grew rank, in consequence of the great moisture of the season, and I found the seed somewhat injured by the frost. It put forth its panicles in the early part of July, when the average height, of the plants was 12 feet, and the diameter of the stalks from 1 to 1 ¼ inches. The weight of the green plants, numbering one thousand two hun- dred and seventy stalks, was 1, 650 pounds. Notwithstanding the moisture and frost, which prevented the seed ripening, I succeeded in expressing 82 gallons of the juice, which, after the boiling process, afforded me 16 ¾ gallons of good syrup. The unripe seed, I fed to swine, and, in my opinion, it possesses the same amount of nutriment as the seed of broom-corn. This was my process in the production of the syrup: on the Ist of October, I pladed and cut the cane, binding the blades in small bundles, and set them up in shocks, removing them when cured. The cane was passed through an iron mill of two rollers, attached to a steam saw-mill; and the juice, when thus obtained, was boiled down, in iron kettles, to the consistency required. Gattle and horses are extremely fond of the fodder, either green or cured, and swine will readily feed on the stalks after they are pressed. The production of the crop costs no more than Indian corn, and, in my opinion, the syrup can be manufactured for from 8 to 10 cents a gallon. Slatement of A. G. SUMMER, of Pomoria, Neuberrg district, South Carolind. In April last,(1858,) I sowed 20 acres, broadcast, in sugar millet, (Sorgho sucré,) intending it as a pasture for calves and milch cows. On the 1st of July, I turned my cows, sheep, goats, calves, swine, and geese upon it, and have not lost a single animal. They have all improved rapidly; and, although I have large numbers on the field, the herbage bids fair to keep ahead of all demands made upon it. 1 have fed this plant to all kinds of stock for the four past seasons, in every stage of its growth-green, ripe, and cured as fodder, and have also found it the best soiling crop I ever raised. I fed 250 bushels of the seed during the past winter to sheep, goats, and poultry, and I attach the relative value of oats to it as food for these animals. This season, I made it a point to take my stock from good pastures, and feeding them well before turning them in, allowing them a plenty of salt. If a half-starved cow is turned on wheat, peas, or Indian corn, she is just as likely to die from over-eating these crops as she is from Chinese sugar-cane. The disease which kills cattle when over-fed on green food in a hungry state is termed„“hoove,“ or choven,“ the best cure for which is a drench of a pint of salt dis- —,— öp. Nese the in aMl ed. Rtebel à bolbi T gral hef an m M 10 celt 4 Lon ¹ ar vildi leh eoms SFI hredl the tell 00D it 2S der ul fel 19 dats 1 for tbes pasthes 4 per8 ir Lodid 83 R9 le vha- Pr, slltGr SORGHUM CANEsS. 221 solved in a gallon of water. This will relieve an animal sometimes in a minute. Peas, of all green food, is the most dangerous, from the flatulent nature of the plant. I have frequently seen half a dozen cows die in a few hours after they were turned into a luxuriant pea- field in the fall, and as frequently have seen others relieved by the above dose. l have sown broadcast at the rate of one and a half bushels of sugar-cane seed to the acre—a meadow-— which I intended to convert into good nutritious hay for winter food. J think more cows will die for the want of this food in on. State than from being over-fed on it. I do not think, with the pronor precautions, it is in anywise more dangerous than any other green food we are accustomed to feed, and would advise its extended use as a soiling and hay crop in the South. Statement O. S. L. MARTIN, Fox Spring, Overton countyj, Tennessce. I received from the Patent Office, on the 9th of June, a small par- cel of the seed of the Chinese sugar-cane, which I planted the next day. In five days, the stalks came up beautifully, and continued to grow finely until they arrived at maturity. Owing to the press of other business, I did not commence the manufacture of molasses until two weeks after the seed had ripened; suckers had put up from the roots and some of the joints, and the stalks presented a light yellow. This was in consequence of a frost sufficiently heavy to kill a good many of the blades. The area of ground planted was a trifle over 3 ½ square rods, in drills 3 feet asunder. The number of stalks, from 10 to 13 feet high, was seven hundred and fifty; the quantity of seed produced, a bushel; and the number of gallons of molasses produced, was 6. About one-half the stalks fell down at the time the plants had attained their full size—an evidence of the ground being too fresh and rich. The machinery I employed in expressing the juice, con- sisted of a couple of rollers fixed horizontally on a bench, worked by cranks to each; a groove had been previously cut in the bench for conducting the juice. I passed the stalks through twice, doubling them the last time, yet still Ieaving a good deal of juice in the cane. I found that 5 gallons of the juice, or a little over, will make a gallon of syrup, pronounced by all who have tasted it to be fully equal or superior to the best Orleans molasses. Statement THoMAS EVANS, Dandridge, Jegferson countg, Tennessee. I herewith send you samples of sugar made from the Chinese sugar- cane. I planted the seed about the 17th of April, on river bottom land, in hills laid off for corn, about 4 feet apart each way. Having but few seeds, I apportioned but two to each hill, and subsequently thinned the suckers to four or five stalks to the hill. I began to cut 222 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. the crop about the time of pulling fodder, or when the seed had fully ripened. It matured very irregularly, on account of replauting. 3 Having no way of grinding the stalks, I bored a hole in a piece of timber, and put the large end of the cane into it, and drove in a pin; then, with a stick doubled around the stalks, I twisted them until all the juice it was possible to express by this method was extracted. 1 boiled this juice twice—the first time insufficiently. After the second boiling, it was set aside in a bowl until morning, when I found that some sugar was collected around the edges. I then put the whole of it in a cloth and suffered the molasses to strain through, leaving the sugar behind. I used lime-water to assist in clarifying. Statement of G. RoGAX, Lockhart, Caldwell countgj, Texas. Ireceived from the Patent Office a sample of the Chinese sugar- cane seed, which I planted about the 1st of March. It came up well, but a portion of it was destroyed by the frost; the balance grewy very well, and, notwithstanding the unprecedented drought, matured good stalks and a quantity of fine seed. Want of time and the smallness of the crop prevented me attempting the manufacture of molasses; but, after the seèeds were cut off, some of the young members of my family took a few stalks, mashed them, put them in a common iron pot, poured water over them, and boiled them. They then strained off the Water and boiled the stalks again, producing, to my surprise, a fine, richly-flavored syrup. The yield was a large one, considering the crude process employed. I feel satisfied now of its great merits as a molasses-producing plant, and of its high value as a green fodder. Statement of SrEPHEN S. PERRY, N Gulf Prairie, Brazoric countg, Texas. I appropriated to the cultivation of the Chinese sugar-cane an acre of the best Brazos bottom land-—alluvial soil, sand, clay, and some lime, with other substances. No manure was necéssary, as the soil is of the richest description. In the month of February, the same time I planted corn, I put down the sorgho, in drills 3 feet apart, ploughing once after planting, and once hoeing the crop, to prevent grass interfering with its growth. On account of the nature. of the soil, one ploughing will always be found sufficient in this region. Though the season was the dryest ever experienced in this State, yet the plants were very little affected, and grew well throughout, putting forth full heads of seed, which matured in about ninety days. phe stalks were from 7 to 10 feet high, but smaller in diameter than our common sugar-cane. An acre will produce provender for stock equal to 200 bushels of corn. I did not grind any of the sorgho for sugar-making purposes, simply cutting, curing, and housing it in the crib, for feeding stock.—. I have given it to horses, oxen, CowWs, calves, and poultry, and had iih tn piecs man uil Uraeiel le geon und N vuolet arg h Teru. ese don. E Wn gren tored gi attenyin t oh ur Jhed then and bub- alssar The- ärüübin nin Im ane M al e irii soxpyi N git 1 umm 3 SORGHUM CANEsS. 223 think it equal to corn in nutriment. We make three crops a year— one from the seed, and two from the stubble. Like the common cane, it sprouted from the eye, but was later by two weeks in maturing J have also made bread from the seed, which was similar in taste to that of buckwheat. Were there any way to bolt the flour, it mig hi be used in that form in preference to corn. Statement of I. H. S. SrANLEVY, Houston, Harris countg, Texas. The prevalent opinion, easily controverted, is, that crystallized sugar cannot be produced from the sorgho; consequently, that it is merely valuable for its syrup, and as forage for stock. I have in my possession two samples of sugar obtained from the sorgho, grown, pressed, and crystallized by Mr. J. I. Studer, of Austin. These were produced under highly disadvantageous circum- stances, as he possessed neither suitable mechanical appliances nor good chemical agents for clarifying the juice. Mr. Studer shows, in a communication to the Austin Southern Intelligencer, the botanical relation which the sorgho bears to the broom and early Dourah corns, each being found to vary from the other in its respective proportions of sugar, grain, and fibre; the two latter preponderating when the former scarcely exists, and the sugar abounding in the more cellulose structure of the sugar-cane, but combined with a smaller amount of fibre and grain. To the juice of the best Louisiana cane, he assigns a specific gravity of 1.068 to 1.075; to the best West India cane Juice, 1.07 to 1.09; and to the Chinese variety, as ascertained in different stages, a specific gravity of 1.07 to 1.085. The sorgho, he says, yields a fine syrup, from which, even under the discouraging circumstances men- tioned, he repeatedly obtained good results, crystallizing with no more difficulty than that of the common sugar-cane. He further states, that his experiments prove that the best season at which the sugar- making should begin is when the first seed-head is ripe. At this period, a crop of grain of from 30 to 60 bushels, and of juice of from 1,000 to 1,500 gallons, are produced to the acre, the latter yielding from 200 to 300 gallons of syrup. These variable quantities, like the differences in specific gravity, may be ascribed to the varving cir- cumstances of soil, cultivation, and season. The produce in fodder is assumed to be equivalent to 2 tons of hay per acre. From these data, it cannot be doubted that the introduction of this plant into Texas is a matter of deep importance, meriting richly the earnest attention of cultivators of the soil, especially of upland dis- tricts. for which it is especially adapted. Statement of FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, Lucllozo, Windsor counkyj, Ver- monl. The Chinese sugar-cane has been planted in quite a number of the gardens near this place and on the farms adjacent; its growth has 224 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. peen luxuriant, the seed matured, and in many instances, the cane has been cut, and crushed by machinery. The experiment Was simply carried to the extent necessary to obtain a correct idea of the quality and quantity of juice the stalk would yield. The juice appears abundant enough, and sufficiently sweet to make a fine quality of molasses; yet, in a climate where the spring is earlier and warmer, and the autumn about a month later than ours, it would, unquestionably, make a much more profitable crop than in any locality of Vermont. — Statement M. B. BARTON, of Franklin county, Virginig. I planted forty-nine hills, 2 feet by 3 feet apart, with the Chinese sugar-cane seed sent me by the Patent Office. On the 9th of May, two seeds were apportioned to the hill, and the hills well worked with the hoe three times—once when the plants were in the milky stage, and the remainder at the ripening transition of the seed. The land assigned to the crop was Very good; the cane came up well, and grew vigorously to a height of 12 or 14 feet, each stalk averaging two suckers. The juice expressed from the canes, after sufficient boiling in an ordinary iron pot, yielded over 1 ¼ gallons of bright golden syrup, as clear as the best honey. would advise, as an important discovery, that the cane should be well worked during the ripening of the seed, as thereby the culti- vator will be enabled to procure a brighter and clearer syrup than is otherwise obtainable. The rude apparatus I was necessitatod to employ in crushing the stalks failed to extract the greater and most valuable portion of the juice. The sorgbo can undoubtedly be raised in this section to pay good profits—either in the form of molasses produced therefrom, or as a forage plant. Statement of AusBERT G. Z. VANLEAR, Long Glade, Augusko counxyj, Virginid. J received, last spring, a small quantity of Chinese sugar-cane seed from the Patent Office, which I planted on the 15th of May, By the 15th of October, it had perfectly matured, when I gathered the seed, amounting to at least half a bushel. I have fed the cane to horses, cattle, and hogs, and they all ap- peared extremely fond of it. The seed, I partly distributed among my neighbors, desiring to see the plant largely cultivated, as, in my opinion, there is no other fodder equal to it, either in a green or dr)y state. Statement gf THoMAS L. FARISH, of Charlottesville, Albemarle county; Virginia. I planted the sorgho on the 20th of May, at which date my Indian corn was 6 inches high. le can SSuh dualh to wke ülg i an D dthnu u (lines di Iu. vorhel le vih eel. Wne eint each dub Mes dh eälhd Shoul- te elk- p thm Sttatodt rdIN da an A U 8 in out r.cne d Ir. 1 thered der Ur tel un ,3, lI reel I9 rn aud my Pis SORGHUM CANES. 225 cultivated 2 acres of ground in three different soils, in order to ascertain in which description and situation it would best thrive. I used no manure, as I wanted to see whether it would do without it. One-half acre was a sand-bar on the river; half an acre was a mixture of sand and rich red mud, washed from the hills; and an acre was of rich river bottom land, which would produce 50 bushels of corn to the acre. 3 The seed was planted 5 feet wide and 2 feet apart, six seeds to each nill, and thinned down to four; new shoots and stalks put forth, and it averaged at least seven stalks to a hill. About the 15th of June, I ploughed with a one-horse plough; and hoed the crop once in July, and again early in August, which was all the work it received. The season has been a very wet one, and the cane was all cut be- fore the heavy frosts; two light frosts did it no harm, either to stalk or seed. About the 20th of July, the panicles appeared, but I did not con- sider the seed ripe enough to cut until the 25th of September. The acre situated in the river bottom produced cane which aver- aged at least 10 feet in height; the half acre on the sand-bar, about 6 feet; the half acre on mixed soil, 8 or 9 feet. The diameter of the largest cane was 1 ½ inches; the smallest, three-fourths of an inch. I could not make a very accurate estimate of the weight of the green plants to the acre; but I am satisfied that, on land which will yield 50 bushels of corn, one can get 15 tons of cane. I have as yet, made no estimate of the weight of dry plants, as it is all housed for winter-feeding, except that already ground for mo- lasses. I am sure, however, it will amount to 5 tons to the acre. I cut the cane as I do Indian corn, and cured it under shelter. Having only a common cider-mill with which to express the juice, I merely ground enough to satisfy me that it would yield well, and make the finest syrup. From every twenty stalks, I averaged 6 quarts of juice, and one-fourth they contained was left by the mill. I have made suffi- cient syrup—equal to Stewart's best-—to supply my family, of seven persons, for three months. I procured at least 1 gallon of syrup from every 6 of the juice. My milch cows have been fed upon the cane near three months, and evidently prefer it to any other food, except meal and hay mixed. I had it all cut up for the purpose. The syrup can be made at about 20 cents a gallon, and the cost of raising the crop is less than that of Indian corn. I am so well pleased with my experiment, that I shall cultivate 25 acres next year. The dry seeds of the present crop amounted to 20 bushels, weighing 35 pounds per bushel. 15 A 226 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Statement qf L. L. FAROHILD, Rolling Prairie, Dodge countgj, Wis- consin. I planted about one-eighth of an acre of good soil in sorghum, which grew to a height of from 10 to 11 feet. A heavy frost on the 30th of September killed the leaves, and injured the stalks. None of the seed matured, as the cane was cut up just after the appearance of the seed-heads. Before the frost, we had manufactured about 2 gallons of syrup, of fair quality. I estimate the yield to be about 100 gallons of syrup to the acre.. Statement ꝗf J. M. SriIIWEILI, O Mulaαnago, Wauksha countg, Wis. consin. Isowed the sugar-cane seed in common burr-oak land, rather sandy, previously supplied with ordinary barn-yard manure, well rotted. I planted about 16 rods, putting in the seed about the 18th of May, at distances of 3 to 3 ⅛ feet, and hoeing the crop twice. The season was backward, and a wet one; but I find the cane is not easily affected by superabundant moisture, and stands light frost better than Indian corn. About the 1st of August, the panicles appeared, and the seed began ripening on and after the 20th of September. The plants were about 11 feet high, and from 1 to 1¼ inches in diameter. I cut the crop up the second week in October, and crushed it in a small, and very imperfect mill, which did not extract over two-thirds of the juice contained in the cane. That obtained was boiled in iron kettles, cleansed twice with lime— once for the juice, and again for the syrup.- My 16 rods yielded 17 gallons of very good syrup, and about 3 quarts of seed that was fully ripe. It will cost about&8 to cultivate, and§16 to manufacture the crop per acre; and putting an ordinary yield at 250 gallons, and the price it commands at 50 cents per gallon, we have a result of 8100 as the net profits of an acre. Ithink the sorgho is far superior to any English grass in use as forage. „F whuw. ol he ter te aetoel lik 2 1 F ranc tete Ny d G eant glt t ed bexn nts Welt dditil po-tilb th lme- about; the en the ple 00 a u USe 3 FRUITS AND WINE. 227 FRUITS AND WINE. AMERICAN GRAPE-VINES OF THE ATLANTIC STATES. BY MATOR JOHN LE CONTE, OF PHILADELPHIA. Of late years, the cultivation of the vine has become a matter of much importance in different portions of our country. It has been found necessary, however, in the Northern States particularly, to dis- card the European varieties, as they cannot stand the sudden varia- tions of climate, and from some other cause yet unknown, even in the most favorable situations, are invariably destroyed. About sixty vears ago, there was scarcely a yard in the city of New YXork which did not possess foreign vines producing fruit of the finest quality. Now there are none—they will not grow there. If one is fortunate enough to have them produce fruit for two or three years, they are very apt afterwards, at the time of flowering, to split open, both stem and branches, and consequently perish. I have known vines which must have been flourishing in that city for nearly a century, their stems 6 inches in diameter, and running up walls of more than 30 feet in height. In the garden belonging to the house in which Colonel Aaron Burr lived, about the year 1793, at the corner of Nassau and Cedar streets, there was the finest and most extensive- collection of grapes I ever saw. All the choicest varieties that would. be found in Europe flourished there, with a luxuriance unsurpassed even in their native climes, not even requiring the slightest protec- tion. At the present time, it would be vain labor to cultivate them, and, out of the city, they need the shelter of a conservatory. To remedy the want of a grape for the manufacture of wine, it has become necessary to turn our attention to the native species, and to determine which can be best employed. Our country, however extensive and varying in climate, requires, at least, two very distinct classes of plants—the one, suited to the hot regions of the South, and to the rather humid or very dry soils, both of which prevail there; and the other, to the cold regions of the North. Thus the Skup- pernong grape can never perfectly ripen north of Virginia, and the Fox grape of the North will scarcely grow in the lower parts of Carolina and Georgia; the Isabella or Catawba varieties of this last, which were criginally brought from the upper regions of South Carolina, do not flourish in the low country, and will scarcely live in Lower Georgia. In all parts of the country, it appears to me that none of the grapes, not even the foreign cultivated varieties, contain as much sugar as those of Europe or Asia. The Skuppernong, as I have known it in Georgia, seems, in respect to the quantity of saccharine matter, to surpass all others. In experiments which I made with the Isabella in New York, I found that the wine produced was very poor and 228 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. thin, and that to have a liquor of even tolerable strength, it was necessary to add a considerable quantity of sugar. It may be ob- served, however, that this grape, in the Northern States, never acquires the richness of taste which it possesses in its native forests. This addition of sugar often imparts a disagreeable taste, which is peculiar and easily detected. To remedy this want of the sweet principle, nothing more is necessary than to boil down the must, before fermentation, until it is considerably reduced. There is a very prevalent notion in this country, that it is impossi- ple to make wine without alcohol, or even cider, that will keep for any length of time. Consequently, in North Carolina, where the Skuppernong wine is made in large quantities, it is all spoiled by the addition of whiskey, cider, spirits, or peach brandy. They have likewise a custom there of adding honey to the juice after fermenta- tion, in order to sweeten it, thus producing a mixture of wine and half-fermented mead. In order to show that wine needs no mixture of alcohol to preserve it for any reasonable length of time, it should be recollected that the Romans, who never understood the art of distilling spirits from fer- mented liquors, speak of wine forty years old, and, again, that beer of different kinds, weaker than any known wine, will keep for a long period. In attempting to give some account of our American vines, a con- siderable difficulty is met with in the great similarity of the different species. A family resemblance, almost amounting to identity, exists in all of them—that is to say, in the form of their leaves; but the manner of their growth, and the shape and pedunculation of their fruit, with some minor peculiarities, furnish very good distinctive characteristics. Before proceeding to a description of the different species, I would remark, that all our American vines require a different treatment from those of Europe; even the pruning of them in the most scientific man- ner does not appear to produce any good effect; but if left to their own natural growth, they are more productive than when they fall under the hands of the most skillful gardener. I have never seen any vine, comparatively speaking, produce such large crops of fruit as those which were never pruned, and trained upon a stake, being conducted from one festoon to another at such a distance as the length of the stem required. By this means, the clusters of berries hang down from the branches, and have the full benefit of the sun and the air to bring them to a state of the greatest perfection. As several of our grapes cannot easily be propagated from cuttings, we must plant the seed, in order to transport them from their native positions to our gardens and vineyards. The following are the species best known in the Northern and Middle States: 8 The common Fox Grape(Vitis labrusca).—Stem large and tall, climbing up trees and over bushes; the younger twigs covered with a cottony down. Leaves large, widely cordate, sublobately angled or five-lobed, irregularly eroded and dentate; above smooth, beneath —————— t mn de a. lef. doresh ich b Wei hekhe peR deey ers th int, ey n rmenth. fine anl presern that fron ber Mit ben AN- 8 Aehl Giterar ty Eis butth vof dei istioetrn Lli nent m tife ur tto ber tbey il rSeen dl f früta e bels he Erh res l- 1 anl 1 gerend mostyin Sitiols 9 thern 1 nl bl gred rih lr unli hAral FRUTTS AND WINE. 229 irregularly reticulate, densely tomentose or velvety; pubescence of various length, hoary or rufescent. Berries large, round or oval in the common black wild variety; very few on the raceme. In the Northern and Middle States, and extending South as far as the sub- mountainous regions of Georgia, this species is very common. It is the Vitis sylvestris, occidentalis, and vulpina of Bartram; the Vitis latifolia, canina, luteola, rugosa, ferruginea, labruscoides, blanda, prolifica, and obovata of Rafinesque. The so-called“Isabella'' and Catawba'' grapes are mere varieties of this species, differing only in the shorter pubescence of the under side of the leaves, and the more numerous berries of the raceme, which have sometimes been as many as twenty or thirty branching off from a common stem, the berries almost always oval; whilst in the wild variety there are seldom more than five or six in a cluster, and these round, frequently oblate, acid and austere, often making the lips sore when much eaten. The Isabella and Catawba, on the contrary, are very sweet and agreeable. But the best of all the varieties is the white-fruited, which does not differ in the leaf from the first described, but the racemes are large, iong and dense, the berries oval, white or green, with a slight coppery tinge on the side exposed to the sun. None of our American vines is so worthy of a careful cultivation as this. Thin-leaved Vine(Vitis tenuifolia).—Stem large and tall; leaves large, thin, widely cordate, simple, trilobate or quinquelobate, acumi- nate, irregularly dentate, smooth, sometimes arachnoideo-villous beneath, with the nerves always rufous. Racemes small, of three or four berries, which are large, round, green, a little glaucous, disa- greeably acid. This species can never be made of any use; it much resembles the preceding, and was once common in the neighborhood of Trenton, New Jersey.. Summer Grape(Vitis æstivalis).—Stem large and lofty; leaves widely cordate, sublobately angled, sometimes distinctly and deeply, three and five-lobed, acuminate, irregularly serrate or dentate; the teeth mucronate; above smooth or a little arachnoidal, especially in the younger stage; beneath more or less fuscous, arachnoideo-villous, sometimes subglabrous, the younger ones more densely villous; racemes rather small; berries small, black, generally very acid, sometimes, however, very agreeable. It grows in the oak lands of Georgia and South Carolina. This is the Vitis æstivalis of Michaux and Rafinesque, the Vitis labrusca of Walter and Elliott. It is com- monly called theFox grape.“ Bract: flowered Vine(Vitis bracteate).—Stem large and tall, climbing to the tops of the highest trees; leaves broad-cordate, acuminate, five- lobed; sinuses wide and deep, the lobes irregularly dentate; the teeth without any mucronate point; above smooth, beneath with the nerves rufo-pubescent; fascicles of the flower with a short leaf or bract at the base of each; racemes long, loose and compound; berries very small, one-tenth of an inch in diameter; very acid. This is the Vitis. bracteata of Rafinesque, and æstivalis of Elliott. It is found in Caro- lina and Georgia in swamps and rich low lands. Winter Grape(Vitis vulpina).—Stem moderately large, very branch- 230 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. ing, the younger shoots, for the most part, purplish; leaves always smooth above, generally so on both sides; beneath sometimes, par- ticularly in the younger ones, a little villous; cordate, acuminate, dentate; the teeth abruptly acuminate, always more or less trilobate, sometimes profoundly so, and often five-lobed; racemes tolerably large, very dense, so ↄs even to change the shape of the berries, which are black, acid, not so much so, however, as to be disagreeable. Among the synonymes of this species, we may mention Vitis cordifolia of many authors, but not. of Michaux. Vitis callosa, hyemalis, and cordifolia of Rafinesque, generally known by the name of Winter grape. The name Vitis cordifolia has been improperly given to this species, and occasionally to the Vitis rotundifolia of Michaux, but Willdenow's description is sufficient to prove that it is his Vitis vul- pina; besides, the grapes have a strong smell, resembling that of a fox. Hence the name vwulpina. The older leaves are without any villosity beneath, except on the nerves, which, with the vines, are very prominent; they frequently become glaucous beneath. Cobuveb-leaved Vine(Vitis araneosa).—Stem moderately large and high; leaves broad, cordate, sublobately angled, entire, and three and five-lobed, acuminate, dentate; the teeth submucronate; above glabrous, beneath arachnoideo-villous, more or less ferruginous in the older leaves. This villosity forms itself into small tufts or knots, and in the very oldest entirely disappears, although in the youngest it is very thick and close. Racemes dense; berries of a middling size, half an inch in diameter, black, very often sweet and agreeable, sometimes rather acid. The leaves frequently occur 8 inches long, and as many wide. This species is well worth cultivating. It is known as the“Fox grape.“ I have seen it very common near Athens, in the upper country of Georgia. Trwwo-colored-leaved Vine(Vitis bicolor).—Stem moderately large and high; leaves broad, cordate, sublobately angled, acuminate, subentire and three or five-lobed, irregularly dentate; the teeth acuminate or mucronate; above smooth, beneath paler; in the younger leaves sparsely arachnoideo-villous, the villosity entirely vanishing with age; racemes long, loose, and compound; berries small, generally sweet and agreeable. Is found from Pennsylvania to Virginia, and is the NVitis æstivalis of Darlington. Chicken Grape(Vitis pullaria).—Stem moderately large and tall; leaves thin, smooth on both sides, polished, ovate, cordate, abruptly acuminate, beyond the middle more or less trilobed, sometimes five- lobed, often entire, unequally dentate; teeth large, acuminate; petioles and nerves beneath conspicuously pubescent; racemes long, com- pound, and loose; berries small, much as in the preceding species. Inhabits Virginia and Maryland. River-side or Shore Grape(Vitis riparia).—Stem large and tall; leaves thin, smooth on both sides, polished, ovate, cordate, acuminate, more or less trilobate beyond the middle, often entire, subcrenately- dentate; teeth proad, flat, with a short point; the youngest leaves with a slight arachnoid pubescence beneath; petioles, nerves, and margin pubescent. The leaves are sometimes five-lobed, the upper lobes än led hw. pnüinth rlobet clenih derrig aroeäbte vorditln dis In kWirre t t Rox hu Fiism. thatd olt af wAr ſan larxe ul and t te; Von ginͦ ü or h Foluys Vüdüne agreeälh edes big ng. li mon h rluneni srbeuür uminate- er lans vihu svett Sthe Tüi anl M arnni ines e e; tis 0lg, W g gpells nd t cnünst erertdh enresſt od Eng- herlis FRUITS AND WINE. 231 with deep spathuliform sinuses; the margin but little dentate. Ra- cemes loose; berries small, black and acid. This species is confounded by most authors with the next; is found only in the Southern States, on the margins of rivers, in places subject to inundation-whence its name, among the inhabitants of the banks of the Mississippi, Vigne de battures. It very much resembles the next species, but is easily distinguished by its thinner leaves, and the pubescence on the under side of them in their younger state. I believe it has been used for making wine. Fragrant- flowered Vine(Vitis odoratissima).—Stem large and high; leaves smooth on both sides, broad, ovate, cordate, acuminate, un- equally crenately-dentate; teeth mucronate, generally obscurely trilobate beyond the middle; nerves beneath very prominent; margin, nerves beneath, and petioles pubescent; a small pubescent tuft at the axillæ of the nerves of the under side of the leaves; racemes long and loose; berries small, black, very acid and austere; ripening in November. This is the Vitis riparia of Pursh, Torrey and Gray, and others. It is found in the Northern States, in dry situations, generally on the sides of rocky hills. It is much cultivated in gardens on account of its fragrant flowers, the perfume of which is exactly that of the mignonette(Reseda odorata.) It very rarely produces fruit. I have found fertile individuals only on the rocky hills north of Hoboken, New Jersey. It is said that the Indians formerly used the juice of this grape for dyeing blue. Round-leuved Vine(Vitis rotundifolia).—Stem moderately large, unlike every other species, perfectly smooth, even in the oldest vines; leaves thin, smooth on both sides, polished, shining, most so beneath, round, cordate, never lobed, acuminate, dentate; teeth large, sub- equal, acute; axillæ of the nerves beneath sometimes furnished with a small tuft of pubescence; racemes small, simple; berries large, round, black, reddish or white. Under this species are comprehended the Vitis vulpina of Walter, the Vitis acerifolia, vulpina, angulata, and verrucosa of Rafinesque. In South Carolina and Georgia, it is commonly called“ Bullace grape,“ from its resemblance to the Bullace or wild plum of Europe, corrupted into ‧Bull grape.“ In Virginia it is called“Muscadine'' and“'Skuppernong grape.“ It most fre- quently produces fruit of a delicious flavor, and very sweet; probably never comes to perfection north of the State of Maryland. In the pine forests of Georgia, the Vitis rotundifolia is found prostrate, with stems scarcely 3 feet long. Palmate-leaved Vine(Vitis palmata).—Leaves ovate, cordate, smooth on both sides, deeply five-lobed, palmate, the divisions sublanceolate, unequally and widely crenate or incised; racemes rather dense, sub- simple; berries white, with a coppery cheek. This grape, which was first described by Vahl under the name here given, and afterwards by Poiret as the Vitis virginiana, is the true„Bland's grape' of former years; was once extensively cultivated in this city. It has since been entirely lost. I cannot now find a single plant of it. It is found in the mountains of North Carolina and on the banks of the 232 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Ohio. There is certainly no grape found in America which can be campared with it, being in every respect, equal to any variety of the European grape. It is very sweet, perfectly free from pulp, with nothing of that peculiar flavor which is more or less common to all other American species. The Vitis cordifolia of Michaux, said to extend from Pennsylvania to Florida, I have never met; at least any species corresponding with his description has never fallen in my way. There is another small and sweet grape cultivated by many persons, and called"Orwigsburg,“ which is undoubtedly a European variety, and is therefore omitted in this enumeration of American vines. Of these twelve species, the most worthy of cultivation are the white variety of the Nitis labrusca, together with the so-called „Isabella'' and Catawba, V. araneosa, V. odoratissima, and V. pal- mata- all of which are more or less sweet, and will furnish good wine. GRAPE-CULTURE IN MISSOURI. BV d. C. SWALLOw, OF COLUMBIA, B00 NE COUNTVY. Having determined the conditions of soil and climate best adapted to the culture of the vine, it has been the design, during the pro- gress of the geological survey of Missouri, to determine how far these conditions are fulfilled in this State, to what extent and with what success this plant may be cultivated, and the advantages to be derived therefrom. In order to obtain the most accurate data, investi- gations have been directed to the following points: 1. Persons have been appointed to make meteorological observa- tions, at Springfield, in the South-west; at Cape Girardeau, in the South-east; at Palmyra, in the North-east; at St. Joseph's, in tlie North-west; and at Columbia, in the centre, in the valley of the Mis- souri River. These observers have been supplied with the best instru- ments, and they have made and recorded the results according to the plan adopted by the Smithsonian Institution. 2. The soils have been carefully examined, and all the varieties col jected and submitted to a skillful chemist for analysis. 3. The character and habits of all our native vines, and the soils on which they succeed best, have been carefully noted.. 4. The experience of our most successful vine-growers has been collected, and the results of their labors compared with the conclu- sions derived from the examination of the climate, soil, and wild vines. CLIMATE. The extremes of heat and cold are not so great as in other vine growing regions; and in the Southern part of the State, the atmos- phere is sufficiently dry; but there are occasional changes of tempera- ture so great and sudden as to prove somewhat injurious to the grape at certain stages of its growth; yet not so marked, in the high table- lands of the South and West, as in the North, and in the valleys of the Mississippi and Missouri. b —— —. —,—— E — oi—f— ·„ . FRUITS AND WINE. 233 Nenk tr d uh mü on t A Küd h lemt 9 Llly 7 perung dwarit ues. ars h SOIL. All the soils of the State are rich enough in potash, soda, lime, magnesia, phosphoric acid, and other mineral ingredients, required for the greatest perfection of the vine; but the argillaceous matter is so abundant in some parts, particularly in the North and West, as to render the sub soil too compact, wet, and cold, except when it is prepared by underdraining and a proper admixture of sand and other suitable materials. In other parts, the vegetable matter exists in such quantities as to produce a growth too sappy or rank. The soil upon the bluffs, between Booneville and St. Charles, is wal generally well adapted to the'cultivation of the grape, when the sub- M soil is properly prepared. It contains sufficient vegetable matter, dodwi and an abundance of all the necessary mineral ingredients. But the soils resting on the bluffs and ridges or highlands of the magnesian limestone region of Southern Missouri, are by far the best to promote the full perfection of the fruit. NATIVE GRAPES. K ahute The following species and varieties of native vines have been ob- served in this State, and the growth, habits, and fruit of each have been carefully examined: and vIh Vitis labrusca(Fox Grape).— This vine, which is abundant, attains agsbi a very large size in our rich alluvial bottoms, and on our best upland tz irei soils, and has often a diameter of 10 inches. It ascends the loftiest 1 trees, and spreads its branches over their highest boughs, presenting l qten a length of more than 130 feet; but the smaller vines, which are an.M ſound on the poor soils, produce the best grapes. Those which grow ute upon the dry ridges, on the declivities of the bluffs, especially-of the Ftel magnesian limestone, and on the slopes of debris at their bases, ex- destixit hibit a healthy, firm growth, and produce an abundance of fine fruit. lne vi The grapes found in these localities are large, and the pulp juicy and 8 palatable. Many well-known and excellent varieties now in cultiva- etech tion are derived from this species; of these, the„‧Isabella,““ Ca- nuha tawba,“*Schuylkill,“ and„‧Bland's,“ are the most esteemed. 4 Vitis œstivalis(Summer Grape).— This, like the preceding, is found es in all parts of the State, and, doubtless, is the largest of all our vines. h b It is one of the most striking objects in our magnificent forests. While the stem, like a huge cable, is suspended from the limbs of the e und largest trees, the branches, clothed in rich foliage, and often loaded rilſim wite fruit, hang in graceful festoons over the highest boughs. But the vines growing on the thin soils of the limestone ridges and bluffs, and on the loose debris at their bases, where they are more exposed ther ild to the air and the sun, produce the best fruit, and in greater abundance. he äms Vitis cordifolia(Winter or Frost Grape).— This vine is widely dif- ktenpen fused, but is not so large as the Fox and the Summer. Its fruit is tbe gue small and sour. igh bie Vitis riparia(River Grape).— This species is partial to the alluvial aaleg oils along the margins of the streams, and grows to a large size. 234 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Vitis vulpina,(Muscadine of the West, and“ Fox Grape,“ according to Elliot, in the South-eastern States).— This species is most abundant in the southern part of the State. It grows very large, and produces an abundance of fruit, which is highly esteemed. The cultivated „Scuppernong“ is a variety of this species. On the flinty ridges of the South-west, it is very hardy, and, though small, withstands the annual fires, and yields an abundance of its excellent fruit. Vitis bipinnata.— This species is found in Cape Girardeau and Pemis- cot counties. Vitis indivisa abounds in the central and western counties. REMARKS.— The success of several of our vine-dressers in this State has been quite equal to their expectations, and their experience has led them to the same conclusions, which have been deduced from the examinations of the soil, climate, and native vines, namely, that the vine can be cultivated with advantage, in favorable localities, in all parts of the State. It should be borne in mind, however, that these results have been derived mostly from vineyards in the valleys of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, which are not the most favor- able localities; for the mildew'' and'rot,“ the most formidable obstacles they have had to contend with, may be partially or entirely obviated in some other portions of the State. „The rot,“ says Mr. Haas, one of our most successful vine-dressers, „attacks the berries when the soil is in a wet condition, in July and August. It is most severe on the low and wet parts of the vineyard.“ Mr. Husman says:"The principal cause, all are agreed, is an excess of moisture about the roots, and damp, moist weather.“ Now, the darger number of our vineyards are located upon a stiff, cold, clayey sub-soil, which unavoidably retains the excess of moisture, and pro- duces injurious effects. This evil may be obviated by thorough draining; or, what is better, by selecting some of the millions of acres in the southern part of the State, the soil of which is warmer, lighter, and richer in the ingredients most favorable to the vine, and the sub- soil sufficiently porous to admit a free passage to the excess of moisture. The"mildew' appears in June, and is attributed to foggy, damp, and hot weather after rains. From observation, it appears that hot, damp weather, accompanied by mists, is much more prevalent in the valleys of the Mississippi and the Missouri than on the table-lands at the South. The character of the two regions shows, most conclusively, that the excess of moisture must be considerable and permanent. The valleys, which are intersected by broad rivers, are covered with numerous lakes and ¹“sloughs,“ or with forests of rank growth of considerable extent; but the table-lands are almost destitute of lakes or ponds, and are only partially covered by a sparse and feeble growth of timber; besides, they occupy an elevation several hundred feet above the valleys. No fears, therefore, need be entertained that these obstacles will prevent the entire success of vine-culture in Mis- souri, should our atmosphere even continue as moist as at presept. But we may expect much improvement in this particular, as it is 8¼ — „ FRUITS AND WINE. 235 erdrld, fully established by experience that the settlement of a country and dbundu the opening of the soil to cultivation lessen the amount of rain and Drodtes moisture in the atmosphere. dütiräd Notwithstanding the many difficulties our vine-dressers have had ty rihs to contend with, and though some of their vineyards are not, to say tandb h the least, in the most favorable localities, their success has been en- couraging. Those of Booneville have yielded the present season lPaus about 6,000 gallons of wine, worth§12,000. One vineyard, of 5 acres, gave a clear profit of§2, 000, or 8400 per acre. The vintage 8 of Herman was about 100, 000 gallons, from less than 200 acres. At dis gar 81 per gallon, which is less than the value, it will give a profit of at redos h least 5400 per acre, or§80, 000 on the 200 acres in cultivation. An- frou h other small vineyard at Hamburg, owned by Mr. Joseph Stuley, tnt yielded over 1,000 gallons per acre. V Alteg i The entire cost of vineyards, preparing the soil, setting and train- tner ing the vines till they come into bearing, varies from§200 to 8300 lde nlen Per acre. ut unn Annual cost of cultivation after bearig. 850 to 860 rwibi Ten per Cent. on first COSst........................... 20 to 30 dr ain Total expense per acre, for each yeaearx. 70 to 90 heen Judging from the statistics before me, I would estimate that our Jülrul vineyards have yielded an average of at least 250 gallons of wine per nreu acre since 1849, and have brought a mean price of about§1 60 per an eIhs Pallondh mieh vrould Fid an— inoome* 5400, or à Prarlh Mroli 0 er acre. he vine-dresser, therefore, even in the poores 9 seasons, han scarcely fail to realize a handsome profit; while in favor- nim able years his gain will far surpass that of farmers engaged in other tn branches of husbandry. dſn Such are the results legitimately derived from the experience of 1 bre our Finslmnsdene in their garl efforts* 2 Hex 2eutra with, 3 Sonl 1. J. and climate unknown to this species of culture; and as the climate hes improves, and the soil is onecledo cultivation, other modes of culture Alhas will be adopted, and more favorable locations occupied. The table-lands in Southern Missouri, as has already been inti- T lm mated, are better adapted to the grape than the sites now occu- idäk pied in the valleys of the Mississippi and Missouri. That portion of btüi Southern Missouri extending from Newton county, in the South-west, belmb to St. Genevieve, in the South-east, usually represented as the Eastern vätsies extremity of the Ozark Mountains, is, in fact, a table-land, varying in erun elevation from 1,000 to 1,500 feet above the ocean. In the west it is ereliü sufficiently undulating to be well drained, while in the east it some- wntt times rises into ridges and knobs'’ of moderate elevation. From tookhin this table-land, the country descends by gentle slopes in every direc- bgun tion. The surface of these table-lands is undulating, with no mount- direl e ains nor arid plains to disturb the equable and agreeable temperature inel tu usually prevailing in this region. There are no swamps nor over- win Iö flown lands from which noxious vapors can arise to render the air tpreert damp and unhealthy. As these facts plainly indicate, the summers r 38 45 are long, temperate, dry, and salubrious, and the winters short and 7 * 236 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. mild. It possesses clear, brilliant skies, and dry, bracing air. The atmosphere is not so moist, nor is it subject to such sudden changes as in the northern part of the State, and in the valleys of the Missis- sippi and the Missouri. Aseries of sandstones and cherty magnesian limestones underlie this whole region, with the exception of some few ridges and knobs of granite, porphyry, and greenstone, in the eastern part. The whole is overlaid with a bed of reddish marly clay. The sand, lime, mag- nesia, and alumina, derived from the disintegration of these rocks, together with the abundance of vegetable matter and the alkalies, caused by the fires which annually overrun this country, form a soil light, dry, and warm, and rich in the mineral ingredients necessary to render it fertile, and suitable in an eminent degree for the culture of the vine. In many places, this soil is underlaid with a sufficient quantity of pebbles and fragments of porous chert to constitute a most thorough system of drainage, while in others the particles of this rock are disseminated through the soil in such quantities as to injure it somewhat for ordinary cultivation. The bluffs of the numerous streams in Southern Missouri and in the valley of the Osage usually slope back into knobs and ridges, which are frequently surrounded by numerous natural terraces, so regular and uniform that they appear like the work of human hands. These terraces are produced by the disintegration of the strata of magnesian limestone which form the pluffs. Their height varies from 1 foot to 6 feet, and the width of the top from 2 to 12 feet, according to the angle of the slope and the height of the terrace. Their tops are nearly level, and are usually covered with a light, warm, and rich soil, as above described, containing fragments of chert and the decom- posing limestone, all wonderfully prepared by Nature for converting into vineyards. They generally surround high, open ridges and knobs, exposed to the free circulation of dry air. There appears to be but one objection to the use of these terraces for vineyards. In some places, it is thought that the soil is not suff- ciently deep to secure the vine against the effects of drought; but, as an offset to the want of depth, it always contains large proportions of carbonate of magnesia and humus, which give it great capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture, as these substances possess this capacity to a greater degree than any of the other ingredients of our soils. Besides, the thinnest soils on these terraces sustain a vigorous growth of prairie grasses, flowers, shrubs, and vines, which usually produce the finest fruit in the State. It is true, the native grapes do not grow so large and juicy in this as in the richer soils, but the vines are strong and healthy, and produce finer clusters of larger and better grapes— an improvement particularly observed in the Muscadine, the Northern Fox, and the Summer grapes. 4 This variety of soil also extends over a large portion of the counties on both sides of the Osage, and over the southern part of Boone, Cal- laway, Montgomery, and Warren, on the north side of the Missouri, occupying, in all, an area of some 15, 000, 000 acres, of which at least 5,000, 000 might be selected in the most desirable localities, and ap- it. M 1 angs le Mii. vderi- Nd kui The yhW- ile lg eie neh albals Gorm agi Mechään Do eihm? Asafteian ötitute articles tities h uri md- nd Nihe erracss u uan bl Stratt l maries nn „AColrdhg Therrt n. dn the deon comerthh and Lolh se terad S 1otgl lt; bun portins apaciyi osses ents der à vigon Ch wol- grap 4 t the uls ad bete cadibe t FRUITS AND WINE. 237 propriated to vineyards, without encroaching upon the better lands adapted for other crops; and, so far as can be judged from the char- acteristics of soil and climate and the indications of the native vines, these 5, 000, 000 acres in the highlands of Southern Missouri present rare inducements to the vine-dresser, comprising such a combination of circumstances as cannot fail to attract the attention of those who would engage in this most pleasing and profitable branch of rural industry. So important will be the results, that every effort should be put forth to hasten the time when these 5, 000, 000 acres will be covered with flourishing vineyards, giving profitable employment to 2,000, 000 people, yielding more than 1,000, 000, 000 gallons of wine, and an annual profit, at the lowest estimate, of§50, 000, 000. The pure, nourishing juice of the grape will then take the place of the vile, maddening compounds used as the names of wine and brandy; drunkenness will give place to sobriety; and our people, invigorated by the grape and its pure beverage, will become as robust and hardy as they are now daring and indomitable. There are also numerous caves in all parts of this country, the tem- perature of those tested ranging between 50° and 600 F. Many of them would make most excellent wine-cellars, their temperature being sufficiently low and uniform to prevent the acidity to which the wines of all temperate latitudes are predisposed. CULTIVATION OF THE CRANBERRVY. The common American cranberry(Oæycocous macrocarpus) is found growing wild in swampy grounds in the Eastern, Middle and Western States. It grows spontaneously in great abundance in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan. The latter State is estimated to contain several million acres. Captain Henry Hall, of Barnstable, in Mas- sachusetts, has cultivated this fruit for many years. His method is, to spread on his swampy ground a quantity of sand. in order to kill the grass; but, where sand is not at hand, gravel will answer the same purpose. He then digs holes 4 feet apart each way, and places in them sods of cranberry plants about a foot square. Mr. F. A. Hayden, of Lincoln, of the same State, also cultivates this plant. He gathered from his farm, some years ago, 400 bushels, on one occasion, which he sold for 600. Mr. William Hall, of Norway, in Maine, has likewise succeeded in raising cranberries on a patch of boggy land. He sowed the berries on the snow in the spring. The seed took well and extirpated the weeds. He gathered 6 bushels from a patch of land about 3 rods square, which, a few years since, was entirely useless. It is well known that this fruit is capable of being transported to Europe, without suffering by the voyage. American cranberries have frequently been sold in London at 88 a bushel, as fresh as when first gathered. This information may be worth the attention of those who have marshy or brook land, as a matter of profit; and by those —— 238 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. who have ornamental water in their gardens or grounds, it would be found an embellishment to the margins or banks, being an elegant little fruit on the ground, where it trails and spangles the grass with its various-colored berries. Cranberries may all be raised from seeds, or off-set root-suckers, creeping roots, and trailing rooting stalks. Those also growing with several rooted stalks and branches may be divided in the root and top into separate plants, in which way they succeed very well. The seed should be sown where that method is pursued, in autumn, as soon as they are ripe and gathered, in a shady border, or in the places where the plants are to grow and remain; and, when the young plants are up, they should be kept clean, and be removed, with earth about their roots, as occasion may require The off-sets and root-plants may be set out in the same season in a soil resembling that in which they naturally grow. It may likewise be advisable, in many cases, to take the plants from their natural situations with balls of earth about their roots. They may, in some cases, be removed in the spring season: but removal in autumn is the better way. The art of raising cranberries consists in selecting a soil that is always damp; and, if flowed. with water, in the winter and spring, it is the better. The soil must be loose and barren, so that the cran- berry vine, without any cultivation, will overcome and destroy the few weeds and grasses that may spring up. If the soil is fertile, grass and weeds will obtain possession of it, and they can be kept out only by incurring an expense which the crop will never repay. In Massachusetts, the cranberry crop once in a few years is cut off by the late spring frosts. This may be prevented where a meadow is so situated as to be flowed. The water should not be over one or two inches deep on the cranberries, nor be left on later than the last of May, in this climate. If kept on until it becomes warm, it will kill the vines. Perhaps the best management would be somewhat as they flood rice fields at the South, or water meadows in England-—let the water on Wwhile the weather is cold, and then take it off as it moderates. Sometimes, in the Fastern States, the cranberries are destroyed by a frost, in September; where water is convenient and plenty, the meadow could be flowed on cold nights at this season, as well as in the spring. Rakes are now made for the express purpose of gathering cran- berries; and, although they tear the vines somewhat, yet the crop is not diminished by raking; on the contrary, it has been in- creased. Some years ago, a gentleman in Massachusetts commenced raking his little patch of one-fourth of an acre. The first year, it produced 12 bushels, the next 18, the third 25, and so on, until his last harvest, when the crop amounted to 65 bushels. This increase is easily accounted for by the method of gathering with rakes; the pulling up of a few of the vines loosens the ground, and, although not intended, yet, in fact, the raking acts as a partial tillage. Previous to shipping cranberries, they should be run over a plat- form slightly inclined. The rotten and bruised fruit will not run off, but stick on the platform, and may be scraped off and thrown —,, N tvoh Kn deen eraih dteSlelen vvinx ni e wot a vel. M autamn 3 dthe lhe the u Jcrel, ſ OKset ul) mseulin Grisllbit Svith lab reuorell may. sol tha d gyyig at tlé er destryh l Ex kril an le ke ver rpn- ars cdtdh e a WMan oper ohe- han thek rann in somerbhta nehn03 Rit cfs ranbenss corrald- this sash rering eur ft as beel S enet int jeri I. voll 1 lis inckest nbs, b d, tloux e. wer AJh. Dot r nd Wro HEDGE PLANTS. 239 away. The perfect fruit is then put into tight barrels, and, when headed up, filled with water; and in this manner, they arrive in Europe in perfect order, where they have frequently been sold at§20 per barrel. Cranberries may be preserved perfect for several years, merely by drying them a little in the sun, and then putting them up closely in clean bottles. The red-fruited variety yields a juice which has been employed to stain paper or linen purple. These berries are of great value and importance for different culinary well-known purposes, as in pies, tarts,&. They are of an astringent quality, and are esteemed good to restore the appetite. They were formerly imagined effica- cisus in preventing pestilential diseases. P. J. B. NOTICE OF SEVERAL INDIGENOUS PLANTS SUITABIL E FOR HEDGES. BX PROFESSOR JOHN TORREY, ASSAYER, UNITIED STATES MINT, NEW YORK. In the United States and Territories west of the Mississippi, especially in Western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and Southern California, there are numerous spinescent shrubs which deserve a trial as substitutes for the hedge plants commonly used. Most of these are much better suited for the South than for the North, although it is probable that some of them would bear as severe a climate as that of New England. I will now briefly notice some of the more promising that I would recommend to our hortieulturists and agriculturists. As yet, but few of these shrubs have received English names, but the native Mexican designations of many we are able to give. To prevent mistakes, however, we have annexed, in all cases, the proper or scientific appellation, as but little reliance can be placed on popular nomenclature. We also give the natural order, or family, to which the plants enumerated belong. Of the quassia family, or Simarubaceæ, there are two shrubs which may be used for hedges. 1. Castela Nicholsoni(Goat-bush)—a neat, much ramified plant, bearing, besides the short-pointed branches, small thorns, or prickles. It grows in Southern and Western Texas, and we have also received it from Nuevo Leon. The Mexicans call it“Amarguillo,“ or bitter- shrub. An excellent representation of the plant may be seen in Dr. Gray'’s Genera Illustrata, Pl. 158. Our wood-cut,(Pl. VII, fig. 2,) gives a good idea of it. The principal figure is taken from a flower- ing branch. 2. Holacantha Emorgi(Emory'’s Thorn).— This is a very remark- able, thorny and leafless plant, the branches(as in many Cactaceæ, Kc.) performing the functions of leaves. It was first discovered by Major Emory, while engaged in a military examination of the country between Missouri and California. e was not so fortunate as to find 240 AGERICULTURAL REPORT. zt either in flower or in fruit, so that its affinities were not known till more complete specimens were collected by Mr. Thurber. Dr. Gray gave a full description of it in his Plantæ Thurberianæ, p. 310. In the forthcoming volume of the Mexican Boundary Report, there will be an excellent engraving of the plant, from a drawing by Sprague. The shrub forms dense bunches 5 to S feet high, and consists almost wholly of thorns,(as its name implies,) which are from 2 to 4 inches long, and very rigid. It bears small tufts of inconspicuous greenish- white flowers, which are succeeded by star-formed, reddish seed- vessels. A portion of a plant(on a reduced scale) is shown in Pl. VII. fig. 4. If this shrub should prove easy of cultivation, it would form impenetrable barriers to man and beast, but it is destitute of beauty. 4. The Barberry family(Berberideæ) furnishes two native shrubs,(Berberis canadensis and Berberis Fendleri,) which, in some situations, might be used for fencing. Their foliage and fruit are pleasing objects, and the flowers are by no means unsightly. The former species is a native of the mountains of Virginia and some other Southern States. It is distinguished from the European barberry(so extensively naturalized in New England) by its few- flowered racemes and oval berries. Fendler’s barberry is a native of New Mexico, and, while resembling the two species just mentioned, is undoubtedly distinct. 5. The stafftree family,(Celastraceæ,) within the Flora, contains but a single thorny shrub; and this is the remarkable Glossopetalum spinescens, so well described by Dr. Gray in the 2 part of his Plantæ Wrightianæ(p. 29, Pl. 12, B.) In the wild state, it seldom attains a greater height than 4 feet, but would doubtless grow taller if cultivated. Its numerous short branches terminate in thorny points, and the small oblong leaves give it a neat appearance. Among the numerous representatives of the buckthorn family, (Rhamnaceæ,) there are several thorny shrubs, chiefly natives of the country bordering the Rio Grande, of which I shall notice the prin- cipal kinds. They constitute the greater part of what the natives call chaparral,“ or dense, thorny, impenetrable thickets. These proved exceedingly annoying to our army in Mexico during the recent war. Of the chaparral plants there are three species of ˙⁄Lote-bush,“ or jujube, all belonging to the genus Zizyphus. 6. Zizyphus lyciodes, an abundant shrub in Western Texas, and in the neighboring Mexican States. It grows from 6 to S feet high, and is intricately branched, with oblong, entire leaves and sessile clus- ters of very small white flowers, which are succeeded by round, black, edible, but rather astringent berries, about the size of a rifle- ball. According to Dr. Gregg, the natives call it Gerambuyo prieto' and“ Cornudo de cuervo.¹* 7. Zizyphus obtusifolig, of Gray,(Genera IIlustrata, vol. 2, pl. 163.) is closely related to the last, and has nearly the same geographical range, but is most abundant on dry hill-sides along the Rio Grande. The branches are not always spinescent in the wild state, but are most so in thrifty plants.. Nr.T SurTe) Nane pecie 9 Texas planc ntrie donil M oef 3la. h theroni Ima lon 24 inehe prerlüd- däs gel Munh. t mull stitlt d 1 wo mi in wn kroit an ty. M anl SW Nurpen p is in. a Min nectorei N ehltun danyeinm art db wit Whn gryf tale in tn nce, or hul ires d 3 e the n mtiresn ese p recent nl- ..o M 1a8 nli tlir 1 esöle de by nnl eciat upo U' jeh 2 1 5 ecenpbe o Gru te bt 9 HEDGE PLANTS. 241 8. The third species of this genus has been found only in the vicinity of San Felipe, in California, where it was first detected by Mr. Thurber. It is described in the Botany of the Mexican Boundary Survey under the name of Zizyphus Parryt, and may take the English name of Parry'’s Lote-bush.“ From the other North American species it is distinguished by its large, woody fruit. 9. Condalia obovata,(Pl. VII. fig. 3,) a common shrub in Western Texas and several of the Mexican States. It has a general resem- blance to the plants just noticed, and, like them, throws off numerous intricate spiny branches. Dr. Gregg states that its small, round, black berries are called“Capul“ by the Mexicans. A complete figure is given in Dr. Gray's Genera IIlustrata, vol. 2, pl. 164. 10. Condalia spathulata(Narrow-leaved Capul plant).— This species grows in the same places as the last. It is distinguished by its much smaller and narrower leaves, and is a handsome plant. 11. Adolphia infesta—another of the thorny shrubs of this family, and one of the most troublesome kinds of chaparral. It is common along the Rio Grande, and is diffused westward to California. 12. Ceanothus.— This genus, to which the New J ersey tea, or red- root, belongs, is numerously represented in California and Oregon. All the species are ornamental, at least when in flower. Several of them are remarkable for their rigid spinescent branches, such as the Ceanothus Fendleri, of Southern New Mexico, and Ceanothus divarica- tus, of California. The first mentioned is seldom more than two feet high in its native place of growth, but by culture it would become tall enough for hedges. Ceanothus spinosus, of Nuttall, is not appro- priately named, as it seldom bears thorns. 13. The rue family,(Rutaceæ,) as represented within our floral limits, contains but a small number of genera and species. The re- markable Kœberlinia spinosa(somewhat doubtfully referred here) is a leafless, much-branched and thorny shrub, 5 to 10 feet high, which is found near the Rio Grande, in Western Texas, and in the neighboring parts of Mexico. The whole plant is of a yellowish-green color. The ultimate branches terminate in formidable thorns, which are from an inch to four inches in length. These bear on their sides and in their axils small clusters of white flowers. The general appearance is that of Emory's thorn(Holacantha Emorgi.) The Mexicans of Coahuila and Nuevo Leon call it“Junco.“* 14-17. Another genus of this family is Zanthoxylum, of which there are three species in the United States, namely, Zanthoxylum americanum, which is the Prickly ash“ of the Northern States; Zanthoxylum carolinianum, the Prickly ash of the Southern States; and Zanthoxylum pterota, a native of Key West, as well as of the countries along the Rio Grande. The last has received no common name, either English or Mexican. All these plants are armed with strong prickles, although they do not bear thorns. The great family of the Leguminosæ contains only a few thorny plants, which belong to Western Texas, and the regions adjoining. The well-known’“ Mesquit“ is one of these. 18. Algarobia glandalosa(Mesquit). It often becomes a middle-sized 16 A 242 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. tree, but it can easily be kopt of any required height by clipping. Its foliage is graceful, being not unlike that of the honey-locust(Gle- Aütschia triacanthos.) Usually, a pair of sharp thorns is produced at the base of each compound leaf. The only figure of the plant is that given in the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New Nork, vol. 2, pl. 2. 19- 20. Nearly allied to the Mesquit is the Screw bean(Strombo- carpa pubescens), 8o remarkable for its spirally-twisted pod. The flowers, which are fragrant, are in close cylindrical racemes. A good plate of this species is given in the Botany of the Pacific Railroad Exploration, vol. 4, pl. 4, and our own figure represents the plant very well.(Pl. VII. fig. 1.) On the lower Rio Grande is a smaller species of screw-bean,(Strombocarpe œinerescens, Gray,) which bears the flowers in compact, globose heads. Both kinds, doubtless, could be easily cultivated. 21 22. Among the numerous plants of the mimosa tribe, or sub-order of Leguminosæ, are several Texan and New Mexican species, which bear strong prickles, and being shrubby, as well as of quick growth, they may be tried as to their suitableness for hedges in the Southern States. Those that seem to deserve especial notice for this purpose are the Mimoso hiuncifera and Mimosa borealis, known among the native Mexicans by the name of Ufia de gato,“ or „Unagato.““ The Americans call them“‧cat-claws.“ 23-24. The rose tribe(Rosaceæ), although very extensive, con- tains but few plants of the right qualities for fencing, and most of these belong to the genus cratægus. The favorite hedge plants in this country are two or three native species of that genus. The well-known Washington thorn(Cratœνgus cordata,)—a native of Vir- ginia, Kentucky, and the States southward. The ‧Cockspur thorn,“ (Oratœògus crus-galli,) a common species east of the Mississippi. It is easily distinguished by the entire and somewhat leathery, narrow, and dark-green shining leaves. The thorns are very long and sharp. Of all the species of cratægus, this is generally admitted to be the best for hedges. 25. The singular genus Fouquiera(of doubtful family, but appar- ently nearer Polemoniaces than Portulaceæ) contains three species, one of which is quite abundant on the Upper Rio Grande and in the Northern Mexican States. This is the„Ocotillo“' of the Mexicans, Fouquiera splendens. It is armed with numerous sharp thorns, which are the persistent mid-ribs of the primary leaves. The stem is much like that of some Cactaceæ. It bears panicles of splendid scarlet flowers. In some parts of New Mexico, the natives have long used it to form hedges around their gardens. A plate of the plant is in Emory's Report of his Military Expedition to California. A second species occurs in Sonora. 26. The next group of plants containing thorny shrubs is the nettle family. Here we find the valuable Osage orange, or Osage thorn (Maclura aurantiaca of botanists.) This is a native of Arkansas, Western Louisiana, and Eastern Texas. It is said also to occur in the southern part of Missouri. It came into use as a hedge plant DDllx. dlöt(G wodlel de lluti drf d Na Frni Dod M 8. Agal ſie Nuidul Sthe ph Sadulb. Wtich ber ess en a trie g er Nerin „8 Fl Slht eihs pecil uie ranli hum e eäthS tensirt dr anl Wtt lge Plubl genn ſ atire d Ie Tplr üm Sypi hi ery, Wn 3 nll n ed to be e blt ht ree pelt j aWdt- de Jeis Aors ſi- dtem B- ndil v Lolg ul phatàn . 1 si hed Oa he f bes th deelr ſeigege HEDGE PLANTS. 243 about twenty-five or thirty years ago, and is now well known throughout the country. On account of its strong growth and thorny branches, it forms a barrier that few animals can pass through; but it shoots forth such long and vigorous branches that it is difficult to keep it within bounds. 26. Among the chaparral bushes growing along the Rio Grande, in Western Texas, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon,&c., a thorny species of Geltis deserves notice here, as it is one of the most promising of our hedge plants. It is the“Cranjeus,“ or" Cranxero ofthe Mexicans. Under the name of Celtis cinerea it will be described, and a plate of it given in the forthcoming volume of the Mexican Boundary Survey. Its usual height is from 6 to 10 feet, very much branched, the branches being rigid, and armed with short but strong spines. The leaves are oval, about an inch long, and either toothed or entire. The flowers are polygamous, very small, and of a greenish-white color. The berries are the size of small peas, of an oval form, orange-yellow, and somewhat edible, though astringent. The plant usually grows in poor, stony soils, and, as our soldiers and American travellers report, it forms the most annoying kind of chaparral. 244 AGRIOULTURAL REPORT. HORTICULTURE. PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURE. [Condensed from a““ A Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden,“ by John Lindley, M. D.] No greater boon could be bestowed upon the gardening world than to reduce all horticultural operations to their first principles, and to lay bare the causes why in one case one mode of procedure is advisable, and another in another. But there are few persons who are competent to undertake this task. It requires a combination of great physiological knowledge with a perfect acquaintance with the common manipulation of the gardener's art, and much experience in all the little accidents which are scarcely appreciable by the most observing cultivator, with which the mere man of science can neces- sarily have no acquaintance, but upon which, the success of a gar- dener's operations often mainly depends; which are to the cultivator signs as certain of the issue of his experiments as to the mariner are the almost invisible changes in the appearance of the heavens by which the weather is prognosticated. Deeply impressed with a persuasion of the justice of the foregoing observations, and sincerely regretting that there should be no present expectation of such a task being undertaken by any one fully compe- tent to it, the writer ventures to throw himself upon the indulgence of the public in attempting, not to carry into effect such a plan him- self, but to sketch, in regard to the fruit-garden, what he thinks should be the method upon which a more competent person would do well to proceed. AIl our fruits, without exception, have been so much ameliorated by one circumstance or another that they no longer bear any resem- blance, in respect of quality, to their original. Who, for instance, would recognize the wild parent of the Coe's, or Green Gage plum, in the savage Sloe; or that of the Ribston and Golden Pippin apples in the worthless acid Crab? or what resemblance can now be traced between the delicious Beurré pears, the flesh of which is so succu- lent, rich, and melting, and that hard, stony, astringent fruit which even birds and animals refuse to eat? Yet these are undoubted cases of improvement resulting from time and skill patiently and constantly in action. The continual dropping of water will not more surely wear away the hardest stone, than will the reason of man in time compel all nature to become subservient to his wants or wishes. But it would be of little service to mankind that the quality of any fruit should be improved, unless we found some efficient and certain mode of multiplying the individuals when obtained. Hence, there are two great considerations, above all things, to which it is necessary that ————&— łì ˙ Lunles 1”- gvorlltha deihls a) roeriun persons m ddimtim de vü Tperfene vyte w enn E 88 0làN le elliran arine M Derräls N he frrgii- de lo nedr fly ew- e indlgat Aaplmbe nt le ti Son Folli weeline r I R for Iwe dage ia pun Iqpls- W be tac⸗ 3D M t Füt- loubtelese dd Iu Rsufel ſe ine Gl hes. M- of uy n cerhin D’ jere we resan HORTICULTURE. 245 the attention of the cultivator should be directed, namely, ameliora- tion and propagation. Amelioration consists either in acquiring new and improved varieties of fruit, or in increasing their good qualities when acquired. It will be as well to consider these two subjects separately. By what means the first tendency to change their nature was given to domesticated plants, we are entirely ignorant. It is probable that it was originally due to accident, and also that it was still mere chance which continued to operate down to very modern times. Philosophers are unacquainted with the reason why there should be any tendency to variation from the characters first stamped on any species by Nature; but all know that this tendency does exist, and in a most remarkable degree, in many species. There is in all beings a dispo- sition to deviate from their original nature when cultivated, or even in a wild state; but this disposition is so strong in some, as to render them particularly well adapted to become subject to domestication. For instance, the dog, the pigeon, and the barnyard fowl are cases in which this tendency is most strongly marked in animals; and domes ticated fruits are a parallel case in the vegetable world. Without, then, vainly endeavoring to discover the first cause of this disposition to form varieties, let us take it as a fact that the dis- position exists. Cultivators increase this disposition chiefly in two ways: either by constantly selecting the finest existing varieties for seed, or by intermixing the pollen and stigma of two varieties for the purpose of procuring something of an intermediate nature. The ancients were unacquainted with either of these practices, and con- sequently their gardens contained few things which would now be deemed worthy of cultivation. The power of obtaining cross-bred varieties at pleasure has only existed since the discovery of sexes in plants; but as it exerts a most extensive influence over alterations in the vegetable kingdom, it may be considered the most important con- trolling power that we possess. In sowing seeds for the purpose of procuring improved varieties, care should be had not only that the seeds be taken from the finest existing kinds, but also that the most handsome, the largest, and the most perfectly ripened specimens should be those that supply the seed. A seedling plant will always partake more or less of the character of its parent, the qualities of which are concentrated in the embryo when it has arrived at full maturity. How this concentration takes place, we are as ignorant as why certain constitutional peculiarities are in men transferred from father to son, and from generation to generation; but we know that it does take place. Now, if the general qualities of a given variety are concentrated in the embryo under any circumstances, it is reasonable to suppose that they will be most especially concentrated in a seed taken from that part of a tree in which its peculiar good qualities reside in the highest degree. For instance, in the fruit of an apple growing upon a north wall there is a smaller formation of sugar than in the same variety growing on à south wall; and it can be easily understood that the seed of that fruit which is itself least capable of forming saccharine secretions will 246 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. acquire from its parent a less power of the same nature than if it had been formed within a fruit in which the saccharine principle was abundant. It should therefore always be an object with a gardener, in selecting a variety to become the parent of a new sort, to stimu- late that variety by every means in his power to produce the largest and the most fully ripened fruit that it is capable of bearing. The importance of doing this is well known in regard to melons and cucumbers, and also in preserving fugitive varieties of flowers; but it is not generally practised in raising fruit-trees. The pouwer f Procuring intermediate varieties by the intermixture of the pollen and stigma of two different parents is, however, that which most deserves attention. We all know that hybrid plants are constantly produced in every garden, and that improvements of the most remarkable kind are yearly occurring in consequence. Experi- ments, however, it may be supposed, are sometimes made without the operator being exactly aware either of the precise nature of the action to which he is trusting for success, or of the limits within which his experiments should be confined. Cross-fecundation is effected, as every one knows, by the action of the pollen of one plant upon the stigma of another. The nature of this action is highly curious. Pollen consists of extremely minute hollow balls or bodies. Their cavity is filled with fluid, in which swim particles of a figure varying from spherical to oblong, and having an apparently spontaneous motion. The stigma is composed of very lax tissue, the intercellular passages of which have a greater diameter than the moving particles of the pollen. When a grain of pollen comes in contact. with the stigma, it bursts and discharges its contents among the lax tissue upon which it has fallen. The moving particles descend through the tissue of the style, until one, or sometimes more of them, finds its way, by routes spe- cially destined by Nature for this service, into a little opening in the integuments of the ovulum, or young seed. Once deposited there, the particle swells, increases gradually in size, separates into. radicle and cotyledons, and finally becomes the embryo that part which is to give birth, when the seed is sown, to a new individual. Such being the mode in which the pollen influences the stigma, and subsequently the seed, a practical consequence of great importance necessarily follows, namely, that in all cases of cross-fecundation the new variety will take chieffy after its polliniferous or male pareni, and that, at the same time, it will acquire some of the constitutional peculiarities of its mother.“ Thus, the male parent of the Downton strawberry was the Old Black, the female a kind of Scarlet; in Coe's Golden Drop plum, the father was the Yellow Magnum Bonum, the mother the Green Gage; and in the Elton cherry the White Heart was the male parent, and the Graffion the female. The limits within which experiments of this kind must be confined are, however, narrow. It seems that cross-fecundation will not take — a In early crosses between distinct species, this is particularly manifest; but in those of varieties long domesticated it is less apparent, the distinctions between the parents them selves being less fixed, and less clearly markecl. wu ith dncil à gandene t b Fiin dodlee h 1 heain Vlod a loen M 1 dlauba Ments d 5 d6. We ade wita ture di h jwits fib Ö ntermirm Wfefer 1 he uiind de md Welin id, in nün oblong u Cl näs we àge m it bun plich hh okthesht 7rolltes i ering hit oötted den into nüt art wlili 3 Stixa u inportlr undätinb male fära onstitulo-- the Dondi jet, uli Boun, Ä HORTICULTURE. 247 place at all, or very rarely, between different species, unless these species are nearly related to each other; and that the offspring of the two distinct species is itself sterile; or, if it possesses the power of multiplying itself by seed, its progeny returns back to the state of one or other of its parents. Hence it seldom or never has happened that domesticated fruits have had such an origin. We have no varie- ties raised between the apple and the pear, or the quince and the latter, or the plum and cherry, or the gooseberry and the currant. On the other hand, new varieties obtained by the intermixture of two pre-existing varieties are not less prolific, but, on the contrary, often more so than either of their parents. Witness the numerous sorts of Flemish pears which have been raised by cross-fecundation from bad bearers within the last forty years, and which are the most prolific fruit-trees with which gardeners are acquainted; witness also Mr. Knight's cherries, raised between the May Duke and the Graffion, and the Coe's plum already mentioned. It is, therefore, to the intermixture of the most valuable existing varieties of fruit that gardeners should trust for the amelioration of their stock. By this operation, the pears that are in eating in the spring have been rendered as delicious and as fertile as those of the autumn; and there is no apparent reason why those very early but worthless sorts—such as the Muscat Robert, which usher in the season of pears-—should not be brought to a similar state of perfection. There is no kind of fruit, however delicious, that may not be dete- riorated. or however worthless, that may not be ameliorated by par- ticular modes of management; so that, after a given variety shall have been created, its merits may still be either elicited or destroyed by the cultivator. In this place, those practices only need be considered that tend to improvement. Some fruits of excellent qualities are bad bearers. This defect is remedied by a variety of different methods, such as— 1. By ringing the bark. 2. By bending branches downwards. 3. By training. 4. By the use of different kinds of stocks. All these practices are intended to produce exactly the same effect by different ways. Physiologists know that whatever tends to cause a rapid diffusion of the sap and secretions of any plant causes also the formation of leaf-buds instead of flower-buds; and that whatever, on the contrary, tends to cause an accumulation of sap and secretions has the effect of producing flower-buds in abundance. This circum- stance, which at first sight seems to be difficult to account for physio- logically, is no doubt to be explained by the difference between leaf- buds and flower-buds themselves. In a leaf-bud, all the appendages or leaves are in a high state of development, and the central part, or axis, around which they are arranged, has a tendency to extend itself in the form of a branch as soon as the necessary stimulus has been communicated to the system by the light and warmth of spring. In a flower-bud, the appendages or leaves are in that imperfectly formed, contracted state which we name"clꝰνσον, corolla, stamens, and pis- 248 AGRICULTURAL REPORT tils, and the central part around which they are arranged has itself no tendency to elongate under the influence of the usual stimulants. Hence, a flower-bud, or flower, is nothing but a contracted branch, as is proved by the occasional elongation of the axis in flowers that expand during unusually hot, damp weather late in the spring, be- coming branches, bearing sepals and petals instead of leaves. It is. therefore, easy to be understood why, so long as all the motions in the fluids and secretions of a tree go on rapidly, with vigor, and without interruption, only rudiments of branches(or leaf-buds) should be formed; and why, on the other hand, when the former become languid, and the parts are formed slowly, bodies of a contracted nature, with no disposition to extension,(or flower-buds,) should appear. It will be found that the success of the practices above enumerated, to which the gardener has recourse in order to increase the fertility of his fruit-trees, is to be explained by what has just been said In ringing fruit-trees, a cylinder of bark is cut from the branch, by which means the return of the elaborated juices from the leaves down the bark is cut off, and all that would have been expended below the annular incision is confined to the branch above it. This produces an accumulation of proper juice, and flower-buds, or fertility, are the result. But there is a defect in this practice, to which want of success, in many cases, is no doubt to be attributed. Although the returning fluid is found to accumulate above the annular incision, yet the ascending sap flows along the alburnum into the buds with nearly as much rapidity as ever, so that the accumulation is but imperfectly produced. On this account, the second practice, of bendéng branches dozwnwwards, is found to be attended with more certain consequences. The effect of turning the branches of a tree from their natural posi- tion to a pendulous or a horizontal one, is to impede both the ascent and descent of the fluids in a gradual but certain manner. The tissues of which branches are composed is certainly permeable to fluids in every direction; and there can be no doubt that the vital action of the vessels of a plant is performed both in the natural and in an in- verted position. So long as that erect direction of the branches, which is natural to them is exactly maintained, the flow of their fluids, being subject to no interruptions, will take place in the freest possi- ble manner; but the moment this natural direction is deviated from, the vessels become more or less compressed, their action impeded, and finally, if the inversion is perfect, it becomes so slow that an accumulation of the proper juices necessarily takes place through every part of the system. One of the objects of training is to produce the same efefect. Branches are bent more or less from their naturally erect position; their motion, in consequence of the action of winds upon them, which is known to facilitate the movement of the fluids, is totally destroyed; and hence arises the accumulation of proper juice which is necessary to their fertility. Nor is the influence f the stock of an essentially different nature. In proportion as the scion and the stock approach each other closely in constitution, the less effect is produced by the — — 8 22 — ——.——A‚9—--O— 4 les iei Kinala d bnnd Mens t prung b e Uh voticns Finn n 1s nul er heelue cohtracte b) Sodh ) runerrte de fetin eil 1 bywi Gdorl h deoy b S Mods ty atth Nrntd houyh desänn, ſt witt wanf perbei n Hnna geglee Kturd fa tle Wen The tssls l flbi- Iacton dnui- Drandle leir tu eest hs ated im inpeii n thät n turna me efke en, rlid Jestſt ecesal esseltul — apprco edft HORTICULTURE. 249 latter; and, on the contrary, in proportion to the constitutional differ- ence between the stock and the scion, is the effect of the former important. Thus, when pears are grafted or budded on the wild species, apples upon crabs, plums upon plums, and peaches upon peaches or almonds, the scion is, in regard to fertility, exactly in the same state as if it had not been grafted at all; while, on the other hand, a great increase of fertility is the result of grafting pears upon quinces, peaches upon plums, apples upon whitethorn, and the like. In the latter cases, the food absorbed from the earth by the root of the stock is communicated slowly and unwillingly to the scion: under no circumstances is the communication between the one and the other as free and perfect as if their natures had been more nearly the same; the sap is impeded in its ascent, and the proper juices are impeded in their descent, whence arises that accumulation of secretion which is sure to be attended by increased fertility. No other influence than this can be exercised by the scion upon the stock. Those who fancy that the contrary takes place—that the quince, for instance, communicates some portion of its austerity to the pear— can scarcely have considered the question physiologically, or they would have seen that the whole of the food communicated from the alburnum of the quince to that of the pear is in nearly the same state as when it entered the roots of the former. Whatever elaboration it undergoes must necessarily take place in the foliage of the pear, where, far from the influence of the quince, secretions natural to the variety go on with no more interruption than if the quince formed no part of the system of the individual. If we consider upon what principle the flavor of particular fruits maxy be improved, we shall find that it is entirely due to the increased action of the vital functions of leaves. When the sap is first com- municated by the stem to the leaves, it has experienced but few chemical changes since it first entered the roots. Such changes as it has undergone have been due rather to the solution of some of the pre-existing peculiar secretions of the individual by the sap in its way upwards through the alburnum, than to any other cause. As soon, however, as it enters the leaves, it becomes altered in a va- riety of ways, by the combined action of air, light, and evaporation; for which purposes the leaf is admirably adapted by its anatomical structure. Thus altered in the leaves, it ceases to be what we call sap, but becomes the proper juice; or, in other words, acquires the peculiar character of the final secretions of the individual from which it is formed. Discharged by the leaves into the bark, it is thence conveyed, by myriads of channels of cellular substance, throughout the whole system. From these secretions, of whatever nature they may be, the fruit has the power of attracting such portions as are necessary for its maturation. Hence it follows, that the more we can increase the peculiar secretions of a plant, the higher will become the quality of its fruit; and that, on the other hand, the less the plant is in condition to form those secretions, the less will be the quality of the fruit. It is for the purpose of producing the former effect that pruning and training trees are more especially destined. In pruning, 250 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. we remove all those superfluous pranches which overshadow the remainder, and we endeavor to expose every part to the freest action of light and air. In training, the same thing takes place, but is increased; there is not a pranch that is not fully exposed to the most direct rays of light, and to the freest circulation of air, and even to the unimpeded action of the sun in aspects exposed to the south, east, or west. This action is obviously most powerful on the south, and hence the higher quality of fruits matured upon that exposure than on any other; while, on the other hand, fruits raised upon a northern aspect are well known to be less highly flavored than those from even an open standard. For a similar reason, forced fruits, which are obtained at a period when there is little light, cannot be compared with those which are matured in the full blaze of a summer sun; and hence, melons grown in frames covered with mats, and carefully excluded from the influence of that solar light which is indispensable to them, have, whatever may be their external beauty, none of that luscious flavor which the melon, when well cultivated, possesses in so eminent a degree. The next subject of consideration is the mode of multiplying improved varieties of fruit, so as to continue in the progeny exactly the same qualities as existed in the parent. Unless we have the power of doing this readily, the advantages of procuring improved races would be very much circumscribed; and the art of horticulture, in this respect, would be one of the greatest uncertainty. The usual mode of increasing plants, that mode which has been more especially provided by Nature, is by seeds; but, while seeds increase the species without error, the peculiarities of varieties can rarely be perpetuated in the same manner. In order to secure the multiplication of a variety, with all its qualities unaltered, it is necessary that portions should be detached from the original individual, and converted into new individuals, each to undergo a similar dismemberment, with similar consequences. It happens that while in animals this is im- practicable, except in the case of polypes, the system of life in a plant is, of all others, the best adapted to such a purpose. We are accustomed to consider individual plants of exaetly the same nature as individual animals; this, however, is a vulgar error, which is dis- sipated py the slightest inquiry into the nature of a plant. A plant is really an animated body, composed of infinite multitudes of systems of life; all, indeed, united in a whole, but each having an independent existence. When, therefore, any number of these systems of life is removed, those which remain, as well as those which are separated, will, under fitting circumstances, continue to perform their natural functions as well as if no union between them had ever existed. These systems of life are buds, each having a power of emitting descending fibres in the form of roots, and also of ascending in the form of stem. The first of these buds is the embryo; the others are subsequently formed on the stem emitted by the embryo. As these secondary buds develop, their descending roots combine and form the wood; their ascending stems give rise again to new buds. These buds are all exactly like each other; they have the same constitution, the same alon dest atn ee, b othe w ul erau- de nh e uun t expovu- ed uyn hau hw eed nu weanadtäe TAsnn) Ias M t wliai ddl benc ellinrt molbphin eny erui- k inen ortjeltn. Thebul deseüih thespris perpetxti eaton di ut pyxihn werted”n melt, vü thS bi- o l n e. Wer ande üig niehbu t. LTl SOf Sst ndeeriet 1 l 1 eseyenil heir wim⸗ el. IE dessnüt rmdis ntergeal Beccdui dtle Wi se ln . the 1 HORTICULTURE. 251 organic structure, and the individuals they are capable of producing are, consequently, all identically the same; allowance, of course, being made for such accidental injuries or alterations as they may sustain during their subsequent growth. It is upon the existence of such a remarkable physiological peculiarity in plants, that propagation entirely depends; an evident proof of which may be seen in this cir- cumstance: take a cutting of a vine, consisting only of the space which lies between two buds, or an internodium, as botanists would call such a piece, and no art will succeed in ever making it become a new plant, no matter how considerable the size of the internodium may be.* But, on the other hand, take the bud of a vine without any portion of the stem adhering to it, and it will throw out stem and root, and become a new plant immediately. If we examine the various modes employed in horticulture for propagating plants, we shall find that, however different they may be in appearance, they all consist in the application of these principles under various forms. It will be most convenient to consider these methods separately. Propagation is effected by the arts of increasing by eyes, striking from cuttings, layering, budding, and grafting. Increasing by eyes is the simplest of all these methods. It consists in nothing but extracting a single system of life, or a bud, from a given plant, placing it in due heat and moisture, and surrounding it with fitting food, thus causing it to grow as a solitary individual, instead of as one of the community to which it originally belonged. Striing from cuttings is a slight modification of the last method. Instead of taking a single bud, a stem, containing two, three, or more buds, is placed in circumstances fitted for the maintenance of its life. In this case, the chances of success are increased by the additional number of buds which are the subject of experiment. That bud which is nearest the bottom of the cutting emits its roots at once into the earth, and so establishes a communication between the general system of the cutting and the medium from which its food is to be derived. The other buds, by pushing their stems upwards into light, attract the nutriment absorbed by the roots, and so stimulate the latter to increased action. Ultimately, the roots of all the buds de- scend between the bark and the wood until they reach the earth, into which they finally pass, like those of the first bud. There is another circumstance which renders the operation of striking plants from cuttings less precarious than from eyes. In both cases, the buds have, at the outset, to feed upon matter in their vicinity, until they shall have formed roots which are capable of absorbing food from the earth; but in eyes, the nutritive matter can only exist in such por- tions of the stem as may have been cut away with themselves; while, on the other hand, in cuttings, the stem itself forms an important, reservoir of nutriment. This is a consideration, the practical im- portance of which will be obvious to every cultivator. As it is from the buds alone of cuttings that roots proceed, it follows, that in cases * This is, of course, said without reference to the power which some plants possess of developing latent buds; a subject which is foreign to the present inquiry. 252 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. of difficulty, when plants strike unwillingly, anything which may facilitate the immediate introduction of roots into the soil will be advantageous. It is for this reason that a good operator always takes care that the lower end of his cutting is pared down as close to the base of a bud as may be practicable without actually destroying any part of the bud itself; by this means. the first emitted roots, instead of having to find their way downwards between the bark and wood, strike at once into the earth, and become a natural channel by which nutriment is conveyed into the general system of the cutting. Laxyering is nothing but striking from cuttings that are still allowed to maintain their connection with the mother plant by means of a portion at least of their stem. Where roots are emitted with great readiness, simply bending a branch into the soil, leaving its point above ground, is sufficient to insure the success of the operation; but in cases of difficulty, other expedients are resorted to, all which will still be found to have reference to the emission of roots by buds. 4 common practice is, to head down the branch that is laid into the earth; this is to call into action the buds below the incision, by stopping the general axis of development. Another method is, to“ tongue“ the layer, that is, to split the stem just up to the origin of a bud-a practice that has the effect of enabling the roots to be emitted into the soil through the wound more readily than if they had to pierce through the bark; the resistance offered to their passage through the bark is in many cases so great as to compel them to continue to make wood, rather than to appear in the form that is necessary for the success of the cultivator. Budding and grafting are operations that equally depend for their success upon the property that buds possess of shooting roots down- wards and stems upwards; but in these practices, the roots strike be- tween the bark and wood of the stock, instead of into the earth, and form new layers of wood, instead of subterranean fibres. The success of such practices, however, depends upon other causes than those which influence the growth of cuttings. It is necessary that an ad- hesion should take place between the scion and the stock, so that when the descending fibres of the buds shall have fixed themselves upon the wood of the stock, they may not be liable to subsequent separation. No one can have studied the economy of the vegetable kingdom without having remarked that there is a strong tendency to cohesion in bodies or parts that are placed in contact with each other. Two stems are tied together for some purpose: when the ligature is removed, they are found to have grown into one; two cucumbers accidentally placed side by side, or two apples growing in contact with each other, form double cucumbers or double apples; and most of the normal modifications of the leaves, floral envelopes, or fertilizing organs, are due to various degrees of cohesion in con- tiguous parts. This cohesion will be always found to take place in the cellular tissue only, and never in the vascular tissue. In the stems of all such trees as are grafted by orchardists, the cellular tis- sue is found alive only in the medullary rays and the liber; it is therefore essential, in the first place, that those parts, both in the — 8⸗ S„ —— tie Ur vilu Täytahe ode to t Gyiux ar 8 Ine aud mnn dy min 3 U lhel ean dl; wit pat its x- tiod, u Vlieh ri buk diw FKtpyid ugneh a bo- dited un lv ien rrouxlſt de to Gn ry ir ih fox bel ots donr. stribe'- earth Wl he Sleers han tos at wd- K w b hemvolra ubseqle rersti Ddensf h wit al ven W one, tl rrorin 1 je aplks enrelopes n ijel- — HORTIOULTUR. 253 stock and the scion, should be placed in contact. In regard to the medullary rays, these are so numerous and so closely placed that it is scarcely possible that a portion of one stem should be applied to another without the medullary rays of both touching each other at many points. No care, therefore, is required to insure this, which may be safely left to chance. But in regard to the liber, as this is confined to a narrow strip both in stock and scion, great care must be taken that they are both placed as exactly in contact with each other as possible, so that the line of separation of the wood and bark should, in both stock and scion, be accurately adjusted. The success of grafting depends very much upon attention to this. But there are other reasons why this accuracy in adjusting the line between the bark and wood of the stock and scion is so important. It is at that part that the roots of the latter pass downwards over the former; and it is also there that the substance called“ cambium,“ which serves as food for the young descending fibres, is secreted. It is obvious that the more accurate the adjustment of the line separating the wood from the bark, the more ready will be the transmission of young fibres from the one to the other; and that the less the accuracy that may be observed in this respect, the greater the difficulty of such transmission will be. Provided the stock and scion be of exactly the same size, the adjustment can scarcely fail to be accurate in the most unskillful hands; it is in the more common case of the scion being much smaller than the stock that this is to be most particularly at- tended to. Budding differs from grafting in this: that a portion of a stem is not made to strike root on another stem, but that, on the contrary, a bud deprived of all trace of the woody part of a stem is introduced peneath the bark of the stock, and there induced tostrike root. In this operation. no care is requisite in securing the exact contact of similar parts, and a free channel for the transmission of the roots of the bud between the bark and wood of the stock; for, from the very nature of the operation of budding, this must of necessity be insured. The bark of the bud readily coheres with the wood of the stock, and secures the bud itself against all accident or injury. But if precau- tions of the same natureé as in grafting are not requisite in budding, others are of no less moment. It is indispensable that the bud which is employed should be fully formed, or what gardeners call ripe; if it is im- perfectly formed, or unripe, it may not be capable of that subsequent elongation upwards and downwards, upon which the whole success of the practice depends. Secondly, great care should be taken, in raising the bark of the stock for the insertion of the bud, that the cambium be not injured or disturbed. The cambium is a secretion between the wood and bark, not only destined to support the descend- ing fibres of the puds, but also to generate the new cellular substance within which the descending fibres are finally found imbedded. If, in the preparation of the bark for receiving the bud, this cambium be injured or disturbed, it becomes much less capable of effecting the cohesion that is necessary, than if uninjured. In budding, therefore, the bark should be carefully“lifted up,“ and not forced from the 254 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. wood with a bone or metallic blade, as is usually the case; for, although it is no doubt true that an operation clumsily performed will often succeed, yet it should be remembered that, if skillfully managed, it would be attended with much better success, and that a habit of constantly operating with delicacy will enable a gardener to succeed with certainty, in cases in which a bungling practitioner would be sure to fail. Little do those who crush with rude hands the tender limbs of plants reflect how delicate is that organization upon which the life of their victim is dependent. Transplanting, perhaps, is that operation in which the greatest dif- ficulty is generally found to exist, and in which the causes of failure or success are often the least understood. Volumes have been written upon the subject, and the whole range of vegetable physiology has been called in aid of the explanation of the theory; yet J am much mistaken if it cannot be proved to depend exclusively upon the two following circumstances: first, by the preservation of the spongioles of the roots; secondly, by the prevention of excessive evaporation. It is well known that plants feed upon fluids contained in the soil, and that their roots are the mouths through which the food is con- veyed into their body. But the absorption of fluid does not take place either by all the surface of their roots, nor even of their fibres, but only by the extremities of the latter, consisting of bundles of vessels surrounded by cellular tissue, in a very lax, spongy state; whence those extremities are called spongioles. That it is only through the spongioles that absorption to any amount takes place, is oasily shown by growing a plant in water, and alternately preventing the action of the spongioles, when langour and a cessation of vital action comes on, and preventing the action of the general surface of the roots, leaving the spongioles at liberty, when the vital energies are immediately renewed. These spongioles are exceedingly delicate in their organization, and a very slight degree of violence destroys them. It is scarcely possible to remove the soil from the roots without injuring them in some degree; and if transplantation is ef- fected violently or carelessly, they are in a great measure destroyed. In proportion to the size or age of a tree, is the difficulty of pre- Serving them increased; and hence, at the same time, the difficulty of transplantation is augmented. If, by any method, the spongioles could be preserved unharmed, there would be no reason whatever why the largest forest tree should not be removed as easily as the young plants in a nursery; but their preservation in such cases is imprac- ticable, and therefore the transplantation of trees of great magnitude cannot be effected. It is because of the security of the spongioles from injury when the earth is undisturbed, that plants reared in pots are transplanted with so much more success than if taken immediately from the soil. Hence, also, when earth is frozen into a huge ball around the root of a plant, transplantation is effected with the same kind of certainty! The practice of cutting the roots of large trees the year previous to removing them is attended with success for a similar reason. Wherever the roots are cut through, the new fibres which are emitted, provided a plant is in health, in short tufts, and Aläena vil da Dalagel a bulit do Sllbhei Voclde de teuit pon flün reatest. fhinrer en fritta ilbgy h au Vnn M the m Jpclgjd draticd. in tle al- 9d R C- s Wt t leir ftre bundbs ü Mgy dde it M- ·8 Tl b hrerelin On d Fih surhe Nlelerxs r delei e detnn the nit ation e. destnſel tr of ir- eutyd Jporgis terer n the fuus is inpn. nugi oxxils wed il Jod mechite huge! the dabe arge tie cess fIr dew fe tuit ul. HORTICULTURE. 255 each terminated by a spongiole, are much more easily taken out of the ground without injury than if they were longer and more scat- tered among the soil. When destroyed, the spongioles are often speedily replaced, particularly in orchard trees, provided a slight degree of growth continues to be maintained. This is one of the reasons why trees removed in autumn succeed better than if trans- planted at any other time. The growth of a tree, at that season, is not quite over; and the first impulse of Nature, when the tree finds itself in a new situation, is to create new mouths by which to feed when the season for growing again returns. Evaporation takes place in plants to an inconceivable degree under certain circumstances. It is known, by the experiments of Dr. Hales, that a sun-flower plant will lose as much as 1 pound 14 ounces by perspiration in twelve hours; and that in general,“in equal surfaces and equal times, a man would perspire one-fiftieth, the plant one-one hundred and sixty-fifth, or as 50 is to 155 and that, taking all things into account, a sun-flower perspires seventeen times more than a man. The same most accurate observer found that a cabbage perspired in twelve hours 1 pound 9 ounces; a Paradise stock in a pot, 11 ounces; and a lemon plant, Sounces. Guettard states that he found a Cornus mascula perspire twice its own weight in a day; and Mr. Knight has remarked a vine in a hot day losing moisture with such rapidity that a glass placed under one of its leaves was speedily covered with dew, and in half an hour the perspiration was running off the glass. In damp or wet weather, this evaporation is least; in hot, dry weather, it is greatest. This loss has all to be supplied by the moisture intro- duced into the system by the spongioles; and hence, if the spongioles are destroyed, and evaporation takes place before they can be re- placed, a plant must necessarily die. This is the reason why deciduous trees cannot be transplanted when in leaf; it is difficult to remove them without injuring their spongioles, and it is equally difficult to hinder the evaporation by their leaves; but if they are kept in pots, it matters not at what season their removal takes place, because, as their spongioles are then uninjured, even excessive evaporation would be made good by their action. It is well known that certain evergreens, such as hollies, laurels,&c., can be transplanted in almost all months; this arises from their perspiration being much less copious than in deciduous-leaved trees, wherefore the spongioles have less difficulty in supplying the loss occasioned by it; yet even evergreens cannot well be removed in the hottest months in the year, because then, the action of such spongioles as may be saved in the operation would not be sufficient to supply the waste by evaporation. Plants first beginning to grow in the spring, with their leaves just turning green, areé in a most unfit state to remove; for, when transplanted, their roots will not have time to form a sufficient number of new spongioles to supply the loss to which the rapid perspiration by tbe leaves at, that season will give rise. It is upon this same principle that, if deciduous plants are taken from the ground in the summer, they are put into pots and placed in a hot-bed to recover, not for the sake of the heat. but because the atmosphere of a hot-bed is so charged with 256 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. humidity, that perspiration cannot go on, 80 that the vital energies of the plant, instead of being wasted by evaporation, are directed to the formation of new mouths by which to feed. This is but a brief outline of what the principles are upon which the common operations of the fruit-garden depend; yet it is hoped that it may not be without its use in calling attention to the rationale of what may seem extremely simple and well-understood practices, but which are undoubtedly neither so perfect, nor generally so skill- fully performed, as to be incapable of amendment. p. J. B. VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. [Condensed from the Gardener's Chronicle, London.] No subject of vegetable physiology is more interesting, both for theoretical and practical reasons, than the power which seeds un- doubtedly possess, under certain circumstances, of preserving their vitality for an apparently indefinite period. It is doubtless true that many of the statements on this subject, to be found in books, are apochryphal; but, certainly, some are founded on fact. None among the so-called instances of this excessive longevity have excited more doubt and discussion than what is called“mummy wheat;“ that is to say, wheat taken from mummies, and therefore of the highest anti- quity, which has grown when sown. We have never succeeded in satisfying ourselves, however, that the seeds from which such wheat is said to have been produced was really taken from mummy-cases. There is always some defect in the evidence. All such statements may be true, but there is no proof that they are so; and when we are told that onions taken from similar receptacles have also grown- awhich is impossible-we may be pardoned for requiring very decisive evidence before we accord our belief in those prodigies. The history of this wheat was given by Mr. Martin Farquhar Tupper, a most exact and conscientious man, in the“ London Times,“ of September, 1840; and to that gentleman we are indebted for the additional facts which we are now able to communicate. Sir Gardiner Wilkinson, when in the Thebaid, opened an ancient tomb(which had probably remained unvisited by man during the greater part of three thousand years,) and from some alabaster sepulchral pases therein took with his ouon hands a quantity of wheat and barley that had been there preserved. Portions of this grain were given to Mr. Pettigrew, who presented Mr. Tupper with twelve grains of the venerable harvest. In 1840, Mr. Tupper sowed these twelve grains, and, to show the care with which he preserved their identity, we shall quote his own account of his proceedings thereupon. 6I ar- dered,“ he says,“four garden pots of well-sifted loam, and, not. content with my gardener's care in sifting, Iemptied each pot succes. sively into an open newspaper, and put the earth back again, morsel by morsel, with my own fingers. It is next to impossible that any other sced should have been there. I then,(on the Ith of March, exexäa drectäih poh hüid t Lh le rtioud Uradite Uy wgl 2.1I g doth in HSecd u- rridg thi Ss truo td Docks m Jone uni xcited unn that jghest atr cceeded i Such Fleit IIé.S statemelts d vleu ſt o gror erp decbim The böör, per, à MS Septeuler tional leb an Axdjel doriug Ue erxpulim tHand dere- re gieh niss0 h elre gruls deltth, 1. 9] l 1 1 nt ot Sleceèd ain, Uor e that of Nund HORTICULTURE. 257 1840) planted my grains, three in each pot, at the angles of an equi- lateral triangle, so as to be sure of the spots where the sprouts would probably come up, by way of additional security against any chance seed unseen lurking in the soil. Of the twelve, one only germinated, the blade first pecoming visible on April 22; the remaining eleven, after long patience, I picked out again, and found in every instance that they were rotting in the earth, being eaten away by a number okf minute white worms. My interesting plant of wheat remained in the atmosphere of my usual sitting room until change of place and air seéemed necessary for its healih, when I had it carefully trans- planted to the open flower-bed, where it has prospered ever since. The first ear began to be developed on the 5th of July; a second ear made its appearance, and both assumed a character somewhat differ- ent from all our known varieties. Their small size and weakness may, in one light, be regarded as collateral evidence of so great an age, for assuredly the energies of life would be but sluggish after having slept so long; however, the season of the sowing—spring instead of autumn— will furnish another sufficient cause. The two ears, on sepa- rate stalks, were, respectively, 2 ⅛ and 3 inches long, the former being much blighted, and the stalk about 3 feet in height.* If, and I see no reason to disbelieve it,“ continues Mr. Tupper, if this plant of wheat be, indeed, the product of a grain preserved since the time of the Pharachs, we moderns may, within a little year, eat bread made of corn which Joseph might have reasonably thought to store in his granaries, and almost literally snatch a meal from the kneading-troughs of departing Israel.““ Here we have no link lost in the chain of evidence. Sir Gardiner Wilkinson himself opened the tomb, and with his own hands emptied the alabaster vase; of its contents he gave a portion to Mr. Pettigrew, who gave it to Mr. Tupper, who himself sowed it, watched it, and reared it. On the contrary, it is alleged that all the grain taken from the Egyptian urns are perfectly indurated, and possess every appearance of having been roasted. A correspondent says:„JI remember, in 1814, to have seen in the hands of the celebrated Egyptian traveller and antiquary, Denon, at Paris, several specimens of wheat which he had extracted from urns found by him at Egyptian Thebes, when, as the head of a scientific body, he accompanied Bonaparte's expe- dition to Egypt. He told me that, immediately on his return to France, he had, in order to satisfy the curious, carefully tried every possible experiment with his discovered grains, by sowing some in autumn, some in spring, some in the open air, some in hot-houses, some steeped previously in water, the rest in its natural state, if that could be called natural which had a most unnatural appearance, hay- ing every show of having been calcined, of which fact M. Denon did not entertain any doubt. Be it observed that Denon did not try this experiment with the produce of one discovery, but of many. I want to know who can prove the growth of any mummy-wheat in this country? Let us know all the circumstances. Who discovered it? What are the circumstances of the discovery? Where was it 17A *x* 258 AGRIOCULITURAL REPORT. made? When? The date is important. Let him account for it in the various hands through which it passed till it was deposited in the earth. Let him show us how it was secured against the possi- bility of fraud in every stage of its custody during this interval; how secured during the trial of the experiment; how many grains were sown; how sown; how long it was before they came up; how many came up; and, above all, I repeat, what security he had against the hoax of some mischievous person during this part of the experiment. It is nothing to show that he obtained a stem or ear of peculiar char- acter, if the existence of that kind of ear was known before. All the mummy-wheat I have seen is of sorts common in Egypt at this day. Has any mummy-wheat been ever raised in Egypt? I believe none. But I have always understood that there is not in the world a cleverer fellow at bamboozling a traveller, and accommodating his tastes by the preparation of discoveries for him, than the Arab guide; that the Roman antiquarians, and the venders of antiquities, and the peasants of Pæstum, do not surpass him in intelligence of that sort. I beg to say, that I do not in the slightest degree question the strict probity and sincere convictions of those who have found or reared certain wheats to which they have given the name of mummy- wheat; but I do suspect that somewhere there is a mistake.“¹ Mention is made of an ear of wheat having been exhibited at the Newcastle Farmers' Club, which was supposed to have been grown from seed found in an Egyptian mummy-case. Statements of the same general character have been put forth elsewhere.* lately met with one,“ says a writer,“in the Botanical Rambles,“ pub- lished under the direction of the Society for promoting Christian Knowledge. Two figures are there given of the kind of Wheat alluded to, and an interesting and very marvellous inference is drawn from the presumed accuracy of the facts detailed. It is asserted that, in Egypt of old, it-was no more uncommon to meet with seven ears of corn growing on one stalk than seven kine feeding together in one meadow! The variety has proved to be nothing more than an old and well-known kind of Revel wheat,“ called Egyptian wheat,“ and which I have occasionally seen cultivated in this neigh- borhood. I presume this variety has been so called in allusion to Pharaoh's dream, when he fancied he saw the anomalous fact of one stalk bearing seven ears. This variety does not, in reality, bear more ears than usual, namely, one only; but it has several of the spikelets so much elongated that they bear more grains than usual. It is this circumstance that gives it the appearance of a cluster compounded of several ears. It is a monstrosity which occasionally returns, under culture, to the more ordinary conditions of the ear; neither is it, when most prolific, considered to be a variety of any great value. Now, it is the mere name of this variety which has misled many to suppose it identical with the kind of wheat that was raised in the celebrated experiment recorded in the“‧ Gardener's Chronicle“ for 1843, but which is there stated to have been the Bellevue Tala- vera' of Colonel Le Couteur. I can fully confirm this, because I had six grains from the specimens raised by Mr. Tupper, and grew wut lrti depeöirli Kt tie hn Internal w F grilsa h; Vor un mrint exyermen peculige eg. detbre. l lgypt tü t! lllen in ſhenn Wochti n8 an tle M4. 2 f wüiquis ttellienes grec qleöin are föcldg de Gf unn- ake.“ nibitel at e beeu gon ments df e. al bf aüdles ſW- ing Cric d of Vlei encs danl eertel t th sevel e g bogete g Word b d Pppba in this wi in lW Ractd E ty bear Wnr he Tübeks . ltb ennpruie eturd G- neither k- jgrelt ulle HORTIOCULTURE. 259 them in company with several varieties of wheat in my garden. Among these, were plants of the Bellevue Talavera,“ and I had ample opportunity of comparing them with the descendants of the mummy-wheat.’ This variety was specially remarkable for ex- ceeding in length of straw, and for flowering much earlier than any of the other varieties in my garden. In this, and in all other par- ticulars, I could not observe the slightest difference between the Bellevue Talavera and the mummy-wheat; both, also, were attacked more vigorously than the rest by rust and mildew. If, then, the single seed reared by Mr. Tupper was really deposited in the cata- combs during the time of the Pharaohs, the wheat of Egypt was not the existing Egyptian wheat, so far as this experiment may be con- sidered decisive. But I have long suspected the possibility of a flaw in the testimony upon which this one grain is supposed to have been so old as Mr. Tupper and Sir G. Wilkinson believed it to be. Appli- cation was once made to the latter for specimens of mummy-wheat, in order that it might be tried among a series of experiments on the vitality of seeds,“ which have been in progress for a few years, under the superintendence of a committee of the British Association. The person who had been requested to apply to this gentleman was furnished with a sample by himself. Upon his proceeding to share the grains among the parties experimenting, he was surprised to find them intermixed with grains of maize, a plant of the New World. This, of course, led to further inquiry, and the conclusion arrived at was, that the sample had most certainly been tampered with before it came into his possession. Without presuming to deny the possibility of mummy-wheat retaining its vital powers for three thousand years, I must consider the above fact, coupled with the strange misapprehension that has arisen respecting the mummy origin of our Egyptian wheat, to throw an amount of suspicion upon the accuracy of the results which Mr. Tupper considered he had obtained, which makes it necessary the experiment should be repeated before we can feel satisfied that a grain of mummy-wheat has really germi- nated in our own times.“ 4. At a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, on the 15th of August, 1848, Dr. Daubeny said that he had recently heard of a well authenticated case of seeds from the inside of a mummy producing plants when sown; the only misfortune in this case was, that the seed produced maize. Now, maize was a plant of the New World, and, although grown in Egypt now, must have been introduced into the mummy since the discovery of America. All kinds of tricks were played with mummies, for the purpose of de- ceiving travellers. Mr. Babington stated that he had never yet seen a case of the supposed growth of mummy-wheat that would bear in- vestigation, and he had the strongest impression that no such growth ever took place. The above named Association, it will be remembered, appointed a. committee, in 1841, to experiment on the growth and vitality of seeds, and issued a circular with the view of determining the following questions: 260 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 1. What is the longest period during which the seeds of any plant, under any circumstances, can retain their vegetative power?-? 2. What is the extent of this period in each. of the natural orders, genera, and species of plants, and how far is it a distinctive character in such groups? 3. How far is the extent of this period dependent on the apparent characters of the seed, such as size, hardness of covering, hardness of internal substance, oiliness, mucilage,&c.? 4. What are the circumstances of situation, temperature, dryness, seclusion from the atmosphere,&c., most favorable to the preserva. tion of seeds. Botanists and others were invited to make the following series of experiments, and to communicate the results to the Association: Retrospective Erperiments.— First. By collecting samples of ancient soils from situations where vegetation cannot now take place, and by exposing these soils to air, light, warmth, and moisture, to ascertain whether any, and, if any, what species of plants spontaneously vege- tate in them. Care must, of course, be taken that no seeds obtain admittance into these soils from external sources, such as the air or water introduced to promote vegetation. These ancient soils are either natural or artificial deposits. The natural deposits are either of past geological periods, or of the recent period. The deposits of past periods are either secondary or tertiary. There is every possible reason to believe that the age even of the latest of these deposits is far beyond the maximum period through which vegetative powers can be preserved; yet, as many accounts are recorded of seeds vegetating spontaneously in such soils, it would be well to set these statements at rest by actual experiment. In such experiments, state the formation, and describe the geological phe- nomena of the locality, with the depth from the present surface at which the soil was obtained. Natural deposits of the recent period may be classed as follows: Alluvions of rivers, tidal warp-land, shell-marl, peat, surface-Soil buried by landslips, surface-soil buried by volcanic eruptions. In these cases, state the nature of the soil, the depth of the surface,&c.,; and especially endeavor to obtain an approximate date to each speci- men of soil, by comparing its depth from the surface with the present rate of deposition, or by consulting historical records. It would be well to submit to experiment a series of samples of soil from successive depths at the same locality. Artificial deposits are as follows: Ancient tumuli; ancient encamp- ments; the soil beneath the foundations of puildings; the soil with which graves, wells, mines, or other excavations have been filled up; ridges of arable land,&c. In these cases, state, as before, the depth from the surface, and ascertain from historical sources the approxi- mate age of the deposit... Second. By trying experiments on actual seeds which exist in artificial repositories. These are—seeds in old herbaria and botanical museums; seeds obtained from mummies, funereal urns, Pompell, dlar-ha wer) atoxal onln lire Cunen tle ppan Ine, Mrihs tue, Enns the eem Ning ger Socidiod. ples duen Dace ulh O t Wek neol n dmittameeir ter utrdue jer mturdid past genlann tertüar. ee eradt eriod tnu M accomnbon is itwul nent. lai eclogiel ent dörhos ed Ss 10l at gürHſeil eruptios 1 e surfun to each Se ith the prer- .ltwüli rOm dlrsi re dBé t tle aplrd nhieh eüi! Kand botin irns, N dl- HORTIOULTUREFA. 261 Herculaneum,&c.; dated samples of old seeds from nurserymen and seedsmen. In these cases, state the circumstances in which the seeds have been preserved, and their date as nearly as it can be ascer- tained. Prospective Erperiments.—In this mode of experimenting, it is pro- posed to form deposits of various kinds of seeds under different con- ditions, and to place a portion of them at successive periods in cir- cumstances calculated to excite the process of vegetation. In the case of certain species or families of plants, it would, perhaps, require many centuries to determine the limit of their powers of vegetation; yet it is probable that a very few years would suffice to fix the maxi- mum duration of the greater number, and many interesting results might thus be obtained even by the present generation of botanists. It is proposed, then, to form a collection of seeds of a great variety of plants,(including, as far as possible, at, least one species of every genus,) and to pack them up(carefully labelled) either alone, or mixed with various materials, as sand, sawdust, melted wax or tal- low, clay, garden mould,&c., in various vessels, as glass bottles, porous éarthen jars, wooden boxes, metallic cases,&c., placed in various situations, as under ground, in cellars, dry apartments,&c. At certain intervals, increasing in extent, say at first every two years, then every five, every ten, and at the lapse of a century, every twenty years, a small number(Say twenty) of each kind of seed, from each combination of circumstances, to be taken out and sown in an appropriate soil and temperature, and an exact register kept of the number of seeds which vegetate compared with those which fail. In this manner, it is believed that, in regard to the large majority of. plants, the limit of their vegetative durability would be determined in a very few years, and a large mass of vulgar errors on this subject, which now pass current for facts, would be cancelled and exploded. The most effectual way of exciting vegetation in seeds of great antiquity is to sow them in a hot-bed, under glass, and in a light soil moderately watered. The annexed table gives a general summary of the experiments as above, from 1841 to 1850, inclusive. 262 AGRICULTURAL REPORIT. General summarg of the eæperiments from 1841 t0 1850, inclusive. NaAMES. Years old. No. of seeds No. of seeds sown. germinated. GRAMINACEE. 1. Zea mays, Indian corn..... 3 300 127 Gobhett’s Corn............... 2 27 2. Phalaris canariensis, Canary seed.. 3 Do do.. 8 Po do.... 9........ 3. Panicum miliaceum, millet... 2 Po 0- 3 4. Avena sativa, oat 3 Ho 8 PDo........... 9........ Do.... 3 5. Triticum æstivum, wheat...... 3 Po do 8... Do do..... 9.. Po..... do.... 3 Do. do 3 Triticum, sp. mummy-wheat...... 6. Secale cereale, rye C 3 7. Hordeum vulgare, barley 3 Po. do..— 8.... Po- do 9„9. Po do... 3 do. 48 do. 50 Tris, Sp... 12. Tigridia pavonia- 13. Gladiolus psittacinus.. IEIDACEE. 10. Sisyrinchium bermudianumH.. 11. Tris sibirica........... ——ℳ——ℳ— ———— 00 Go C0 Co 00 00 d0 ———õ——ℳ—ℳv 14. Allium fragrans........ 3 Do..... 5 Po................... 10 Allium senescehns.. 4 15. Camassia esculenta, camass.. 5 3s Preserved(in waxed cloth). † Preserved(in open jar). ——M- ——— †† Preserved(in waxed cloth). 300 98 nil. 450 2 60 39 nil. to ldil, uie 0 Of geld Ng Sof. mu — ..-“ — HORTICULTURE. General summarg ꝗf the eæperiments- Continued. 10 NaAMEs. Years old. No. of seeds No. of seeds sown. germinated. Camassia esculenta, camass. 10 300 1 16. Ornithogalum pyrenaicum. 6—— 17. Asphodelus luteus 3 150 32 18. Asparagus officinalis, asparagus 3 450 97 PINACEE. 19. Pinus pinea, stone pine 12² 19 3 20. Juniperus communis, juniper 3 nil. Do do 8686 BErTULACEE. 21. Betula alba, birch 838 nil. 22. Alnus glutinosa, alder- 3... nil. CANNABINACEZ. 23. Cannabis sativa, nemp. 3. nil. Do do. 8 100 13 Do do- 9 nil. MoRACEE. 24. Morus nigra, black mulberry. 3 300 59 Po. 0— 88 EUPHORBIACEE. 25. Euphorbia lathyris 3 150 46 DPo do.. nil. 26. Croton, sp 21 50 30 27. Ricinus communis, castor-bean 3 45 15 Do do- 8S8 CoRYLACEE. 28. Fagus sylvatica, beech 3 nil. 29. Carpinus betula, hornbean 3 nil. 30. Quercus robur, English oak 3 30 3 Po. do. 6 CüUOURBITACEE. 31. Momordica elaterium. 5 75⁵ 13 Do== do= 86 32. Cucurbita cucuzza 5 14 40 29 Mellone di Spagna 13 20 11 Green Egyptian melon. 14 40 3 Marar- 14 29 8 Mellone di acqua 13 90 8 Mellone di pane bianca 13 50 2 Valencia melon 12² 50 20 Early cantaloupe melon 10 72 50 Melon from Lisbon 10 20 41 Melon--- 9 150 50 Melon from Cassabarn 8 15 11 Memoja 10 5 4 264 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. General summarg of the e;periments— Continued. NAMEs. Years old. No. of seeds No. of seeds Sown. germinated. Cueurbita, Sp 3 45 37 0.—DDD 8 45 19 33. Bryonia dioicc..%ͦ% D-C.. 3 30⁰ 1 5 PASSIFLORACEE. 4 34. Passiflora herbertiana....... 8 nil. 35. Tacsonia pinnatistipula.... 6 nil. VIOLACE. 36. Viola lutea... 3 450 99 CRUOCIFERZ. 37. Matthiola annua, ten-weeks' stock 3 600 236 38. Cheiranthus, sp., wall flower...3 80 38 39. Turritis retrofracta... 6 ⁵ nil. 40. Arabis hirsuta... 3 200 36 Arabis lucida%%-f.... 8S8 nil. 41. Koniga maritima.......... 3 600 170 42. Lunaria biennis.. 3 3⁰⁰ 114 43. Vesicaria grandiflora.... 3 nil. 44. Tberis umbellata. 3 100 11 Do—.. 3 200 150 Po— 8....... 45. Biscutella erigerifolia.%-... 3 3⁰⁰ 71 46. Malcomia maritima... 3 300 178 PoD 8 nil. 47. Hesperis matronalis... 3 300 66 48. Erysimum peroffskianum..= 3 300 8² 0.—ꝛdo. 8 49. Lepidium sativum, cress............ 3 300 195 Po 0- 8 200 19 Do do. 9 10⁰ 1 50. Ethionema saxatile............ 3 100 15 51. JIsatis tinctoria, woad.. 14 10⁰ 15 52. Brassica napus, rape.. 3 450 323 Do 0 8 300 4 Po. do 9„9.. nil. Brassica rapa, turnip 3 90⁰ 33⁵ Po- do.. 8 600 15 PDo. do-.. 9 300 5 Brassica rapa oleifera, turnip-rape.....4 100 85 Brassica oleracea, cabbage 3 150 11 Do do. 3*150 40 Do... do...... nil. Po.... do.. C 9......... ail. 53. Diplotaxis tenuifolia. 3 300 4 54. Crambe maritima, sea-kale.S. 3 300 6 55. Bunias orientalis......... 3 100 57 0.. do DD 4 50 2 56. Heliophila araboideg..C. 3 600 16⁵ 57. Schizopetalon Walkeri...—N 3 150 39 CAPPARIDACEE. 58. Cleome spinosa 3 300 61 * In waxed cloth. 5.. 61 I HORTICULTURE. General summarg of the experiments— Continued. 265 NaAMES. Nears old. No. of seeds No. of seeds sown. germinated. BrrTNERIACET. 59. Hermannia, sp.. 4 150 1 TROPEOLACEE. 60. Tropæolum majus, nasturtium...— 3 75 5² 0.. 6.. 8... nil. Tropæolum peregrinum.. 2 30 15 61 Limnanthes Douglasii..... nil. MaALVACEE. 62. Malope grandiflota-- 3 300 127 0. do. 8 300 10 63. Kitalbelia vitifolia.. 4 200 23 64. Lavatera trimestris. 2 100 50 65. Malva mauritiana... 3 60⁰ 281 Malva moschata.. 4 100 18 Malva, SDp.. 10 80 6 Do.-Go................. 25 1⁰⁰ 17 66. Hibiscus, söp. 27 10⁰0 3 67. Gossyplum, sp. cotton.— 4 8 2 68. Sida, Sb........... 25 150 75 TIIIACEEZ. 69. Corchorus, spC% 27 50 2 70. Triumfetta, pſC. D 25 75 30 HrPERIOACRE. 71. Hypericum hirsutum...C C. 3 450 94 Hypericum kalmianum..—— 8. nil. MAGNOITACEE. 72. Magnolia, Spſ. 3 45 4 PDo... 8.— nil. 73. Liriodendron tulipifera, tulip tree.. nil. Do. do. do- 8. nil. RANUNOCULACE. 74. Glematis crecta 6. nil. 75. Thalictrum minus. 32... nil. Do- do.. 4.... nil. 76. Anemone coronaria 3. nil. Do. do....... 4. nil. 77. Adonis autumnalis.. 3 150 79 Do d0 8 150 7 78. Ranunculus caucasicus 3 nil. Do= do. 4..... nil. 79. Nigella nana. 3 150 40 Do 8 nil. 80. Aquilegia sibirico.. 6.. nil. 81. Helleborus fœtidus, hellebore 3. nil. 82. Delphinium intermedium 4.... nil. 266 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. General summarg of the experiments— Continued. NaAMEs. NYears old. No. of seeds No. of seeds sown. germinated. Delphinium flexuosum 5 nil. . Do. doC 1— nil. Delphinium, sp 6 200 1 83. Aconitum napellus 3 3⁰⁰ 13 Do-do. 8 nil. 84. Pæonia, mixed vars. 3 Po do-- 8 nil. Po.. do 9 nil. PAPAVERACEZ. 85. Argemoue alba 3 3⁰⁰ 159 Argemone grandiflora 3— nil. 86. Papaver somniferum, opium poppy- 5 150 73 Papaver orientale, oriental poppy-- 5. nil. Papaver amcnum 3 300 47 Po- do dWD D D 8.. nil. 87. Glaucium rubrum 3 3⁰0 47 Po. do 8 nil. 88. Eschscholtzia californicaC 3 600 124 89. Chryseis crocea- 5 1⁰0 4 Po do..é—— 1..= nil. —-——-——ö—˙–0— —— D 4646,6—- BERBERIDACEE. . Mahonia aquifolla. ANACARDIACEE. Rhus, p XANTHOXYLACE. Ailantus glandulosa, ailantus LINACE. . Linum perenne, perennial flax.. Linum usitatissimum, common flax 200 ————————D- 8ð283;—- GERANIACELT. 20² 98. Pelargonium, pſf.P HORTICULTURE. General summarg of khe experiments— Continued. 267 NAMS. Years old. No. of seeds No. of seeds sown. germinated. CAROPHYLLACET. 99. Buffonia annua 3 3⁰⁰ 16 Po 0. 8 nil. 100. Dianthus barbatus, Sweet Willium 3 300 181 Dianthus chinensis, China pink 3 150 62 101. Saponaria annua 3 450 38 102. Gypsophila elegans 3 600 143 PDo do.. 7 500 1 103. Silene quadridentata 2 10⁰ 31 Silene pendulau 2 200 41 Silene inflata 3 150 88 Silene armeria alba— 3 100 31 104. Viscaria oculata 3 450 22 105. Pharnaceum, sp.-- 4 100 3 PORTULACACZ. 106. Talinum ciliatum 3 600 188 107. Calandrinia grandiflora- 4— nil. Po. do 5 200 39 Do. dOo 1090 nil. Calandrinia speciosa 3 300 171 Po 0 8 100 18 PorYGONACEE. 108. Polygonum fagopyrum, buckwheat 3 150 25 Po do- do 8 100 7 Do do. do-= 9— nil. 109. Rumex obtusifolium 3 450 162² Rumex, sp---- 5 30 13 NrxCTAGINACEZ. 110. Mirabilis jalapa, marvel of Peru-- 3 300 3⁰0 Po. do- do 8S nil. PHYTOLACCACE. 111. Phytolacca decandra, poke-berry. 3 75 21 AMARANTACEM. 112. Amaranthus caudatus 3 300 178 Do= 0 8 30⁰ 1 CHENOPODIACEE. 113. Chenopodium botrys- 2— nil. Do do 3 nil. Chenopodium quinoa------ee 2 40⁰ 171 Do——-- do 3 200 14 114. Beta vulgaris, beet.. 3 225 155 SAURURACEZ. 115. Saururus, sp--- 4 5⁰ 2 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. General summary of the experiments— Continued. NaAMEs. Years oOll. No. of seeds No. of seeds Sown. germinated. MESEMBRYACE. 116. Mesembryanthemum crystallinum.. 3 300 94 Po. do.. 8 300 112 TyrRAGONIACET. . 117. Tetragonia expansa, New Zealand spinach- 3 45 22 Po.. do-.. do- 8 nil. PROTEACET. 118. Leucadendron, Söp 4 75 19 LEGUMINOʒSET. 119. Podalyria, sBp 4 150 113 120. Pultenaa, Sp. V 21 100 2 121. Lupinus succulentus.% 3 300 85 9.—.—P 8 nil. Lupinus rivularis..%ꝓ 5 25 1 PDo. do 40 nil. Lupinus grandifolius.. 5.... nil. Po- do 10 300 1 Lupinus polyphyllus.. 6 100 1 Lupinus luceidus.... 14—— nil. 122. Crotalaria, Sp.-.. 27 50 4 123. Aspalathus, Sp.. 4 25 1 124. Ulex europa, furzke.. 3 300 113 Do.- do-= 8 300 27 125. Spartium scoparium... 3 600 38 126. Cytisus albus..... 3 300 24 Eytisus laburnum.... 3 150 21 Do do. D.. 8 150 2 127. Tetragonolobus purpureus.... 3 75 40 0 do-. 8... nil. 128. Trifolium repens, white clover.. 3 450 22 Trifolium giganticum........ 3 100 38 Trifolium, söh 8 nil. 0 D... 9 150 5 129. Melilotus cerulea 3 300 149 . AMlelilotus leucantha 3 100 60 Melilotus macrorhiza 4 100 36 PDo- do.. 7 50⁰ 180 Po. do. 8 250 69 130. Trigonella fœnum-græcum, fœnugreek. 3 150 89 Do.. do.. 8. nil. 131. Medicago maculata%... 3 3⁰⁰ 71 PDo.-- do. 8 300 113 132. Ononis angustifolium..... 6 100 1 133. Indigofera, sp., indigo..— 4 175 28 134. Psoralea bituminosa. 3 10⁰ 46 PDo. do 4 50 7 Psoralea, p ꝓ%.. 4 200 107 135. Galega sibiricc 10 11⁰ 9 Galcga, spf..... 26 100 16 136. Sutherlandia, Sp. DVV 4 100 5 137. Colutea, sp... 43 75 1 135 HORTICULTURE General summarg of the experiments- Continued. 269 NaAMPS. vears old. No. of seeds No. of seeds sown. germinated. 138. Pisum sativum, garden pea 3 150 94 Do do--- 8 100 15 PDo d0. 9„9 nil. Fullard's German marrow fat.. 5 4 4 Po. do. 0. 3 150 100 Pisum, p.C ͦ% ·-N 7 50 36 139. Ervum, sp. 4 100 90 140. Vicia sativa, vetch 3 150 87 Do--- do 4 100 82 Do. do 8 100 8 Po- do 9. nil. Po- do 3*150 115 Vicia lutea, vetch 3 100 27 Po 0. 4 100 91 Vicia grandiflora 3 25 18 Po. do 5 150 70 141. Faba vulgaris, Windsor bean 3 75 71 Do. doOO 8 50 40 Do do 9 25 14 Augusta beans 7 50 24 Do-= 0.— 3 30 30 Po. do%- 2 5 5 Canada beans— 6 50 42 Po.= do-. 5 16 16 142. Lathyrus annuus 2 25 21 Lathyrus sativus 3 6 6 Lathyrus heterophyllus 3 150⁰ 105 Po-- do 8 150 63 143. Orobus niger 3 150 18 Dbo—— 8 150 12 144. Scorpiurus sulcatus 3 7⁵ 22 Po.- do 8 145. Coronilla, sp- 42 25 17 146. Æschynomene, sp 26 10⁰ 28 0. 0 27 100 1 147. Hallia, sp 4 25 14 148. Hedysarum, sp 26 100 3 Do do-- 27 200 9 149. Clitoria, sp. 26 20 2 150. Erythrina, sp- 4 3 1 151. Phaseolus multiflorus, kidney-beans— 3 75 47 Po do- do. 8 50 1 Do.= do.-= do 9 nil. Phaseolus, sp 25 25 25 152. Dolichos lignosus- 3 75 61 Do do 8 75 25 Dolichos, sp 27 5 2 Do-do. 8 50 36 153. Cæsalpinia, sp 27 6 2 154. Cassia canarina 10 10 1 Cassia, sp 26 120 86 Do do.- 8 20 4 155. Tamarindus, sp., tamariindd. 25 3 1 156. Cercis canadensis, red-bud. 3 150 4 Do.- do 8 nil. 157. Gleditschia triacanthos, honey-locust- 3.. nil. n In waxed cloth. 270 General summary of the e;periments— Continued. AGRICULTURAL REPORT. — A*8 NAMES. Years old. No. of seeds No. of seeds sown. germinated. 158. Mimosa, sp— 4 42 z 159. Adenanthera, sp. 25 6 4 160. Robinia pseud-acacia, white locust- 3 30⁰0 30 Do.. do-- do- Ä8.. nil. PoMACEE. „ 161. Cotoneaster rotundifolia 3 60 16 Po do 8 nil. 162. Cratægus macracantha 3 150 4 Po- do- 8 nil. Crategus punctata 3 150 3 Do do. 8 nil. RosACEE. 163. Potentilla nepalensis 3 300 52 Do. do-„ nil. D0. do= 8. nil. Potentilla, sp 6 nil. 164. Geum, sp.. 5— nil. Do--do. 10 1, 500 3 LYTHRACZ.* 165. Cuphea procumbens 3 150 45 Do.do 8.. nil. RHAMNACEE. 166. Trichocophalum, sp. 4 25 167. Phylica, sp--- 4 42 168. Cryptandra, sp- 21 50 AOUTFOIIACRE 169. Ilex aquifolium, holly 3— nil. Do.do--do 8. nil. SOLANACE. 170. Petunia odorata— 3... 171. Datura stramonium, Jamestown weed— 300 PDo. do- do-= 6 50 Do-. do do-.. 8 200 Do- do-- do 9......... 172. Hyoscyamus niger. 3 300 Do- b0.. 8 390 173. Nicandra physaloides 3 300 Do= do 8 300 174. Capsicum, sp. 3 75 Do do 8 175. Solanum ovigerum, egg-plant- 3. 176. Lycopersicum esculentum, tomato. 9 1⁰0 AsCLEPIADACEE. 177. Asclepias verticillata ⸗=⸗eeee 2 73 31 17. 18. 18 HORTICULTURE. General summary of the experiments- Continued. 271 NaAMES. Years old. No. of seeds No. of seeds sowWn. germinated. CoNvoLVULACEE. 178. Convolvulus major, morning glory.— 3 150 41 PoLEMONIACEE. 179. Collomia coccinec 3 300 64 Do do- 8 nil. 180. Gilia achilleefolia 3 300 69 Do D——D 3 60⁰ 214 Dbo 8 400 1 Do— 8 nil. Do== 9... nil. Gilia eapita 7... nil. 181. Leptosiphon androsacaa..— 3 600 121 182. Polemonium cæruleum 3 300 78 Polemonium gracile„.... nil. 183. Cobæa scandens 3 18 3 DoD 8 1 nil. HvDROPHYILILACEE. 184. Nemophila atomaria 2 200 62 185. Eutoca viscida. 3 3⁰0 84 PDPDo. 8 nil. 186. Phacelia tanacetifolia 3 300 122 Do.-- do 4 150 50 Do. do 8 nil. PLANTAGINACEE. 187. Plantago media 3 450 130 Plantago cynopß 3 nil. PRIMULACE 188. Androsace macrocarpa 8 nil. 189 Anagallis arvensis 5 300 89 Do. do 2 8 3⁰00 158 NorANACEE. 190. Nolana atriplicifoliu 3 300 150 Po. do 8 nil. BoRAGINACEE. 191. Cerinthe major 3 150 79 Do 8— nil. 192. Echium grandiflorum. V= 3 3⁰⁰ 1³⁵ 193. Amsinkia angustifoliu 2 100 3 194. Cynoglossum glochidatum 3 300 45 Do do 6.. nil. LABIATE. 195. Elsholtzia cristat 3 300 44 Do do.. 8. nil. 272 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. General summarg of the experiments— Continued. NAMES. Years old. No. of seeds No. of seeds sown. germinated. 196. Horminum pyrenaicuum— 7.. nil. 197. Nebeta oitriodoraD 2 10⁰ 3 Nepeta cataria—D 3 3⁰⁰ 43 bDbo 8 30⁰ 2 198. Dracocephalum denticulatum... 3 260 24 199. Leonurus cardiaca- 3 300 78 Do.. do 8 30⁰0 5 200. Betonica hirsutea 8—V nil. Do 4.. nil. VERBENACEZ. 201. Verbena aubletia. 3.... nil. SELAGINACEE. 202. Hebenstreitia tenuifolia. 3 300 10²2 PEDALIACEE. 203. Martynia proboscidea 3 60 10 Do.. do 8S.... nil. BIGNONIACEEZ. 204. Eceremocarpus scaber. C 3 300 3 205. Catalpa cordifolia, catalpa 3 nil. SCROPHULARIACET. 206. Browallia clataD DD 3 150 207. Schizanthus pinnatus.%-rö 3 600 208. Verbasoum thapsus 3 1, 500 Do. do 8..... Po— do-- 9.. 209. Alonsoa incis. 3 300 210. Linaria bipartita== 3 100 Linaria sparteg 3 100 Linaria Preziii= 3 600 211. Antirrhinum majus... 3 900 Do. do 8 Po. do 9. Antirrhinum calycinum.. 3 25 212. Scrobhularia vernalis 2. 213. Collinsia heterophylla.. ũ%-—,Ht... 3 90⁰0 Ho 8 600 D0. 9— 214. Pentstemon, eight sp's.... 6 215. Mimulus moschatus... 6 1, 000 216. Digitalis lutea. D 3 300 Po D 8 217. Veronica peregrina.. Do. 4 CAMPANULACEET. 218. Campanula medium..... 3 3⁰⁰ 110 =—I-——r— B =— = HORTICULTURE. General summarg f the experiments— Continued. 273 NaME. Years old. No. of seeds No. of seeds sown. germinated. VALERIANACEE. 219. Valeriana officinalis, valerian 3 3⁰⁰ 17 220. Fedia dentata 5 50 3 DrPSACACZ. 221. Dipsacus laciniatusgs UC. 3 150 60 0.. 60 8... nil. 222. Knautia orientalis.... 3... nil. CoMPosrr. 223. Ageratum mexicanum.. 3 600 13⁵ 224. Aster tenella. 3 600 12⁰ 225. Callistemma hnortensis.. 3 600 161 226. Stenactis speciosa.% D V 3 30⁰ 18 0.= do- 8— nil. 227. Kaulfussia amelloides. 3 300 114 228. Buphthalmum cordifolium.. 3 300 26 Po 0.“ nil. 229. Zinnia elegans.. 2...... nil. Zinnia multifloraua..P ũ% ͦ% ⁰ 3 450 37 Linnia grandiflora...⁰%C ũ ͦꝓ%-. 3 300 2 230. Rudbeckia amplexicaulis 3 450 5⁵ Do 0. 8......... nil. 231. Calliopsis tinctoria..„.C ͦ DD 6 150 3 232. Coreopsis atrosanguinea 3 30⁰ 138 0 0 8... nil. Coreopsis Drummondii. 2..— nil. 233. Helianthus indicus, dwarf annual sunflower 3 75 68 Do. do. 0. do. 8... nil. 234. Bidens diversifolil%ö 3 450 124 235. Tagetes patuuala...— 3 200 20 Do doC D 4——. nil. Tagetes lucida. D 3 450 5 236. Gaillardia aristata C 3 nil. 237. Helenium Douglasi 3 60⁰ 186 238. Callichroa platyglossa. 3 30⁰⁰ 92 Do do-D 8 nil. 239. Galinsogea trilobata ũ% 3 300 1⁰⁰ Po.. do 8 nil. ogyne specios.. ⁰%— 3 3⁰⁰ 75 do= 8= nil. chrysanthemoides. 3 300 67 .. do. 8— nil. — do 5 nil. do— 10 225 1 242. Madia splendens— 3 nil. 243. Cladanthus arabicus— 3 60⁰ 175 244.— glabratua— 3 600 363 — Do. do-. 3 100 53 hDo. do..CC 3 8600 270 Lasthenia californica 8 400 4 Do. 0.MD D 9—— nil. 245. Chrysanthemum coronarium... 3 450 12² * In open jar. 18 A 274 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. General summarg& the ewperiments— Continued. NAMEs. Nears old. No. of seeds No. of seeds sown. germinated. 2 246. Athanasia, sp. 4 25 16 247. Ammobium alatum.. 3 600 1 248. Senecio doronicum-- 5 nil. 249. Xeranthemum annuum 3 600 64 Po.... do- 3 nil. 250, Calendula maritima 2 100 26 Calendula officinalis, marigold. 2 200 53 Calendula pulvialis 3 600 401 Do do 8. nil. Do.. do.. 9 nil. 251. Arctotis, sp 4 100 48 252. Centaurea depressa 3 30⁰ 49 253. Kentrophyllum tauricum.. 3 25 11 254. Carthamus tinctorius 3 300 44 255. Onopordum tauricum 3 150 22 Onopordum acanthium— 3 100 40 256. Arctium lappa, burdocxk 3 300 64 257. Rhagadiolus stellatus. 3 100 34 Do do... 4 50 31 258. Catananche cœrulean%%-- 3 600 94 259. Cichorium endivia, endive-— 3 450 260 Do.- do- do 8 450 139 260. Tragopogon porrifolius, salsifſyſ. 3 10⁰ 3² Do. do.= do-. 3 600 138 261. Arnopogon Dalechampi— 2 30 10 PDo. do ꝓ 3 10⁰ 10 PDo do. 4 nil. 262. Scorzonera hispanica, scorzonera--- 3 600 32 263. Picris echioides- 2 100 73 264. Lactuca sativa, lettucce..— 3 150 1 Do-.--do-do. 8 nil. — Do do--do 9 nil. 265. Borkhausia fotida 3 100 35 Borkhausia rubra— 3 300 196 ONAGRACEM. 266.(Enothera tenella 2 100 Enothera tetraptera 5— Enothera, sp C— 88—— PDo do D 5 DOodoDD 10 1, 800 267. Godetia lindleyannNn 3 300 Do do- 8..... Godetia lepida= 5 250 Do-do. 10 268. Clarkia elegans....==. 5 500 Dodo 10 1, 500 269. Eucharidium concinnumm.— 2—— Po- do 3 600 270. Lopezia racemosa. 3 450 MrRTACEZ. 271. Eucalyptus, sp. C O— 21 207 LoASACEE. 27 2. Loasa lateritia.....„ 3 450 112 44 4 —— 2 HORTICULTURE. 275 General summarg of the eæperiments— Continued. NAMEs. Nears old. No. of seeds No. of seeds sown. germinated. Loasa nitida 3 300 52² Do. do 8 nil. 273. Bartonia aurea C 3 600 160 UMBEILIER. 274. Petroselinum sativum, parsley 3 150 42 Do-. do.. 0. 8 100 1 Do do.. do. 9. nil. 275. Carum carui, caraway...... 3....— nil. Do. do. do. 3 600 2 Do-do-do-. 8 400 2 Do.dodo.. 9 nil. 276. Sium sisarum, skirret.. 3 nil. 277. Bupleurum rotundifolium.... 3 3⁰00 67 Po do 8. nil. 278. CGmanthe rocata. 3 300 65 279. Athusa cynapiodes... 3 3⁰⁰ 3 Do- do-- 8 200 1 Po do 9 nil. 280. Fœniculum dulce, sweet fennel. 3 200 84 Do do. do- 4 100 4 281. Ligusticum levisticum. 3 30⁰ 3⁵ 4 Do-.. do..... 8 200 2 Do--. do 9 nil. 282. Angelica archangelica 3 300 47 83. Pastinaca sativa, parsnip= 3 300 20 N Po. do- do.. 8. nil. Do--do do.. 9 nil. 284. Heracleum elegans, cow parsnip. 3 150 17 Do do. 6.. 8. nil. 285. Daucus carota, carrot C C C% 3 300 79 Po- 0 8 200 1 PDo-do. 9 nil. Po.. do-..... 8 900 37 Do-- do. 14 nil. 286. Scandix brachycarpa D— 3 180 95 287. Conium maculatum, poison hemlock.— 3 300 144 Po. do- Go 8 nil. Po- do.. do 5 150 2 bo.-do do 101—— nil. 288. Smyrnium olusatrumC— 3 300 66 276 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.— From the preceding table it will be seen that the seeds of no less he than two hundred and eighty-eight genera, which illustrate seventy- in one natural families, including, too, nearly all the kinds cultivated 10 for culinary and other domestic purposes, have been collected, and ſh to a certain extent tested. Many of them show a considerable de- ür crease in the comparative numbers which vegetate after their periodical H sowings, and a few kinds have apparently already ceased to germinate; but some years must yet elapse before the subject can be sufficiently üt investigated to enable us to submit what we should consider a decided 1 and satisfactory statement respecting the limits assigned to the vegetative powers of the seeds in different genera. G In the Report of the Committee, on the 27th of August, 1857, it able to collect, they had then left but four species of plants the seeds of which continued to grow. These belonged to the genera Ulex, Dolichos, Malva, and Ipomoa. The shortest period for which any of these seeds had retained their vitality was eight years, and the longest forty-three years. Grouping the species according to their natural orders, the following selected will give some idea of those which retain their vitality longest: Gramineæ, eight years; Liliaces. ten years; Coniferæ, twelve years; Tiliaceæ, twenty-seven years; Malvaceæ, twenty-seven years; Leguminosæ, forty-three years; Rham- naceæ, twenty-one years; Boraginaceæ, eight years; Convolvulaceæ, fourteen years; Compositæ, eight years; Myrtaceæ, eighteen years; Umbelliferæ, eight years; Cruciferæ, eight years. 2 is stated that, after planting year after year all the seeds they were 8 PACKING OF SEEDS FOR TRANSPORTATION. 4 The manner in which farinaceous seeds should be packed for con- 1 veyance to distant countries is a subject upon which much specula- tion and no inconsiderable amount of money have been expended. But the results of experience, although sufficiently satisfactory, are by no means generally known; so that we find the old bad plans of packing still adhered to with as much tenacity as if they were proved to be excellent. It is, therefore, of the first necessity that the public mind should be at length disabused on the subject.. It almost always happens, that if two methods of doing a thing are 1 promulgated, the world will believe that which is most complicated, or most unlike a natural process, to be the best; although it is, in all probability, the worst in those cases where the functions 0 in question; for however mysterious the workings of Nature appear, they are always found to be less complicated, in proportie as we become acquainted with their real action. It is only in this way that we can account for the directions formerly given, and still— observed in packing seeds—to bury them in charcoal, suga syrup; to swathe them in bandages, like amummy, and then t the packages with melted wax; or, finally, to inclose them in vessels of glass or metal hermetically sealed; of all which modes of packing it is diffcult to determine which is the worst. It is not worth the space it would occupy to discuss the separate reasons which led to d u k Kefolt lltin ectel d Eräll Derieia werwiu tat tabeit ed b t ii ey Ft Jtlt Rel nenn U wäün 8 udt og h 4 d ts Lihn Fel fan EW le lrulhen * een fan 6 d brn gpeal errenl- etory d 1 Jh 1 ra DNi theuü tr n lan HORTIOCULTURE. 277 these various methods of embalming this class of seeds, because they have all been proved, experimentally, to be bad; we may, however, advert to one point connected with this process: The great object which everybody seems to have aimed at has been the exclusion of air, guided, no doubt, by the process which seems to be employed naturally when seeds are buried at great depths under ground. In such'instances, the access of atmospheric air is cut off; therefore, it has been supposed that this is the only condition which it is neces- sary to secure, in order to suspend the vital energies of a seed. What has, perhaps, tended to confirm this erroneous opinion have been the stories current about seeds inclosed in mummy-cases for thousands of years having germinated. The newspapers abound in these tales, which appear to have produced a great sensation among their readers, as well they might, considering that the grain deposited with the mum- mies was usually roasted. We have ourselves seen several such in- stances; and the crafty Arabs, who impose upon travellers, deserve some credit for their ingenuity in purveying something different from the common wheat, when they sell visitors these antiques. No doubt can exist that the wheat thus capable of germinating, if taken from mummy-cases at all, was put there first by the venders themselves. It is, however, to these instances that we may ascribe the origin of wrapping seeds in wax-cloths, like the cerements of the dead, or ldeting them up in metal boxes, or hermetically sealing them in glass. That seeds buried at great depths under ground will grow after hundreds of years is beyond all controversy; and that seems to be the only real evidence we possess about exCessive seminal longevity. Other well-attested instances are derived from seeds picked from collections of dried plants; no case among which, however, carries the suspended vitality of seeds beyond a hundred years. In the first case, air was excluded; in the other it had free access. We therefore cannof suppose that the exclusion of air explains the power which some seeds possess of living for many ages. It is obvious that any contrivance which keeps out of a packet of seeds the air of our atmosphere, will keep in the air of theirs. Now, the air of our atmosphere is dry, or, if occasionally damp, soon be- comes dried, if seeds are exposed to it in a room in which we live. On the other hand, many seeds are necessarily damp, and they cVC jcate their moisture to the air that surrounds them; the t00, in which they are packed are damp, as may be seen by g such papers before a fire, when the damp will dry off in the form of vapor; and if this air, which surrounds the seeds, is enclosed in an air-tight vessel of any kind, it must always remain damp, because it cannot be changed by ventilation. We may therefore assume that ds in air-tight vessels are damp, but in situations freely nicating with the atmosphere are comparatively dry. So long as seed-packages are kept at a low temperature, this dif- ference is of no moment; because seeds cannot germinate, or, in other words, cannot revive from their torpor, in a low temperature; but let the temperature rise, and the case is altered. What seeds require, 8 G0 nnQnᷓnᷓᷓnnQQQ————· 278 AGRICULTUERAL REPORT. in order to grow, are exclusion from light, moisture, and warmth; they cannot grow in damp without heat, nor in warmth without moisture. It is the combination of these two conditions that is abso- lutely requisite. When they arrive in warm latitudes, or are placed in warm situations, such as the hold of a ship, the seeds in air-tight cases, being surrounded with moisture, attempt to grow; those, on the contrary, which are in ventilated packages, not being surrounded with moisture, remain unchanged. 4 The commencement of growth made by the a in air-tight cases is presently arrested, in consequence of the unfavorable circumstances under which it takes place, and the seeds, not being able to return to the state in which they were before they began to germinate, imme- diately perish; but the seeds in ventilated packages, not having begun to grow, still remain unaltered. The irresistible conclusion from this is, that the true mode of packing farinaceous seeds for long voyages is, to put them in well- ventilated packages, and not in closed-up cases. Such dryness as seeds can acquire from exposure to the air cannot hurt them, but will, on the contrary, tend to preserve their germinating powers. To emigrants, then; to seedsmen sending consignments to distant, countries; to the lovers of flowers, whose friends in distant parts of the world remit them parcels, we recommend the strict observance of the following rules: 1. Let the seeds be thoroughly dried by exposure to the sun,(not fire,) or in a dry chamber or loft; this is of the first importance. 2. Let the papers, also, or canvas bags in which they are packed, be equally dried. 3. Let the smaller packages be tied up separately, and then placed loosely in canvas bags or coarse sacking, so that they can be readily disturbed by shaking up during a voyage. 4. Let arrangements be made for these bags being kept in a dry cabin, or some well-ventilated part of the ship. To the latter, we know that captains make objections; but these are merely on the score of expense. The payment of additional freight for such accom- modation will always secure the situation that is desired. These statements, it is to be observed, are not made rashly, nor from mere theoretical views of a very interesting question, but from the experience of many years; and we strongly urge our readers to follow the directions we have thus given them. We must, however, add, that there are a few sorts of seeds, such as coffee berries, acorns, chestnuts, mangoes, magnolias, araucarias,&c., which require to be packed in earth or sand, excluded from the air, or hermetically sealed, and sown immediatel, after being opened. D. J. B. HORTIOCULTURE. 279 ums 25 CULTIVATION OF ASPARAGUS IN THE NORTH OF SPAIN. de lha n 85[Condensed from aà paper from Captain Churchill, of the Royal Marines, to the London V hn Horticultural Society.] ornult Asparagus is probably the vegetable most generally admired and most seldom well cultivated; it is only here and there that it is large, 1 tender, and delicate., In country gardens, it is small, green, and Cllr strong; in the Lon market it is long, white, hard, and tough—to ommt the eye attractive enough, but to the taste more like bleached timber ate jur. than an esculent. For this reason, when really fine asparagus is met dot Wi with, people think it must be some peculiar sort—obtain the roots from Vienna, Berlin, Hamburg, Battersea, or Deptford, and then, e Wi when they find them producing heads identical with what they had 2n Mn before, lay the blame on the seedsman, the soil, the climate, or any- nR; thing rather than their own want of skill. There is but one aspara- then k gus, be its name what it may; all the differences consist in its cul- Doren tivation. th bin Captain Churchill says the Guipuscoan asparagus measures from 3 parät to 6 and more inches in circumference. How this is obtained, his ance ih excellent account leaves no room to doubt. This plant is found naturally on the beach of various parts of the de S T coast of Europe, where it is covered by the drifting sand, and watered ktants. by salt-water at high tides. Sand and salt-water occasionally may, are fu therefore, be regarded as indispensable conditions for maintaining it in health. It, however, explains, in part, the excellence of St. Sebas- heu tian asparagus... h nal It seems that at the mouth of the Urumea is a narrow slip of land, about 3 feet above high-water mark, consisting of alluvial soil and tuui the wearing away of sandstone hills, at the foot of which it is placed. Tltre7 This is the asparagus ground of St. Sebastian. Beds are formed 5 ey at feet wide, without any previous preparation, except digging and Ium raking. In March, the seed is sown in two drills, about 2 inches aub deep and 18 inches from the alleys, thus leaving a space of 2 feet b between the drills. The rows run invariably east and west, doubtless Ih 4 in order that the plants may shade the ground during the heats of but summer. When the seedlings are about 6 inches high, they are 1 thinned to something more than a foot apart. Water is conducted once a day among the alleys and over the beds, so as to give these seedlings an abundant and constant supply of fluid during the season of their growth. This is the cultivation during the first year. The second year, in the month of March, the beds are covered with 3 or 4 inches of fresh night-soil from the reservoirs of the town. It remains on them during the summer, and is lightly dug in during the succeeding autumn, the operation of irrigation being continued as during the first season. This excessive stimulus, and the abundant room the plants have to grow in, must necessarily make them extremely vigorous, and prepare them for the production of gigantic sprouts. In the third spring, the asparagus is fit to cut. Doubtless all its ies un prin emeiil 7 13 280 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. energies are developed by the digging in of the manure in the autumn of the second year, and when it does begin to sprout, it finds its roots in contact with a soil of unsurpassable fertility. Previously, however, to the cutting, each bed is covered in the course of March very lightly with dead leaves, to the depth of about 8 inches; and the cutting does not commence till the plants peep through this covering, when it is carefully removed from the stems, in order that the finest only may be cut, which are rendered white by their leafy covering, and succulent by the excessive richness of the soil. In the autumn of the third year, after the first cutting, the leaves are removed, and the beds are again dressed with fresh night-soil, as before, and these operations are repeated year after year. In addi- tion to this, the beds are half under salt-water annually at spring- tides. Let any one compare this mode of culture with ours, and there will be no room for wondering at the difference in the result. The Spaniards use a light, sandy soil; we are content with anything short of clay. They irrigate; we trust to our rainy climate. They know the value of salt-water to a sea-coast plant; we take no means to imitate Nature in this respect. They dress their beds with the most powerful of all manures; we are content with the black residuum of a cucumber frame, which is comparatively a caput mortuunm. Finally, they throw leaves lightly over their beds, by which means they expose the young sprouts to the least amount of resistance, and force them onward by the warmth collected from the sun by such beds of leaves; we, on the other hand, compel the asparagus to struggle through solid earth, capable in the smallest possible degree of absorbing warmth during the day— but ready to part with its heat again at night to the greatest possible amount. P. J. B. HOP-CULTURE. CULTIVATION OF THE HOP IN ENGLAND. [Condensed from authentic sources.] The hop, as is well known, is cultivated to a considerable extent in Belgium, Bavaria, and in the Middle and Northern States of our Union; but it is produced in the greatest abundance in the counties of Kent, Sussex, Surry, Hampshire, Worcestershire and Hereford- shire, in England, and to a more limited extent in Essex, Suffolk, Nottinghamshire, and the British antipodean colonies. Among the varieties of the hop at present under cultivation in England, which have not yet been introduced into the United States, may be mentioned the following: 1. The first in rank are the Farnham and Canterbury“White- HOP-CULTURE. 281 Deau binn bines.“ These are so much alike that they seem to be the same lonan variety. larel w 2. The“Goldings,“ which are little, if at all, inferior to the pre- S All b ceding, are stronger, but not quite so finely flavored; and when Sennin growing, they may be distinguished from the other two py the bine t le be being somewhat larger and the hops hanging more singly on the Frem pranches. The bines of all the above varieties are specked with 1 reddish-brown. They require the longest poles in use, varying, ac- wbelens cording to the soil, from 14 to 30 feet. The main roots run deeper gital into the soil than any other variety, and their plants are the most r. hn enduring upon the same land. ru im 3. The Grapes,“ of which there are several subdivisions, grow in clusters; whence they derive the name. They differ much in ul i quality, the smaller sorts being superior, some of which, when grown et 1 on good land, nearly approach to the Goldings in value, while the mixi larger descriptions, such as are usually cultivated in Sussex and the Uerb Wéald of Kent, are coarse and of inferior quality! The bines of nwe the Grapes are small, of a light-green color, and require poles of from Ubn. 10 to 14 feet in length. A rohu 4. Jones, hop,“ the bine of which is red, grows on lighter and Amhu inferior land, merely requiring refuse poles of from 8 to 10 feet in W length. The crop of this variety could be much increased, if the top hnnat bines and branches were trained and interlaced from pole to pole. 14 v 5. The“Colegates,“ which are a Very hardy variety, grow best an i upon stiff soils. Although late in ripening, they run up a long pole. e The hop is small, and hangs from the branches in thick masses; but Abhn it is a sort not much esteemed by the brewer, as it is liable to ithiik be injured by mould. The color of the bine is a pale green, like that of the Grape, but larger. 2¹¹ 6. The Flemish“‧Redbines,“ which will grow on light silicious soils, generally escape the aphis, or black blight; hence they are commonly known by the name of Never-blacks.“ They produce a poor, thin hop, and, except from their favorable tendency to escape the aphis blight, they can in nowise be recommended. Agricultural chemistry has only very recently been employed in the service of the hop-grower. A few analyses will manifest the im- h. portant agency which this science exercises over the process of this feld of industry, and should indicate to the planter the expediency of availing himself of the knowledge of its benefits. The following f are analyses of the mineral ingredients of the hop, as determined leerani under the direction of the Royal Agricultural Society of England: te d No. 1 is the analysis of the produce of four hills of hops, grown hacvus in Farnham. They were of the Whitebine variety. The sub-soil drir upon which they were cultivated was the soft marl rock, resting 2* immediately upon the phosphoric band of the upper green-sand of the chalk formation. liraund! No. 2 was from three hills grown at Hadlow, in Kent. They were tei dar of the ‧Vellow-grape“ variety, and were produced upon the Weal- examined in their manufactured state, hich they were prepared for sale. * den clay. Both samples were eſ in the ordinary condition in W 282 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. No. 3 was grown at Bentley, in Hampshire, upon the out-cropping of a phosphoric stratum of the chalk formation. The specimen was taken from two hills of the Farnham Whitebine variety, consisting of all the hops, leaves, and bines, which were carefully preserved, and dried artificially for the experiment. Analxses. No. 1. ◻ No. 2. FARNHAM WHITEBINE. KINT VELILOw-GRAPE. Hops. Leaves. Bine. Hops. Leaves. Bine. Per-centage of ash on dry matter 9. 990 156. 33 5. 00 15.80 25. 11 5. 10 AnalyYsis of the ashes. Silica 20. 95 10. 14 4. 64 24. 96 20. 38 5. 66 Chloride of scodium.. 7. 05 7. 92 4. 95 3. 18 4. 58 9. 98 Chloride of potassium. 1. 63 7. 380 2.21... Sodo——— 0. 32 2. 29 2. 32 Potash. 24.50 12. 48 18. 62 18. 61 5. 13 12. 97 Eime. 15.56 41. 46 29. 59 23. 75 32. 28 17. 39 Magnesia 5. 63 1. 99 3. 15 6. 13 6. 24 12. 61 Sulphuric acid 5. 27 4. 20 2. 63 4. 16 3. 63 3. 14 Phospherie acid.. 9. 54 2. 02 5. 22 5. 26 3. 68 8. 14 Phosphate of iron... 7. 26 2. 93 0. 31 6. 79 0. 54 2. 06 Phosphate of alumina 1. 55 Carbonic acid. 2. 61 16.54 23. 51 3. 36 21. 25 24. 18 Manganese.— 1.59— trace. 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 No. 3 Hops. Leaves Bine Per-centage of ash on dry substance. 9. 00 21.94 7. 28 Oomposition of the ashes. Silica....===.......... 19. 16 22. 35 9. 99 Chloride of sodiumu O 0. 74 3. 12 2. 63 Chloride of potassiuu). 8. 96 2. 29 15. 35 Soda. Potanh— 31. 70 13. 13 17. 60. Limo 9. 59 30. 78 23. 91 Magnesia 4. 80 4. 84 3. 77 Peroxyde of iron... 0. 68 0. 19 0. 80 Sulphuric acid.. 5. 10 1. 89 2. 33 Phosphoric aclid.. 17. 33 9. 33 11. 69 Carbonie acid.==. 1. 92 12. 04 11. 92 99. 98 99. 96 99. 99 — HOP-CULITURE. 283 krelpha delled Honäüi As the crop from the latter(No. 3) was a full one, and of a healthy character, a statement is subjoined showing the amount of inorganic nenn matter removed from the soil by a large crop. The actual amount S grown was about a ton, or 2,240 pounds of hops per acre, which nearly coincides with the quantity found by calculation from the two experimental hills, after making allowance for the water still retained in the manufactured crop. There were twelve hundred hills to the aCre. — 6 1 LNaan Produce of Per acre dry Ash per — two hills. matter. acre. a8 8 — Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. — Hop flowers 3. 50 1, 894 170. 43 5l 1 Leaves----- 3. 75 1, 984 435. 06 —— Bine 3. 25 1, 781 129. 54 Composition of the ashes in pounds, removed by an acre of hops, à8in with leaves and bine— 12 4 Hops. Leaves. Bine. 3 1 2.5 1 7 L Gilica.......... 32.65 91. 28 12.95 38 11 Chloride of scodium 1. 26 13. 58 3. 40 d3 16 Chloride of potassium 15. 26 9. 96 19. 90 1 SOda..... CcccccüV 1. 7 Potarh 54. 01 57. 15 22. 81 1E 4 Lime. DD 16.33 133. 98 30. 99 . MagnescC ͦ%- 8. 17 21. 06 4. 88 — Peroxyde of iron 1. 14 0. 82 1. 03 *0 Sulpburicacid..VVDDDVc 8. 69 8. 22 3. 02 Phosphoric acid. 29. 53 40. 61 15. 15 Carbonic acid... 3. 39 52. 40 15. 41 170. 43 435. 06 129.54 I;. — The following is the amount of nitrogen required for the above crop: V 8 Hops. Leaves. Bine. 1 . 7 First experiment gave a per-centage of-.. 2. 96 2 51 1. 33 4 Second.-do. do. 3. 00 2. 43 1.35 1 Mean..............e.....-*... 2. 98 2. 47 1.34 1 Thus, the above crop removed 56.44 pounds of nitrogen per acre — in the hops; 49 pounds in the leaves, and 23. 86 pounds in the bine— 1 the total amount removed being 129. 3 pounds per acre, or nearly equal 4 to that which is supplied by 1,000 pounds of good Peruvian guano. b b G b b 284 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. The foregoing analyses should convince the hop-grower of the economical expediency of preserving all his refuse bines and leaves, in order that they may be returned to his land; for the nitrogen. alone could not be obtained in other manures for less than§20 per acre, not to mention the value of the phosphoric acid and potash amongst the mineral ingredients.— An inspection of the tables will also demonstrate that the hop is one of the most exhausting among cultivated plants, both in respect to the organic and mineral constituents 1e extracts from the soil. It would be so, if it merely occupied a din a rotation series of crops; but, as a perennial growth, we should expect to find it as exhausting a crop as in practice it is proved to be. It follows, there- fore, that the naturally most fertile soils should be chosen for its cul- tivation, such as are usually found already formed in valleys from the débris of the surrounding country, the valleys of the present era, or in the more lately-formed alluvial deposits near existing rivers. Those soils are commonly recognized as rich, friable loams, possess- ing a natural drainage, and yet retaining a high degree of tenacity for water. There are also certain classes of soil very dissimilar from these loams, in respect to situation and appearance, which are most genial to the growth of hops; these are outcrops of certain geological strata, the rock of which was once the detritus of a remote era in the history of our globe; they are generally rich in organic remains, and these remains, in their analytical constituents, closely resemble the hop itself; and there is a third class of soils most unfitting for the growth of hops in its natural condition, but which, by skillful drain- ing, deep cultivation, and consequent aeration, may be made equal to the most naturally fertile soils. The peculiarities of the soil of each hop district in England, it will be understood, are chiefly dependent upon its geological characteris- tics; and this circumstance also gives rise to the difference in the estimation in which the hops are held by dealers and brewers, partly from the soil communicating certain valuable properties to the hops grown upon it, and partly on account of the more valuable varieties being able to be grown on the one and not on the other. Thus, those in the Farnham district are chiefly produced upon the outcrop of the upper green-sand, and on a deep diluvial loam lying in the valleys beneath; in East Kent, upon a rich, deep loam, resting upon the upper chalk and plastic clay; in Mid Kent, upon the ragstone rock of the lower green-sand; in West Kent, chiefly upon an out crop of the upper green-sand and gault, and in the Hill Grounds, upon the upper chalk; in the Weald of Kent and Sussex, upon Hastings sand of the Wealden formation; and in the Worcester district, upon the marls of the new red sandstone. These, of course, are merely the leading and more prominently distinctive peculiarities of each district, which are not unfrequently modified, and sometimes wholly changed, by abrupt geological disturbances. The following analyses will best indicate the nature of the soils of the phosphoric strata of the chalk formation. No. 1 is the grey marl, which lies directly upon the green stratum, and which is also OWer d ald E e un tbn laud n l na llon he el llrida len imt reselt en, Sülg In e di pmn Ssiwileh nch wn inn gelegi dte enut remail 1 resenll¹ „ 5b ttiug h. kälful iu b gkal 1 charee rencs u ewer M to thel ble ruii Twt tergpit dthe e- 9 up 3 gsänle 9 wollt er 8 nat Du Hie ucrit h A E tis U 3 M N he sbb- the 9 dieh à2 HOP-CULTURE. 285 famous for growing large crops of wheat and beans, alternately, with little or no manure. No. 2 is the green soil, with which are intermixed many foössils, that are separated prior to analysis: No. 1. Per cent Insoluble silicious matterr:..... 19.64 Soluble silic.......................... 6.45 Soda and po 5h(not estimated)h)h))....... Lime............................ 37.71 Magnesia................................. 0.68 Oxyde of iron and aluminiiiua.. 3.04 Phosphoric acid.......................... 1.82 Garhonic aCid............................ 28.98 98.32 No. 2 Insoluble silicious matterrr... 32. 81 Soluble silica............................. 29.14 Organic matter........................... 3.02 Potash.................................. 3.10 Lime................................... 9.53 4 Mägnesia............................... 1.97 Oxyde of fron and alumina................ 11.46 Phosphoric ACid.......................... 6.61 Carbonic acid.......................... 2.30 99.94 The fossils, themselves, which are thickly interspersed in this soil, usually contain about 30 per cent. of phosphoric acid, and from 2 to 3 per cent. of potash. It may here be remarked, that to the extra- ordinary richness of these soils in lime, potash, and phosphoric acid, may be attributed their adaptation for the growth of the hop, as, indeed, the analyses of this plant would indicate. The gault soil, which is still richer in potash than the above, has also an abundance of phosphoric nodules and organic remains. The characteristic geological feature of the Mid Kent district is the abundance of the well-known ragstone rock, which is frequently dispersed with green grains. The following is an analysis of the latter by Professor Way: ———— — 286 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. Per cent. Soluble and insoluble silicious matter......... 18.53 Water................................... 2.28 Potash................................... 1.79 GOGa..................................... 1.87 Lime................................... 34.61 Oxyde of irorrrnrrrnrrnttnrntntntn)).... 7. 24 Alumina..................................98 Sulphuric acid........................ 5.13 Phosphoric acid..................... 20. 65 97.09 A mass of the rock, broken up, gave: Insoluble silicious matterr.. 30.60 Phosphoric ACiGd........................... 7.23 Potash................................... 3.31 SOGla..............;...................... 1.02 In some cases, chemists have found as much as 10 or 12 per cent. of potash in these green grains. These analyses also show that this particular soil, like that of the Farnham district, has been appro- priately chosen for the cultivation of hops. CULTIVATION. 5 The preceding observations, relative to the geology of existing plantations of hops in England, will indicate, in a general way, the description of soil to be selected for new ones. The variety of hop, too, is by no means a matter of indifference, inasmuch as some of the coarser kinds will flourish on soils where the more delicate will not grow at all. The Goldings, and the Farnham and Canterbury White- bines, are the deepest rooted, and prefer either the sub-soil rocks of the upper and lower green-sands, or a deep friable loam. They also do well on the gault clay, provided great care be taken to secure deep drainage. The roots of these sorts have been traced 20 to 30 feet deep in the crevices of a stone quarry. The other varieties are more shallow-rooted, and will grow on inferior land, and with less careful drainage. Having chosen the site for a new plantation, the ground is trenched, or subsoil-ploughed, or deep holes dug, early in October. The plants are raised by cutting off the layers, or shoots, of the preceding year. These are bedded out, in March or April, in ground previously trenched and well manured, which, by the succeeding October, become what are termed"nursery plants,“ or bedded sets; or the cuttings themselves are planted out the same year; but this plant is not recom- mended, although less expensive, since, in a dry spring, there is great risk of their dying. Plants, too, are obtained from the seeds of ripe flowers, which cannot be set out, however, until they have been proved, for, like apples and many other fruits, the plants seldom 4 4 Fdeit erdl ni riety s ao ldt cate ri wury ſl- goln- . TWyi seclmedh 2) w Je ies uen” 1leS an- is tands The xu cedibe u ni ber leue e elie Sotfehlt ers Äge eech d HOP-CULTURE. 287 partake of the character of the parent, and at least one-half will be males, while, of the female plants, probably not one in fifty is worth saving. Nevertheless, a good variety is occasionally procured by this means, and, when thus obtained, it must afterwards be propagated, as in the old sorts, by layers. If the nursery plants be used, it is desirable to set them as early as November, and, at any rate, if the weather be open, the earlier they are planted in the course of the winter the better. When cuttings are used, they are planted without loss of time, in March. They are set in squares, or triangles, at equal distances, beneniigß 6 to 7 feet apart. The triangular planting possesses an advantage over the square, as, when three poles to a hill are employed, it allows the hop“'nidget,“ or scarifier, more com- pletely to move all the ground on the outside of the poles, which is a matter of some importance. With regard to distances, as a general rule, 6 feet is preferred for square planting, and 6 ⅜ feet for tri- angular; but when it is intended to plant either the Farnham, or Golding, or Canterbury variety, and to place three poles to a hill, 6 ⅓ feet for squares, and 7 feet for triangles are considered preferable, especially if the land be good. For very fertile grounds, the distances are further increased, sometimes to 9 feet in square planting, having poles from 20 to 30 feet in length. In all these matters, however, the exercise of judgment is required. 4 The best method of setting out the young plantation is by means of the common land-surveyor's chain, having the distance indicated by the feathers or quills of fowls. Sticks are then inserted at each mark, where holes are dug, and the hops planted. Trenching is considered to be, in the first instance, the preferable mode of preparing the ground, especially when meadow or pasture land is to be broken up, where, indeed, it is almost indispensable. In this, as in every other case where trenching is adopted, care is taken not to bury the surface-soil too deeply, but leaving it within reach of the spade, when the ground is dug over the following year. Very deep trenching for hops, even when the top-soil is not buried deeply, is by no means advisable, provided there be no pan-table, or incrustation, below. Eighteen inches is usually a sufficient depth. It may be stated, as a reason for not burying the surface mould very deeply, that, although the main roots of the hop penetrate to a great depth, yet that the smaller rootlets, with their spongioles, run only just below the surface, and the manuring ingredients are continually washing downwards. We have also pretty good grounds for believing that rich soil buried deeply becomes inert. Deep digging answers very well, if the land be taken from arable cultivation, provided it be in a clean condition. In those districts in which manual labor is scarce, there is no reason why it should not be resorted to. If holes are dug, they should be about 20 inches square, and 2 feet deep. In this case, after the hops are planted, the residue of the ground must be dug up deeply. There is, however, very little, if any, saving of expense by this method, when the after-cultivation is taken into account.. After either of the above processes has been determined upon, the 288 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. next consideration is the application of appropriate manures. When the ground has been trenched or sub-soiled, if it be in good heart,““ no manure is required at the time of planting; but if the ground be poor, it is desirable to dig small holes, about a foot square and 15 inches deep, and put into the bottom of each hole a spit of good dung compost, or a few rags, hair, or any kind of animal refuse, but on no account to use guano or the salts of ammonia at this period. When large holes are dug as a substitute for trenching, it is almost always advisable to put in some manuré, which should be mixed up with the soil, instead of being placed at the bottom of the holes. If nursery or bedded sets be employed, one, wo, or three plants may be used to form a hill, according to the strength of the plants. Onè is sufficient, if it be a large, strong, healthy plant, and if great pains and attention be bestowed upon the subsequent management. When cuttings are used, it is safest to plant five to each hill, which should be dibbled in round one as a centre. Each cutting should have an inch of earth between it and its fellow. In the planting of new grounds, attention should be paid to the introductlon of a suf- ficient number of the male plants. One hill in two hundred, or about six on an acre, are considered ample. They ought to be planted at regular and known intervals, in order that, in subsequent years, the euttings saved from these grounds may not become indiscriminately mixed. The introduction of these male plants is a matter of extreme importance, and ought on no account to be neglected; for it is an estab- lished and indisputable fact, that the grounds which possess them are more prolific, and bring the hops to maturity earlier than those plantations which are deficient in them, and, in addition to these advantages, the hops are of a better quality. The subsequent cultivation of a new plantation requires constant attention. The ground must always be kept quite clear of weeds, and should have a good depth of pulverized soil. In the latter part of the spring, a stick, about 6 Or 7 feet high above ground, should be placed to each hill, if planted with"'nurseries,““ and about 4 feet high if planted with cuttings; to these sticks all the young bines, as they shoot out during the summer, must be tied up. At the end of May, or the beginning of June, a dressing of guano and superphosphate of lime should be applied, at the rate of 300 pounds of the former and 100 pounds of the latter per acre. This should be placed in equal quantities around each hill and hoed in, taking care not to allow any of the mixture to come in contact with the plant. Another and similar manuring should be applied in July, and after this, the hills should be earthed about 6 inches. The above quantities of guano,&cC., may appear extravagant, but it must ever be borne in mind that young hops cannot be two strong; for, unless they be very strong, they will not come into full bearing the next year. This recommendation is the result of a long and extensive experience. The cost, too, is often repaid in the same year, by the growth of 200 or 300 pounds of hops per acre. When the hops from these nursery grounds are picked, the bines must not be cut, but the hops must be gathered from the sticks, as they stand, into small baskets. The bines grul bat de grui Squanull Aitdii alwiden dt tlü ſeu 9. t 1 dbeuixin the ll r tires te u „aMlüge Wägeles ch bil nu euttünp he phuuu, etwn d dred, Mä de lluk jent jei diserilint ter d ritu PosSä ier thw h ition v ks en the lte md Sunl ablt 3 eang l At tbe A perniesi of thebe be lhri are n ut. aſter ü mmuiis porlebE. tef bes tel ¹ enent n d f e hesens lcn 3 The W * HoOP-COULTURE. 289 and sticks should not be taken up till November; for the young plants would be most seriously injured by the escape of sap if the bines were cut while in a growing, succulent state. It is customary to intercrop a newly-planted field with mangold-wurzel, cabbages, turnips, potatoes, carrots,&c., and this is not objectionable, if the land be clean, and the requisite manures for these crops be not stinted. In all meadow, pasture, or grubbed coppice land, and wherever a deficiency of lime in the soil is suspected, a dressing of quicklime, at the rate of 200 bushels per acre, applied in the spring of the second year will be found beneficial. This should be dug into the ground as soon as it is spread, and, of course, no ammoniacal manures must be put on at the same time. In the management of established hop-grounds, it may be laid down, in the first place, as a positive rule, that no work should be done either by horses or men in wet weather, or whenever the land poaches, or kneads, and that all weeds should be extirpated as they spring up. The general system of cultivation will probably be best understood in its chronological order. Commencing, then, in the month of October, as soon as the pre- ceding growth has been gathered in, the haulm, or bines, are stripped off the poles as early as practicable, unless this process has previously been done by spare hands before the hop-picking of the farm has been completed. The haulm are carefully preserved and taken to the homestead, where they are used as a substitute for straw. They are stacked in ricks, and cut out like hay when required for bedding in the cattle-yards. The chemical analyses, which have been in- serted, show that a large amount of valuable mineral and organic manure is thus preserved for the replenishment of the land. When taken di- rect from the hop-ground, and spread evenly over arable land, the haulm, too, are regarded as one of the best manures for potatoes; they are suffered to lie upon the surface throughout the winter, du- ring which time, the leaves are detached, and are subsequently dug or trenched in for the potato crop, the remaining stalks being used for other purposes. They are, also, an excellent manure for oats similarly applied. That portion of the stalk which grows near the ground is useful, if stored away when dry, for making bandages or withes. The poles, when stripped, are stacked or hiled in straight lines through the plantation; each stack or hile usually containing four or five hundred poles. By“'stacking,“ is meant the horizontal pro- cess in which the tops of the poles are brought together into the mid- dle of each stack, thus leaving only the butt-ends exposed. The stack is supported about 18 inches above the level of the ground by three narrow mounds of earth, upon which are placed a few pieces of worn- out poles for the sound ones to rest upon, in order that they may not come in contact with the damp soil. In hiling,“ the poles are set up on end, about one hundred being placed in each of four squares, the tops meeting so as to form the apex of a cone. When the poles are preserved during the winter in this manner, the hop plantations present the appearance of an extensive encampment. The latter 19 A 290 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. mode of preserving the poles is preferable, as it allows them to dry more speedily. In November, and during the winter months, as opportunities permit, the poles are sorted, and repointed as required; afterwards, re-hiling those which are suitable for the ground in which the work is performing, and taking away the smaller ones for young plantations, or for those grounds and varieties of hops that require a shorter kind of poles. Experience alone teaches the hop-grower the length of poles best adapted to his several plantations; and as this is an ele- ment of considerable importance in securing a successful result, an attentive observation is bestowed upon this branch of his art. Drain- age, which had been neglected when the ground was planted, is now commenced; the hops being planted in straight rows afford every facility for this undertaking. The drains are from 4 to 5 feet deep, having a two-inch pipe or tile at the bottom, with a covering a foot thick of broken stones or chalk, if obtainable, as this covering pre- vents the roots from entering the pipes. All stiff soils, such as the gault and Wealden clays, require drainage in order to insure success- ful results; and, in these soils, it is almost impossible to place the drains too deeply or too close together; and all those soils which only occasionally, in wet seasons, contain a redundancy of water, pay well for draining; but the drains in such classes of soil are put. in at wider intervals. It may here be mentioned that much damage is often pro- duced upon hop grounds by the overflow of surface water from roads and lanes in the spring of the year, when the hop plant is in its tender stage. This causes the root to rot, and the bines then canker off. During the three winter months, every opportunity of frosty weather is seized upon to convey to the grounds new poles and manures. On the free working soils, digging is performed whenever the weather is open and dry. This operation is effected by a“'spud,“ or three- spaned fork. The spanes, or tines, when new, are about 12 inches long, which enables the laborer to move the ground thoroughly 8 or 9 inches deep. Great care is observed that the digging is well done, as it is the foundation of all subsequent labor. In March, no time is lost in completing the digging; for the dry weather which usually occurs in this month affords an opportunity of putting the stiff lands in good condition, so as to insure a proper tilth throughout the ensuing summer. It is regarded a wise economy, therefore, to employ as many hands as can be procured, in order to dig up the stiff ground quickly, in favorable seasons. The next pro- cess is that of cutting or pruning the hill, which, on no account, is delayed beyond this month, while the earlier it can be done the better; and if from any cause the ground has not been dug, rather than wait too long, the operation of cutting precedes the digging. When the ground has been dug, the cutting process is executed by means of a beck,“ or pronged hoe, by which the earth around the hill is removed, so as to expose the bines of the preceding year down to the crown of the roots, as well as any suckers or offsets which may have sprung from it. The latter are cut off cleanly with a sharp knife, leaving — 1 eu hi znh liemnd btmt lntim Vrtern bwt Sän Imh t. hu tod bnn lun en fett ie rug n alihe auhbä re auns ˖ha wüta 7 Mn in atrik oftenm hater in phmthi DIR tf Felhe ures d e Vellk 1 tr I uell ſt vellhe Dertſt Vennt’ le bete nu ſbn lea. rellſa the ert ne a 5 eaſc HOP-CULTURE. 291 the crown in a convex shape, about 6 inches below the level surface of the ground. From half an inch to an inch of the last year's shoots are permitted to remain. The crowns are then left exposed for a day or two, after they have been trimmed, in order to dry, when they are covered with a thin coating of fine earth, care being observed at this time, by sticking up a cutting, to mark those hills which are weakly and will require smaller poles. When the ground has not been dug, the same process is followed, after having cleared away the earth around the crowns of the root. That portion of the bine of the preceding year, which had been earthed up the summer before, and which has consequently become much enlarged, is the part taken to plant new hop grounds, or to make bedded sets. After the cutting or trimming is completed, and continuing the work through the month of April, the poles are set up, commencing with those grounds that have not been dug, the digging being finished! immediately after the poling. It will here be necessary to revert to- the lengths and number of poles which the various soils and different varieties of hop require: In large plantations, and frequently in the same field, a very different kind of poling is requisite, which demands the attentive study of the hop-grower; for a correct knowledge of the capabilities of the soil can only be obtained by experience, which, however, will be greatly aided by a little geological information, as the out-cropping of some of the peculiar strata of the hop districts. Under and over-poling are extremes equally to be avoided. As a general rule, the longer the poles the less number is required. The Farnhams, Canterburys, Goldings, and Colegates demand longer and fewer poles than the Jones and the several sorts of Grapes; the refuse poles of the former being well suited for the latter. The poles vary from about 10 to 20 feet in length. The first four varieties of hops generally require them from 14 to 20 feet long, the Grapes from 10 to 14 feet, and for the Jones even shorter poles suffice. When there are about twelve hundred hills on an acre, and the poles 18 feet long, and upwards, two are used to each hill; with sixteen-foot poles, every third hill has three; with fourteen-foot poles, two and three alter- nately; with twelve-foot poles, three; and with ten-foot poles, three and four alternately, or, perhaps all fours for the Jones and Grape varie- ties. Here, again, the sort of hops is taken into account; for, if they be Grapes, grown on rich land, then three fourteen-foot poles are not considered too many. With the increased distances between the hills, a proportionately increased number of poles are supplied. It is con- ceded, however, as a useful maxim, that it is not wise to overcrowd a field with poles, as the fruit would be rendered imperfect, and in a wet season, with a biney growth, it frequently happens that the crop is much diminished by having too many. It is thought to be a better plan to pole rather sparingly at first in long-poled grounds, and about the beginning of June to set up some extra poles at the strongest hills, taking off a bine from each of the other poles to furnish them with. The poles are set up by means of an implement called a“ hop bar,“ or„hop pitcher,“ similar, but larger than the common iron bar used for making holes for fence stakes. Each pole is punched 292 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. into the hole made for it, by the full force of a man's strength, in order that it may resist the wind when it is loaded with bines and hops. The poles are put up symmetrically, equidistant from each other, around the centre of the hill, from which each is about 10 Or 12 inches; and they are so spread out at the tops as equally to in- tersperse the area formed by the tops of all the poles, by which means each pole will receive its due share of sunshine and air. The stiffest poles, and those somewhat shorter than the average, are selected for the outside rows. In exposed situations, and with short poles, it is also regarded as a good plan to tie up horizontal ones to the two outside rows, as they form a protection against wind, while the increased crop of hops more than defrays the extra expense. After the poling, the ground is immediately pared over with the hoe, in dry Weather, if there be any spring weeds, which is generally the case after a mild winter, and especially if the ground has been dug early. This hoeing is followed by a second digging, or the ground is proken up by a horse scarifier. If the ground be dug, it is not broken so deeply as in the winter, nor is the surface left rough. If the scarifier be used, two horses are required to work it. This scarifier, or nidget, is a kind of cultivator, having handles like a plough, and is specially designed to work between the rows of hops. It is held by a man, and the horses led by a boy. Some persons also use the beck to move the ground at this period. Early in May, the bines or young shoots from the plants, are usually long enough to tie to the poles, which is done as soon as they will reach them, as they become much injured by lying upon the ground and twisting together. Three of the most even bines are selected for each pole; the strong, rank ones being rejected, if there be a probability of enough coming out to supply the poles. They are tied with rushes, or old Russian matting. After this, and until the bines are grown to the tops of the poles, they occasionally require ladder- tying; which is usually done by boys, by means of a double or step- ladder, made in the form of a letter A. The earthing up, as above alluded to, is done within the first fort- night, or three weeks in June. The hills are earthed up about 18 inches high, which is done for the sake of preserving the crowns of the roots in a growing state, as well as for keeping back the young shoots that would otherwise sprout out from the hill. As soon as the hops are earthed up, or“ hilled,“ as it is provincially termed, all the weak plants receive an extra manuring. This is most cheaply and efficaciously accomplished by portable artificial manures, such as ground rape-cake, muriate or sulphate of ammonia, or nitrate of pot- ash, mixed with equal quanties of Peruvian guano, or superphosphate of ime. After the hilling is completed, the nidget, now drawn by one horse, is introduced, if it has not peen used before, and is continued to be employed until about the middle of August; but in that month, the teeth or hoes are set more shallow. In small plantations, and where manual labor is abundant, the beck is advantageously sub- stituted for the nidget. During this period of about six weeks, the hills and those parts of the ground which the nidget does not touch, ———ÿÿ—.—————— ceuetn diues 1 ron ah dont lh; llpwi ww ir. M Nie N wüan tlwsn ul u epehe b* verly deedth erwmli „tön rwueh.2 ri. M Ies lh 8d hE erSolS re Wal- a ter hegu ro Shet here ki ef Mth Ithele ire Möh le ori intit p Aolt! Crot the yE GhMak el dü heqſs GM ts lſt hut wulft li otI tiols 9 1 Wſ M wei dt hi, HOP-CULTURE. 293 are cleared of weeds by the hoe or beck; and the suckers from the hills are pulled off, for if they be suffered to remain, they invariably have a tendency to mould. If the weather be wet, so as to prevent the horses working on the land, the hoe is unsparingly used between the rains, to keep down the weeds. From the beginning to the middle of July, the Goldings, the Farn- hams, and the Canterburys often require the lower branches to be cut off, from 3 to 4 feet from the ground, and when the poles are extremely long, a foot higher. This is done to insure a more perfect circulation of air and light, as these sorts, on good land, are apt to grow bushy at the bottom of the poles, and cutting them off is a precautionary prevention of mould. After the nidget or beck has been discon.- tinued—that is to say, from the middle of August to the time of picking—the ground is passed over once or twice with the hoe, to destroy the seedling weeds and preserve the land in a clean condition for the following year. The commencement of the hop-picking varies with the state of the season. It usually falls between the beginning and middle of Sep- tember, though in rare instances, the hops may be ready before, or retarded beyond these periods. It is highly important that they are not picked until they are fully ripe, and then they are gathered with all possible expedition. A hop is considered ripe when it becomes hard and crisp to the touch; when the extreme petal projects in a prominent manner at the tip of the strobile, the color is changed from a light silvery-green to a deep primrose-yellow; and when, on open- ing it, the envelope of the seeds is of a purple color, and the kernel, or seed itself, hard like a nut. Eyven after the hop has attained a lightish brown, no real injury to its quality will have accrued, and, for many purposes, such hops are most esteemed; but after the hops generally attain a dark-brown hue, a great loss, both in quality and weight, is sustained. It is almost impossible to pick all the hops on large plantations at the critically proper time; yet, as some grounds ripen earlier than others, it is of interest to the hop-grower to watch them attentively at this juncture, lest a mistake be made in their comparative maturity, and even in different parts of the same field. From the cool, moist climate of England, it is necessary to resort to kilns for drying the hops; but in this country, where the climate is usually dry,"oast-houses,“ or kilns, are not much employed. As the great object, in England, is to get rid of the“„réeek,“ or con- densed vapor from the green hops, as quickly as possible, it is a ques- tion whether kiln-drying would not be advantageous with us. It is a well-established fact that hops are of a better quality when dried bx& eurrents of heated aur passing rapidli through them, and not by radiation of heat. The kiln also affords an advantage in the employment of sulphur in the process, first in its bleaching properties, which diminish the intensity of the brown color of the hops, when they are fully ripe, and secondly from the great affinity of sulphurous acid for water, in taking up the vapor in its ascent. D. 1. B. 294 ACGRICULTURAL REPORT. TEXTILE AND FORAGI CR0PS. THE AGRIOULTURAL CAPABIIITIES OF THE GREAT PLAINS. [Condensed from a communication in the“National Intelligencer,“ by William Gilpin, of Independence, Missouri.] There is a radical misapprehension in the public mind with regard to the true character of the ‧Great Plains“ of America, as complete as that which pervaded Europe respecting the Atlantic Ocean prior- to Columbus. These plains are not“deserts,“ but the opposite, and will in future add much to the empire of commerce and industry now being erected on this Continent. Their position and extent may be easily understood, in stating that they are comprised within the meri- dian line on the west side of Louisiana, the boundaries of Arkansas, Missouri, and Iowa for their eastern limit, and the Rocky Mountain erest for their western, with Texas at the south, and the Arctic coast om the north, embracing a longitudinal parallelogram of somewhat less than 1,000 miles in width.(See Pl. VI.) They have a gentle slope from the west to the ast, abounding in rivers, running silently into the Missouri, Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, and to the Texan coast. They are of homogeneous formation, slightly undulating and continu- ous, without timbered space or lakes. The soil, though compact, is a fine calcareous mould, producing an abundance of herbage peculiarly adapted to the climate. During a temporary prevalence of moist atmosphere, in the spring, the delicate„Gramma'' and ‧Buffalo grasses“ flourish, and are cured into hay upon the ground by the gradually returning drought. It is upon this longitudinal belt of perennial pasture that the buffalo finds his winter food, subsisting upon it without regard to latitude; and here, also, are found vast numbers of wild horses, the elk, the antelope, and numerous other animals peculiar to the continent. As the larger portion of the ‧ Great Plains' lies within the tem- perate zone, their position, with respect to climate, is favorable to intellectual and physical development, health, and longevity. The seasons are comparatively rainless, except during the melting of the snows on the immense mountain masses beyond, when the rivers swell like the Nile, and yield a copious evaporation in their long courses, causing the storm-clouds to gather on the summits, roll down their flanks, and discharge themselves over the earth in vernal showers. —— „———ͤ u lin hh tn den S enn-he cem mn oöit ul dusrym It urb Ithewi ArRan Jlounu rete e erdatls Mtled ſenti Xa CDt denäu. paet! pennin 10 aBäh UWtÄ Absöit i W dt TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPB. 295 The atmosphere is almost perpetually brilliant with an azure sky, tonic, healthy, and inspiring to the temper, corresponding to, if not surpassing, that of the historic climates of Arabia and Syria, whence we have inherited all that is ethereal and refined in our system of civilization. The Great Plains abound in fuel, the materials for fencing, and the construction of dwellings. Bituminous coal is abundantly interstrati- fied with the calcareous and sandstone formations, as well as in the flanks of the mountains, and easily obtained. The dung of the buffalo is scattered everywhere, and readily burns, when dry. The order of vegetable growth, in many respects being reversed by the aridity of the atmosphere, what appear above as mere shrubs insinuate them- selves deep into the earth, and form below an immense arborescent growth. Fuel of wood is therefore found by mining, or digging, in- stead of felling trees. Freestone, limestone, plaster, clay, and sand occur to an unlimited extent. The large and economical adobe brick, hardened in the sunwithout fire, supersedes other materials for walls and fences in these arid regions, and, as in Egypt and Syria, for centuries resist decay!. The dwellings thus formed are of the most healthy kind, being impervious to heat and cold, damp and wind.— These regions embrace an ample proportion of arable soil for farms. The bottoms' of the rivers are broad and level, being only a few inches of elevation above their waters. They may be easily and cheaply saturated by means of artificial irrigation. Under this treat- ment, the soils being alluvial and calcareous, both from the sulphate and carbonate formations, could be made to return a prodigious yield, independent of the fall of rain or snow. Almost every variety of grain, grass, flax, hemp, cotton, as well as vegetables, grapes, and other fruits, with the flora, under an unclouded sun, irrigated at the root, attain extraordinary vigor, flavor, and beauty; and hence this country offers a permanent home for man. It is probable that the aggregate aboriginal stock(the buffalo, the elk, the deer,&c.) of the Great Plains still exceeds the existing num- ber of farm quadrupeds in the settled portions of the United States. It is all spontaneously supported by Nature; and, by parity of reason, it is to be inferred that most, if not all, of our domestic animals would flourish there equally well with the indigenous ones. Three tame animals may be substituted for every wild one, and vast tperritories might be reoccupied, from which the aboriginal stock has been reduced by indiscriminate slaughter and the increase of wolves. The American people, then, are about to inaugurate aà new and im- mense order ot industrial production— pastoral husbandry. Its chief theatre of action will be this terra incognita, intermediate between the two oceans. Once commenced, it will rapidly develop. We also anticipate here the successive inauguration and systematic growth of other distinct orders of husbandry—the culture of Cereals, hemp, tobacco, fruits-and the production of meats, leather, and wool. 296 AGRIOULTURAL REPORT. unborn. THE ASH OF THE COTTON PLANT. BY CHARLES T. JACKSON, M. D., 0F B08TON. the following results: ANALYSIS OF COTTON-PRODUCING SOILS. No. 1. staple Cotton is grozwn. originally a crenate of lime. b which consist of mineral salts, as above named. or 2 ⅞ per cent. On full analysis, I obtained from this soil— Railroads and other channels for transportation by land or water will de established, connecting these regions with either sea; internal commerce will flourish, and this great pastoral garden of the world will become the happy abodes of untold millions of generations yet . J. B. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF COTTON SOILS=-ANALYSES OF' In accordance with the instructions received by me from the Patent Office on the 29th day of July, 1857, for determining the chemical ingredients of the cotton soils and the ash of said plants, I submit Soil from Ot. Simon's Island, Georgia, on which the Sed Island or Long- This soil consists of a grey sand, mixed with a fine loam, containing black particles. One thousand grains of it yield to boiling distilled water 1 ¾ grains of soluble matter, 17 grains of which consist of V vegetable organic matter, and half a grain of mineral salts, consisting of chloride of sodium, phosphates of lime and soda, sulphates of soda and potash, sulphate of magnesia, and carbonate of lime, which was One thousand grains of this soil yield to a boiling solution of car- bonate of ammonia 3 ⅞ grains of solid matter, two-fifths of a grain of The insoluble carbonaceous matters amounted to 24 grains to 1,000, Silica.................................. 92.040 per cent. Alumina................................ 1.500 44 Lime.................................. 0.280 6 G Magnesia.............. 0.370 66 Potast................................ 1.000 4e GOGda.................................. 0.500 64 Perox PhoOs Supt Cllo Crel 1ns- Gar . TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 297 nätn — na Peroxyde of iron and oxyde manganese... 1. 500 per cent. tnn Phosphoric 2,ClGd.......................... 0.040 5 ntin 1 Sulphuric acid.......................... 0.009 64 K Chlorine.............................. 0.010 44 112 Crenic, apocrenic and humic acildgs.... 0.360* 414 Insoluble vegetable(carbonaceous) matter.... 2.400* Carbonic acid............................. trace. 100. 009 4 Iſ, AnalyYsis of the ash of Sea Bsland or Long staple Cotton, from S. Simon's Island, as above. The stalk of this plant, stripped of its leaves and bolls, when burned, yielded 107 grains of ashes. The leaves, burned, yielded bel 1 107 ⅞ grains of ashes; and the cotton fibre yielded, when burned, 13 duanes grains to 1,000. One thousand grains of the seeds, when burned, lhn yielded 36 ⅓ grains of ashes. 8 LAlM Twenty-five grains of the ashes from the stalks yielded— Silicah.................................. 0.600 grains. Carbonic acid.......................... 6.000 44 Chlorine.............................. 0.198 4 3 Sulphuric ACid.......................... 0.480 4* . Phosphoric AES(I.......................... 3.969 44 1 Limne................................. 7.059 44 1i Iln Magnesia.............................. 0.183 64 Potash................................ 3.802 44 eutmn GOGa.................................. 1.744 44 g ut— 1 24.035 ee LoSS.............................. 0.965 44 MColl 3 ion d r Twenty-five grains of the ashes of the leaves yielded— agruül Gilich...... ö.................. 1.200 grains. Carbonic acicd............... 4.959 44 sto h Chloritrnrmimoirirere:reoer:t:rur........ 0.667 44 . Sulphuric àCid.......................... 1.271 64 Phosphoric ACiGd........................ 4.864 68 Lime........................ o..... 6.978 44 1 Magnesia............................. 0.350 44 Bt Potasl.......................... 2.922 GOda................................. 1.789 66 4 25.000* 298 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. One thousand grains of the clear cotton fibre, yielding 13.1 grains of ashes, gave— Silica.................................. Carbonic aCid......................... Chlorine................................ Sulphuric acid........................... Phosphoric aCid„ů„..... Lime.................................... Potash.................................. One thousand grains of the seeds yielded 36 ⅜ grains of ashes, which consist of— 0. 60 grains. 2.80 0.350 tt 0.54 1.64 1.80 es 0.64* 2.19 1.90* 13.10 Silica................................ 0. 1000 grains. Carbonic acid(diff.).................... 0.3504 Chlorine........................... 0.3940 6t Sulphuric acid....................... 0.0980 4 Phosphoric zeidle........................ 11.3618 6* Magnesia............................ 6,0838 64 Potasl.............................. 13, 3566 64 SOda................................ 3.1070 85 36.6000 No. 2 Vpper alluvial soil Savannah River, on awhich the Short-staple Cotton grows, in Edgefield, South Carolina. This soil yields upon analysis— Silica,................................ 78.000 per cent. Alumina.............................. 10.040 Lirne................................ 0.260 Magnesia.............................. 0.200 4⁸ Potas]l................................ 1.000 8. SOda............................. 0.730*⸗ Peroxyde of iron and oxyde manganese.... 4.850** Phosphoric ACIGI....................... 0.310.6 Sulphuric acid.......................... trace. Chlorine.............................. 0.050 6? Crenic, apocrenic and humic acids...... 0.400* Insoluble vegetable matter 4,300* 100.140 Oue tho Niel àn löit d Ponic ach nogbat Mkalees Tlis8 on the neks, b Hceols day. . TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 299 One thousand grains of this soil, digested with a solutiou of carbo- nate of ammonia, yield 4 grains of soluble matter, 4 grains of which gk consist of the organic acids of the soil, namely, crenic, apocrenic and 18 humic acids, and nine-tenths of a grain consist of mineral matters— hu phosphate of lime, sulphate of lime, magnesia, oxyde of iron, and the 4 4 alkalies, soda, potash, and a little silica. 1. This soil has for its mineral constituents the disintegrated matters ü.u from the metamorphic rocks, chiefly micaceous and argillaceous slate 4 — 1 9 rocks, the particles of mica being unusually abundant, but the argil- 4f laceous matters in a finely decomposed state, or in the condition of clay. No. 3 n d A5 UVpland Cotton soil, from near Jackson, Mississippi, the samples obtained from the surface to the depth of 10 inches. Dgriin 4 1 This soil is very fine loam, and, when dry, is almost an impalpable 0 dust. — One hundred grains of it on analysis yielded— 4 6 Silica...... v.„................... 81. 00 Pr venſ. 8 4 Alumine................................ 6.80 6 4 Lime.................................. 0.57 64 0 4 4 Magnesia.............................. 1.60 8 V . Potash................................ 0.58 6* 094 Soda................................. 1.29 . Peroxydes of iron and manganese.... 3 4. 18 8e Phosphoric ACicl.......................... 0.38 65 Sulphuric acid.......................... 0. 07 4⸗ 4 Chlorine.................... 0.05 8 ½ rigl le Crenic, apocrenic and humic acids......... 0.30* Insoluble vegetable matter.... 3.0o* 99.82* Dper eel LOSS.............................. 0.18*4 — 100.00 — 3 The sub-soil gf the above, obtained 20 inches below the surface, Yieldlec— 1 SliGa..........................·.... 83.451 per cent. — Alummina.............................. 4.100 . Limo......................... 0.500 ¹1. Magnesia................ ·..... 1.800o 4 Potash.............................. 0.790 54 1 5 83OGda,.................................. 1.450 8e 4 Peroxydes of iron and manganeso......... 3.900* 300 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Phosphoric acid......................... 0. 190 per cent. Sulphuric acid.......................... 0. 014 CmMlorine............................... 0.005 6⸗ Crenic, apocrenic and humic acids........ 0.410 Insoluble vegetable matter.............. 3.000* 99.610 4 100.000* No. 4. Surxface soil from SAMUEI. W0OD'S Plantation, in Hancock countgj, Mis- 80⁸⁷ꝓꝑꝙ☚. One hundred Darts by weight of this soil yielded— Silica.................................. 88.52 Pen cent⸗ Alumina............................... 1.20 LimCe............................... 0.40.* Magnesia............................. 0.50 64 Pôotasl................................ 0.38 6* OGIa................................... 1.00 6⸗ Peroxydes of iron and manganese.......... 2. 00 4 Phosphoric AGIG......................... 0.60 5e Sulphuric acid,(less than 1ρ,α)*........... trace. Chlorine......................... trace. Crenic, abDerhie and humic acids........ 0.92 45 Carbonic acid.................. 0.20 Insoluble veg etable matter.............. 4. 33 4 . 100.05 4 One thousand grains of this soil vielded to boiling distilled water 2 grains of soluble matter, or one-fifth of one per cent., and this, on incineration, yielded half a grain of ash, or five-hundredths of 1 per cent. The ash consists of phosphate of lime, magnesia, oxyde of iron, sulphate of lime, and the alkalies, potash, and soda. Digestedi in a solution of carbonate of ammonia, 1, 000 grains of the soil produce a dark coffee-brown solution, which, evaporated to dry- ness, yields 10 grains of solid matter, consisting of the organic acids of the soil, mamely, crenic, apocrenic and humic acids; and on being burned off, this matter yields four-fifths of a grain of ash, consisting of the mineral salts which were combined with the above-named acids. The organic acids weigh 9 ¼ grains, or ninety-two-hundredths of 1 per cent., and the ashes, or mineral salts, eight-hundredths of 1 per cent. One 1 Flich Num. liwe Nagn potas Soda perc Pho Sol Cb Ore tillel ni and Usc dIE 1 , niin tel uih Uie Bnl lunlrih dredlbs- TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 301 One hundred grains of the sub-soil yield on analysis— Silica................................. 90.000 per cent. Alumina,............................... 2.000 6 Lime.................................. 0.280 84 Magnesia............................... 0.300 86 Potast................................. 0.290 4 GOda................................... 2.014 6* Peroxydes of iron and manganee. 1.200. Phosphoric acid................ 0.800 85 Sulphuric acid......Uꝰʒ................... 0.00 f e Chlorine............................... 0.005 8e Crenic, apocrenic and humic acids......... 1.020 Insoluble vegetable mattte 2.1990* 100.116 4 One thousand grains of this sub-soil, on digestion with a solution of carbonate of ammonia, at a boiling heat, yield 12 ⅞ grains of soluble organic matter and salts; and, on combustion, 2 grains of saline or mineral matter remain, leaving for organic matters dissolved 12 ½ grains. The ash contains phosphate of lime, sulphate of lime, soda, potash, and chlorine.. From the composition of this sub-soil, it will appear that deep, or sub-soil, ploughing is indicated as appropriate for this plantation; for the sub-soil is richer in certain important ingredients than the surface soil, as will be seen on comparing the proportions of soda and of phosphoric acid.— Analysis of the ash Long Stcple(Sea Island) Cotton plant kalen from the same soil as abobe. The stalk of this plant, weighing 13 dunces, on peing burned, yielded 133 grains of ashes, which consist of, in 25 grains of the ash— Silica.............................. 1 150 grains. Carbonic acid.......................... 5.600 64 Chlorine.......................... 0.603. 64 Sulphuric acid.......................... 0.412 64 Phosphoric AGid..................... 2. 739 6 Lime.................................. 6.254 6⸗ Magnesia-.............................. 1.100 95 Potash...........:..... 7......... 2. 851 44 8OGa.................................. 3.351 64 Peroxyde Of irom........................ 0.940 6 25.000 85 302 AGRICULTURAI REPORT. 1 The dry leaves, weighing 7 ¼ ounces, on being burned, yielded 306 1 grains of ashes, and 25 grains of this ash gave, on analysis— 0 gril Silica.................................. 1. 540 grains. 8 CarboniC ACld.......................... 3.800 44 GCRIOTIEIO.................... ¹......... 2. 220 66 G Sulphuric AGIGC-.......................... 1.065 44 8 Phosphoric ACiIGd........................ 2. 795 46 Lime.................................. 7,275 66 Magnesia.............................. 0.200 6* POotasl............................... 3.522 64 SOde.................................. 1.908*⸗ 4 Peroxyde of iron........................ 0.675 66 25.000** One thousand grains of the fibre, or clean cotton, yielded 15 grains of ashes, which consist of— Silica.................................. 0.240 grains. 0 Carbonic aCld.......................... 3.500 44 Chlorine............................... 1.100** Sulphuric acii2d.......... 0. 824 1 Phosphoric acid........................ 1.7133 Lime.................................. 2. 641 84 Magnesia.............................. 0.200 66 . Poftasf................................ 3.628 64 Soda..............:......:....*...*. 0.974 Carbon,(not burned) j. a. 0.230 4 I 15.070 b One thousand grains of the seeds yielded 41 ¾ grains of ashes, which consist of— SiliCen.................................. 0.160 grains. 8 Carbonic aCid.......................... 1.200 6⁴ Chlorine.............................. 0.430 66 Sulphuric AClG......................... 0.872 4 Phosphoric AGiG....................... 10.640 65 Limne.................................. 1.850* Magnesia-.............................. 7.860 6* Potash............................. 12. 340 64 OGda.................................. 4.472 44 LOSS.................................. 1.376 66 41.200 ⁸ “ TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 303 Ancly/sis of ashes of Short-staple Cotton, from Hamburg, South Carolina. One thousand grains of the clean cotton fibre, burned, yielded 15 grains of ashes, which consist of— Silica..................................*...... Carbonic acid.............................. Chlorlme..................................... Sulphuric acid................................. Phosphoric ACicl.................................. Lime.......................................... Magnesia-...................................... Potasl......................................... Sodoooooo.....)..ͤd....... Grains. 0. 150 4. 100 1.105 0.779 0.581 1.070 0.250 4. 412 2.140 14.587 0.413 15.000 One thousand grains of the seeds yielded 39 grains of ashes, which consist of— Gilica............................... u.. Carbonic acid(diff.)............................ Chlorino...................................... Sulphuric acid................................. Phosphoric ACId................................. Lime.......................................... Magnesia....................................... Potast......................................... Grains. Analysis of the seeds Of a Short-staple Cotton plant, from Jackson, Mississi ꝓꝑ&☚ν One thousand grains of the seed, burned, yielded 28 grains of ashes, which consist of— Silica.......................................... Carbonic acid................................... Chlorine....................................... Sulphuric acid.................................. Phosphoric aCid................................. Litteeeeee))....................... Potashh......................................... Grains. 0. 260 1.000 0. 260 0. 240 7. 648 1.122 5.032 7.276 4.962 27.800 0. 200 28.000 —ͤͤͤͤͤͤööaa 304 ACGRICULTURAL REPORT. Analysis of the ashes o the enlire plants of Upland or Short-staple Cotton, from Sawannah River, Georgid. The whole plants, which weighed 3 pounds, when dried, yielded, on burning, 960 grains of ashes. 25 grains of which were resolved into— Grains. Silica................................ 0.570 Carbonic ACid.................................. 1 5.600 Chlorine...................................... 0.239 Sulphuric AGid......:............ 0.927 Phosphoric ACid................................ 2.403 Lime..................................... 4.478 „ Magnesia............................ 2.509 Potash and soda-(diff.).......................... 6.394 Peroxyde of iron..........................·.. 8 1.880 25.000 RPMARKS.— By these analyses, we learn the nature and proportions of the mineral ingredients which the different parts of the cotton plants draw from the soil, and which must be present in the soil to render it capable of producing this crop. Now, since the seeds weigh nearly four times as much as the cotton fibre in each plant, it is evident that, as they are very rich in saline matters, phosphates of magnesia and lime, and in the alkalies, potash and soda, they form one of the most valuable fertilizers to return to the soil. If the seed be sold and sent away for the manufacture of oil, the oil-cake, still containing all the saline matters, may be returned as a manure for cotton-fields, and it will be found to be one of the best fertilizers, not only for that crop, but also for corn, which re- quires a large supply of the phosphates and alkalies. It does not appear by these analyses that Sea Island or Long- staple Cotton plants appropriate any more chlorine or chloride of sodium than the short-stapled varieties; and it seems probable that atmospheric influences on the humid sea-board favor the growth of the long-stapled cottons, and that the saline matters in the soil do not produce the difference by their absorption into the plants. 1 qporits d etn de solt de egten InaM S let retur t gaetursd returod de d e whichn Or Ln. doride t dahle ke uni ln, TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 305 THE C0TTON MANUFACTURES OF THE DUNITED STATES. The social and political relations of man are mainly formed and controlled through the influence of industry applied to the production of material wealth. That"“ bread is the staff of life,“ that"coal and iron govern the world,“' and that“cotton is king,“'are proverbs expressive of the prominence of these commodities among the things supplied for the convenience and comfort of the human family. But the degree of influence exerted by a particular product can only be appreciated by a consideration of all its relations, including a know- ledge of the dependence upon each other of the different branches of industry and production, often involving minute and complex investigations. The superiority of the present era is most strikingly exemplified by a review of its achievements in physical science with respect to the gratification of our material wants, whether in the department of agriculture, the mechanic arts, locomotion upon land and water, applied chemistry, or other utilitarian pursuits. In an age less favored in regard to those things which minister to the welfare of the many, an elevation not yet accessible to us was attained with respect to eloquence, poetry, painting, sculpture, architecture, and the- humanities in general. Without purposing to discourage these high and ennobling objects of pursuit, essential as they are to the happi- ness and exaltation of our race, the inventive genius, enterprise, and industry of the present age may be indicated at once as the cause- and the effect of the general and continued advancement of the world. Thus, the aliment of man formerly consisted almost exclusively of the- Cereals and fruits; but, it has been affirmed, if all men were now con- fined to this description of food, the soil of many countries would not- be sufficient for its growth. The policy, or necessity, is therefore- manifest, of cultivating other plants, and especially that nutritious and economical esculent, the potato, aided by all the improvements- of the times with respect to systematic tillage, including the use of modern implements, manures, rotation of crops,&c., by means of which labor as well as land is spared from the production of food, and devoted to the culture of other substances. What the potato hâs thus proved among esculents, cotton has been found among textiles, in the gratification of an imperative and gen- eral demand. The development of coal for fuel, of infinitely greater value in its concentrated form than the forests present, is another step in the march of improvement, not only as it contributes to our comfort in the warmth it affords to our bodies, but in its relation as a valued servant in the propulsion of machinery and engines of locomotion. It thus forms the basis of the steam-engine, without which, admitting the mechanical practicability, civilized Europe could not sustain the number of mey requisite to produce a power eoual to that it now 20 A 306 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. exerts; but this could never have been achieved but for the progress of the manufacture of iron, which, in turn, is an essential medium in the operation of the electric telegraph, of, the printing press, and a thousand other important agencies, supplying to enlightened man the means of going forth as the triumphant champion of civilization. The useful arts are in these, and shown necessarily to sustain rela- tions of mutual dependence upon each other, when viewed in their direct physical effects, if any one remains behind, all uniting in efforts to raise it to their level and requirements. Allied to this idea is that of the division of labor and the co-operation of the different nations of the earth in purposes of beneficent enterprise, of which the ancients had but faint conceptions. These agencies shall still progress, and in their influences dissipate the restrictions and the seclusion of na- tions, and establish forever the civilization of the present era. The cultivator of the cotton-plant thus fulfills an important mission with respect to political economy and the history of our race, aided as he is by the shipper whé carries the product to other lands; by the spinner who transforms it into yarn; by the weaver who converts it into cloth and other fabrics; and by all the agents who contribute to these results. Thus, in the sphere of creation all things exert an influence, circling wide beyond their seeming import, and the prin- ciple of self. Cotton employs millions of the human family in its culture, com- merce, and manufacture, and indirectly as many who produce the articles required for the sustenance of those first so engaged. It partially supplies raiment and other comforts to the entire civilized world; yet, in so doing, seems as a substitute for a vast quantity of silk, wool, flax, and hemp in the markets of the world, and couse- quently to some extent directs from their former channels the capital and industry requisite for the production of these fabrics to the ex- tent to which they are superseded. Such being the general influences upon the world of the culture of cotton, it is reasonable that every nation should desire to profit by it. The usual estimate of the consumption of cotton in the United States and England is from 5 to 6 pounds for each person; and in France, from 4 to 4 ⅛ pounds. Mr. Bowring, in his Report on the German Zollverein, states the consumption at 4 21 pounds to each family,(or less than a pound to each person,) but this is certainly pelow the present distributive amount. Doctor Dieterici, of the Sta- tistical Bureau of Berlin, estimated the consumption in Prussia, in 1806, at ³¾ of a yard; in 1841, at 7 yards; and in 1844, at 13 yards; but it is now believed to amount to from 24 to 30 yards, or about 3 pounds. In Turkey and the adjacent countries the consumption is estimated at from 2 to 2 ½ pounds for each person. With respect to India and China, our knowledge is less certain. Mr. Royle, in his excellent work on The Culture and Commerce of Cotton in India,“ informs us that some observers estimate the consumption in British India at 20 pounds to each individual, the aggregate consumption at 3,000, 000, 000 pounds, and the crop at 3, 100, 000, 000. He questions the correctness of this estimate; but the cotton produced there is D t 1 6 1 Mtob dojels K Al . wrü Iab Wü Felbsi dubh Tert M lrü d Cl de t 8d. I iyillel rttd los eayil the er Guedes t efer Uoibl ul” ou r h Adl* ertail he di- Bönö IMb, Jbolti vüin b Jett n 1 ludis Prits tion d esül lere 5„ ot w„ TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 307 different in quality, unclean and badly prepared for the loom, and woven into inferior fabrics which are used for more varied purposes than cotton cloth is applied to in other parts of the world, including not only the clothes and robes of the people, but their beds and bed- ding, tents, cords, bands, and almost every purpose to which a textile material of such softness and flexibility is possibly adapted. The im- portance of this product to the people who there cultivate and con- sume it is unquestionably great. In fact, we cannot comprehend how what appear to be their absolute wants could be gratified without it. While it supplies their own requirements, however, in their present condition, it makes but little impression upon the general commerce of mankind. In this respect, the product of the United States, where its extended culture does not date a century back, is of the first importance, though the experiments of the English in British India were commenced a century earlier, and though the history of the culture of the plant in Asiatic countries runs through thousands of years. No branch of industry probably ever rose to such magni- tude in so brief a time. Producing a very large annual supply above the actual wants of the country, and of a material superior in quality to the yield of any other land, the United States possesses by virtue of this crop an interest in the commerce of the world which could not be secured by means of a product less peculiar in its nature, or less intimately connected with the social condition of civilized Europe. This cotton chain not only binds one section of our land to the other, but unites England to us „ With links more durable than links of steel.““ English and American fabrics made from our cotton are known over the whole globe, and in the markets of China and India take prece- dence of the products of the indigenous staple, in some fabrics, not only because they are better, but because they can be purchased even there at lower prices. Thus, this improved product of the soil in America, aided by the inventions of Arkwright, Watt, and Whitney, is even now more powerful than armies in securing the advancement of civilization and enlightened liberty. These influences are yet to increase as the demand for cotton is augmented. There must be more soil devoted to its culture, or that already under tillage must be improved in fertility. More laborers must bend to the work or the industry now so applied must be rendered more productive. And none of these changes can be accomplished without visible effects upon the social and political affairs of mankind. The following tables show the amount and valuation of cotton con- sumed in the United States during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1857, and the character, quantity, and valuations of the goods manu- factured therefrom, as far as returns have been made. P. J. B. 308 àGRIOCULTURAI. REPORT. Table showing the amount and valuation of colton consumed in the Uniled States,&c. CorroN oNscMEp. 600ps MANUFAOCTUREp. Quantity. Valuation. Class. Quantity. Valuation. ALABAMA. ArAUGAVILIE. planters' Factoryy lbs. 599, 482§ 75, 634 Linseyy.. yds.. 14, 053 84, 637 Osnaburgs. Yds.. 1, 017, 892 117,058 Thread.... Ibs.. 13, 614 2, 450 PRATTVILLE. Manufaeturing Co. No.. 666, 680 73, 833 Osnaburggs.yds.. 1, 115, 186 119, 713 sCorrsvILLE. Tuscaloosa Manufacturing Co... 312, 000 34, 320 Battinngn IDS........ · ·.. Linsey vyds.. 10, 000 3, 000 Mattresses Ibhh.. Osnaburs. yds.. 400, 000 48, 000 Thred 1bs.. 25), Yarrn 4bs.. 75, 000 15,000 CONNEOCTICUT. HARTFORp. O. B. Smith 00. s 52, 000 84, 400.......*...*...*..*.*...*.*....e Union Manufacturing o... 450, 000 63,000 Ginghnag yds.. 2, 000, 000 2, 000, 000 IISBON. John Bachelder 517, 500 62, 100 Seamless bags.. No.. 450, 000 103, 500 MIDDIETOWN. Falls Manufacturing oo. 300, 000 Webbing s...............·. 2 Russell Manufacturing Co....— 3 33, 009 Ebhine suspenddors Kec⸗e.-. Bo, d00 Thread.. 4bs.. 100, 000 27, 000 NORwICH. Falls Co. 1, 782, 064 233, 997 Denims, drills, stripes, tick yds.. 5, 807,670 450, 000 Shetucket CO.....= w6„63. 1,451, 000 186,000 Cottonades yds.. 230, 000 Denimg äs.. 844, 000 Drillltt.d yds.. 84, 000 8 376, 000 Stripes......**.„YdS.. 2,275,000 Tick yds. 779,000] PAYNONOCK. Harris Brothes.. 83,200 11,648 Print cloths yds.. 665,600 33, 280 PLAINFIELD. Waurigan Milllg.. 428, 804 58, 960 Print cloths. yds.. 583, 788 26, 216 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 368, 205 25, 566 Sheeting and shirting, . bleaclled......yds.. 736, 412 51, 132 Central o. 299,273 42, 164 Sheetig vds.. 159, 238 12, 739 Printing cloths vds.. 1, 412, 908 79, 129 PLAINVILLE. Plainville Manufacturing C0.. 150, 000 21,000 Under garments doz.. 15, 600 140, 400 sTAFFORD SPRINüGS. Granite Milll)e„ 193, 936 27.151 Battin bs.. 9, 000 9⁰0⁰0 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 101, 000 60, 600 . 2 8t N 1 — Välvaäta. er u 9 V un I 1111⁴ 1m 9 80 ¹un 4 Shah 1 Wn . W2 W „ h A 1 9 1ih 1 h 9 34 8 8 5 b 2 33 3 1 J 9 108 * - 4 9 TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 309 Tuble showing the amount and valuation gf cotton consumed in the Umitad Slales,&́c.— Continued. COTTON CONSUMED. 8 GO0ODS MANUFACTUREP. Quantity. Valuation. Class. Quantity. Valuation. 4 CONNECTICUT- Continued. sTIRLING. Stirling Mill. 1bs. 98, 800§13, 910 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 451, 000§30, 000 THOMPSON. 3 Masonville o0oo0... 364, 000 47, 320 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 1, 100, 000 120, 000 VERNON DEPOT. Centreville ooo...... 340, 000 47,600 Bag.„„ IDs.. 300, 000 67,500 WEST THOMPSON. Walker& Share... 100, 000 13, 000 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 500, 000 20, 000 WILILIMANTIC. Smithville Manufacturing Co.... 347, 330 55, 572 Print clothnhs vaqs.. 931, 954 41, 938 Sheetin yds.. 834, 570 66, 765 Windham Cotton Manufact'g Co. 497, 223 69,000 Print clotnhs yds.. 1,753, 198 105, 192 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 680, 497 54, 440 Willimantic Duck Manufact'g Co. 362, 045 40,277 Bags„„„ cNo.. 72, 830 14, 566 Duccck. vyds.. 265, 286 67, 623 Cotton Sail Twine C0. 100, 000 14,000 Cotton sail twine 1bs.. 90, 000 22, 500 DELAWARE. WIILMINGTON. Brandywine Cotton Mills.. 520, 000 79, 300 Ticks........VYds.. 1,560, 000 124, 800 Rockford Cotton Factory. 146, 300 21 000 Drilll.s. ds.. 15, 348 1,534 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 247, 164 22, 244 Other gooldds yds.. 209, 944 17, 845 MARYLAND. BALTIMORE. Warren Factoy 280, 000 37,800 Drilss as.. 143, 229 12, 932 Sheeting and shirting,. yds.. 719, 023 50, 331 MISSISSIPPI. 4 BANKSTON. Mississippi Manufacturing Co.. 135, 000 13, 850 Linseys. yds.. 208, 800 58, 460 Osnaburgg. väds.. 70, 000 8, 750 Jatrrn 1DS.. 4,500 9⁰⁰ MASSACHUSETTsS. ADAMsS. Thomas A. Braytn 113, 700 16,000 Print clotnes Joäs.. 75, 000 37, 125 BLACKSTONE. Blackstone Manufacturing Co... 1, 834, 697 256, 857 Print cloth yds.. 4, 199, 838 251, 990 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 3, 145, 510 347, 006 OHIOOPEE. Dwight Manufacturing Cc. 4., 295, 742 527, 037 Drillls äds.. 3, 224, 728 275, 000 Print clothnhnas„vds. 1, 498, 441 90, 500 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 8, 897, 539 734, 500 Chicopee Manufacturing o. 2, 707, 811 326, 755 Drilll vods.. 2,574, 830 231, 735 Jean Q Nyds. 1, 544, 810 123, 585 Print elotins vyas.. 1, 031, 955 61, 917 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 2, 332, 684 209, 941 310 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Tuble showing the amount and valuation f collon consumed in the United Slates,&o.— Continued. OorroN CoNsbMEp. GOODs MANUFAOCTUREp. Quantity. Valuation. 4 Class. Quantity. Valuation. MASSACHUSETTS- Continued. — LINTON. Cünton 0.....w»«--*?=..***.*⸗ ſGs. 276, 200 S34, 72 Ginghams. yds.. 1, 112,727§l11, 272 Lancaster Milleee 900,000 4126, 000 Ginghame........ yds.. 5, 000, 000 550, 000 CoLERAIN. Shattuck& Whitton. 150,000 18,500 Sheeting. eẽYds-. 450, 000 32, 500 Print clotnhs yüäs.. 600, 000 24, 000 DEDHAM. Dedham Manufacturing Co... 109, 894 15,385 Print cloths...yds.. 568, 178 28, 409 Norfolk Manufacturing C.... 122, 909 17,207 Print celothls... yds.. 676, 000 33, 800 EAST BROOKFIELD. 3 Brookfield Manufacturing Co... 312, 000 37,440 Denimg.... Vds.. 90, 000 9, 000 EASTON. Keith, Rotch& C00.. 13, 250 5,470 Battinn 1bs.. 2, 000 220 4 3 Thread.....Ibs.. 10, 400 10, 500 Amos Pratt& C0ç00 20, 800 2,912 Threadz. 1bs 18, 997 10, 448 FALIL RIVER. Metacomet Mills....1, 068, 344 138, 525 Print clothss.. yds.. 5, 511, 000 306, 856 Annawan Manufactory. 290, 839 38, 146 Print cloths. yds.. 1, 505, 736 89, 591 Fall River Manufactoy.. 334, 168 41,120 Print cloths... yds.. 1, 675, 333 95, 513 American Print Works 2, 167, 000 303, 380 Prints. yds.. 12, 457, 692 1, 058, 904 FISKDALE. Strawbridge Cotton Mills. 397, 163 51,631 Print cloths...yds.. 2, 121, 600 127,296 GRAFTON. Saunders' Cotton Mills. 357, 365 53,447 Print clotnhihs yds.. 1, 911, 401 107, 038 GREAT BARRINGTON. Monument Millee 120,000 20, 000 Warpb.... Nds. 106, 000 31, 000 HAYDENVILLE. Hayden Manufacturing C.... 25, 000 3,000 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 900, 000 75, 000 HOLNOKE. Hampden Milllese.. 592, 186 76,516 Cottonades yds.. 1,785, 054 290, 964 Lyman Millees. 3, 876, 381 78, 197 Print clothnlhgs Yds.. 3, 922, 984 292. 654 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 8, 110, 547 640, 732 8 LàWRENOE. Atlantic Cotton Mill 5, 650, 000o0. Print cloths.yds.. 3, 700, 000 222, 000 Sheetig.. yds.. 10, 500, 000 945, 000 Shirting......“..**.JYds.. 1,800, 000 108, 000 Pemberton Millee.. 278, 420 3381, 946 Cottonades.Yds. 832, 560 240, 060 Denime. yds.. 927, 766 129, 887 Flannels.... yds. 245, 648 24, 565 Ginghamggg J4üs.. 196,370 39, 314 Stripe yds.. 162, 804 17, 908 WicCKS............NYdS.. 3, 355, 266 469, 737 LONG PLAIN. Yarn 1bS. 60, 000 15, 000 Allen's Manufactory. 42, 242 6,336 Wiectͤ. cÜDs.. 36, 000 7,3 0 dl. Rüon, un 59 JE 2¹ 1 8 Ai a3” I 4070 509 79' V TEXTILE AND FORAGE GROPS. 311 Table shovwing ihe amount and valaation f collon consumed in the Wiled Slates,&c.— Continued. COTTON GCONSUMED. GOODS MANUFACTUREDP. Quantity. Valuation. Class. Quantity. Valuation. MASSACHUSETTS- Continued. LowWELL. Appleton 0o,, 11bs. 3,477,400§372, 625 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 8, 369, 685§696, 107 Booth Cotton Mills. y. 4, 200, 000 525, 000 Drilllll. yds.. 6, 167,000 493, 360 Print clothe.... yds.. 2, 037, 000 122, 220 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 4, 409, 000 341, 697 Hamilton Manufacturing Co⁶. 4, 149, 347 441, 341 Flannerls üds.. 3, 812, 808 381, 281 Prints... vds.. 5,065, 222 481, 196 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 210, 265 70,096 MiCks C..VdS..· 2, 075, 855 249, 102 Lawrence Manufacturing Co. 7, 473, 688 1, 001, 4714 Drille vüäds.. 2, 971, 943 220, 615 sheeting and shirting. yds.. 14, 220, 839 1, 001, 915 Lowell Manufacturing Cſ 2, 861, 877 307, 337 Carpets üs.. 102, 503 48, 689 Linseys.. yds. 201, 731 34, 2,14 Osnaburggsg vyds. 4, 208, 453 403, 096. Massachusetts Cotton Mills 9, 343, 169(1, 167,896 Drille yüds. 6, 670, 877 567, 02 41 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 20, 062, 276 1, 334, 14 4 Merrimack Manufacturing C0. 4, 521,257 474, 121 Prinits. ds.. 17, 493, 066 1, 570, 375, Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 2, 277, 840 170, 838: Twino. lbS.. 23, 761 7, 390 Tremont Mille 3, 327,639 40, 091 Sheeting and shirting.. yds.. 10, 996, 090 659, 765 Suffolk Manufacturing C0o.. 3, 248, 202 390, 948 Drillls yds.. 7, 773, 681 621, 894 METHUEN. Methuen 0oo 558, 090 60, 027 Denimm vüs.. 33, 125 3, 643 Duck yds.. 402, 956 40, 295 . Tickeee äds.. 583, 686 64, 298 Yarn s.. 50⁰ 75 NEWBURYPORT. Bartlett Steam Mills. 600, 000 84, 000 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 2, 000, 000 180, 000 Globe Steam Millo. 1, 181, 365 153, 577 Flannels YdsS.. 234, 129 28, 094 Jeanln yds.. 3, 105622 279. 506 Print clothe yds.. 299, 731 16, 485. James' Steam Millee 613, 394 77,112 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 2, 185, 474 173, 308: Ocean Steam Milllees 364, 370 48, 344 Print clothnhs yds.. 1, 880, 711 89, 657. NEWTON UPPER FALLS. Newton Mills............... 457, 759 73,241 Print cloths yds. 2, 359, 715 129, 7844 NoRTON. Wheaton Manufacturing Coo.. 127,077 18, 547 Shirtin yds., 417, 882 37, 609 NEW BEDFORD. Wamsutta Mills oo. 1, 135,058 147, 557 Sheeting and shirting. yds. 3, 120, 000 468, 000 NORTH OXFORDp. Protection MillsP New Millss.„)„)„)„)„)„)„ 728, 000 87,360 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 1, 508, 000 113, 100 Phœnix and Rockdale Mils.. Twine. 1bs.. 5,250 892 NORTH SUNDERLAND. T. G. Munsel. 4, 000 4, 400 Wick 1bs.. 36, 000 6, 480 312 Tuble showing the amoun AGRICULTURAL REPORT. and valuation ꝗf collon consumed in the Uniled Slales,&c.— Continued. OoTrroN OoNsUtMEp. G600ps MANUFAOCTUREp. Quantity. Valuation. Class. Quantity. Valuaton. MASSACHUSETTS- Continued. vonrH bxnRIDGE. Oxbridge Cotton Mills.. Ibs. 434,210§60, 522 Sheeting and snirting. yds.. 1,664, 251§133, 140 NORTHAMPTON. Greenville Manufacturing Co. 177, 000 22, 000 Miscellaneous yds.. 700, 000 42, 000 OAKDALE. West Boylston Manufacturing Co. 451, 000 63,140 Flanneel.. yds... 572, 000 46, 000 Brown sheeting. yds.. 750, 000 62, 000 PITTSFIELD.. Plunkett, Clapp& C.. 95,000 133, 000 Wadding Ibs.. 250, 000 50, 000 .& J. A. Peck......===*.==v=ee. Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 1, 450, 000 100, 000 S. N.& C. Russeel%% c. Satinet warp 1bs.. 200, 000 50, 000 ROCKVIILLE. Boyd& Walker... 22, 350 3,687 Threaad.bs.. 20, 048 9, 469 Wadding. Ibs.. 158, 358 29, 904 sHARON. Geo. R.& Wm. R. Mann.. 115, 000 16,100 Duck Jüs.. 55, 050 26, 067 soUTHBRIDGE. Central Manufacturing Cc.. 425, 000 58, 437 Sheetinggsg yds.. 1, 700, 000 102, 000 SoUTH HADLEY. South Hadley Milles........ 550,000o0. Ginghamg FYds.. 2, 800, 000o0. TAUNTON. Albros& Anthoyn. 411, 059 47,843 Jeanos vüds.. 1,558, 810 100, 937 WaALTHAM. Boston Manufacturing Co..... 1,600, 000 212, 000 Sheeting and shirting. vyds.. 4, 057, 737 369, 807 WARE. Otis Gompang c.. 2, 081, 179 286, 162 Denime vds.. 5, 922, 961 592, 296 WaàARREN. Knowles& Sibley.. 90, 000 12,600 Satinetetes yds.. 65, 000 32, 500 Warp.............. 1hs.. 88, 750 28, 400 Warren Cotton Mille.. 600, 000 68,000 Denime vyäds.. 1, 500, 000 150, 000 MAINE. AUGUSTA. Kennebec CC.. 875,130 111, 128 Sheeting and shirting.. yds.. 3, 371, 853 202, 311 BIDDEFORpP. Pepperell Manufacturing Co.. 5, 030, 912 598,678 Drills......Vds.. 2, 968, 860 209, 616 Flanneellg vds.. 400, 676 37, 733 Jeans........ydS.. 1:173, 836 90, 647 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 8, 761, 231 682, 641 HALLOWELI. Hallowell Cotton Manufact'g Co. 364, 000 44, 000 Print cloths yds.. 2, 000, 000 115, 000 lül linco) Dates Saed To. por Pol 1 —‿ Aün. S 1h A ung TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 313 Table showing the amount and valualion of cotton consumed in the Uniled Slates,&c.—Continued. GC0TTON GONSUMEO. G0ODS MANUFACTURED. Quantity. Valuation. Class. Quantity. Valuation. MAINE- Continued. LEWISToN. Hill Manufacturing O0., 4bs. 805, 519§ 106, 468 Print clothnhs vyds.. 65, 027 83, 901 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 2, 778, 989 233, 785 Lincoln Mill„.... 375, 076 52, 041 Jeau yds. 1, 400, 000 112, 000 Bates Manufacturing 0, 2, 040, 911 262, 948 Flannell„yods.. 268, 56 Jeans..VdS.. 1, 672, 144 Pant stuf s ds.. 7119909ooo.. Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 3, 084, 190b7 SAOCOCARAPPA. Saccarappa Manufacturing Co... 96,545 14, 000 Print clothnhss äds.. 523, 496 24, 866 sACo. Vork Manufacturing Co... 2, 531, 377 286, 309 Denimmoo ydsS.. 318,374 40, 774 Dri[iiss vds.. 1, 348, 559 94,730 Nankin Jyüs.. 653, 184 51, 889 Stripooe vüds.. 208, 804 18, 870 Tickhhehe vyüäs.. 237, 426 25, 921 Fancy plaids and pant- — aloonery Jyds. 3, 403, 408 409, 408 souvrH BERWICK. Portsmouth Companyẽ 1, 084, 506 131, 523 Sheeting and shirting.. yds.+ 2, 487, 675 186, 221 wESTBROOK. Portland Manufacturing Co.. 648, 425 82,517 Duek vus.. 129, 960 27, 422 Stripeos voäs. 1, 304, 618 117, 415 NEW JERSEYI GROVEVILLE. Brinckle& Shubriceck 418, 600 60,697 Batting 1bs.. 5, 145 563 Warp and yarn 1bs.. 364, 000 92, 820 MIILILVILLE. Wood, Star& Garrett. 450, 000 63,000 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 1,671, 940 167, 194 NEW PROSPEOT. Hohokus Bergen 0 468, 000 60,840 watrpr 1bs.. 290, 000 67, 000 varrn, Ibs.. 89, 000 16, 000 E. Rosencranaeaet 171,600 22,308 Warp bs.. 124, 800 29, 852 VYarn lbs.. 26, 000 15, 600 RALSONVILLE. Crane& Renouf. 30, 000 3,000 Batting 11bs.. 20, 000 3, 000 3 Mattrassees 1bs.. 5⁰⁰ 1⁰0 . Carpet war.. 1bs.. 10, 000 1, 800 NEW HAMPSHIRE. OCAMPTON VILLAGE. E. Doll& CCC 2, 645 390 Mixed goolͤdsds... OHESTERFIELD. Chesterfield Factory. 59, 000 6,500 Sheeting Jaüs.. 140, 400 9, 828 314 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Table showing the amount and valuation Q ootton consumed in theæ Uniled Slates,&e.—Continued. corrox doNsutMEp. 1 PORTSMOUTH. Portsmouth Steam Factory. 380, 332 G005s MANUFACTURED. Quantity. Valuation. Quantity. NEW HAMPSHIRE- Continued. OLAREMONT. Monadnock Mille. 1bs. 800, 000 DovVER. Cocheco Manufacturing Co.... 2, 058, 555 EAST JEFFREV. A. Bascom& 0.. 320, 580 EXETER. Exeter Manufacturing ſ... 454, 822 HOOKSETT. Amoskeag Manufacturing Co... 256,279 LACONIA. Belknap Millll.. 212, 565 MANCHESTER. Amoskeag Manufacturing Co.. 8, 918, 458 Manchester Print Workses. 798, 437 Stark Mills 7,087, 827 MASON VIILILAGE. Columbian Manufacturing Co.... 1, 458, 000 NASMUA. Nashua Manufacturing Co. 3, 835, 594 Jackson Co...„.. 3, 023, 956 NEW MARKET. New Market Manufacturing Co.. 1,608, 472 PITTSFIELD. Pittsfield Manufacturing o.. 670, 000 Valuation. Class. d §100, 000 Prilll yNds.. 40, 000§S320, 000 Sheeting and shirting.. yds.. 572, 000 126, 000 224, 797 Print cloths..... yds. 9, 862, 725 552, 312 40,258 Denimmee yds.. 801, 861 92, 111 33, 831 Print clotnhs yds.. 1, 411, 100 70, 555 27,633 Bagg. JIDs.. 157, 462 37, 822 1,068, 013 Denims.......VdS.. 2, 112, 983 241, 518 Driss yds.. 4, 571, 443 337, 223 Flannelss yds.. 1, 497, 356 132, 670 Jeannn ydS.. 638, 941 56, 115 Print cloths. yds.. 278, 803 14, 434 sheeting and shirting. yds.. 5, 980, 339 470, 541 115,569 Miscellaneoucs... yds.. 23, 124, 320 511,731 789,557 Baggpge„ lbs.. 2, 273, 256 477,473 Drill.... yds.. 2, 9682 047 221, 120 Duck yds.. 202, 232 46, 513 sheeting and shirting. yds.. 6, 068, 944 419, 818 233, 280 Denims VdS.. 3, 647, 000 328, 230 447,599 Drillee NdS.. 473, 736 33, 461 Flannellgs. yds.. 1, 311, 302 93, 440 Jeauauan Yds.. 114, 943 7, 528 Print clothnh yds.. 512, 820 23, 588 Shirtinggg vds.. 422, 977 23, 432 Sheetingeg...yds.. 6,665, 326 441, 165 Silesianas vds.. 972, 208 51, 561 330, 000 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 7, 419, 233 593, 538 110,550 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 1, 924, 000 144, 300 58, 117 Lawi yds.. 3, 301,678] 200, 000 M. — Greal hrte. uenn TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 315 1 Table showing the amount and valualion of colton consumed in the United States,&e.—Continued. NEW HAMPSHIRE Continued. ROLLINGSFORD. COTTON CONSUMED. G0ODS MANUFACTURED. Salmon Falls Manufacturing Co.. Abs. 5,200,000§702, 000 80MERSWORTH. Great Falls Manufacturing Co... UPPER GILMANTON. Tioga Manufacturing C0o.. NEW NORK. BRAINARD. Seth Hastings& Son ol BROWXNVILLE. Ontario Cotton Mills. CLARK'S MILLS. Al. B. Clark& 00 GILBOA. Morss Reed's Mille HAGAMANS MILLS. Pawling& Son MoRRls. Butternut Woolen and Cotton Factory 000 NEWBURGH. Newburgh Steam Mill8s. PITTSFIELp. Arkwright oooo RED FALLS. Red Falls Mill!. Quantity. Valuation. 5, 230, 884 610, 338 300, 000 42, 000 112, 590 14, 132 295, 000 35, 400 482, 668 62, 747 144, 000 20, 160 30, 000 4, 800 195, 000 34, 125 851,541 108, 769 135, 700 18, 658 242, 746 32, 164 Class. Quantity. Valuation. Drille puüs. 5,500, 000§440, 000 Flannels yds.. 500, 000 50, 000 Sheetiing vyds.. 5, 500, 000 440, 000 DriHls..... yds., 2, 033, 506 158, 581 Print eloth„yds. 4, 152, 067 233, 129 Sheeting and shirting, broww.. vpüds. 5,603, 090 426, 563 Sheeting and shirting, bleachedqldl vqs.. 6, 890, 665 531, 895 Warſf.„IDs.. 105, 000) 21,000 Wicke bs., 150, 000 30, 000 Print cloth.. yds. 743, 709 33, 467 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 875, 000 64, 000 Batting............ IDs.. 116,251 13, 369 Rope and codd 1bs.. 113, 317 15, 864 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 1, 170, 790 106, 590 Batting..... 1bsS.. 750 75 Sheeting and shirting.. yds.. 380, 160 30, 412 Under garments No.. 54, 000 31, 500 Sheetinig vds.. 689, 000 51, 675 Print cloths vds. 4, 810, 424 223, 000 Batting.. yc H 1bs.. 5, 730 515 Print clothh. yds.. 652, 000 32, 600 BattingH 1bs.. 4, 438 444 sheeting and shirting. yds.. 522, 175 37, 885 Threadh lbs.. 133 60 Warrb. 1bs.. 23, 354 4, 204 Varn lbs.. 28, 931 5, 182 Knitting cotton 1bs.. 287 86 Wickiig 1bs.. 1,645 312 Twine Ihs.. 810 184 316 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Table showing the amount and valualion of cohon consumed in the United States, Go.— Continued. OoTroN GCoNsuMEp. G00ps MANUFACTURED. Quantity. Valuation. Class. Quantity. Valuation. NEW NORK- Continued. ROCHESTER. Joness Cotton Mill.......w**.*.- 1bs. 430, 000% 64, 5000 Quilt and skirt&otton. yds.. 20,000 62, 000 Prints..⸗-Yds.. 2,500, 000 125, 000 STITTVILLE. J. N. Draper.. 60,000 7,500 Warp. IDs.. 400, 000 16, 000 T0ODSVILLE. The Union Cotton Manufactory.. 147,600% 19, 188 Battiing Ibs.. 7, 800 93⁰ Sheetig vüs.. 416, 000 29, 120 Vaoanrn Ibs.. 1,200 3⁰⁰ Candlewick Ihs.. 7, 800 1,950 TROY. Troy Hosiery OO........... 14,000 90, 000„ ⸗.................. ⸗ Ida Cotton Milllͤ... 200, 000% 27, 000 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 570, 000 71,250 UTIGA. Utica Steam Cotton Mills 1, 350, 000 175, 000 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 3, 000, 000o V NORTH CAROLINA. FPAVYETTEVILLE. Blount's Creek Manufacturing Co. 141, 825 17,614 Batting, waste..„IDs.. 5⁰⁰ 40 Linse;y)y Jds.. 1, 200 300 Osnaburgs yds.. 19, 701 2, 167 sheeting and shirting. yds.. 146, 910 12, 487 G Warpd bs.. 62, 720 12, 544 TEAKSVILLE. Leaksville Pactorp.--..-.e---=er- 350,000 45,500 Osnaburgs....-..-... Vds.: 120,0000 14,000 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 150, 000 15, 000 Varn ů ů 1Ds.. 244.. NEW SALEM. Union Manufacturing Co.. 97,500 12,675 Drillee YdS.. 1, 664 166 Mattrasseos lbs.. 150 7 Sheetin Jäds.. 162, 560 15, 442 Warpd.bs.. 53, 400 11, 214 ROCKY MOUNT. Rocky Mount Millee.. 358, 428 39, 427] Yarn, twine, and rope lbs.. 323, 125 58, 162 SALEM. Fr.& H. Friee 150, 000 17, 250 Jeann... yds.. 30, 000 15, 000 — Negro livery yds.. 85, 000 22, 000 Warp and yarn 1bs.. 105, 000 23, 100 PENNSVYILVANIA. PHILADELPMHIA. George Callaghaen.. 492, 700 73,905 Cassimeres. Jds.. 1, 10500, 276, 250 ne Penn Ioy a9 u AI3 16 4tuI TEXTIELE AND FORAGE CROPS. 317 Table showing the amount and valuation of colton consumed in the Uniled Slales,&c.— Continued. COTTON CONSUMEp. 600 ps MANUFACGTUREp. Quantity. Valuation. Class. Quantity. Valuation. PENNSYLVANIA Continued. PITTSBURG. Eagle Cotton Worke 1bs. 1,664,000§216, 320 Sheetig. vads.ö 1, 680, 000§134, 400 3 Varn, twine,&K&e. 1bs.. 675, 300 140, 000 Pennsylvania Cotton Mills 1, 414, 623 185, 000 Battinn lbs.. 54, 000 9, 000 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 2, 686, 900 255,255 varn IDS.. 233, 156 50, 000 Wastee 4s.. 131, 600 4, 925 Hope Cotton Factoy 1, 600, 000 200, 000 Battig 14bs.. 84, 700 11, 858 Yarn bs. 1,202, 500 264, 550 Candlewick 4bs.. 20, 358 4, 478 Cotton, wasete 1bs.. 137, 560 3,439 RHODE ISLAND. ALBION. Albion CO..............⸗ 293, 386 44,007 Printg yds.. 1,643, 489 90, 392 BURRILLVILLE. Steere& Linkhaninlhl 70, 000 9, 800 Satines Jüs. 250, 000 106,250 Warp bs.. 32, 000 9, 600 CENTREVIILLE. R. Lapham's Cotton Manufactory. 260, 000 33, 800 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 1, 144, 000 80, 080 CoVENTRY. Harris Manufacturing 0. 495, 905 66,120 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 1, 844, 600 151, 027 HoOPKINTON. Stillman& Beryx 15, 600 S...... Linseyyy yds.. 260, 00oo„ñ MILLVILLE. Wood, Star& Garrett 4550, 000 63, 000 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 1,671, 940 167, 194 NEWPORT. 8 Perry Mil 00000„„„.. 384, 800v c Print cdloth. yds. 2, 000, 000 115, 000 NORTH SCITUATE. Isaac Saunders....**..==- 210, 000 30, 150 Print cloths........Yds.. 1,005, 000 55, 275 PROVIDENCE. Dyerville Manufacturing O00o. 8 500, 000 † 75, 000 Print cloths.. yds.. 24,600 147, 600 Meanville Mill 521, 850 75, 835 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 1, 463, 491 131, 714 Hope Comparrrn. 466, 443 48, 680 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 1, 125, 610 130, 000 ROCKLAND. Rockland Factorf 165, 750 20, 800 Print eloths... e.v-Vds.. 9936, 000 45,250 VALIEY FALLS. 3 Whipple Manufacturing Co. 6⁰⁰0 91 Threaad No. spools.. 96, 000 560 WARREN. Warren Manufacturing Co. 565, 500 90,480 Print cloths väds.. 530, 427 29, 173 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 1, 623, 353 146, 102 wooNsoCkET. Clüinton Manufacturing Co., 650, 000 84, 500 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 2, 600, 000 210, 000 318 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Tuble showing the amount and valuation of collon consumed in the United States,&c.— Continued. . COTTON CONSUMED. GOODS MANUFACTURED. 1— Quantity. Valuation. Class. Quantity. Valuation. SOUTH CAROLINA. CoLUMBIA. Columbia Mill. Ilbs. 640, 000§83, 290 Osnaburgg. yds.. 1, 000, 000§90, 000 Thread...... ⸗-s..:.IPS. 100,000o 17,060 EDGEFIELD. Graniteville Manufacturing Co... 1, 482, 000 194, 290 Drills.............Yds.. 426, 400 38, 376 Sheeting and shirting. yds.. 3, 900, 000]% ◻ 331, 500 TENNESSEE. 4 OREGON. Oregon Mills....*e...“““. 51,334 5,133 Warp........*.-⸗Ds.. 44,961 11, 250 PARIs. Embryo dotton Millls 191, 332 17, 220 Batting 1bs.. 7, 565 83²2 Thread bs.. 172, 200 36, 162 aurNov. Quincy Cotton Mills.. 270, 000 27, 000 Osnaburgg...yds.. 450, 000 45, 000 Vaorn.1b4.. 45, 000 9, 000 VERMONT. VELOCHVILLE. Merrill& Elgar..... ͤͤ. 17, 000 2, 890 Cassimeres& doeskins. yds.. 70, 000 5, 000 NORTH POWNAL. R. Carpenter& C000.. 25, 000 4, 000 Satinees. yüds.. 500, 000 250, 000 TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 319 CoXSUMPTION OF CoTTON IN EUROPP. Letter f the Seoretarg f the Interior, communicating the report of John Qlaiborne, special agent appointed to collect statistics on the consump- kion of cotton in Lurope. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, March 19, 1858. SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith the report of John Claiborne, esq., the special agent appointed by the Commissioner of Patents to collect and report information upon the consumption of cotton in Europe. Annexed to that portion of the report which relates to Bremen will be found a memoir upon the consumption of cotton in the Zoll- verein, for which the department is indebted to the courtesy of Doctor Schleiden, minister resident from the Free and Hanseatic Republic of Bremen. With great respect, your obedient servant, J. THOMPSON. SeoretaryY of the Interior. Hon. JoHN C. BRECKINRIDGE, President of the Senate. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, March 19, 1858. SIR: Agreeably to the clause in the act of Congress of March 3, 1857, for the collection of agricultural statistics, investigations for promoting agriculture and rural economy, and the procurement and distribution of cuttings and seeds, and to enable the Commissioner of Patents to collect and report information in relation to the consump- tion of cotton in the several countries of the world, I have the honor herewith to transmit the report of John Claiborne, the agent ap- pointed to collect the cotton statistics of Europe under the clause in said act. Very respectfully, your obedient servant, J. HOLIT, Commissioner. Hon. JAC0B THoMPSON, Secretari; of the Interior. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, May; 11, 1857. SIER: A recent appropriation having been made by Congress"to enable the Commissioner of Patents to collect and report information in relation to the consumption of cotton in the several countries of the world,“ you have been selected to aid in carrying out the objects of that appropriation. — 320 ACGRIOULUTURAIL REPORT. To render the desired information more reliable and complete, it has been judged expedient that you should visit different portions of Europe; and, as it is important that the result of your investigations should be laid before Congress at an early day of its next session, it will be necessary that you should commence your labors with the least possible delay. Time will not permit you to visit all the countries in the world where cotton is consumed, nor would such a course be expedient if it, were practicable. You will probably be able to extend your personal observations to the most important points in England, France, Russia, Switzerland, Austria, Prussia, and perhaps some of the other countries of Europe. Vou will here find sources of information extending to all quarters of the globe, and which will be sufficient to satisfy the present expectations of Congress. Though the consumption of cotton abroad is the great subject of inquiry, your attention should not be limited too narrowly to that one point. It is evidently the intention of Congress to ascertain all facts which have a bearing, either directly or indirectly, upon that matter. The ultimate design is to benefit the cotton-producing and cotton- manufacturing interest of the United States. Whatever will tend to this end is a subject of practical importance, and is recommended to your earnest and careful attention. The traffic in this commodity, its manufacture, and even its pro- duction in foreign countries have a bearing upon its consumption. either present or prospective, and all facts relating to any of these matters will be within the proper scope of your inquiries. Perhaps the clearest and most intelligible course of investigation will be suggested by an attempt to trace a bale of cotton from the time it leaves the plantation of the producer till it reaches the hands of the ultimate consumer. Every mile by which this route can be shortened, every obstacle which can be removed or avoided, every cent of expense which can be saved are advantages the benefits of which will be shared between the two individuals who stand at the extremes of this line of transit, and will cause not only an augmenta- tion in the price of the raw material, but will create a larger con- sumption, and thus call for a larger supply of the commodity. This, and subjects naturally connected therewith, will suggest all material inquiries which will be necessary in order to satisfy the objects of the appropriation. In carrying out the general design thus intimated, your own judg- ment and sagacity will be chiefly relied upon. It is impossible to mark out with precision, beforehand, all the de- tails of an investigation where the ascertainment of one fact will often suggest others and render them material, where unexpected items of information will frequently present themselves, and where those which were anticipated will often be found to be beyond reach. It is thought proper, however, to specify, with greater particularity, some points and suggestions which have been already referred to in a more general manner. The following points are, therefore, presented. as proper guides jtt htn Ueb Iatter. otton xtmnee, is yr nptin. f tlex tigrin rn tl e lanb chl b5 l eferf nedts f datth grel- ger ol- 1 3 h d julr the de lftel tems tlos . U p SID6 aor gulls TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 321 for your attention and inquiry, and as embracing chiefty, if not en- tirely, the grounds you are expected to examine: 1. Ascertain the amount of cotton consumed in the manufactories of each city, district, or country, either in Europe, or any other por- tion of the earth where cotton is manufactured; the amount of capital invested in such manufacturing establishments; the number of looms and spindles; the number of hands employed, and the average rate of wages paid to the employés. Aggregate results for each country or district are desirable, as far as practicable. 2. The immediate sources from whence these establishments actu- ally procure their raw material; the nearest seaport where they might be furnished direct from the United States, and the diminution of cost which might be effected by any change in the course of trado. 3. If direct trade were established, what are the commodities we should receive in exchange. Would this be sufficient in amount to furnish adequate return freights for the vessels employed in the transportation of cotton. 4. What proportion of the supplies furnished to these establish- ments is in the shape of yarn, and what in the shape of raw cotton. Ascertain the price of each, in order to show what proſit is made by the manufacturer of the yarn. 5. What is the quality, grade, or number of the yarn principally used, and is it such as could be produced by the unskilled labor on plantations, or in the Southern cities. 6. To what countries do the manufacturers of Europe generally send their yarns and goods, and what diminution of expense would result from manufacturing or spinning in our own country, and ship- ping direct to those countries. 4 7. What duties are levied on cotton or yarn, respectively; their effect on the consumption of each; the feasibility of procuring their remission or modification, and the probable effect on consumption of such remission. 8. What are the agencies in each country which are now tending either to advance or check the consumption of cotton. 9. What new modes of applying cotton to the use of man are now in use in Europe; to what extent is it used for mixing with wool in making cloths, cordage, or for any other purpose. 10. What proportion of the cotton goods consumed in each country is imported, and what supplied at home. 11. Examine the subject in its financial aspect; inquire how, in the- actual operations of commerce, a merchant could have his orders for cotton executed, and pay therefor at the ports of exportation. Ex- amine also into the nature and course of exchange operations that would thus arise, and the practicability of avoiding the necessity of English or French banking credits. 12. Direct some attention to the subject of the production of cotton in foreign countries, with a view of ascertaining whether our planters may apprehend any formidable competition from any such source; what are the obstacles in the way of such foreign production, and are they such as are likely to be removed hereafter. 21 A 322 AGRIOULTURAL REPORT. It is not intended in the suggestion of the foregoing points to limit you rigidly by them. They are intended to aid, and not restrain in- vestigation. Any other matters which may suggest. themselves to your mind, calculated to promote the general object in view, should be made the subjects of inquiry. Nor is it supposed that upon each and all of the heads above enumerated full and explicit information can be obtained. Where this is found impracticable, or very incon- venient, time should not be wasted in fruitless searches. Nou will keep this Department constantly informed of your move- ments, and by what channel of communication you are to be ad- dressed, in case further directions or suggestions be thought expedient. J. THOMPSON, Secretarg f Interior. JoHN CLAIBORNE, Esd. REPORT. WasnINXGTON CrTY, Januarg 22, 1858. Sm: Congress having, at its last session, made an appropriation for the collection, under the direction of your bureau, of statistical information as to the consumption of cotton in the various countries of the world, the undersigned received from the Honorable the Secre- tary of the Interior the appointment as agent to carry out the inten- tion of the legislative department. It was soon recognized that the amount of the appropriation was wholly inade quate to the investigation of the subject, in the manner and to the extent warranted by its importance, in either the agricul- tural or commercial point of view; and, under these circumstances, I was directed to proceed, without unnecessary delay, to France and other continental countries of Europe, and, with all practical despatch, collect as much information as it might be in my power to do previous to the re-assembling of Congress. On my arrival at Paris, about the beginning of June last, I called upon the Hon. John Y. Mason, the minister of the United States to the French empire, and made known the object of my visit. He received me most cordially, and throughout my stay in Europe mani- fested the warmest desire to forward the object of the investigation by procuring for me facilities, not only in France, but elsewhere. M. Alexandre Vattemare, agent of the Patent Office at Paris, also cheerfully aided me, and was the means of procuring for me much valuable information, not only at the capital, but in the manufacturing districts of Mulhouse. Below will be found the results of the investigation, so far as it has been carried on, under the head of the countries visited. On no boint is the information obtained so full and detailed as it might have been made under more favorable circumstances, or as it should be for the proper understanding of the subject, while, on some points of the ☚ dluit ain i res b Awoul eadh natio inoor Wofe. de ad edlen. N rilr. 18 8 vpräto tatöstiel rortris de decke le inten til s a Wanner axredl DStaness ancd all lespäth Dreplüc 1 alll States h bit. I pe un- tigatun seſber. alis 3 De Wl0 factwi lrKi- (I) t haé be ir „ ts d TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 323 instructions, it has been wholly impracticable, from want of time, to procure any reliable information. This cause prevented an examination into the amount of consump- tion and the condition of cotton manufacture in Holland, Bavaria, Wirtemberg, and Spain, which last country has, during the past few years, required a largely increased supply of our cotton for the spinning mills of Catalonia. FRANOE. France ranks next after Great Britain in the quantity and value of the cotton consumed, while the variety of articles into which it is fabricated is much greater. In the taste and beauty of her tissues she justly claims the first place among modern nations. Her mills send forth every description of cotton goods—from the common calicoes of Rouen to the richly figured muslins of Mulhouse, the gossamer tulles of Saint Quentin, and the exquisite tarlatanes of Tarare. Scarcely sixty years have passed away since the first attempts at cotton-spinning were made at Paris, at a period, too, when the first French revolution was about to shake the country to its centre, to overthrow the old political system, to convulse society, and to affect, for a time, at least, most injuriously all the material interests con- nected with it. The progress of this new industry was, therefore, but slow for a considerable number of years after it was first planted. From Paris, cotton-spinning spread rather gradually towards the departments of the North and East. According to Moreau de Jonnòès, (Statistics of the Industrg of France, Paris, 1856,) the first mule jenny used in France was imported from England into Ghent,(recentl)y acquired by the French arms,) by the Brothers Bauwen, and pre sented to the first consul. The first cotton-spinning in the department of the East, of whick Mulhouse is now the central point, and which embraces portions o ancient Lorraine and Alsace, was in the establishment of Wesserling, in the year 1803, and specimens of yarn spun, either by hand or by the mule jenny, were exhibited at the Eæposition of 1856; from which date it was recognized as"one of the established industries' of the country, and the fabrication of cotton rapidly became one of the leading interests, rivalling in its importance and value, in the com- mercial movements, that of the Cereals.“* In 1816, the kilogramme of raw cotton was, as stated by Moreau de Jonnès, worth 6 francs, or about ½1 12; and in 1851, it had diminished to l franc and 50 centimes, or about 28 cents,„and four times the quantity of cotton fabrics can be had for the same sum of money, while the proportion of 5 kilogrammes, or 11 pounds of cotton to every five inhabitants, had increased to 2 kilogrammes, or 4 ⅞ pounds to each inhabitant; or, in its manufactured state, was sufficient to have furnished every inhabitant of the country with 18 metres, or about 20 yards of ordinary calico.“ With respect to its cotton manufactures, France may be considered as divided into three great groups, or districts, although there are 324 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. many spinneries, weaving, pleaching or other establishments, not within the limits of either. These groups, or circles,“ as they are generally called by the French manufacturers, or merchants, are: Normandy, of which Rouen js the centre; the East, with Mulhouse; and the Northeast, with its cities of Saint Quentin, Roubaix, and Lille. Nach of these circles has its reputation for the production of particular descriptions of fabrics or tissues; thus Rouen is famed for the coarser styles and low prices, and is called the workshop of the poor; Mul- house is famed for its Indiennes and its printed muslins, unrivalled, it is said, for beauty and richness of texture and coloring, and the taste displayed in their designs, by those of any other fabrication; Saint Quentin sends out the finest descriptions of tulles, organdies, &c.; while Lille and Valenciennes are the seats of the lace manufac- tories. Tarare, near Lyons, has of late years sent into the Parisian markets the most beautiful and costly tarlatanes and embroideries, in the latter respect rivalling the renowned fabrics of St. Gall and Appenzell, in Switzerland; and Calais is following fast in the footsteps of Not- tingham, in the production of bobbinets, and that description of laces for which the latter city has so long enjoyed a high degree of celebrity. It was not in my power to obtain precise details of the establish- ment and progress of cotton manufacture in any of the above-named circles save that of the East; and these are owing to the courtesy of M. Emile Dolfus, president of the Industrial Society of Mulhouse, who furnished me with a copy of his very valuable and interesting notes, read before that body in the months of November and Decem- ber, 1856, and which show, on every page, that they are the result of the most careful and conscientious study and examination into the subject. After cotton-spinning was introduced in 1803, it, remained nearly stationary until 1809- 10, when it began to increase in importance, and water power was first substituted for hand labor; the use of steam not being known until 1812, in the mill of MM. Dolfus, Meig & Co. The next five years brought with them wars, invasions, and political changes and excitements, which affected injuriously all kinds of industry. Between 1818 and 1825, prosperity had returned, and new and numerous establishments had been erected and put in opera- tion; commercial derangements in 1828, and the revolution in 1830, had in turn their disastrous influence, which was again felt by thé money crisis of 1837, and 1842—43. Since 1851, the march has been rapid, and the business has met with its fair share of success and profit until the crisis of the present year, 1857, came on, under which it will have to share the suffering undergone by all manufacturing in- terests throughout Europe and America; a suffering which will, in all probability, be but temporary, to be succeeded by a long course of prosperity for them all. GCotton-weaving began in this circle, at Mulhouse, in 1746, the first articles manufactured being Indiennes, the thread used being spun by hand, those spun by machinery not coming into use until more A= ts not hey an t ann. Ahouse Alilde arberke ecarder r, Wul rinälad and the riedin eanüs manln. 2 Marke the htte phexual 8ok Jor Mokhes legres d estoblü. we⸗Mnel urtesf d ulhorbe aterastig d Deeem- he reört n nto t ed wer portand, de Woe d fus Ned ion M Fdlud FAlan rned Dl, inqperr In 18¹ lt by t has ben ccess 10 der wüd turide i h Vwil. V the i ing sr til MN TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS 325 than half a century afterwards, in the year 1800; and the flying shuttle being first employed in 1805. Shortly after this latter period, the importation of cotton tissues into France was prohibited; a policy which has been maintained to the present day amid all changes of government, and even to a modification of which the mill owners, with the rarest exceptions, manifest a stubborn spirit of opposition. Weaving made as much progress, undergoing the same occasional and temporary reverses, as spinning and other branches of cotton manufacture. It extended gradually from the department of Haut Rhin into the other five which composed the circle, the mill owners generally adopting with readiness all new inventions in that branch, and the old system of hand looms disappeared before power looms, worked by water or steam, until in 1856. Of the total number of looms 3 tho district, 42,329, there were 33,472 power, and only 10, 859 and. JCotton-printing was established in Alsace, at Mulhouse, at the same time as weaving, and shortly attained to that reputation for the quality of its products which it has ever since enjoyed. In connexion with many of the printing establishments are those for bleaching and dressing goods. The extensive establishment of Dolfus, Meig& Co., at Mulhouse, combines all the processes which the raw material undergoes from the time it reaches the mill doors until it is despatched to market; and within its walls, one may witness spinning, weaving, plain and figured, bleaching,(by a process con- sidered by many superior to any elsewhere to be found,) dyeing and printing,(both by block and cylinders,) dressing and packing for market. Its chief is M. Jean Dolfus, who not only received your agent with much politeness, but manifested great interest in the sub- jects of his inquiry, and a disposition to afford him all possible infor- mation in its various branches. According to M. Emile Dolfus, in the publication above alluded to, there are now in the circle of the East, which comprises the de- partments of Haut Rhin, Bas Rhin, La Haute Saône, Doubs, Les Vosges, and La Meurthe, 109 spinneries worked, 74 by steam and 97 by water, with an aggregate horse power of 8, 199. These estab- lishments have a total of 1,498, 440 spindles for ordinary yarns, and 16, 886 for twist, which makes the proportion of 183 to each unit of horse power; or if, as M. Dolfus remarks, it is considered that man) of the steam engines are only auxiliary to water, which is subject te changes in its force and volume, the proportion will be really some- what less.. The general proportion of spindles for ordinary numbers of yarns, 27-29 for warp, and 36-38 for woof, is from 180 to 200 for each unit of horse power. The spindles were used as follows: For waste and numbers under 0000e0b0oo... 75,000 Ordinary numbers 24 to 40, warp or wood.... 1, 000, 000 Numbers between 40 and 7700l02... 75,000 Fine numbers from 70 to 220........... 350, 000 G 326 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. The production of yarns was 44, 000, 000 pounds, equal in value to 813,020, 000, or 3773 cents the pound. The number of workmen employed by these establishments was 29,995; the wages paid, as I was informed by a mill owner, an aver- age of 3 francs for men; for women 2 francs; and for boys and girls from 20 centimes to 1 franc per day. M. Dolfus estimates the annual cost of spinning, per spindle, at an average of 35 francs(86 51.) He also gives a table of the prices of raw cotton at Mulhouse since the year 1811, when it was 14 francs 85 centimes the kilogramme(l 33 the pound,) to 1856, when it had fallen to the average of 2 francs 2 centimes the kilogramme (12 cents the pound,) for the classifications used in spinning ordinary arns. * In 1811, the average price of the yarns at Mulhouse(27-29 warp and 36-38 woof) was 25 francs 61 centimes the kilogramme,(or about 82 33 the pound,) from which it had fallen, in 1856, to 3 francs the kilogramme, or 23 cents the pound. The number of weaving mills in the circle, in 1856, is placed at 136, employing 37, 897 hands, of whom 25,104 are engaged on power, and thé remainder on hand looms. The production of cloths had increased from 2,000, 000 pieces of 130, 000, 000 of metres(140, 833, 333 yards)y to 2,500, 000 pieces, of a total of 250, 000, 000 metres(270, 833, 333 yards.) It had almost doubled during the last decade, and its value was set down at 100, 000, 000 francs(§ 8, 600, 000); the average price for ordinary calicoes in the Mulhouse market, which in 1835 was 77 ½ centimes, or near 14 cents the metre, had fallen to 39 centimes, or near 8 cents. There were 25 printing mills, employing 10,400 hands, print- ing 51,900, 000 metres of stuffs(56, 225, 000 yards) of the value of 51,500, 000 francs(§9, 579, 000.) M. Dolfus thus sums up the condition of the cotton manufacture in the circle in 1856, as regards capital invested and the ordinary ex- penses of working,&c., francs being reduced into American dollars. TThe entire oumber of hands employed being 78, 812, and the motive 1,513 306 spindles, Say)y..........„. 89, 750, 746 Weaving, by mechanism, at§139 50 the loom, of which theroe were 33,41712 r.. 4, 670, 340 Neaving, by hand, at§22 32 each, for 10,875 looms, bwildings and machinery included.......... 231,800 Printing........................................ 2,418, 000 Bleaching and dressiig..... 372, 000 otal.....................*... 17,442, 886 ——— ——— These establishments had cost at least 829,760, 000; the wages — ¹ t lue t 8 W Wer. dgi dt A Trieks trnds „Wel rrae rnan 3 nn r podt anes the dat!3 per all neresel 3 furd 1K3 Alne Vd rir ir v ſſt times, E 8 prot nulle d rofactut lvarger n dollm de Wotit g En B3 M11So0 IAm 448 — de Wag TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 327 yearly paid to their hands amounted to§6, 596,000; and the annual value of all their different productions amounted to§41, 478, 000. By far the greater portion of cotton consumed in the circle of Mul- house is of American growth, and“'middling“ to“middling fair'“ qualities; there is some Sea Island and Egyptian also used; but Brazilian, East Indian, or other growths are but little known. Nearly the whole of the raw material goes via Havre, and thence by railway. Fuel is scarce and dear, the coal which is used being brought from Burgundy, along the canal which connects the Rhone and the Rhine, or from Coblenz, on the latter stream. Under the most favorable circumstances, it is said to cost three times as much as in England. Labor, however, is abundant; and while they admit that they can never rival England in ordinary and cheap cotton fabrics, and must depend upon the superior quality, taste and elegance of their fabrics, for a profitable market, the Mulhouse mill owners are, as a general thing, well pleased with their business and the profits which it affords. It is to be regretted that there has not as yet appeared in the circle of Rouen any one who, like M. Dolfus, at Mulhouse, is the historian and statistician of its great manufacturing interests, as it is certainly well worthy, in extent and importance of the effort. In his very interesting and instructive volume, UIndustrie con- temporaine, ses caractères et ses progrès chez les dilferents peuples du monde, Paris, 1856—(Contemporaneous industry, its characteristics and progress among the different people of the world)— M. Audi- ganne says of the Normand Group, that if the number of spindles and the amount of raw material which they require be considered, it is the first in France; as out of the 70, 000, 000 to 72,000, 000 kilo- grammes which France consumes, they absorb about, 30, 000, 000; and of the 5, 000, 000 spindles, which he estimates as the actual total in the country, it has between 1,500, 000 and 2, 000, 000, though, as regards the value of its products, it does not preserve this relative position. While its fabrics are almost exclusively of the heavier and coarser qualities, at low prices, Rouen also manufactures for Algeria a species of very superior bleached cloth, which is in great respect for burnouses,&c., among the Arab population. It has also given the trade name of Rouennaises to those fabrics of its mills which are com- posed of yarn, dyed before it is woven, the hues of which are often mingled in odd and striking contrasts. The circle of Rouen is composed of the departments of La Seino Inférieure, L' Eure, and Orne. To the vice president and secretary of the chamber of commerce of the city Tam under great obligations for their kindness, and the facilities for obtaining information which they afforded me. The consumption for the year 1857, of this circle, was estimated at 140,000 bales, of 220 kilogrammes each,(67, 000, 000 pounds,) of which 15,000 bales, of not over 300 pounds, or the total weight of 4,500, 000 pounds of Surats,&c., was included. Very little Algerian or Egyptian is consumed, and that of other growths does not seem to be known, or at least asked for, in the market. 328 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Rouen is one of the two points on the continent at which there was, to my mind, any evidence of an increase in the consumption of East Indian cotton, and its use for spinning unmixed with the longer stapled and finer qualities of the United States or other crops. The other point was at Ghent; and at both, the reason assigned was, the very high price of American cotton, which compelled the spinners to look for other supplies. The qualities of American(United States) cottons principally in demand at Rouen are emiddlings'' and ¹*good middlings; the waste upon which, for“middling,“ is 4 to 5 per cent.; on“ordi- nary,“ 6 to 7; and in low ordinary,“ from 7 to 11 per cent. 0f the East Indian cottons, from Bombay, the waste is generally 20 per cent. greater than that of the corresponding classifications of Ameri- can; the Madras cottons are, however, of better quality than those from Bombay. In this circle, the yarns spun range in numbers between 4 and 36, the bulk of them being, according to a leading spinner, No. 26; the average price for that quality is 3 francs 60 centimes the kilogramme, or about 22 cents the pound. It is claimed for the French yarn that it is 10 per cent. superior to that spun in England. The chief export of yarn from Rouen is of No. 20, for warps, which goes to Germany. The wages paid average 3 francs per day for men, and 1 ¾ francs for women and girls. The proportion of the hands employed is two females to one male, and the length of the working day, as at Mulhouse, is 12 hours. The following tables are derived from a publication of the Rouen Chamber of Commerce, entitled„Statistics of the Maritime Com- merce and the Exportations of Tissues of Cotton and of Wool from the port of Rouen during the year 1855. Rouen: 1856: Comparalive table of the tissues of colton despatched from the eustom at Rouen, either by sea or land, during the gears 1853, 1854, and 1855. Küilogrammes reduced to pounds.. QUANTITIES EXPORTED TO THE C0L0OXNIES 1N— DESCRIPTION OF TISSUES. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1 Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Rouenneries---= 855, 496 718, 947 943, 182 Indiennes ͦ%⏑ ͦ ⁸——D 788, 45² 704, 846 776. 987 Handkerchiefs 5, 584 12, 648 86, 277 Calicoes... 5, 912, 275 5, 864, 773 7, 288, 877 Total% ꝓcDD 7, 561, 807 7, 301, 214 9, 995, 323 In the above are not included the cotton yarns exported, which amounted, in 1857 to 82, 244 pounds; in 1854, to 69, 980 pounds; in 1855 to 69, 705 pounds. In 1 dherh dich df boger à NUh ras the nebé th pallru 8 t Lorü- Nt. U rUr f merr au tos tand R 36, h grane perior den Bd renas K. Uh lls ul he Rpoa- ne(ol- fTool frou TEXTILE AND FPORAGE CROPsS. 329 Quantities eæporled to foreign countries. DESCRIPIION OF TISsuUEs. 1853. 1854. 1855. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Rouenneries..... 226. 666 259, 510 357, 577 Indiennes.... 334, 290 234, 087 283, 050 Handhkerchiefs................. 16, 969 12, 597 58, 014 CalicOes.....„. 23, 235 11, 589 74, 098 TOtal 601, 160 517, 783 772, 739 Tbtals for colontes and foreign countries.* DESCRIPTION OF TISSUEsS. 1853. 1854. 1855. Poꝛinds. Poundo. Pounds. Ronenneries............... 1, 782, 142 978, 457 1, 300, 759 Indiennes............... 1, 122, 741 939, 013 1, 060, 037 Handkerchie... 22, 552 22, 245 144, 291 Galicocg..... 5. 937, 509 5, 876, 363 7, 362, 978 Total..=...... 8, 864, 944 7, 816, 078 9, 868, 065 Of these exportations, there came to the United States, in the year 1853, 55, 748 pounds; in 1854, 47,828 pounds; and in 1855, 69, 179 pounds; the values not being given. The mills in Brittany, like those of Normandy, supply only the lower numbers of yarns and cheap stuffs; those of French Flanders, on the contrary, turn out the finest and most costly description of tulles, blondes, and gauzes, and it is there that is consumed almost the entire importation of our Sea-Island cottons. It has not been long since the artisans of Tarare began to send into market those exqui- sitely fine and beautiful fabrics of cotton which have won the admira- tion of all who behold them. In cotton embroideries, Tararo produces articles“quite equal to the best Swiss in fineness, suppleness, and finish, and superior to them in the chasteness and beauty of their patterns.“ The perfection of the skill and taste they display in the finer and more costly styles of cotton stuffs may be appreciated from the fact, as stated by M. Audiganne, that when the society of church- wardens of Nancy desired to present an embroidered robe to the Em- press Eugenie, they procured it to be made at Tarare, the threads being number 480, and the amount of raw cotton used for it being half a kilogramme, or one and one-tenth pounds. If, says M. Audi- ganne, the thread used for this robe, and coming from so small an amount of material, had been extended in a line, it would have reached 480 kilometres, or 120 leagues. This distance is nearly equal to 291 miles. 330 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. But by far the greater portion of the yarn spun and woven in France is of the numbers running from 12 to 80, the use of any above the latter being considered as exceptional; as a matter of economy in their operations, the mill owners regard the spinning of 50 kilo- grammes of cotton into the finer numbers, as requiring as much labor as to turn from 700 to 800 kilogrammes into the lower ones. Up to the year 1834, the importation of yarns was prohibited; and since that date, the relaxation of the policy only operates in favor of those above No. 143, the duty upon which is regulated by weight. Of late years, the production of yarns in France has not only sufficed for home consumption, but has also been exported in consid- erable quantities to other countries. M. Moreau de Jonnès, in his late very valuable work, τα Sta- tisque de VIndustrie de la France,“(Statistics of French Industry,) has a chapter on cotton, which abounds in interesting facts and specu- lations. After giving a rapid sketch of the rise and progress of the manufacture in France, the author proceeds to show its influence upon the industrial and commercial wealth of the country as it at present exists. According to this high authority, the value of the production of cotton tissues and its relation to the population, was, in the year 1812, 176, 000, 000 francs,(§32, 736, 000,) being 6 francs (§1 12) to each inhabitant; while in 1850, it was 334, 000, 000 francs, (§62, 124, 000,) being 10 francs to each inhabitant. By the census of 1851, the population of France was 35,783, 170. Says M. de Jonnès, p. 76,„The 62, 000, 000(kilogrammes) imported for the spinneries, being transformed into tissues and other fabrics, worth at least 334, 000, 000 francs, the industry of our manufactures quintuples the value of the raw material, and augments it four times; or, in oth er words, gives it an increased value of 250, 000, 000 francs.“ Fsti- mating the total consumption by Great Britain, Continental Europe. and the United States, at the time he was writing,(probably 1855,) at the round sum of 502, 000, 000 kilogrammes,(1, 104, 400, 000 pounds,) he says: ¹*At 1 franc 50 centimes(the kilogramme) here is a value of 753, 000, 000(8140, 058, 000.) If the raw material should be every- where quintupled, as in France, the annual industrial production of cotton would be near 4, 000, 000. „Certainly, when Columbus remarked at the Lucayas a bush with mallow flowers, the seeds of which were enveloped in a silky down, he did not anticipate that there was a treasure far more precious than the gold mines of Cibao, and that it would have been better for him to have put the Indians to planting cotton than to digging into the auriferous hills of Hayti, which were to become their tombs.“ M. de Jonnès gives tabular statements as to each branch of cotton manufacture in France, which are embodied herein as well worthy your attention. For convenience sake, the French weights and values have been reduced to our own standards. His estimate of the num- ber of spindles is considerably below that of several other authori- ties— M. Audiganne placing the number at 5.000 000. — Ren in Vabon dcodonf 5h bi eh hh ahbor U dd Snes of e dot olh Necnä. Ia K udtorg nd Gpecl. 8 Ul he induener 1 due df th tiol, ſ .ö tnns ho ranss Celsd d le Jonnd Dirnerie mat Lat 8— Jqks es; l 37 Pir uns bly pouni is à w de eſenſ zuction ü buvit Ky om cous thu r Hr lu pto t 3. Gotol M vor md mles tbe Dül- r acööor- —— — TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. COTTON SPINNINüG. Number of mills. Communes in vhich they are Lund. Their consumption of raw material,(pounds,)...... Value of the same,(dollars,) c...............„ Quantity of cotton spun, waste not included,(pounds,). Total value of the yarn spun,(dollars,) Number of hands employed,(of whom, 22, 807 men, at 37 cents; 23,531 women, at 19 cents; children, at 10 cents per day,) Raw material, 65 per cent. .„.... „.. ⸗ .„ e 2„ Salaries, general expenses, and profits, 35 per cent. and 16,726 331 566 275 .. 138, 226, 000 17,519,756 127, 600, 000 27, 379, 200 63 064 NorE.— The rate of wages given here is at least one-third below those which, I was informed by proprietors, were paid at Muluouse and Rouen. They had probably risen meanwhile. Summarg of the value f the general produotzon f cotton tissucs. Number of es- Value of raw ma- Value of pro- COTTON TISSuUEs. tablishments. terial(cotton dugcions. yarn.) Gotton, puro.. 1, 484§18, 385, 082 530, 448, 200 GCotton, open work. 46 1, 004, 400 2, 697, 000 Cotton, mixed.. 195 6, 942, 450 10, 387, 914 1, 725 26, 321, 932 43, 533, 114 Subordinate articles 11 288, 114 395, 623 Total 1, 736 26, 610, 046 43, 928, 737 Accessories to unmixed tissues. 287 10, 977, 714 15, 427, 148 Accessories to mixed.. 17 807, 612 1, 755, 282 Total. 304 11, 785, 326 17, 182, 430 General total D 2, 040 38, 395, 372 61, 111, 167 Number of spinneris.C 566 2, 606 332 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Number ꝗf worbmen and machines. CorroN TISsuEs. Hands. Looms. Cotton, pure 145, 474 92, 623 Cotton, open work 17, 377 1, 687 Cotton, mixed 25, 716 16, 693 Total........*.A. 188, 567 111, 003 Subordinate and accessory article... 23, 299 2, 370 Total..öö 211, 866 113, 373 Add for spinneries 63, 064 16, 301 Making altogether. 274, 930 129, 673 NorE.—The figures,“ says M. de Jonnès, were obtained by official inquiries at each establishment, being the only ones yet collected on this important subject. Two thousand and forty establishments,“ con- tinues the author,“consume raw material valued at 838, 395, 372; their operations, by the aid of 212,000 workmen and 113, 000 machines, increase this value to§61, 111, 167, or by one-half; and it must not be forgotten that the raw material of the tissues, produced by this admirable and surprising industry, is cotton yarn, to work which vosts twice as much as does raw cotton.“ If, to find the total value obtained by the labor of our 2, 000 estab- ishments, raw cotton were taken as the basis of the calculation, the inereased value would be found much more considerable. The quan- tity of 138, 226,000 pounds, destined for spinning mills, is worth only §17,519, 756, from which are fabricated tissues worth§62, 012, 400— an increase in value equal to 350 per cent. Cotton is used in France mixed with wool, flax, or silk in greater or less proportions. It enters into the fabrication of velvets, silk cravats, or vestings, rich moire-antique stuffs, satinets, broadcloths, and linens; and it would seem that the progress of art and the neces- sity for new materials are destined to add still further to its already multifarious uses. Want of time for that object rendered it imprac- ticable for me to examine particularly into this branch of cotton con- sumption, either in France or any other country which I visited. It is well worth an extended and careful examination. According to M. de Jonnès, 212 establishments, employing 26, 000 hands, and with the latest and best descriptions of machinery, are engaged in the fabrication of articles of which cotton, mixed with silk, wool, or flax, is a component part. The mills are one-tenth the number of those devoted to weaving pure cotton, and the number of hands is one-ninth of those so engaged. The work of M. de Jonnès gives the following summaries of the different branches of cotton manufacture in France, after the raw material has been converted into yarn or thread: — 4 — „ TEXTILE AND PORAGE CROPs. 333 I. TISsUES OF PURE COTTON. Number of establishments............ 1, 484 — NValue of the spun cotton Msod i in lhem..§18, 384, 806 len Value of the tissues fabricated......... 30,448, 200 Total number of hands employed........ 145,474 — namely: Men 69, 410 Mi Wonlon, Ses eeeeses 52,932 8 Children. v. 23, 125 4 Men, wages, 1 frang 50 centimes,(28 I Suts 2).............„..... 83, 868, 800 1 Women, 85 centimes,(15 cents,)....... 2, 247, 922 ug„ Children, 50 centimes,(9 cents,)...... 645, 048 Ral Looms, 92, 623; other machines:..... 2,820 — Spindles............. 190, 336 W Value of artieles Habricatod. u. 30, 448, 200 — Value of cotton yarn and thread....... 18,384, 896= 60 per cent. rE; Profits, wages, and general EXIehSo,. 12,090, 000= 40 hycii namely: Wageg.. 6, 155,148— 22 lſin Profits and Senoral expenses 5, 327, 412— 18 ants eol-—— A; ti. Nari II. Transparent and other tissues. St M ed Vy NüUMBER OF ESTABLISIHMENTS. Value of raw Value of pro- Number of ork vlih materials. ducts. hands. 00 aub- Tulles.............. 19 8930, 000 82, 087, 292 10, 777 ation te Machines—— 1 8, 556 111, 600 60⁰ The qer- 938,556 2, 198, 892 10, 837 wotth ouy Taces.............⸗..=..... 2....... 1 1.012 3, 739 400 1014100- Embroideries....... 25 63, 984 502, 200 6, 140 Total....e 46 1, 003, 552 2,704, 821 17, 377 in grete dlpets ih... rauh III. Accessories to the fabricalion of tissues. the Debkr ts alreai Bleaching and dyeing. 177 84, 110, 600 S5, 601, 390 3, 859 t jnorn- Printing Calicoes,&C. 87 5, 712, 060 8, 616, 054 10, 081 3 5 Cambrics...................... 23 1, 469, 400 2, 306, 400 3, 888 otton dhh- ited. I Total.- 287 11, 292, 060 16, 523, 844 17, 828 n- Am IV. Subordinate articles. unery, 1 uxed ii nit b Wadding.......-.. 1 82, 790 86, 510 18 rtell Cords and twist..=.=e====== 4 74,400 111, 600 180 munberc Candle wieke-................ 2 51, 336 74,467 135 Fringes and suspenders 4 163, 680 204, 972 250 is d Total............... 11 292, 206 397, 549 583 ethe 19 334 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. V. Miæxed cotton tissues. NUMBER OF ESTABILISHMENTS. Value of raw Value of pro- Number of materials. ducts. hands. Cotton and wool velvets and carpetings-- 42 83, 496, 800 84, 964, 800 7, 043 Cotton and wool net-work, blankets, and furniture covers 16 1, 302, 000 1, 805, 198 6, 690 Cotton, wool, and flax 5 156, 498 279, 000 685 Cotton and sil!k 62 669, 300 967, 200 1, 617 Cotton, silk, and goats' wool 25 163, 202 316, 200 1, 170 Cotton, wool, and silk. 45 1, 171, 800 1, 957, 258 8, 511 motaa 195 6, 959, 600 10, 289, 656 25, 716 Aocessorles fo the same. Qotton and wool-spinning and dyeing- 15§799, 800 81, 729, 800 4, 748 Dressing 2 11, 346 31, 248 140 Total.......... 11 811,146 1, 761, 048 4, 888 General total. eeee==eeeesee⸗. 212] 7,770,746 11,050, 704 30, 604 Loommeh.. 16, 693 Other machines 7, 802 Spindles 71, 802 The pure cotton tissues of French fabrication are calicoes, Indi- ennes, percales, ginghams, madopolain, jaconet, organdie and figured muslins, printed muslins, handkerchiefs and shawls, tulles, bobbinets, laces, bonnetine,(caps, undershirts, drawers, gloves,&c.,) and fringes and nankins. DUTIES. The French government levies discriminating duties on cotton, taking into consideration not only the place of growth, but the mode of transport. A reference to the accompanying table, marked B, will show the amount of the duties levied on each description. The table marked A, and which is official, shows the amount of cotton imported into France from all countries during the periods therein named. It will be seen that the amount of duties paid for the year 1856 was 83, 712, 286,(19, 851,000 francs,) upon a total receipt of 183,488, 200 pounds. As to the quantity of cotton of the growth of the United States imported in that year, it will be seen that it paid more than 90 per cent. of the entire revenue from that source. The Tableau général du commerce de la France for 1856 places the amount of duties received from cotton imported from the United States at 18,777, 229 francs, and the proportion to the whole amount of duties levied on importations from that country, at 90 ⅞ per ont. 4 ——Q— „ TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 335 This document also places the total importation of American cotton for that year at 974, 793 metrical quintals,(221 pounds,) equal to — 215,469,033 pounds; of which 786, 994 metrical quintals(173, 926, 744 unbe i pounds) were for consumption, and the balance of 41, 543, 259 pounds bnb in transit. — The following table, showing the quantity of cotton imported into France for the first nine months of the year 1857, with the amount of duties received therefrom, and a comparison with the quantities 1 imported and the duties received for the same periods in the years 83 1855- 56, is made up from an official publication in the MWoniteur rn Universel, of October 19, 1857, the French weights and values being däl converted into corresponding American weights and values: B — IMPORTATIONS. 1857. 1856. 1855. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. — From the United States. 159, 125, 083 175, 613, 672 154, 459, 331 From other countries..C 21, 509, 448 12, 238, 096 13, 292, 990 oOtal............ 180, 634, 521 187, 851,768 167, 752, 521 77 Taken for consumption.----. 121, 928, 593 140, 180, 963 155, 696, 652 Duties received. 2. 976, 000 2, 820, 200 2, 659, 800 — Stock on hand, September 30 40, 807, 871 36, 691, 726 22, 322, 768 G3— 7,8ll 19 Of which, in 1857— Pounds. de At Marsellles..................................... 2, 794, 103 m un At Bordeaux..................................... 360, 671 wllied Ab Nantes........................................ 462, 879 dia At Rouern........................................ 267, 189 nl At Havre............................... 36, 174, 385 At Dunkirk........................... 181, 662 At other ports................................ 565,981 n et Total....... 40, 807, 871 the mn.— di! 9 The accompanying tables, marked, respectively, C, D, and E, all Tled of which are from an official source, will exhibit— impar, 1st. The quantities and values of the various descriptions of cotton me3 stuffs, of French fabrication, exported during the years specified. 3 2d. The quantities of yarns and tissues, with their values, of French 4651 fabrication, exported. d lutt 3d. A list of countries, and the value of cotton lissuos, of French Uone U- fabrication, exported to each during the years specified. With regard to the commercial exchanges between France and the hesh United States, it will be seen, by reference to the official statements e Luüe in the Tableau général du Commerce for 1856, that France took from ſe enö us merchandise equal, in its real value, to§50, 945,400, of which she 336 consumed to the amount of§41,440, 800; while we imported from her merchandise of the real value of§95,508, 000, of which 860, 189, 600 were articles of French growth or fabrication. Among them were silk tissues and other stuffs, to the value of§27,844,200; tissues, embroideries, and ribbons of wool, to the value of 55, 811,756; tissues, embroideries, and ribbons of cotton, to the value of 8874, 200; wines, to the value of 86, 106,000; brandies and spirits, to the value of §2, 269, 200; pottery, glass and crystal ware, to the value of§1, 029, 324; dressed skins, to the value of§2, 213, 400,&c. The above details will show that the condition of cotton manufac- ture in France is highly prosperous and remunerative, and there is no reason why the consumption of cotton should not go on increasing. The comparative dearness of fuel for manufacturing purposes is more than counterbalanced by the abundance and cheapness of labor and the monopoly of the home market, with a demand for cotton tissues and stuffs for clothing or luxury, which is daily augmenting. Never- theless, the cotton-manufacturing interest is at present in a nervous and excited state, owing to the exertions of the advocates of greater freedom of trade, and the abolition or radical modification of the prohibitory system. While all the arguments of the friends of the existing policy are earnest, and often even impassioned, some of them are rather amusing. Rouen may be regarded as the very centre of the influence of the prohibitory policy, and it was there that I met with a small pamphlet, entitled Le Libre Echange et le Droit d' Aonesse en Anglelerre, par un Rouennais,(free trade and the law of primogeniture in England, by a resident of Rouen,) in which the writer attributes England's great manufacturing prosperity mainly to the cheapness of coal and the law öf primogeniture; warning his countrymen of the political and social evils which will inevitably follow, should France open her ports, in imitation of her neighbor, to foreign cotton manufactures. That a modification—the greater the better—of our commercial treaty with France, would be followed by an increased consumption of our cotton and other products, and would tend to the increased prosperity of both countries, does not admit of reasonable doubt. At Rouen, particularly, the high price of American cotton was com- plained of by the mill owners, and, as a consequence of it, I was told that, on an estimated consumption of 140, 000 bales, in the circle, for the year 1857, at least 15,000 would be of East Indian growth. Some of the spinners there had begun to spin East Indian cotton, unmixed with the longer and better stapled American, as has heretofore been the case in France and elsewhere in Europe; the proportions being one-third or one-fourth East Indian to two-thirds or three-fourths American. In the circle of Mulhouse, at least five-sixths of the raw cotton consumed is of American growth. AGRICULTURAL REPORT. ʃ TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPs. 98⅞ ,2II& 097„9I 8 826 188 2 090 811 32 vze ofell. SauIlop ur prrd sonnq 028 628 1 009 831 2 00½˙699 9 848 116 11 1 791 696 0aom/.. 2(erogo) Srellop uf onlexA 00 ˙887 981 003 ˙627†‧191 008 ·988 191 008 0†0 021 002 9Q2,9 ,.,...“ o. 009 8 008 1r 009 8 5 00† 8†1*I 002 ,0611. Salrruno 101½0 005 101 008(631 000(698 00 † 8 009 0. uSlog 000 235 2 009 129 005˙913 00† ˙26 00½ ˙21““- purlSud. Portodiue A-ooipuf 00½(814 9 007 1169 008 101˙9 005 7999(9 oos'IEe...- 1d43.1 008 1 9 009 806 00⁵† ˙ 895˙1 00† 89 ⁵† ˙8 0os o9o⸗...........=== Conm 000 ‧69 008 929 007 891 000"022 0 C6Ce 1. sslpul 48u verlSasl 00 †(8 † 009 83.. r... uI108V 008 98 005 36 00†(69 00† 1I 007† FII. oduſepunp 003½ ˙ε 31 00½ 81 007„921 00† 081 ooF'’els H-“.= aMdvH 005 7199 009 168 008 ˙899 000(2998 00 91..... 1 nod 000 /9090 009 695 00½(‧83 007 ·898 1 00) e,“ IEurd 000(991 008(68 000„121 003(93. vlonzeueA 008 281 821 005 ·„80 891 009 918 8 51 009 801 801 000 981˙69 1—.....⸗ 8†28 poluſl SPενο SH SP SP2 S 1 9981.9981 †981.95./981-99. 1281 dAlMOdMI doNAHAM ¹ OAn SI aullop I Saullop oaul souuag oonpox 0: 405ul orl Jo Tz 0 JuoluAnnbo su pounssu uL00d Ssuu aI spunod ouf soururerSoIPl Touo ['oldmno douοsl our Jo SXoAo oflqud puve ¹2μταναο οφ ‧ 40 4arsrulm d oou e ep SrDoſi 2 ½ 4 sſ pu*9581 2 uO Prpd Souν̃ Jo zunou S= g= — 2 —====Z ——Z——Xs —— q—— =— ·S==Z=—Z— —== =—— —½—— S g== —=— ton tiens souuoo gg puu souuar G o lunbo su = ZSZ— =— — ½ —— . 2=2=—ęZ— .—— poleym ralI 1 1 V ——=—— ————— ———— =——= 38===—= ———— 1881 pup 9881—1S81 ο‿ν ειειον‿ νρνιυιοορνᷣ ooν ο,‿¶ ⁴ο οομμνο ν2 90 ↄd? Aidn 521⁄οο Qουνυππho⁷⁊u Oιοα⁴ͥεμν εου πQ PpPon oduse uOνf õQĩR lobögeuonb 9 Huαοm 2/σνμρ☚ 1 11 1 3 1 oippümnü er PoriJ commerd- IneresE Gdoubt. I 3 * 9981 pup(,81 † 81 t— relé N- th. S3- derl fions bele v- n Was eil i I 1” tokore 3 — re-inltb 2ον¶ s⁸έοεαιι 2 1 Pln ok tbe n A A eMl Ooupox OI, S Kanola M Ad pousluang IuurSLo eu 338 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. B. Tariff of duties lepied on ootton imporled into France. Kilogrammes converted into pounds and francs and centimes into dollars and cents. 00TTON. By French vessels, By foreign vessels, per 221 pounds. or by land. From French colonies- FreOe Free. Turkey- 82 79 84 65 Indio 1 86— Elsewhere, out of Europe--- 3 72—— Entrepöts--- 4 6— By land.-----e. 4 65 Unginned cotton from— French colonies 2— Turkey.---- 71 1 30 India-- 48—— Elsewhere, out of Europe 95— Entrepöts-- 1 18—D By lanld C.. 56 1 30 Wadding ⁰-3---- 18 60 20 00 Nork.— In converting francs and centimes into dollars and cents, in the above table, it was found necessary, in some instances, to add to or throw off small fractions in order to make a full number. 4 —. 00 0* * :009 01†'gIS enleà Teod! 009"282 918 enleA luod§ †26 † SI IIS enluA Iuod † IuIIe ed solgup eu Jo auouu-eAoS el 4qQ S suoo Sou e 4 5 9281 0nuls posn uood sel ouleA Ielolo TI,*⸗ A 8 009 ˙068 007 019 †e, 009 7691 05 007˙(699 V 008 96 009 ˙9 00 ˙24⁷ 00 5§26 ˙9 00 110˙6 9981 066 1I 000 995 98§8 003„849 ,12 005 984 ˙(6 008 98 00†*† 005 880'1 007 648 ˙9 000 ,084 oal 9881 8847 ,038 097 191 ˙83k 009 17891 008 805˙6 008 ‧39 003˙³ 008 83½ 00½ 998 ˙9 008 †66˙1“ 7981 S 09 992 098 1966 9 000(--e rI 005 927 ˙½ 007(7 008(61 009 8101 008 7009 ˙9 007 ,991 5 9„8 8 889 855 79˙,911 85 000 186 8I003 IIP 00† ˙·92 000 † 000 011 00 009 00(621˙9-SS 981 — 869 F8I 961 981 ˙0 009 581 II 007'581'6 00†‧97 00⁵˙92 008 179 00 600 9 000*068 8.FPSl §40 S.910 SH³α SP. V SP2O SP2 SPμνα SP0 7ſ SP2 8 — — 5 poquLid podovolq A.SoT.So—oun Pus p010l00 puu 4ol E † pred-I Jo suo**-uuuðu puu SI01—o. puuu SdUVAX sorhunod a'onleA Iurom,e Soe e-dürosop 10910 Z2uO S10ue ue pu SAu*8 S0001luo pur soluoxod sullsu NM 5 3 1 Geil Teigl rlyn „Spunod ur‿ Posso. ¹dο(ναᷣυο 1ομιινρ Ooᴵj˖⁄, o S-doœν und pun 5.390uoOD.nn eD fO HB.Szueddsrb JO ouldu ueν‿εαο ν̈ ⁴ν νρ hiοαmν‿μm ι e⸗ν⸗seuen OsE) 9981 pup põI pup 98I pup FPSI s2poſi 2½ uοο⁹ιες ↄOuν. ο⁵—Hη*εοο uιονπηιιι mMw⁵sdομmXKöo rs uOνοο o Suονναειονs Snονννρν ˖ ο J2uνιι‿ννν⁸σ ..-eeennseenn abose biki ons Mokr 0 — 2— 1†S8I ae4 ell ouls pondopu uoed Kluo sui eslpuurloloul Jo enluA Ieol ul, 4 .996 z9F lS pus Z91 ‧421 1s J0 sonlvà oAodsor erl Jo„9†8I ul spunod 003„921*2 pus gpSI uI spunod 00 Ʒ/4 1 ued SulAul 39 pvoop Jo S1804 OA 48ul ¹l. SuLinp porlodxo uaeK Jo uenb KeuIPIOBIIXSB U Jo—uοοb o 9819I 08 8I 03 G10Au SII au SATBI KIn1.I M e S A S A 3 3 ₰ 6086 998 1 999*100(8 V 007 019 † 981 988 00(69 1 ˙0 009 7691 03 008(699 9981 399*906 81 21 IL 9O 000 997!989 2821108 00 ˙190 2.6 005˙819 ,1s 000 787 28 „ 009 811 II 285—160 ˙65 V 09 7 † 1 ˙83 289 IrS 9009 898 ,11 009 178 91 000 †09— esI 129 ¼ E.: 919 829 81! 287 †II 81 007† †ε 6005 650 01 00 † ·98†˙6 005 9994--- 9 8I 2881 8 eeeer 267 F22 0. 089 †II 01 2II ˙011 008 588 ˙9 00½ 969 † 009 183 eeee=-ge8I besl 5 S D V S v770 V S.0 S.D770 Spun Sp un Spun — 5 V— b— V 2 Souss N SuleX Iu20I SeuSSII. SUIBN 1840 SonsSIL V SulB X — 3 4 — APDVNdAV TVINNAGOddG ATVA TVAA V AnlVvA TVIOIISO V SaIIILNVHDO 1 „D0.15OO u20,1O IO 40200,1eP ſ.no, MI 110 Pot'srudn,f Duer.o 99 pi eeee e 5.Doſt 2 40 OsIp pup 98I— 188I Pup 9881— 181 o SpO‿οᷣ uu o„ Hueunp our do⁴‿ Porsodan nroſundde Nouo. d ſo Sons ν½qεμον‿ m4tυ sui o Sonpe Pp 5νκνννμ ⁴εο ρσι -. 341 TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 009 01F gIS suA onfeàA Irox u.§ *6 †SI IIS SuA onſe- Ieel ou, ¼ 4 1009 ·281 gIS seR enleàA Iror euJ. † vlonzouoA pun lopeno Speuul AN Surpnloul* 007 ·029 †8§ 000 997 ˙'98 4 009„2 824 008 200 ·9 008 011 9. c00 ‧181 0.. z 009 919 000 997 008 1F1 00†˙(699 009 287 000 297 vsollunoo 100 00 ˙081 00† 9†† 009 081 008˙99 008 99 009(81 n0 00† 191 009 †0 008 811 008˙99 008 ˙99 009 111. volngy 00½ ˙915 008 175⅞ 008 871 008 12 00† 002 19.=, wlaurnoo 000 6153 000 218 000 218 009 ˙81 00 ˙19 009 81. ee-e-- Arnsonall puz so.V souong 000(615 005˙918 000 218 009 163 00⁵† 092 00 † 291 fbuI 180 A u1940 1 009 16 000 219 009 ⁵†0½ 008 871 009 1II 008 ˙99 uImo 009 16 009 †02 00† 191 000(612 008 171 002˙˙60†.---= Soerg Ieded pue AurosnJ. 00† ˙8998 000 899 008 12† 009(87 00 209 000 199 ͤͤͤͤͤſſe 00† 95† 008 13 000 6983 00 †„99 009*02 00† ‧*† eeeee CIrois pur SoldsN 007˙˙699 000 219 009 068 002˙60* 002 919 00 †˙ 690 o 009 699 009 069 000 615 00 ˙081 008 851 000 96 n0001 pulg 40AI. 008 268 00† ˙818 000 2198 009 162 000 615 00½ 812. ula 000 911 1 000 096 00 † 116 007 92 008 919 008˙˙020““. uAIIOZ eul, 00½ ˙29† 1 009 9151 009 7029 1 002 889 00† 818 00† ˙599 e sloc 00½ 819 1 008 09 † 1 00⅞ 090 1 000 968 1 00 ˙§891 1 008˙(86 eeohlus 009 269 00† ‧9111 009 021 1 00 †82 1 00 9111 000 5otI eeeee S0s ung 008 62 1 00 869 1 00† 858 ‧1 009 291 008 14† 008*gg. puulzud 00½ 168 1 00 ˙69 5 1 00½ 9†2 1 008 ˙228 1 002˙˙699 ˙1 008 840 1 ſſſ wal 007(809 9 009 198˙„½ 009 ‧808 2 00 084*† 002 104 9 008 ‧168*† ueds 000 666 9& 00 ˙990*† 008 898 ˙9„ 007 ˙1**† 000 291˙9 008*sl 9 80 1uOlO0 douong 1oα 008 †† 218 00 ˙0rI’9IE 00⅞ 928 0Is 00 ‧079 98 00 ˙*198 ‧88 00 5 gF Heß... 1=.. I3lV 1 9981 9981 7† ⁸1.9781 9*81* 81 SaIMINT00 2. maenO2ſ ſ ſi. esęunpus e un oouuνμιοο ubn *1 PrSI ulο.‿ uοs/ fo son]pa t Tn PSor.Odao 5.15092 uO AOh fõ 10 500, 12 Gf h A D05 H2h Sonqpο ον(.12dule 1uοερρ‿mBOο² O SJO d Pu D5,101d1100 nee W ſi Ssnu. f) 9981 21 F1 1O⁴‿ℳ pup 9†81 DOr.ο ℳ Oοιμ mõάtdy sonssν½ uονι‿ M᷑mjJe, So.νυο 1ο 1ε1 f 342 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. SWITZERLAND. Entirely surrounded by other nations, with political institutions of an exceptional character on the continent of Europe, and forced to depend on the comity or caprice of her neighbors with maritime frontiers for her supplies of the raw material, Switzerland yet occu- pies so important a place in the cotton manufacture of the day, and combines so many advantages as to the abundance of capital and labor, as to rank next after Great Britain and the United States in the cheapness of her productions in that, branch of industry. With her, increased cost of raw material and motive power may be said to be compensated by low wages and greater artistic skill in the handling of the various fabrics which are sent out from her mills. In the year 1850, her entire population was 2,392, 740, and in 1852, the cotton imported for consumption was 245, 422 quintals, of 50 kilo- grammes, or 110 pounds each, making 26, 996,420 pounds, or 11, 028 pounds to the inhabitant; while her export of cotton yarn, twist, and fabrics of various kinds, summed up to 150, 758 quintals, or 15,088, 590 pounds, being an average of 6,028 pounds to the inhabit- ant; leaving an average consumption of more than 5 pounds to the inhabitant. Previous to the period of my visit to Switzerland, the only pub- lished history of the origin, progress, and condition of the cotton manufacture of the country was that of Sir John Bowring, who visited Switzerland as the commissioner of the British Board of Trade, and whose" Report on the Commerce and Manufactures of Switzerland,“ addressed to that body, is to be found in volume 45 of the parlia- mentary papers, session of 1836. In July last, The Trade Statistics of Switzerland,“ by Mr. Emile Weber, was published at Zurich, and, being more than 20 years later in date than the report of Sir John Bowring, may well be supposed to contain more accurate information as to the actual condition of manu- factures in the country. The courtesy of a correspondent of Berne enables me to refer, in a subsequent portion of this report, to Mr. Weber's account of the number of cotton mills in Switzerland. Like all who visit the Swiss confederation, Sir John Bowring was most favorably impressed with those evidences of industry, comfort, and well-being which everywhere meet the eye of the stranger; and he pays, on more than one occasion, an eloquent tribute to the thrift, skill, intelligence, and hospitality of the people. Patient industry, régulated economy, immense capital, and a generous hospitality, would seem to be hereditary with these bold and independent moun- taineers, whose hands are as cunning in the workshop as they are unflinching in the field of battle. According to Mr. J. G. Zellwegger, of St. Gall, in a communication addressed to Sir John Bowring at the time of his visit, cotton manu- factures were known at Zurich as early as 1419, and he cites a law of the canton of Lucerne, enacted in 1423, ordering that cotton should thenceforth be sold by weight. It may be that this was the origin of tri, dd rralt d ni d nütun ke b u ae ted dits n e nau rtsi il. dn berul andu lä s dil dds l a van F Cuuth: o thelit domt the wrni of the dtt g, vh Of Tnke Svitmanu. f the hu W I Alrani be suppes- liticn du dent d E repard trerlod u Donäis ostky. 1I inß othe b 1 1 ke 05 vrii peudentne eEjd t cottnE d eites! 5 ot ⸗ 3 38 the g TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 343 the custom, still so generally prevalent in Continental Europe, of giving in trade returns, or tables of imports and exports, the quan- tities of cotton and other tissues imported or exported into any coun- try, by weight instead of measure, in ells, yards,&. The markets for the goods fabricated in the fifteenth century were France, Italy, and Germany. The fabrication of cotton cambrics(bazins) was com- menced in Appenzell, about the year 1746, the period, it will be remembered, of the establishment at Mulhouse, then a portion of the Swiss territory, of manufactures of Indiennes. This, said Mr. Zell- wegger, was a fortunate thing for the canton, as the war which broke out in the East Indies ten years afterwards, between England and France, brought manufactures of cottons and muslins into great de- mand, and several new establishments for bleaching and dyeing, with dressing machines and machinery for printing calicoes. were put into operation. Cotton-spinning, by hand, of course, also began about the same period,“the spinner being able to earn 3 florins(§1 20) a week, and a weaver double that amount, while a measure of wheat of 25 pounds (20 ounces each) did not cost more than 40 kreutzers, or two-thirds of a florin.“ It was about this period,“ continues Mr. Zellwegger, that the firm of Gruzebach introduced the art of embroidering, which commenced by embroidering the wrists of men's shirts.“ A visit to St. Gall, last July, brought me the acquaintance of Mr. Zell- wegger, of the very respectable house of Holderegger& Zellwegger, to whose obliging attentions and great intelligence I became greatly indebted, and was enabled to see many of those beautiful embroid- eries and figured muslins for which that city has become renowned, and which are the work of the peasantry in the neighboring moun- tains of Appenzell. The days of embroidered frills and powdered perukes have long since passed away, but of exquisite collars and sleeves to deck, though not conceal, the necks and arms of the belles of the present day, there was an almost endless variety. The conclusion of the treaty of 1783, between England and France, brought with it a great reduction in the price, but not in the demand for Swiss manufactures, and a machine for making twist thread for embroideries was introduced, being the“first machine established in the canton.“ Attempts were also made to manufacture water twist and mule twist, as in England, and a native mechanic invented a ma- chine to spin cotton,“'waich,“ observes Mr. Zellwegger,“was much inferior to the British machines.“* The following paragraph will show how the Swiss manufacturers looked at opposition and its probable consequences at that period: „Cotton manufactures were now established in France, and our workmen were bribed away in order to conduct them. This occa- sioned several prohibitory proclamations on the part of our magis- trates, which were attended with as little effect as were the silly lamentations which in every direction predicted the utter ruin of our industry by the progress of manufactures in France. The French, on the other hand, raised a similar cry, should our goods be permitted to be placed in competition with the manufactures of that country. 344 AGRICULTURAI. REPORT. But all these fears and prognostications were without foundation; our manufactures continued to increase.“ And so, might he have added, did those of France and every other country engaged in the like industry. An increase which, vast as it has already proved, is, in all probability, destined to a further ex- pansion, the limits of which few, at all acquainted with its history. will venture to prescribe. The French government, carrying out that policy of prohibition which appears to have reigned in its councils since the days of Col- bert, at this period prohibited the introduction of Swiss cotton goods, which was followed by a fall in their prices of from 40 to 50 per cent., a shock hard to bear, but not so disastrous as it might have otherwiso proved, as it was followed by a system of smuggling on an extensivo scale. In the year 1797, English machine-spun cottons first made their appearance in the Swiss markets; but the demand for them was checked by the general belief that they were inferior in strength and durability to yarns spun by hand. The spinners, meanwhile, took the occasion to improve themselves in weaving and embroidery, and their general prosperity continued until the French invasion, in 1798, and the occupation of the country by the victorious troops of the new republic, subsequent to which an almost complete stagnation was visible. For some years, Switzerland continued to constitute a part of the French republic, or the empire which succeeded it, and shared its fortunes in commerce and manufactures; the latter of which, particu- larly after the treaty of Amiens, suffered no little from the increased facilities for cheap productions afforded in England by new inventions in various branches of the art. The spinners of St. Gall, however showed no antipathy to these new systems of labor, but availed ther selves readily of whatever advantages they possessed; and in 1800, the year of its introduction, as has already been said, through Ghent into France, the English spinning machine was introduced into St. Gall, followed, in 1801, by power looms, machines for dressing cloth, and a chemical process for pleaching. The wars of the French empire and the changes brought about by the events which accompanied them, together with the commercial policy proclaimed subsequent to the overthrow of that empire by most of the leading continental powers, had a marked, and in many respects, a very ruinous effect on the fortunes of the Swiss cotton manufacturers; and, deprived of their accustomed markets, they began to turn their eyes towards the United States and even remoter markets; the result has been an ample reward for their enterprise and skill. At the time of Sir John Bowring's visit, in 1835, the canton of Zurich had not taken the position of superiority in Swiss cotton manu- facture which it now unquestionably holds, as it possesses 503, 369 of the 1, 112,303 spindles and 2, 595 of the 7,779 looms to be found in the country. As is said above, cotton manufactures had their origin there early in the fifteenth century, and exhibited a gradual increase until the beginning of the present century, when, in 1802, an Eng- ͤ☛ S= e s kn V Fother Mat her er. löter Müiin dk Gn 1k G(ell. tend 3 Nted R Wn Deun Peha tocth aüth 1d a the E ſiol rt dtk hrredit MHt eressl rrelüin MCeſe led ter 1n b 3 dher E ing A dont. Ie Wpi 1n M Ss cotil ets b 1EE enter ctl 1 ton m 93R ml eir eng linrres 1M; TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 345 lishman introduced, though with defective machinery, the spinning of water and mule twist; but it was not until five years afterwards that machinery sufficiently perfect to insure prosperity to that branch was introduced. The consumption of cotton, in 1835, was about 3, 360, 000 pounds, which was spun into yarns varying in Nos. from 20 to 40, although a mill at Winterthur sent out No. 120. The number of persons then employed in that canton, in spinning, was about 5,000; the average wages being, for men 3 ½, the women 2, and the children 1 ½ florins per week.(The florin was equal to 60 kreutzers, or 40 cents of our anreno It is not now used, having given place to francs and centimes, of the same value as those of France and Belgium.) At the same period there were about 12, 000 weavers and 4, 000 other persons engaged in cotton manufactures; 800, 000 pieces of cloth were manufactured yearly, with 19 printing establishments, employing 1,000 persons, and producing yearly about 100,000 pieces of calico. The canton had then 225,000 inhabitants, and in 1850, they had increased to 250, 698. The canton of Aargau, or Argovia, as it is also called, occupied, in 1835, the next rank to Zurich in cotton-spinning and weaving; at this day it has the same number of mills for spinning as St. Gall, though the number of spindles exceeds that of the latter canton. Aargau produces, principally, the lowest numbers of yarns and the coarser styles of tissues. In 1835, the weaving was altogether done by hand, and in the dwellings of the weavers. It then imported raw cotton from the English, French, and Dutch markets, and also vio Trieste, and received from England cotton twist, chiefly of the higher numbers, cloths for printing, and various other tissues of that mate- rial. According to the report so often quoted above, the wages were from 7 to 10 batzen(20 to 25 cents) per day for spinners and those employed in the printing establishments. Xouths, between 14 and 18 years, got from 3 to 5 batzen per day. According to Weber’s“Trade Statistics of Switzerland, Zurich, 1857, the number of cotton-spinning mills in Switzerland is now 132, and the number of weaving mills 48, distributed and furnished as follows: . 4 avin CANTONS. Mlills. Spindles. Weni h2 Looms. AlgOviaD 13 162, 400 10 1, 320 Basle 1 8, 000 Berne 2 14, 600 1 150 St. Gall 13 115, 894 4 480 Glarus.— 14 139, 140 10 1,890 Schaffhausen 2 10, 300 1 150 Schwize.. 6 59, 500 2 440 Thurgan 4 23, 100 4 454 Zurich 77 503, 693 14 2, 595 Zug.. 3 76, 000 2 300 Total 132 1, 112, 303 48 7,779 346 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. At St. Gall, I was furnished, through the courtesy of Mr. Berger- mann, the leading dealer in yarns and twist, with a table, carefully prepared by his deceased partner, in the year 1853, of all the spin- ning and weaving mills then known in Switzerland, with the places of location, number of spindles or looms, and names of proprietors. At that period, the number of spinners was 138, with 907, 799 spin- dles, and of weaving mills 31, with 3,727 looms, of which only six wereé distinct from spinneries. Mr. Bergermann estimated the increase in spindles, for the four years elapsed since the table was compiled, at 10 per cent.; and the statement furnished by Mr. Weber shows that he was within the mark. The apparent diminution in the number of mills, during the same period, can scarcely be real, as the business has unquestionably been prosperous and yielding fair profits on the capital invested.. The two most extensive cotton spinneries in Switzerland at the present day are those of Messrs. Henri Kunz and Henri Schmid, both of whom reside in the canton of Zurich. I had the pleasure and ad- vantage of an interview with the first named, at his residence, in the town of Uster, some 15 miles from the city of Zurich, and he gave me some interesting details as to the manufacture. The annual consumption in the different mills belonging to Mr. Kunz is between 6, 000 and 7,000 bales of raw cotton; having, as he said, diminished somewhat under the great rise in prices. Of late, owing to an increasing demand for the finer numbers of cotton yarns, he has been using American and Egyptian cotton, in about equal quantities, and finds that the latter, though costing more, yields a greater profit for those descriptions of yarns. Of Sea Island he consumed but a very small quantity, and that only for the very finest numbers of yarns. But few mills(only three or four) in the country use it. Egyptian cotton of good middling quality or above, delivered at Uster, costs from 130 to 150 francs(§24 18 to§27 90) the 100 Swiss pounds; while American, of similar grades, costs from 10 francs (81 86) to 15 francs(§2 79) less for the same weight. The Swiss pound is 10 per cent. heavier than the English. Egyptian bales weigh from 350 to 500 Swiss pounds. On American cotton the waste is, he says, about 12 to 15 per cent.; on Egyptian, which is not so clean, it is fully one per cent. more. Surat cotton is only used when American and Egyptian reach very high prices, while Brazilian is scarcely known. The duties levied on the raw material are but insignificant, and are less than the road and bridge tolls used to be when each canton had its own custom-house; and consumption is not affected by them in the least. Mr. Kunz purchases the bulk of his raw material at Liverpool, as he gives limited orders, and wishes to keep them, as far as practicable, under his control, which he could not do in the remoter American markets. When he does buy at American ports, his agents are supplied with credits on London, Paris, or Basle, as may be most advisabje at the period of purchase. The freight charges vary, so far as ship carriage is concerned, considerably, according to the facility of procuring vessels. — derxe naüül gyü- * essd N ha a ü Dee Mte Dhstt eré ihe e ehute delireri ſthe l 10 frus The S tinn bie the vat 1s Wt8 Rel railnn t aulu antol 1 rthen ateril 1 em, Mà’ e ri lis apeli 3 be Il 8 Tarſ 9 g ¹0 TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 347 When cotton is purchased at Liverpool, it is transported in vessels to Mannheim, and there transferred to the railroads; the charges per 100 kilogrammes(220 pounds) to Zurich being from 6 francs 40 cen- times to 6 francs 75 centimes. The freight from Rotterdam, vicg Mannheim, is 4 francs 5 centimes to 4 francs 80 centimes the 100 kilogrammes. From Havre, the same weight will cost, by rail, 6 francs 40 centimes to 6 francs 50 centimes. From Marseilles, it will cost, if by rail, 6 francs 15 centimes to é francs 35 centimes; and if partially by water, 35 to 60 centimes less. In all these cases, the duty of 30 centimes per 100 kilogrammes is not included. Mr. Henri Schmid very courteously replied to the various questions asked of him. His annual consumption of raw material is about 6,000 quintals,(110 pounds,) or 660,000 pounds, of which only one- sixth is of Egyptian growth, which is imported by Way of Trieste. The remainder is of American, Georgia, and Louisiana, and comes by way of Havro or Marseilles. He estimates the cost of transportation to the factory as being equal to 30 per cent. on the purchase price; there being but little difference between the various ports in this respect, with the exception of Havre, through which the charges do not exceed 20 per cent. Mr. Schmid has several spinning or weaving mills, giving employ- ment to some 800 hands, whose average wages are 1 franc 40 centimes per diem, and the yearly value of their products bring 1, 000, 000 francs, or§ 186,000. Of the yarns spun, the far greater portion is woven on the spot. Some go to Eastern Switzerland, and a small quantity to the German markets. The numbers spun range from 20 to 200 of the English system. Of tissues, the chief production is of calicoes(yarns, 40 to 50) and jaconet muslins. The annual pro- duction is 1,600, 000 ells, of the value of 500, 000 francs,(893, 000,) for all of which there is a good home market. When he buys in the United States, his agents have credits on London or Paris, at 60 days' sight, subject to prevailing rates of exchange on the last-named city, which generally range from 5 francs 15 centimes to 5 francs 30 centimes to the dollar. Purchases at Alexandria are paid for in a similar manner, though the rates of exchange vary in that case be- tween 5 francs and 5 francs 15 centimes to the dollar. Mr. Schmid estimates the average waste on American cotton, according to grade, at from 10 to 20 per cent. It is, as a general rule, less than that in other varieties of the same classification, though it may be sometimes more. The waste of American is in greater demand than that of Egyptian or Indian cotton. He agrees with all other spinners from whom I have had any information, that the duty on the raw material is too small to affect consumption. At Zurich, a leading merchant and cotton buyer informed me that at least nine-tenths of the consumption of cotton in Switzerland was of the growth of the United States; there being but a small propor- tion of Egyptian, and still less of Brazilian or East Indian called for. The Swiss manufacturers, with whom capital is generally abundant, have availed themselves of all the latest inventions and improvements 348 AGRICUILTURAL REPORT. in machinery, both for spinning and weaving; and their establishments are, for the most part, models as to neatness, order and skill. The little town of Watwyl, built high up among the spurs of the Alps, is the scene of an active and prosperous industry. I had the pleasure of making the acquaintance of the two leading firms of Abram Raschle and J. Rod Raschle& Co., to each of whom I am indebted for courteous reception and readily furnished information as to the condition of the cotton manufacture at Watwyl. Mr. Abram Raschle carries on the three branches of spinning, weaving and dyeing. Three-fourths of the raw cotton consumed in his mills are of the growth of the United States, and of ordinary grades; the other fourth is of Egyptian growth. His markets are the United States,(which is the chief,) the Levant, the Fast Indies— the places to which his fabrics go being Singapore, Manilla, Calcutta, and Bombay, and Italy, which takes about one-third of his manufac- tures. The waste varies in spinning from 6 per cent. to 10 per cent. The numbers of yarns spun range from 40 to 60. Unbleached, these yarns are worth 3 francs(56 cents) for 40's; and 4 francs(74 cents) per pound for 60˙s. His looms are all worked by hand, and the num- ber of hands employed by him ranges from 600 to 800. In 1856, the value of the products of his mills was 1,000, 000 francs,(§186, 000,) the whole of which went to foreign markets. The establishment of Messrs. J. Rod Raschle& Co. are more ex- tensive than those of Mr. Abram Raschle. They use but very little Egyptian or Surat cottons; the great bulk being of the growth of the United States, and of the variety which they term““ Louisiana.“ The tissues principally produced at Watwyl are ginghams, checks, madras handkerchiefs, printanieres, and striped goods. The printa- nieres for Turkey and the Levant are of fine styles, as are many of the ginghams. For the East Indies, the styles are cheap and heavy. Gaily colored shawls and handkerchiefs, with Turkey red grounds and light figures, are also manufactured to a considerable extent. The calicoes and other stuffs demanded by the home market are for the most part woven in the houses of the different families, scarcely one of which is without a loom and weaver. These two firms have their agents at New York and other cities, and their invoices are made up on orders transmitted through them. The small though very wealthy city of St. Gall, the highest town of any importance in Europe above the level of the sea. is the centre of the manufactures of fine muslins and embroideries. To the firm of Holderegger& Zellwegger, who carry on a large business in those articles, I was indebted for the kindest reception and the most civil attentions during my stay in the town. There is but little manufac- turing carried on in St. Gall itself, the business being mostly in the hands of small and enterprising capitalists, who enter into contracts with the merchants for furnishing within a given delay such quantities of embroideries or figured muslins as they may desire, and then have the work executed by the inhabitants of the district or canton in which they live, and which may be many miles away; or in some — — „„—— /¾— O—————— ——.,————„ — ,—-—— 4 aduen Rd Thdh hrn iet 8 wi piube ülell Arüurr rhebn t Hdh Caler Glhe eht. M hed, ths (4cen the m 1Sö lShhh, hec verf t windth ana“ 8 Gech le yrin. enfd nd hen, oIncb elt. M re frri areelj G ase t Ne I hest tl the cexte o the in Si h most dil EAEdi- lru contndb vnntiis then lye cantol D „in dM TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 349 instances, where these middlemen are well known for probity and punctuality, they are entrused by the merchants with a given quantity of thread or bobbinet, laces or tulles, to be converted into muslins or embroideries within a certain delay, to be paid for at an agreed rate, after deducting the value of the materials so furnished. Two leagues from St. Gall, and still higher above the sea, is the beautiful and very cleanly little town of Hérisau, in the canton of Appenzell, which is also remarkable for its figured muslins and various articles of embroidered work, as well as for other tissues of cotton of greater or less fineness, according to the demand. Through the kindness of Mr. J. J. Neff, I had here the opportunity of witnessing the operation of weaving the finer and more costly styles of figured muslins. The looms used were, as I was informed, the invention of Mr. Neff. They are placed in well-lighted cellars, in order to pre- serve the moisture and pliability of the threads used, which is the general mode of the entire district. The yarns used for these styles of muslins are from Nos. 60 to 150 and 180. The weavers get from 8 francs to 10 francs the piece of 8 ells. At St. Gall and Hérisau may be seen some of the finest and costliest figured or other muslins and embroideries for dress and curtains, which enjoy a superiority in all the markets of the civilized world, only disputed to a limited extent by the productions of Tarare, for which the French claim a superiority in the taste of the designs. The chief markets for the finest articles of these descriptions are Eng- land and the United States. The inferior goods go to the Levant, the East Indies, South America,&. The bobbinet for these em- broideries is imported from England, and comes from the famous looms of Nottingham. At St. Gall are also found several bleaching and dressing mills. That belonging to Mr. Messmer is extensive and well worth a visit; the courteous proprietor taking every pains to point out and explain its various details. Here muslins, tulles, guipures, ginghams, printa- nieres, shawls, and handkerchiefs are either bleached, dyed, printed, washed, sized or folded, pressed, marked and packed, ready for the various markets to which they are destined. Many of the procèsses are highly interesting, particularly those for the dyeing of muslins and embroideries by steam, in order to preserve the pliability of the threads. The wages paid in these establishments range from 80 centimes to 1 franc 50 centimes per day for women, and from 2 francs to 3 francs for men. The working day is 14 hours, and in the winter it is not uncommon for the hands to work from 5 d˙clock a. m. to midnight, with cus- tomary intermissions for meals. In this portion, at least, of Switzer- land, children begin to work in the factories at the age of ten, and, in some instances, even six years. It is obligatory on the employer to permit them to attend school, at fixed hours, daily, until they reach twelve years, and once or twice a week afterwards, until they are fourteen. Their wages are very small, not exceeding 15 centimes—something 350 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. under 5 cents—per day, when they first enter the mill, and for some time afterwards. The stuffs printed at St. Gall are of both Swiss and English fabri- cation, no little of“grey cloth' being imported from the latter to be converted into colored goods. For the markets of Constantinople and the Levant, great quantities of gaily colored articles, such as shawls and handkerchiefs, mostly on Turkey red grounds, are pre- ferred. For Wallachia and the other markets on the lower Danube graver tints are preferred; which is also the case with the goods sent to Spain and Italy. All these tissues are of the lower qualities of cotton, the yarns used being Nos. 40 to 80, for warp, and 60 to 100, for woof; they are also, for the most part, rather flimsy in texture. For robes, the muslins are of much finer quality, those of English fabrication being composed of yarns ranging from Nos. 80 to 140. All descriptions of embroidery, in St. Gall and Appenzell, are done by hand, with the exception of some narrow insertions, for which machinery is employed. For purposes of revenue from importations, Switzerland is divided into six arrondissements, or districts. The first consists of the cantons of Berne, Soleure, Basle(town and county), and Aargau; the second, of the cantons of Zurich, Schaffhausen and Thurgovia; the third, of the cantons of St. Gall and the Grisons; the fourth, of the cantons of Tessino; the fifth, of the cantons of Vaud and Neufchatel; and the sixth, of the cantons of Valais and Geneva. The importations of cotton into the country by way of the North, the Northwest, and Northeast, may be assumed to be almost exclu- sively of American growth. Those by the East and South are, on the contrary, almost exclusively of Egyptian growth; while those of the Southwest are also Egyptian, with perhaps a small portion of American, shipped from New Orleans to Marseilles. The table herewith presented, which is official, will show the annual import of cotton, yarns, and tissues, and duties paid thereon, together with the exports of the same, for the five years from 1852 to 1856, inclusive. It will be seen that the amount of cotton im- ported in 1852 was 27, 396, 420 pounds, and in 1856, 28, 324, 860 pounds. While the cotton exported in 1852 was 1, 464, 650 pounds, and in 1856, 1,773, 200 pounds, with an annual average of 1, 549, 430 pounds. The quantity of yarns and threads imported during the same period averaged 364,540 pounds; that exported, 1, 671. 560 pounds. The quantity of cotton tissues imported averaged 3, 529, 020 pounds, while the exports of the same averaged 15, 788, 960 pounds. As for the future prospects of cotton manufacture in Switzerland. it may be said that though it is an inland country, without seaports or coal beds, and therefore obliged to pay an increased price for the raw material, as well as for the necessary fuel to convert it into yarns or tissues, there is, nevertheless, to be found abundance of capital and cheap labor, whereby those disadvantages are overcome to a con- siderable dégree. The general diffusion of skill in handwork, aided dr a- An. lätert rtuun A 8 Are M Dnn e aoh he ym thern hes k üon ben Aaro for wiih S dhriti de canbh de gerooi third d le Gntold atal, ul he Nur ost elèr hh ubn. e thox pordin I nds. D nds i. riberu t geäpuls e ure invun cf ajil 9 t03 00l ok üik TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 351 by the system of popular education, the frugal habits of the people, and the winters of eight months' duration, compelling the inhabitants to remain within doors, all contribute to make up for the disadvan- tages under which it otherwise labors; the influence of new inven- tions in machinery, and mothods of saving fuel, must also be felt there as they have peen elsewhere; while the more liberal modern systems which dispense raw materials and manufactures from it, in transitu, from the payment of duties to the countries through which they pass, place Switzerland more on a footing with maritime coun- tries than might otherwise be the case. A still further increase in her importation and manufacture of cotton seems, therefore, altogether probable. I cannot conclude this portion of my report without expressing my obligations for kind assistance or valuable information from our excel- lent minister at Berne, the Hon. Theodore S. Fay; to Mr. A. H. Goundie, the consul at Zurich, and to Messrs. Franschini and Frey, members of the federal council of the Swiss confederation. M. Frans- chini, in particular, manifested the warmest desire to afford me all possible information. He was a gentleman of accomplished manners and varied information, and the proceedings of the general assembly on the occasion of his sudden death showed the high esteem in which he was held by his countrymen. Q S——— ꝗ——— = d 8oR— s 3 B————⁸ F 2————— 5 .—— 2—— == S.= S-=Z——=— g=—2 3—-—— v— 0E S18 68 ſ022 670 OP1 -qo 0r 11Opoe ei puone Alquqoad 3 3p— Il UI 90½α 808 ˙01 098 rolg uonldumsuoo ouloHl lquqoad pinoa 4unomlp puu Auviop uonuu puu euaals a0u anu Srodxo puu enodun aul Jo sanleA edd. ArN 069 ‧600 61 066 2b0(C6....... 1eroJ 02ε 160 9rI .*.. 9P„.-] geal(00 ·990 6 O89 2 4. 4.. .aAoqu 21.. ob... d8 015(6 5SeI oip eer ee e 1 63ne 01 99 669 936:... op.ee. 8681 2t PenlouI..... op- kes h,29 098 05 Oorẽ:Sg 968. 96 O89**ν 009 e9 op: rest 3 eaafe. 1“soun ſ8e81 ot vesel 07o or 669 223 eers 639 Teeee) enor 8 au. 10 Dcp Podoe D9s SSe ee Ieee op..⸗ 9 960˙66G,/ GCg 009,d9 a5, e 1K3 dh. ah, 3. azr ie e Wh s u 10.Fel- 3 OsePFlcal....„P⸗. Deaf 929 doßes Der der OPI98 045,666 COele Cke rl ẽob... 9681 DRhlgert... VD er, eg Aiheheße Ors⸗be, obr II 00Iecgl 0914II2 007 EYG6 op... 9981 deepeheyl.... hee.e Besl der eanh⸗ 086119 095 2 086(001 0294981 086 ·999 7. op.. 58 1 . 060 ·880 ¶l sounn e 8881 689⸗2301 688 23 66535 Peseaen— eolau — A 89 9c(88 089 ˙98 00g gLs 068 68'seumnu*ο εα 8e81 V sn uonoο pauouelqun 'op... 9esl(0sE SC6 Olp g9 Oac 9 4 7 S vaoge„u.. sop.:- 9681 deecdpe 8 00c Se ceh 9l Ogaeeel.. op.... 8 5 Senken. er eeeye. ſe behge aideis äaic ecis dühl Aeetael ererer ob... ean p... ec8l Opgelle 082409 9e ee c5: 9 5.sodunu, de e 19.. 089 8 oIIeES 075eII 096 7501.- op..* g6 puori pu 2 09 19”I i hgeh e oh 8 opgcye. 0 Oorp gs 00 5 † 088 g8 008 pl 089 eII'somnuso 9 SSsi ur pokp pur pououolg op. gegl 4 3 9e enet...... aoh.. e. denl Oochet 099 01 066 018 2 028eI 0Og0 koT 981 3 6934966:1..... op.er. pegl Ocbe 052 09 0(5 000(11 0c9:5 081792 9081 5 099-ghek ſ... n.⸗obee⸗ Led. beroht 068 01 066 098(C ollel 066 ,6 b9h ve8I E 106 ½⅞ r e*„saumuoo e Se8l 688-cm orehr ⸗ 09e 3 easeht i8,2. oumman le Be3r Wwoiau ac e, e am 1 092,(1 09² 82 080 pI 016(26 soumueo 1e 58I pun une padouoldun ... 81 0°9 6 6 6 5 engaecher erreer wopee.. des, OrSeRe Oer 6- olleII 828 E, r 081:999,1 0O96 819,18 8 Oep Gorer. C15 Ahel.... Fesl ogsepasgs deenss Oet se 961(92. 089 EIIek 0pG 29,I 092:06861 A 1das ee.2..n. DP.⸗.. zest 26 059 080 15 O1I I2 00 ½ 089 hE8’ 08beBI9el 06 ,016:G1.op.. kesl paer eboh g6 gs eE9 099 959 000(9k 0 1. Souru 7 D Spunod Spunoc Sp Sp u᷑ Spunod Sp ν 1eenee nuen O Lgl 1o 10.) 8₰ — 8 5 5 3 7, SS e, en ge 2 5 5 8 455.5 22* 555 4 1 6 5 2. 2ö5 2 E25F„ 8 2 3. 8 53 5 555 532 e aoe on— 5 ³ Lu3dde 3 22221 25 gor, de ara 36 m 5 8 Inb 10d Kund*S,0 8 8 8⁸ 5 5A 2= 2. 1eSqlOII40 11 5 3 8 2 25 2 5 3 E5 5 53 5-umnb Jed&nd s120X uoIdélosd SLdOdXSA V A„SLdOdMI 2. p.ppus 1/0 uno-.lou 7 nuauuef 0 ponpas Sounsvous pup Sn-hll Qνκ ofœQ⏓Dg81 h ꝑ½981 poß F2 auο.‿ ρupfro2αςquo porfodæn 40 Onug Porlodudss So.2def uOr—οοᷣο ᷣμαν uονοο ſo 2uε, . 1856 “ TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 353 THE HANSE TOWNsS. Although none of it is consumed in their territories, the two free cities of Bremen and Hamburg receive annually a large and rapidly increasing amount of cotton, whlich is distributed thence into the States composing the Zollverein, Switzerland, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. In this, therefore, as well as in other commercial aspects, the present condition and future prospects of their trade becomes a question of high interest to American statesmen. It was my good fortune to meet, in both those cities, in the persons of the officers and members of their respective chambers of commerce, gentlemen who honor their calling as merchants, and are distin- guished for the extent and variety of their information concerning the commerce of the world. Having a more extensive trade than Hamburg with our country, the city of Bremen, by the greater cer- tainty of remunerative round voyages, offers perhaps greater facilities, as an importing point, to the consumers of the interior than the first named. Her merchants, too, have long appreciated the value of a direct trade with us, and have labored with persevering zeal and liberality to obtain their full share of its profits and advantages. The cheapness of transportation into her port of the raw material, enables Bremen to compete successfully in the supply of the spinning mills at Vienna, even with Triest, which is much nearer, and which is now connected with the capital by an uninterrupted line of rail- road. The principal cause of this is the great difficulty of obtaining return freights for the ships which take cargoes of cotton to Trieste, while at Bremen, either cargo or full complements of passengers to the United States are, in general, readily found. The liberal policy of the city with regard to port charges, and the facilities which it offers in the way of docks, and the abundance of labor for the cheap discharge and taking in of cargoes, have also had their effect upon the growth of its trade. The following communication from Mr. E. Klugkist, the president of the Bremen Chamber of Commerce, with its accompanying tables, exhibit clearly the movement of the trade of that port, in cotton, yFarn, tissues, and other fabrics, for the period of five years, beginning with 1852 and ending with 1856. The importation of cotton has swollen from 8, 635, 196 Bremen pounds, 100 of which are equal to 1094¼ of our own, and a value of 1, 220, 891 Louis d'or Thalers, equal to 78 ¼ cents in the first named ysar, to 41, 557, 005 Bremen pounds, and the value of 6, 898, 559 Louis d'or Thalers in 1856. Nour particular attention is respectfully called to the answer of Mr. Klugkist to the tenth interrogatory; as it embodies the views which his high commercial position and experience have enabled him to form, as to the causes which may operate, either to increase or dimin- ish the direct trade between Bremen and the United States. 23 A 354 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. BREMEN, September 2, 1857. SIR: I have the pleasure of handing to you, inclosed, the reply to the questions put by your favor of 18th July, which it is hoped will answer your purposes. Vou will also meet with some suggestions pointing to obstacles wyhose bearing, in the opinion of the Chamber of Commerce, is of vital influence on the commercial intercourse between the German ports and those of the United States, which is capable of. much greater extension, if allowed to develop itself on its own merits. Any further information is at your service on this subject, and adding the assurance of high esteem, I have the honor to be— Nour obedient servant. E. KLUGKIST. JoHN CLAIBORNE, Esq. Answers to questions put b;, Mr. Claiborne. Question 1. The quantity of cotton annually imported into Bremen, the countries of its growth, and the ports whence it is so shipped to this port, is answered by annexed statement, page 1. Question 2. The freight and charges paid on such cotton, and its value on arrival? Answer. The value is stated, also, on page 1. It is composed of the invoice amount at the ports of shipment, with shipping, charges, and commission, adding freight and insurance. The freight from the United States is subject to great fluctuations, from ¾ to 2 cents per 100 pounds. It is, generally, fully as low, and lower to Bremen than to Liverpool, on account of the very low port charges here. From Bombay, the freight is about 4£4 per 50 cubic feet. Question 3. How much, if any, of the said cotton is consumed in Bremen, and how much distributed thence into other territory, spe- cifying the different countries, the amount sent to each, and the duties and charges of every nature with which it is burdened in the transit? Answer. Consumption in Bremen is quite trifling. The countries which draw this supply from Bremen are specified on page 2 of state- ment. There is levied a transit duty of one-half cent per 100 pounds in Bremen; the other charges are only those which are combined with every business transaction-—say weighing, transporting from ship to railroad, and the small commission for doing this business. Question 4. Are the duties or charges sufficiently high to lessen the consumption of cotton or cotton fabrics, in any one of the States or Territories so supplied? if so, specify such States or Territories, and the government or corporation by which the duties or charges are laid and collected? Answer. The duty on cotton fabrics is high both in the Zollverein and Austria, to which countries the bulk of the cotton imported in Bremen is exported, but on yarn low; and as inland manufactures W ny opedn Astel 11 u n A garr diedn d- — 1 nto Na oäppet ton uit pue ISdrähs Hrctuir fulhab o then about 3 careri errtur, ah ui rdeledi The eu- 31s TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 355 are sufficiently advanced, this duty does probably not lessen con- sumption. There is a transit duty on cotton passing the Zollverein, if to Austria, of 3 ⅞ per cent. per 100 pounds; other parts, 5 per cent. per 100 pounds—which proves very injurious, as by sending cotton to Switzerland by way of Antwerp or France, to Austria by way of Triest, it can be avoided, thus giving the merchants in Liverpool and London an advantage over those in Bremen and Hamburg, strengthening the supremacy which Liverpool has already in the cotton trade. It would materially assist the German markets, in their efforts to make themselves independent, if this unnatural transit duty would be done away with. Question 5. The quantity of cotton yarn annually imported, the country or countries whence it is brought, its value per pound, accord- ing to numbers, and the place or places where sent from Bremen? Answer. Is answered by statement, page 3. The numbers of the yarns cannot be given. Exports of the same are found at page 4. Question 6. The amount and value of cotton or mixed cotton tissues or fabrics annually imported, the countries whence it comes, the duties and charges paid on it, and its value in this market? Answer. Is answered by statement, page 5. There is no duty here whatever on the sale, and they can be imported by land from any port. There is not, therefore, a method of ascertaining the different kinds, as no entry is made. Question 7. The amount and value of cotton or mixed cotton tissues or fabrics annually exported, and the countries to which it goes? Answer. Is answered by statement, page 6. From the causes alluded to, question sixth, this information cannot be more explicit. If exported again, a transit duty of half a cent per 100 pounds is also levied, as on raw cotton. Question 8. The course of exchange which attends the purchase of cotton or fabrics for this market? Answer. Cotton purchases are generally made in the United States by drawing, against the amount, bills on Bremen. The exchange varies, and has, during the last years, been from 70 to 80 cents per Rix Dollar. Question 9. What articles of production or manufacture does Bre- men receive from the various countries which she supplies with cotton, in exchange for such supplies? Answer. Cotton consumers pay with produce or manufactures which are sent here for sale. There is a great inland trade going on, too manifold to be specified. Question 10. In case of the entire supply of American cotton which is taken by Bremen, or the countries which here obtain their supplies, coming direct from America, what articles of domestic pro- duction or manufacture could be exchanged against such cotton? Answer. So far, the United States has been the country which supplied the cotton; but owing to its increasing value, efforts are making to get supplies from the East Indies, and this year, about 20 per cent. imports will be Surat cotton, which, although selling 33 ¾ per cent. lower, pays a profit. It is not as good, but manufacturers 356 AGRICULTURAL REPORT are compelled to resort to it, by the high rates of North American cotton. Our imports from the United States are paid for by some kinds of German produce and a good deal of manufactures, among which form a prominent part—cloth,(woolen,) cotton goods, hosiery, silks, cigars, toys, glass, looking-glass plates, willow baskets, musical instruments, pianos, manufactures of porcelain, negro pipes, bottles and demijohns. Nearly all these articles pay a pretty high duty, which curtails their consumption in the United States, and diminishes the consum- ing power of the lower classes, who produce these articles with us. A reduction of the duties on such articles would materially increase the export trade to the United States, and the consumption of cotton, tobacco, rice, and other articles produced by the United States, in Germany. It must be remarked that the value is computed here in Rix Dollars, having a value of 78 to 80 cents each— 112 pounds American weight are equal to 102 pounds in Bremen. HAMBURG. With a much larger population and a proportionately greater capi- tal upon which to base her commerce than her sister city, Hamburg does not seem to have appreciated to the same extent as Bremen the value and importance of a direct trade with the United Stares. Her ships, like those of Great Britain and our own country, are found in every quarter of the globe, as her merchants of the present genera- tion do not appear to have lost in any degree the spirit of enterprise and commercial adventure which has characterized their ancestors through many generations. That she should continue to receive indirectly the greater part of her imports of so important an article of consumption as cotton, is difficult of explanation with persons uninformed as to the nature of her financial combinations. The accompanying official statements, in which the weights are reduced to our standard, furnished through the courtesy of Dr. Soet- beer, the secretary of the Chamber of Gommerce, will show that, in the year 1855, the last for which any commercial statement had been pubſished, at the period of my visit, the importation of cotton from the United States was 6, 114,320 pounds, while that via Great Britain was 31,381, 960 pounds, or more than five times as large. The fact that the far greater portion of this importation by way of Great Bri- tain was of American growth, will enable you to see how vast must be the addition to the price of the bulk of the raw material to the German spinners and mill owners, by the existing system of trade, as they receive their supplies burdened, at the very least, with two sets of charges for freight and commissions to brokers, agents, and bankers, instead of but a single one. A leading banker and merchant of Hamburg, in explanation of this state of things. said to me that' it had grown up and continued to exist, mainly on account of the absence döllen ibe Abm dign Tlen uiilu edrtu- da füb iurr ſo Iu IDüln avidt eätr an hw renet 1e I re bul ant gehe etelge r MWcäd- 1 nn tur TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS 357 in the United States markets of an extended system of credits, such as could be obtained in England; and he also regarded the plan of short payments, enforced in our markets, as being a very considerable obstacle to additional consumption in Continental Europe, which, he argued, would increase far more rapidly, could longer credit than three months(that being about the available limit under present circumstances) be obtained by the purchaser, as could be done inthe English markets, and but for which circumstance the amount of trade in cotton, so far as Hamburg was concerned, would soon change into a more direct channel. The value of direct trade with us is, however, much more appre- ciated in Hamburg at this time than has hitherto been the case, and with the example and immense commercial progress of Bremen in that respect, before them, as an illustration of the great advantages likely to flow from it, if properly fostered, they are turning their eyes be yond the marts of London and Liverpool to those of New York and New Orleans, anxious to secure, if practicable, for themselves the only profits on that portion of our products which is consumed in the interior States of Germany; and, at the same time, to endeavor, by the establishment of a steady, cheap, and well supplied market, to command, to a greater degree than at present, the supply of our raw materials to Northern Europe. The communication of Dr. Soetbeer will show that there are no duties levied on cotton imported into Hamburg; the only contribu- tion of that nature being the toll exacted by the Hanoverian govern- ment upon the cargoes of all vessels passing the town of Stade; a tax of which the merchants and shipmasters of the city complain with Sgreat show of- reason, alleging that it is in clear violation of the treaty of Vienna, and so. far also as American ships are concerned, of the terms of our existing treaty with that power. This course of poliey on the part of Hanover is the more obnoxious, because the entire- charge of providing for the safe and convenient navigation of the Elbe, and the keeping up of the lights, buoys,&c., falls upon Ham- burg alone; and from the fact also that the Hanoverian government levies no similar toll on the ships and property of its own subjects. It will be seen that the raw cotton imported into Hamburg is dis- tributed thence by water or railroad communication in Saxony, Bohemia, Austria, and of late years, since the railroads have afforded sufficient facilities for cheap transportation, into Bavaria and Switzer- land. It is through Hamburg, as Iwas informed, that Saxony, which may be considered as taking the lead among the German States in the cotton manufacture, obtains the bulk of her supply of the raw material, and it is through that port and Bremen that the various fabrics and tissues into which the article is converted in the interior find their way into the most remote markets of the world. It is believed that the cost of interior transportation will still further decline with the progress and development of the German system of railroads, and improvements in river navigation on the Elbe and the Weser, and that there is every prospect of a steady and grow- ing demand for raw material for manfacturing purposes, from the 358 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. interior, and particularly from quarters where, owing to the absence, until within a comparatively recent period, of the means of rapid and easy communication with the sea-ports, manufacturing industry was not so inviting to Continental capital, nor capable of that progress and development which is thought to be now before it. As Dr. Soetbeer does not give the values of the cotton and yarn imported into and exported from Hamburg, the following statement, which also includes cotton manufactured goods, is compiled from the official statement of the trade of the city for the year 1855, published in 1856; that for the latter year not having been printed at the period of my visit. The imports, exports, and value of the same articles for the year 1854 are also given: 1855.— Value of cotton importeltlll. 84, 447, 145 * Value of yarn and twist imported..... 10,319, 393 4 Value of manufactured goods imported.... 8,957, 257 Total................ 23, 723,795 1855.— Value of cotton exported.... o... 854, 858, 088 6 Value of yarn and twist exporteedl.. 11, 627, 162 6 Value of manufactured goods exportedl.... 8, 682,594 Totallll.......... 25, 157, 844 1854.— Value of cotton importedll. 85, 351, 105 3 Value of yarn and twist importeedb... 8,474, 624 5 Value of manufactured goods imported.... 8, 828, 161 frotaieteitei..... 22, 653, 890 1854.— Value of cotton exporteelel... 83, 724, 553 46 Value of yarn and twist exported...... 8, 059, 065 4 Value of manufactured goods exported....... 7,450, 310 otale.....·..............**... 19, 233,928 HAMBURG, August 24, 1857. Sm: In reply to your esteemed favor of the 24th of July, contain- ing several questions about our cotton trade, I respectfully beg leave to give the following explanations: I. I refer to the annexed tables. The principal ports whence it was shipped are New York and New Orleans; some cargoes came from Mobile and Charleston. 4 Menne ilul Seym MNäglas al mn ttewen tm ndüüe tepe —= — — 1 —— — — AE TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 359 2. The rate of freight from New Orleans and Mobile fluctuated be- tween ¾ and 2 ¼ cents per pound; 1 ¼ and 1 ⅞ cents per pound is about an average. From New Vork the usual rate of freight is between ½¾ and 3 cents per pound. The charges attending an invoice to Ham- burg are light, and by the taking off of all duties, less than to any other continental ports. The charges here are—Stade duties(levied by the Hanoverian government,) U. B. 24 g. gr.= 1 mark current, ¾ groschen per 100 pounds. Delivery,&c., 8 B. per bale. Brokerage, per cent, Commission, 2 per cent. S 3. The whole of our importation goes to the interior; chiefly to Saxony, Bohemia, Austria, and latterly to Bavaria and Switzerland. A good deal of the finer qualities, fully good„'middling,“ to fully fair,“ is going to Russia, and some to Sweden and Poland. All classifications are quite ready of sale, but“middling' to“middling fair'’' are the most sought for. 4. All Hamburg duties on cotton have been removed, only the Stade duty; a passage toll laid by Hanover remains. 5. Of cotton yarns and twist, about 35, 000 bales touch our port, in transit from England to the interior, per annum; none is sold or brought here, as we have no market for the article. There are no duties besides the Stade duties(11 B. banco per bale.) 6. Our importation and exportation of the fabrics or tissues of cotton,&c., reach a great extent, but we cannot give the particular statistics. 7. Against shipment of cotton to our markets, reimbursement is taken from the South of the United States, on New York, by sight drafts, at from 2 per cent. discount to 2 per cent. premium, but usually at 1 per cent. discount; and from New York, drafts are issued at 60 days sight, usually at the exchange of 36 ¼ to 36 ¾ cents per 1 B. banco. 8. Fabrics, tissues,&c., are the chief articles returned from the interior for supplies of cotton; and our exportation of such goods,&c., reaches so high an amount that the most of the remittances made from the interior to other cotton markets consist in drafts on Ham- burg against the excess of goodsisent hither for shipment. 9. All kinds of goods, fabrics,&c., are shipped to the United States from our port, overreaching by far the amount of our importation of cotton. With high respect, I remain, sir, your most obedient servant, AD. SOETBEER. Mr. JoHN CLAIBORNE, Special Agent, cc. AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 360 — 81 918 287[(„9ũ89 689 p 18 699 6„(81 810 97(7 169 139‧„688 ‧170„&2 16 998 ‧0871,097 199 ,I9 199 ˙196 697 ,017'6— rzo. 09 169 919 9 IZ 089 ‧3 FIL9 93 89 919 1 118 1 21 893 ˙98 900 ˙698 96 226 315 I e sollaunoo Jeulae 92 995 s9 ler 9Heo............... e.— Lrqulog 98 085 9 z6† † 18 192 ,K1l[18 6 16 068 ˙98 089 ˙98 ⸗e g6 99 9 S89 ⁵ 89-e-- jmua 08 014˙9 l 85 89 833 ˙8 118 91 09 329 ˙„ 940 18 10 0214˙9 018.*9 92 I18'I 937 ˙61 elonzouoA 91 896 1 39 ˙91 18 060 23 992˙91 21 887 2I(026 ˙06==== 00 190 02⁵ ˙9--==oonl 01104 10 109%1l 998 9,9I 11 267 II 116 †al 95 997 353 099*h 87 189 889 ˙8 00 068 1 868 8 ee-Nyll 18 ZIF"61 7(086 968 7 19 66 811 129 ‧899 ‧1 08 919 ‧021 109 999 1 0s 207 61I 221 ,990 ,1 15 898 ˙89 297 ,IF.. uo s8aAlD ze 118 ‧190 ‧9699 ‧188*5OF 218 ·099 1267289 9189 102‧208 IſIgr 49 ,118 830 ‧609 610‧819:9 3I 083‧819,020 990 ·9 SuueliO MeN. 9½ T09 CpF 681. 86 G ol 949 06 944 289 90 Fge 9rl ara alel.. ͤ..8.(.(-(-eeo 84 999: 8 168 c6e 85 991 ‧zeI 8sr Ogel. ⸗ /g 6PoOLo(0IL9„68[20 094, ,97 08E 12,..... lwungaAus 90 091 916[187 ‧289 21 0 890 891 192 128 1 29 069 18(900 669(91 F10 122 79 7†83 98 131 67186 3Frel ˙8 usalruu A.es grl 112˙91 orowmlog -—⸗z—q—⸗.neeeeze 180 9 29e uete nnevndlopeluq 99 F09 gr 882 91„& 02 126 069 988 219‧9 989 966619„91*68”„ 21 712˙899 075 ‧290 ˙9( 97 608 911911 8941IeeeeloX oN 91 Fre F9l 101 ‧061˙1 10 960 98(L961 400 ‧1 14 86 7 ‧†s ell I 22 18861s 821 8s 92 908 828673 6939 uee e .==⸗⸗= oo ek e6o ool goe 00 00 ‚92 8 ols olkle.-- 4d 4.3 , 152 ves rs zeſe...... mauxf 04 Fg2 6s as goerl“e. e⸗=er-....... 2mauoplo onls A Spunod onleA Spunod onlsA Spunod. onloA Spunod onle A Spunod NOTIOO 10 SIdUOdMNI .9981 9981—981 9981 2981 822ν& Porν⁵ o pappus 2½ 02 pSoonpo. Snsp Pu 8271622 ℳ1 Po.raſos Pup 2se,n, AI A polsaun pouupu s4Dſt 2 ur ueον⁵οερι oνν υι S.omsun S** uα Bpd S ui⁴, 1⁷ ſo onpa Pup Sr.‿αοσdeν νν ο̈ 2uνυμανιν‿σ 600 TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 96 619 186 9&89*086 97†8 980 611 ‧9(690 012 9282 900 ‧928 2169 ‧991˙61,=11 9†r 168 I2F 19 III 810„80 ‧180 1186—zo. 8* 656 F5(80 /1I1 91 898/,1 188˙91 18 168˙1 12⁵˙51 17 1601 618 ˙8 90 912'8 987 ˙28 soI 28 102 eiI loe1 a 103 9 888*†9 uuig aor Iy Z91 10 1ſG10 129˙6 cs 177 299 27I 129‧9 09 929 1ee I71 118˙7 98 817 ‧811 918 99†=1 19 781 ,621 909 879Ieeeee VsnV 09 T96 99 926 827 79 265 01 169 86 98 117 0l 190 ‧88 18 3719 51I8 9† g1 618 29 892 89 purl021A8 .e HHe 2» 9 017 6† ee- ouelll 91 2951 500 II 80 928 vIO0 ˙8 Ago 2e 929 27----ee puullofl 87 970 Ge el re ee... LaoN 99 090 2 991 91 06 6699 8878 97 ͤ.ͤ...ͤͤͤͤ.ͤͤ1łͤͤͤͤͤͤͤͤͤͤͤſ522¾³ 91 019 899[1098 280 ˙9 1 891 †ol FIF 986[12 929 †II 897 918 ſ19 189 88 616 685 99 099 † 969 18 purlod puv elssud 08 261 9— 690 geg 09 099 †! 6 9 119 9 919 8 998 ˙99 96 920 †l SI4 gof.. rnaurell 21 III96 o99 ‧0F![18 928 99 92s gg 9r I1II2I(189 871 26 699 11((19 98 29 99 ˙9eI I zee J0uM 81 †ILG 92(681 003 3I 886 8 991 31 81 F92 9I 12I IrI Iz 100%G— 8 1g 80 978 ˙„G 619 38 Gabua 98 I11 272 ‧1616 ‧0696 91 978 129 915 995 † 9† 999 109 8II 222 7 29 891 125 876 306 1 28 102 ,03(646 ,318080 allvaug 09 028 ˙98 069 98 098 991 ‧9G 916 83 91 †96 291˙8 0I 919 ˙‧ 110* 18 625 ˙8 190 38— Aolssunad 9 ⅞½ 52„F 1 106 ‧86 1188 F18 951 1161‧929 6 89 006 IIs(681 006 9 29 871 ·699[182 159 29 996 7FI9 191 ,179 9 Kuoxν 88 919 9g98 vS9 ‧109‧9 18 699 90 I17Z15 ˙( 28 118*er(688 891˙9 99 996 081[918 ,629‧1 89 303 ,II 686 9921-=—eeeeeussuld 96 920 09 801 ‧659 81 088 11 94˙‧681[7 819 ‧9 929 ger[11 918 21 819 111 ss 998 ·91 811 ,811 arnquopl0 91 098 ‧2928 059 093 ‧ 09 798 1218 686 140 ‧1 86 189 ‧888(699*o.e I 996 91s 991 II 8s 990 ‧928 686 833——10A0uuH onlsA Spunod onlu A Spunod oule A Spunod enle A Spunod eule A Spunod — O(CATMOdXA NOILIOO 9981-9981 981 8981 2981 pg 2 ᷑ꝗ sdomsun S, ux½ 8 ,,S obpd Sp h.1OD60.11010 — A 1 02 Po..l/5. Pogfi0οs S2eoſ, F2 Huren ud⁵ν. d⁴ο‿ρι ppo*.deο u0ννοο ſ ruouεννσ „———— S A S 5 S 3 T†r* 059 †es(097 297 15 166 987 899 ‧612˙1 81 990 995(620 997 ,1 rIl 299 921 908 ˙899 68 990 831 881 1 Leno A 08 61 299 92 lPe o 99 991 06 † 2½ 391 039 ,1 11 68 681 aoluno 1010 8 89 618 199 160 ,27†9˙§ 08 919 ps 9Fr †26'I 11 179 181 876 ‚†s(28 106 6½(6827 ,grr Os II† 9. rl9 ,19 d ne 8 91 1191 721 8 08 269 ˙8 817:03 96 929 ˙3 088 11 01 910*† 280 15 88 8139 996 65- eBmqH 8 09 030 ,1 589 ,2 86 691 9881 89 130‧˙1 998(5 97 919 668 1 08 91† 635 ˙1 ee olasunxd 2l 181,1 918 3 10 TgLeI 2217* 19’l 868 ·8 9½ 018 ,I 108(5¾ 06 979,1 190 †. Anoxus 19 986 ,8I(011,08 26 308 01(086 ,13 09 399 ˙8 F68 IZ 58 7 1I(669 9† 88 316 l 896 92 r. ash lel — 18 399 ,181 5gL,e9s 86 619 ,911 820 ,384 88 183:58 208 ,819 00 678 ,03 6e8 IrI es 178 85[179 ,9Iz anmqupf 89 982 18[r61 11 92 999 ˙9 190 †1 81 129 ˙„%˙ 191˙1 16 16 Is v9† ˙8 90 886 Is(9†5 Ʒ1*ee 0Ol onlBA sSpunog onleA sSpunod onlbA sSpunod V onlbA spunod onluA Spunod 1— roud MarOA⁴ 4-II SNXdVAX NOTILOO 9981 9987*†981 9981 5981 2 p. ppu⸗s s ννκν⁄ασ mρeννν oν poonpo. S,oαν pup Sonsp] ‧8 6 pd Sp h.Oννο.1l.2221½ /20 ei o omsun S, u 1S—,En, IT ſ9 07 pPoudaſ pogfoOods s. of 2„ Hundnp uousꝗ Opun Por. Oduln su⁴ᷣb uO*οο 1dο ꝛusu—ig 9 ½ 000 TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 11 I72*es 091 37 7 90 628 117 9890 219 ‧714 985 ‧382 910 ‧187 1 19 670 7II 099*7o9 19 679 ,101 018 139 o, 81 179 1 9119 08 970 1 968 † 89 018 ˙ 189 91 91 926 9 681 11 90 291 898 † solrunOoο 1010 35 180 ˙8 839(61 98 688 8 181˙6 17 808*† 808˙01 08 101˙8 683˙81 87 697˙1 691 310 S04u,8 Porlul 08 61⁵˙(8 999 ,17 93 681 98 69 ,0F5 00 681 790 ,1 2 B amy 1 125˙9 881—8 99 167˙9 685 98 36 118*† 097† 82 88 255 9 98⅞ ‧˙65 18 916 8 997 9ge.— ossouan A .e ſia ee 19½˙1.. 10 98† 1 063 ˙8 80 8798 ³ 110 †l apersuI 0SsoH 29 610 9 399 93 99 FL16 ‧9G 988 ,13 09 191 656 B ca Oy: 989 ˙9-- ararg 85 160 91 019 98 09 130 ˙6 319 ˙09 35 839 801 ⁸ 90 907˙9 181 ˙08 30 P65 3 338 9G oxvg Jo Clond 28 11³(81 991 26 0g 26 2 ‧0. rlLII 11 089 83 188 ,681 04 0989 918 88 97 31123I 119 ·9z, Nolasunag g8 089 ‧861 181 990—1 39 817 ,01 229 89 19 355 1 0FF*8- 80 695 999 1 err-ne ⸗ 400x*8 85 793 968 7!0 ‧087 ˙88 271 492 118999 1 19 684‧801 091 ,8 32 g98 909 ,11 689 5301 89 062,81 420 0bou*=wxwnxq 18 816 ˙9 289 ,21 85 818 11 906 11 89 997† ˙9 599 15 01 397˙9 188 ,11 25† 099 † 260 9!: mquoplo 9r 807 ‧291s 911˙638 31 917 ‧868 913 199 26 308 088 997 387 91 996 198 769 3rs 12 190 ˙698 176 ˙618 0AOueH enleA spunod onleA Sspunod onleA spunod onluA Spunod onluA spunod — oT d -XM SNdVX NOLILOO 9981 9981 981.9981 2981 docsun S*ν½ uν 28 ,f I M7 02 PO vſ.s peſds Sanſ 2u Hundnp ue.g di pappuzs soνννςσ ꝙρmνν ον ο oonpa. So pup Sonsp o6 pd Sp ha40ν6043.our 12, 212 02 poruodeo sush, uOνοο sο uονμμινννασ 219 128 ˙2 108 ˙13 FI6 911 5 990 ˙(61 910 165 35 829˙61 618 860 9% 070 2 619 980 5 791 ‧81 LezoI. 509 F 18 119˙3 Ie 0ʃ976 85 Ie 9 soraunoo 10½10 . 618 15 811 168 91 198 I† I 885 929 09 90³ 700 91 09 ue 01 .R 4 6 1 3 A0. 26 121.9 61 puellofl 5 261 61 613 019 6† 128 989 97 10† 688 18 949 079 01 III——-Smqu 8266 51 12 59I 2 9 019⸗I 91 017 1 0 922 6-eeeossodan 96 61 9 59 9³1 ˙2 31 393 1 881 3-przsure 08SoH 836 81 98 410I 8 19⁰9. 9 AͤIſZAna 2 3.— 3 eulx uo ONue. E 188 8 9g; 5SP 0I 39 1366 99 61 3 BA ZroquxoaA 8 2173 ˙66 119 809 99 909 740 192 v09 7I 119 86 189˙21 12 veeere xnaApd 4 699 ·8 01½ ge. 9v5 684 69 098 ‧3 28 699 11 oxes Jo Alond 5 910 7 39 636 ˙98 09 6IF 79 011˙9 11 906 1 H65 Nolasunld 681 vos 259 91 681 ˙999 1I. 691 81 899 216 1I 999 91 916 ˙899Ä 75. 26 ⅞ 91 299 619 1 9gg'gl- Auloxos 8 867 ,961 6991[7 FII 309 1 925 ˙013 F69I 67 165 p6 † I 999 081 6811 vISsndd 4. 2I l 89 5†*I 991 621 1191 680 101 9 ½ 1 961 91 0191 020 ˙9 2½ 179 1--’=-Sanquoplo 188 B18 251 ˙1 900 998 289˙˙1 L/1*†18 999 1 279 2918 96 † 2 679 ˙668 836˙1=ee=-- JoaourH onleA.S0 SuNoOud onlsA S0 S NO onleA 808 O onleA So Sx Moud enluA So SvNoud AONNHAM 9981 9981*981 9981 2981 V . 1. *-C o6 pd Sp 42 pup 9 Suν³ 02. S Sosun S**r ux‿ᷣ*⁄ει⸗μ‿ν õᷣ✝lſ 119 02 Po.Iſ5.1 pfrOο⁴s S.ſ HBunn dαοεα ν ꝛPνονεοε Spooß pononſnupus 000 209 2 TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. — 119 192 ˙„ 101 0e 689 1215 reSF”4I 988 807 ˙%997 8I 888 918 5 1I13 ˙I1s 108*90 5 Wü08:218—8——- eeeeeeeeeeee 981 1 1⁰³ 635 ˙91 211 2811 2 21* II 98 908 †1 691—— sohjunoo 10uo 199 ˙6 981 976 91 02 769 11 86 ⅔ 621 †1 161 181˙8 691. udoaeon 901 † 17 188 ˙1 99 206 18 091 190*† 1 e-ee== spurisI Molabuos 936 91 08 FP 8 ZI. 2eeee.. 999 62 6 51 819 ˙01 59 e darf 162‧‧81 18----=se--== olodesuls 869 1 261 819 82 59 901‧21 901 908˙1 89 66201 88 eee vlonzoA 911 1 811 096 81 391 126 †† 999 028 91 611 876 02 981 Aee nauf 690 9 28 196˙9 99 909˙‧˙6 96 611*† 28 144 I 91 ano FSL II 191 IP †l F9l 226 ‧02 611 89119 262 891˙09G 91-. oolxoll 009 9I x 915˙9— 968‧391 ˙1 690 9t 090 ‧010 ˙5 z88 †! 101˙‧109˙‧„%M909 91 660 ,991,1 988 9a1 ns bolu 68 1 9†1 68 991 rtee e ee Sähtaites ee ees eeieietes Rekesteie We se 14 eeiee Retett pF9 89 891 1 911 519 †1 122 9†5 Ig 968 090 ‧13 398— V amquroll 609 18 yor 918 91 13† 076 ‧29 91† 901 9 522 3. vrenaa 671 88 209 829 0 † 929 9†1 1 8 909 92 0g 599 81 999 Znquopl0 FI9 168 10 ‧2G 619 I1018 920 ‧3 911˙618 911˙1 918(8118 266 3 989 CIIe. 9186.. 10a0UuI enleA S0 SNoOud onleA ·S0 SeNoud onluA.80 5 ½ NOv onleA.S0 ¼ Og onleA ·S0 S 9NOv AAHIIHM 9981.9981 7981.9981 2981 -9 6 pd Sp 21 pu 9 sdomsun S9 n exghn, N II 17 07 po.2rnſ., Sozſ0ds s.⁵ 2 buxmp 2euu⁵ερ uuο 9 S²πᷣmRm☛ĩmq/ϟʒzℳi 0⸗ porνdeνο spooß poan⸗onſnuαι uνο AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 366 ——— 15 2 910 809 17 v62(80°(—910 980 1F 199 989 ˙69 V 390 696 19 999 LZo 16 189 979 92 810 042 0o- Iezol 082 900 † 914 ‧115˙9 188 008% 929 101% 110 222 197 ,601,1 969 ·082 ˙5 166 ,692 ˙54— odonn 30 Ua1oN 9†g IF9 870 †1S88 989 †8¼ 12 190 ‧986 9O 170 112˙6 3 981 †19 9 r 99e e eoeeeeteeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Spunod spunod Spunod Spunod Spunoq spunod jEPpunod spunod AAHIIHMG 9981*981 9981.2981 1981 0981 6781 8781 pouupu Sſ 2 ur᷑ Hnu uoο᷑νι poν‿μονσνο μιν 197 ˙980 27 991 909 ·99 6717 9†79r 01*el 69 911 489 19 096 19892 L966 †pI l92 972 91221——— ro. 911 Or 82 8³⁶ 1088 g g85'691'8 189 817 9 970„296 1 071 9911 872 292g 989 9!1 e=- sonnunoo 100 6 †† 2I 848 Ʒ† 699 9 068 6098 159 9298 081 ˙99 810‧2 991*†ꝑ eeee 161 209 018 9 188˙291 921 91 68 11 851 9 292‧81 0119 Buoufoxel 790 ,168 col IIe..B H90 19 196(63 012 999 696 9† ppurl ouzoN 986 9I6 9C9 vel 5r4, 9g 178 902 92 plS IO Iz 991 302 95 Les 1Z0 IZ 098 0I9 I 147 866666z6 u ͤͤ*98 901 089(611 914* eeer- ereee-.=- geg 19—uDo pue nrog 688 913 966 115 988 10 †† p2S 409 199 9I FIL 19 991 611 528 ˙96=e= vlenzouoA 199 038, IFL T6I 693 eaII 809 ‧16 990 111 9 8 931 0†8 961 501 86 5 860 089˙˙9 999 980 91 289 906 21l 1z 211˙91 919 1819Q 179 †91% 2727˙909 Q 006 73169 7 eso*8 Palluſl Spunod spunod spunod ſpuuod Spunod Spunod Spunod spunod AONdAHAMA 9981 5981 9981 2981 1981 0981 6581.8581 ·9 νυνσ mρνα³ν υ ⁷⁊˖ovöso,⁄ ο poonpo., 821,S22,/1l pouupu Sapeſ, ur S.anu 0rur So‿οdu ννο ο zuονιμινν 367 TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROEPS. 902 78 29 op-“-..=⸗.F. 1981 b 60 909„999 99 spunod-----eeee-998I ‧08 12d 1edos o; dn aslax puu ursf uo*⁵αο IIy pes e.-op-.. 298I 60. 620 0sf 25 sbIC.e⸗.ggol Og 10udog ox dn pornqoejnuuu uo*2 : SMoOIIor su 1981 puu 9981 sreο eua Jo s-uunb-oelu 38 ell 101 sudle. osuuH eul 0 porodxe 4sIA pue u. nou spunod puv spauK ul sonlauunb ouf Jo aueourεs u sousluxng 1981 18 1240400 J0 fafrouHane auo]|looxo poroplsuoo(404Sedousst) 41Odod operL 8. O0 N Aug 4981„CInf ox dn suanjen Ielomo 4soxel oul lt eAoOqe eul.—*10N 106 991 7†9 V 181 796 17 188 ‧08 ˙27 886 60 ⅞ ˙9F 992 101 9? 999 ‧186 9 321‧639 ,07 998699 sos 1ero. 829 ,66⁵ 8 090 16⸗ 9 189 969 998 ‧9869 991 g6 ˙‧˙9% 999 911 ‧5 290 955 5 896 989-Lal uo 0110 618 79 9 192 090 2 098 189 99 221 ‧925 69 669*IS68 868 128 9 0fI 888 88 806 981 5(56eeeee ei spunod Spunod Spunod Spunod Spunod Spunoq Spunod Spunod AONdAHA 9981 981 9981 2981 1981 0981.67†81.8581 poupu S.Doſ o u Snuur opus Por.doduss,—sᷣ pup upf uOεοο — 8 4— 1.“ 25eͤ— Leeeeee 8 meesee—= S Bbkeeee eee eee 23 0282 e 123 32922 e DO 1amrre 368 AGRIOCUILTURAL REPORT. Statement of the quantitg, and value of cotton ewported from Hamburg, in 1855, with the countries to which it was sent. Values and weighis aecording to the United States standard. d H COUNTRI. Pounds. Dollars. h Sweden ee 85, 490 8, 410 Prussia 34, 808 2, 713 Premen and the Weser.— 139, 950 3, 815 Great Britan.. 82, 652 8, 372 Francco qD e 21, 311 2, 548— Altona, KG.-=- Z.. 1, 394, 150 129, 535 8 Altona and Kiel railroad.— 101, 532 11, 872 13 Lubec..—. 2, 569, 078 304, 234 Berlin and Hamburg railroad..c 25, 545, 790 2, 347, 457 By wagons and boass. DD 26, 554 2, 409 Harburg, and beyond. 12, 506, 447 1, 028, 010— The upper Elbe. 10, 679, 306 996, 419 Total............... 83,147,06 4, 845, 884 A kh 1 0 ADDENDA H ex BREMEN LEGATION, b Washington, Februarg 13, 1858. a SI: Knowing the interest taken by the department in collecting 81 information that may stimulate home production, by pointing out the le natural channels and avenues into which foreign demand must 1 eventually lead American commerce, I take pleasure in transmitting 1 to you a memoir on the consumption of cotton in the German the Zollverein, which, founded on official and most reliable private sources, will serve to prove how rapidly the consumption of cotton is increasing in Germany, and the justness of the assumption that this increase will continue in the immediate future. T avail myself of this opportunity to offer you the assurance of my very high consideration. R. SCHLEIDEN. 1 Hon. JACoB THoMPsSoN, 1 Secretarg of the Interior of the United States, l Washington, D. C. h TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 369 The consumption& cotton f the German Zollverein. According to the treasury reports on the commerce and navigation of the United States, the exports of American cotton to Bremen and Hamburg during the last four financial years were as follows: T0 BREM. 10 HAMBURG. IEARS. Bales. Pounds. Value. Bales. Pounds. Value. 1853 ,54.—V—. 23, 959, 656 82, 232, 222 13, 760, 266 81, 304, 138 1854--,55 51, 648 22, 661, 173 2,020, 438 18, 672 8, 148, 818 761, 572 1855- 56- 103, 054 46, 456, 809 4, 238,497 34, 192 15, 609, 844 1, 469, 753 185657.— 71, 165 34, 378, 685 4, 356, 418 22, 720 10, 524, 075 1, 311, 935 Although the quantity exported during the last year was smaller than that shipped during the previous one, yet the increased value of the article makes up fully for the decreased quantity, the same having doubled during both of the last two years. In fact, Bremen and Hamburg import more American cotton than any other country, except Great Britain, France, and Spain. In order to appreciate how far this state of things rests on a sound basis, it seems fit to inquire into the wants of those countries which Nature itself has taught to look to the above ports as the proper markets for supplying themselves. While there are about 3,250,000 spindles in France and about 21,000, 000 in Great Britain, there were working at the beginning of the present year in the German Zollverein: Cotton man- With spin- Consuming Bales of ufactories. dles. bales of East India COLEIE. American cotton.* cotton. 2 In Basara 16 316, 700 29, 800 5, 800 In the kingdom of Saxony- 133 554, 646 34, 200 34, 000 In Prussia. 20 289, 000 22, 500 9, 000 In Baden 10 185, 600 18, 600 6, 200 In Wirtemberg... 12 119, 000 11, 950 3, 700 In Hanover.. 1 48, 800 3, 000 3, 000 In Oldenburg 4 20, 400 1, 200 3, 200 Total 196 1, 534, 146 121, 050 64, 900 Grand total, 185,950 bales. *We use here the expression"‧ East India“ cotton as a general term for all kinds spun in the Zollverein besides American cotton. 24 A 370 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. The manufacture will be increased during the present year by: Cotton man- Spindles. To consume Bales of ufactories. bales of East India oUTETs. American. cotton. In Bavaria 2 232, 000 20, 250 4, 400 In Saxony 1 50, 000 3, 500 2, 000 In Prussia 6 135, 000 10, 500 4, 000 In Baden- 1 25, 000 1,500o——— In Wirtemberg. 15, 000 1, 6500 In Hanover 1 7, 000 ◻— 1, 000 In Oldenburg 1 20, 000 1, 000 1, 000 Total 12² 484, 000 38, 300 12, 400 Grand total, 50, 700 bales. There will be, therefore, in working order next year: 9.- 8 8 3 l43 OOUNTRIES. 215 S 3 3 2E— 8 8 8 8 ◻☛ 3 88 8₰ 8 38 5 3 8₰ ₰ 5. 2 8 8 E A8 EA Pounds In Pavaria 18 548, 700 50, 050 10, 200 60, 250 In Saxony 134 604, 646 36, 700 36, 000 73, 700 In Prussia....... 1. 26 424, 000 33, 000 13, 000 46, 000 Ih Baden... 11 210, 600 20, 100 6, 200 26, 300 In Wirtemberg. 12 134, 000 13, 600 3, 700 17, 300 In Hanover 2 55, 800 3, 000 4, 000 7, 000 In Oldenburg- 5 40, 400 2, 200 4, 200 6, 400 Total in Zollverein 208 2, 018, 146 158, 650 77, 300 235, 950 * 8 In 1856, the number of spindles actually in operation within the German Zollverein was only 1,200, 000, and the amount of. cotton consumed 160, 000 bales. The above statement, which is brought down to the present day, shows the former number increased within two years to 1,534, 000, and the cotton consumed to 186, 000 bales, while these numbers will po further increased, during the present year, to—manufactories 208, spindles 2, 018, 146, and pales needed for consumption 235, 950. Furthermore, the Austrian empire, according to the last reliable statistics of the year 1851, numbered 208 cotton manufactories, with a total of 1,482, 138 spindles, and of a consuming capacity of 130, 000 bales. Although it was impossible to gather newer dates from that quarter, — TEXTILE AND FORAGE CRopPs. 371 the increase since may be safely estimated at 15 per cent. Of those de Austrian manufactories are situated: Nad 4 4 lä C0UNTRIES. NManufactories. Spindles. Bales. ta 4 In Tyrol........ 20 195, 000 17, 000 — FErBohemia 79 460, 000 35, 000 4 3 Total............ 99 655, 000 52, 000 The statistics of these two countries are of particular interest on ii, account of the greater quantity of the raw materials needed by them, rh being imported by Bremen and Hamburg, and a considerable part of their manufactured articles being consumed in the Zollverein. But the manufactories of the other parts of Austria, although they do not sell much to the countries of the Zollverein, have lately commenced to import part of the raw materials needed by those northern ports, as the cheapest and speediest way of procuring them. Great as the increase of the cotton manufacture has been through- out Germany, the fact of the continuing importation of English cotton goods, amounting, for the Zollverein alone, to 550, 000 cwt. a year— the manufacture of which will require at least 175, 000 bales— gives additional evidence of this branch of industry being capable of still more successful development; and, consequently, there is still a great 1 ³ field open for improving the direct cotton trade between the United States and Germany, by the way of Bremen and Hamburg. This is rendered less doubtful, as these sea-ports are already capable, in con- 4 sequence of their extensive shipping, and of a general reduction in t 1 the rates of railroad freight throughout Germany, to supply to an 11oh 3 important amount the wants of countries beyond the Zollverein. en ss Among these countries, Austria and Switzerland are prominent, where 4 1 there are respectively about 1,500, 000 and 1, 250, 000 of spindles in 2 9 operation, and where Bremen and Hamburg compete successfully with the ports of France, Belgium, and Holland; these, on the other hand, ad W supplying part of those States of Germany, which, according to their — situation, could be better provided by the German ports. Comparing, therefore, the amount imported by foreign ports into. kütut the Zollverein, and that imported by German ports into foreign coun- vunt d 09 tries, Bremen and Hamburg are no doubt destined to import, in the course of time, at least, such a quantity of cotton as is required by eress the Zollverein, namely, 236,000 bales. For the present, however, d 1 the direct imports of Bremen and Hamburg fall about 90, 000 bales Rrehe- short of this amount; these, during the year ending the 318t of fatrin December last, laring, been only as follows: Bc At Bremen. 86,079 bales of American cotton. e k1 25,605 bales of East India cotton. facb 1 533 bales of South American cotton. ru 395 bales of West India cotton. ui ſ Total........... 112,612 bales. 372 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. At Hamburg.......... 25,599 bales of American cotton. 15,582 bales of East India cotton. 1,033 bales of South American cotton. 6,373 bales of West India cotton. Toial 143,587 Pales. At Bremen.............. 112, 612 pales. Grand total..... 161,199 bales. RUSSIA. The empire of Russia has kept a nearly equal pace with the other Continental States in the increase of consumption and manufacture of cotton; and her most enlightened statesmen seem fully to appreciate the importance of this great branch of industry, though some of them do not conceal their dissatisfaction at the inroads it has made upon the manufacture of flax, which is a raw material of domestic growth, while every pound of cotton is exotic. A very interesting account of the history of the use and progress of the domestic manufacture of cotton, and the fluctuations to which it has been subject, either from financial or political causes, is to be found in the second volume of Prince Tégoborski's Commentaries on the Productive Forces Russic, a work highly prized by his country- men, and which is regarded as a standard authority on all subjects of which it treats. Beginning by stating what he conceives to be the leading points of advantage or disadvantage to Russia from cotton manufactures and their continued increase, the author proceeds to a clear and succinct narrative of their establishment, and the progress which they had made up to the year 1852, from which the following statements are compiled: The first spinning mill was established in 1828; and two years later, the only one of any importance in the country was that owned by the Government at Alexandrovsky, on the Neva, a few miles above St. Petersburg.— During the succeeding ten years, but little increase in the number of mills was evident; and, in 1835, the importation of cotton reached only 200,000 poods, of 36 pounds each; or 7, 200, 000 pounds; the manufacture of fabrics reaching 800, 000 poods, or 28, 800, 000 pounds, showing how much they still were dependent on other countries for supplies of yarns. At the time of the first spinning mill being put into operation, the Russian tariff absolutely prohibited the intro- duction of cotton prints, and, on plain cottons, duties ranging from 60 to more than 100 per cent. were imposed. The consequence was, that cotton manufacture"“monopolized speculation, to the detriment of manv other branches of industry;“ and its progress was rapid, as thtetke ühhcmmi Dappheät oneik me Stisgunt and phgs A tofü Ses Bt uneairisn is cur oljee inx faui factu9 andaui ien terd teuelb ad tyo ſ3 that I) filsie nthes IEXTIILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 373 is shown by the table of the triennial averages of importation of the raw material, and of twist, beginning with 1824: vEARS. Pounds of raw cotton. Pounds of twist. 1824 126 2, 673, 648 2, 022, 606 1827 29 V 3, 534, 480 15, 860, 952 1830 32= 4, 175, 856 19, 211, 540 1833- 35————— 6, 162, 804 19, 678, 364 183638. c 10, 180, 764 21, 561, 668 183941 12, 807, 864 19, 515, 500 1842 44 18, 882, 396 21, 318, 948 1845 347. 28, 085, 364 18, 156, 096 184850 47, 845, 116 10, 134, 720 1851. 52, 585, 632 5, 685, 516 1852. 62, 940, 456 4, 058, 388 Thus,“ says Prince Tégoborski, we see that the importation of raw cotton has followed a continuously ascending movement, exhibiting in its latest results an augmentation in the proportion of 1 to 24; whilst that of twist, after nearly tripling, in the course of the first fifteen years, has fallen gradually to a third of the cypher of 1824—26; and to iess than a fifth of its culminating cypher of 1836—38. Taking the period of sixteen years— 1834 to 1850—the increase in Russian cotton manufactures, as compared with that of France, was nearly as 3 to 2; compared to that of Austria, it was as 10 to 44; the duty on the raw material being raised in Russia from 5 to 6 ¾ roubles per pood, while in Austria it has been lowered from 30, 60, and 81 florins, according to quality, to a uniform rate of 10 florins the centner. With the States of the Zollverein, the comparison was in favor of the latter, being in the proportion of 6 to 5. From the com- mencement, cotton yarn had been protected by a duty of 5 roubles (83 75) the pood; but still the spinneries made little perceptible pro- gress until 1842. Among the other'struggles undergone by the spinners was that of the impossibility of procuring, up to that date, proper machinery, the exportation of that of English manufacture being prohibited, and they had consequently to rely on the“ defective“ machinery of France or Belgium. At the period of the great commercial crisis of 1841- 42, the spinners at Moscow solicited and obtained from the government, as a temporary measure, an increase in the duty on cotton yarns, and it was accordingly raised to 6 ¼ roubles(4 88) the pood, at which point it remained at the time the author was writing. As will be seen hereafter, this rate has been greatly lowered by the tariff of 1857. This duty of 6 ⅛ roubles the pood was deemed equal in yarns of medium fineness, 20-40, to„the enormous rate of 60 per cent. and upwards, ad valorem,“ and gave a great impulse to the spinning mills; so that while in 1848— 50 they furnished 82 per cent. of the whole quantity of yarn used in the weaving industry of the country, they, in 1852, furnished all of it but about 7 per cent. But this 374 AGRICULTURAIL REPORT. apparently prosperous state of affairs was nevertheless, in the view- of Prince Tégoborski, accompanied with risks and inconveniences, for, as he observed, the heavy duty on yarn, while it had rendered the manufacturers independent, had also made fabrics dear, and''a host of speculators, working on borrowed capital, at a high rate of interest,“ had started a number of ill-regulated establishments, which, without the bounty of a highly protective tariff, could not exist. In quality, the mass of the yarns produced in Russia is of the lower numbers, 48, 50, being the highest; most, spinners turn out Nos. 30 to 40 mule, and 20 to 30 water twist, those qualities forming the bulk of consumption; ¹and it is desirable that they should remain upon this good path,“ for, eif they were to attempt competition in the higher numbers-with their brethren of England, who have brought their yarn to a pitch of fineness which we may almost term fabulous, it would, in our opinion, be a question rather of amour propre than of real utility.“ There was no evidence, at the period of my visit to the country, and interviews with some of the mill owners and im- porters, of a disregard of the advice thus given. Russia will, for a long time yet to come, adhere to the production of the ordinary numbers, and the fabrics woven from them, they being best suited to her domestic demand, and that of such countries in Asia as she sup- plies with either article. With regard to the number of spindles in Russia at the time he wrote, the author says, that it had been common to assume one for each pood of raw cotton; but this he regarded as too low, citing the work of M. Samoiloff, on the“ Spinneries of the Government of Mos- cow,“ of which there were, in 1843, twenty-two, reckoning 155,404 spindles, and yearly producing 155, 949 poods of yarn, none of which was finer than Nos. 38, 42; which gave an average of 40 m pounds per spindle; in making up his own estimate, he assumes the proper average to be 45 pounds per spindle, and making his calculation upon the importation of 1, 329, 031 poods of raw cotton, and the production of 1,129, 000 poods of yarn, during the triennial period of 1848— 50, he arrives at the number 1,004, 000, which, together with 50, 000 then in operation in the kingdom of Poland, and those in the spinning mills of the grand duchy of Finland, he concludes that the total number may be set down at 1, 100, 000 spindles. The justness of this conclusion he strengthens by comparisons with the estimated number of spindles and the production of yarn in England, France, and several other countries, and assigns to Russia the fifth place in spin- ning industry among those nations where it"had attained to a certain degree of importance.“ The order in which he named those nations was: England, France, the United States, Austria, Russia, the Zoll- verein States, Switzerland, Belgium, Italy, and Spain. On this subject of cotton-spinning, later. information, as to the number of mills and spindles, will be found in the communication, hereafter alluded to, of M. Boutowen. In the department of weaving, Prince Tégoborski observes, that the 1,371, 196 poods(51, 363,056 pounds) of cotton fabrics manufactured . * ltbe rer rellente nn ar Al a mat dlötwen jcoull aküb ru ous teruin dl m upeüte Mrena rm hlun pfe hai uy it Vers ull Su l the vien est aünt aWh the ionl Sunde R m diit meltdil ving lil one di1u lör b- s the pud culätiune de pröri vikil Ithe Gu unt theſ KtneN1 mated I pberuft d ipace hos nn Sin We! 4 3 1 3 miei! A rres ui 1 Marsheif TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 375 in Russia, according to the average importation of raw cotton and twist, during the triennium of 1848— 50, represent, at the rate of 40 roubles(§0) per pood, a value of 54, 847, 840 roubles(§41, 136, 880.) In Poland, he places the manufacture, according to information which he regards as more reliable than official returns, at 500, 000 poods, all of which, being very common calicoes and stuffs, he estimates as worth only 25 roubles(§18 75) the pood, or 8937,500, making a total of 56,000, 000 roubles,(or 842, 000, 000,) from which the following de- ductions are drawn:. 1. About 1,400, 000 poods(50, 400, 000 pounds) of raw cotton, including importations into Poland at 6 Rix dollars(54 50) Per pood 2.................... f.... 8,400, 000 .About 300, 000 poods(10, 800, 000 pounds) of yarn, including importations into Poland, in round numbers, 5, 000, 000 3. For at least 1, 000, 000 poods(36, 000, 000 pounds) of cotton prints, the value of the tinctorial and chemical substances used, at 5 Rix dollars(§3 75) per pood... 5, 000, 000 4. Aboaut 4 per cent. on the total value of the manufac- ture, to represent interest of capital employed in the acquisitiom of machinery imported, in round numbers. 2, 000, 000 Rix Dollars. 0 ToOtal........................ 20,400, 000 He arrives at the conclusion that the addition made annually by this branch of industry to the national wealth is equal to R. D. 35, 600, 000 (§26, 700,000.) In a note it is stated that in 1852 the importations of raw cotton and twist gave 1,599, 000 poods,(59, 564, 000 pounds,) representing a value of R. D. 63, 960, 000(847, 960, 000.) As to the number of persons employed in cotton manufacture, only approximative estimates could be made. The 22 spinning mills in the Government of Moscow, in 1843, with their 155,404 spindles, employed 8, 348 hands, or 19 spindles to each hand; assuming 20 spindles as a fair average to each person employed, and with an assumed total of spindles of 1, 100, 000, the result would be 55,000 persons in that branch. At that period there were in the same Government 382 other estab- lishments for weaving, bleaching, dyeing,&c., employing altogether about 42,500 operatives, and producing fabrics to the value of 12,500, 000 roubles,(89, 475, 000,) being an average of 294 roubles 8211 50) per operative. With this proportion there would be required 82 a production of 56, 000, 000 roubles,(&42, 050, 000,) 190, 000 opera- tives; put, as in that calculation, the weavers working outside the mills in the villages,&c., were not included, 200, 000 was assumed as the true number of employés in all departments. Regarding the annual consumption, per capild, of cotton manufac- tures, it is said:„In Russia, the average quantity manufactured during the period of 1848- 50, amounted, as has been already seen, to 1,361, 196 poods(49, 363, 056 pounds;) adding the quantity manu- factured in the kingdom of Poland,(about 50,000 poods,) we may 376 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. estimate the total quantity manufactured in the country at 1, 420, 000 poods(51, 120,000 pounds.) The average value of the importation, during the same period, was 3,857,000 roubles—equivalent, at the rate of 60 roubles per pood, to 64, 283 poods. The average exporta- tion to Asia represented a value of 2,370,000 roubles—equivalent, at the rate of 40 roubles per pood, to 59, 265 poods; so that the importation and the exportation nearly balanced each other. There remained, therefore, for home consumption, 1,420, 000 poods, which, distributed over a population of 65,500, 000, gives 0. 87 pounds, Russian, per inhabitant. The value of the home manufacture being 56,000, 000, and the excess of the importations 1,487,000 roubles, the total value of the consumption is 57, 487, 000 roubles, or 88 kopecks (100 to the rouble) per inhabitant. That this proportion has considerably augmented during the past seven years, notwithstanding the war with the Western Powers, there can be no doubt; and in this respect Russia approaches nearer to other Continental European nations than she then did. The fabrics mostly produced are of a common description, as calicoes, plain cottons, nankins,&c.; the finer fabrics, as muslins, jaconets, fine handkerchiefs, plushes,&c., requiring nicer apparatus and more skillful hands. The former class are woven throughout the villages and country; the latter only in establishments especially constructed for the purpose. The peasants employed themselves weaving only in the intervals of their ordinary labors, and were therefore content with moderate wages; for a piece of 54 arschines in length by 1 in breadth,(somewhat more than three-quarters of a yard,) the price paid was seldom higher than 2 paper or 1 silver rouble(silver rouble equal to 75 cents.) At Moscow, and for better weaving, 2 silver roubles were sometimes paid per square arschine; further eastward, in the Government of Wladimir, not more than 3 paper kopecks, or kopeck silver, for the square arschine, were allowed for weaving, and considerable speculation is carried on to secure the profits by a class of small capitalists, who act as middle men between the substantial capitalists and the weavers. Mr. Scherer, an authority on this subject, had arranged the cotton fabrics produced in Russia into three classes: 1. Common calicoes, at the average price of 6 kopecs silver per arschine. 2. Medium calicoes, at the average price of 7 ½ kopecs silver per arschine. 3. Finer calicoes, at the medium price of 8 ¾ kopecks silver per arschine, the length of the piece being from 32 to 54 arschines, and the breadth 4, ¼, 4 and ¼† arschine. *0f all branches of the cotton manufacture,“ observes Prinoe Tégoborski,““this, in our opinion, is the most important and the most advantageous for the country. It is exercised on an article of consumption accessible to the numerous classes, and it increases the Menlh of our rural population, without interfering with their family abits. Power-loom weaving had been introduced into Russia previous to — — t 1 8 Nellat eripin 3S W r appen ongbout Ghtl tleuole al 4 arlh- pürri 4 r 18n dd toret re arall- uArs S chine arried i tN E d the 81 s Sle es Slrars S oluf Sebine” TEXTIELE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 377 1850, the great obstacle to its extension being found in the cost of the machines; the principal seat of the manufacture was at Moscow, though it was also practised at St. Petersburg, and at other points of the empire. Velveteens, destined for the Asiatic markets, were also manufactured to a considerable extent, from 1, 800, 000 to 2, 000, 000 arschines, being annually sent into China, and during the English war with that power, 3,000, 000 arschines. Bobbinet machines had also been put into operation at St. Petersburg, being the invention of Haymann, of Mulhouse, in France. In 1843, M. Scherer reckoned that there were 140 weaving estab- lishments in the country, besides the innumerable looms to be found in the villages and their vicinities, and the number of both was con- tinually increasing, while the native weavers were advancing in skill and the neatness of their work. Printing had been introduced as far back as 1828, and numbers of Swiss and Germans had engaged in it, carrying on a growing and lucrative business. There is much of this work now carried on in the government of Wladimir, the articles produced being generally destined for the cheapest markets, while those of a dearer class are principally printed at St. Petersburg. At Moscow, both the common and the finer fabrics are printed, and, according to M. Samoiloff, that Government contained, in 1843, three hundred and eighty-two weaving and printing establishments, of which the annual products amounted to 12, 417, 000 roubles (§9, 312,750;) of these, the city of Moscow and its environs possessed 176, producing to the value of 8, 202, 000 roubles. Next after the Government of Moscow, in this respect, ranked that of Wladimir, and afterwards that of Kostroma, which together produced as much as Moscow, the three producing five-eighths of the entire value of the cotton industry of the empire, in 1843. The latest improvements in machinery had been introduced, and the Russian printers were able to compete successfully, as to the style of their work, with the best establishments of France, Germany, or Bohemia.— Although, in several portions of his great and most valuable work Prince Tégoborski manifested a decided leaning to the theory of protection to domestic manufactures, his mind was too clear and his judgment too impartial to permit him to close his eyes to the injury which a too thorough devotion to it might inflict, not only on the progress of art in manufacture, but upon the interests of the great mass of consumers; thus he says:"Though it is unquestionable that the prohibitory system has given a great impulse to our manufactures, it has also been attended with its own disadvantages. One of the chief of these, setting out of view the sacrifices imposed on the con- sumer, has been the moral influence which the system has exerted on the manufacturers themselves. Sheltered from the competition of foreign industry, they have remained absolute masters of the home market, and been able to fix their own prices. Freed from the care of seeking foreign outlets, for, with the increasing demands for con- sumption, there was no fear of a want of customers, they turned their 378 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. eyes incessantly to the tariff, which became the main regulator of their calculations. In this comfortable position, it required only some capital, a little intelligence, and less trouble, to enable them to realize, in a short time, large profits; and this was just what spoiled them.“* 2* 2 In our opinion, the time has arrived when a little more competition from abroad has become requisite, were it only to stimulate the activity and intelligence of our home manufacturers, and to give them that confidence in their own strength which they will never acquire by continuing to lean upon the crutch of custom-house prohibition.“ This interesting and instructive review of the cotton manufacture of Russia, as it existed previous to, and in the year 1853, contains this brief summary of the results of the able author's reflections: 1.*That the cotton manufacture, occupying as it does in the total value of its products the next place to the linen manufacture, has attained with us a high degree of importance, and contains the ele- ments of a large development. 2. That we possess in the different branches of this industry many first class establishments, which may take rank alongside of the principal factories of the Continent, or even of England; and that several of these leave almost nothing to be desired in regard to their technical and mechanical organization. 3 3.*That, nevertheless, taken as a whole, this manufacture is, with us, greatly behind what it is in other countries, and especially in England, and that the defects which we have already pointed out are manifested principally at the two extremities of the scale, namely, the manufacture of common calicoes and of very fine fabrics; but these faults are gradually disappearing, and in certain departments the progress made of late has been conspicuous. 4.*That if our manufacturers adhere to the right path-—that is, if, instead of struggling to produce articles of luxury and of great fineness, requiring highly complicated machinery and highly skilled operatives, they confine their attention to the improvement of those branches which are most appropriate to the ensemble of our material and intellectual resources—we may, for all articles destined to supply the lower and middle classes, soon attain the Continental level.“ With a population in Europe of 65,500, 000, but a small propor- tion of which rises to what is understood by the phrase„εmiddle classes,“ and the great mass of which is of the lower class, together with the demand from the Asiatic portion of the empire and the na- tions which are their customers, Russian manufacturers have here certainly laid before them a most inviting future, and one which should encourage them to both activity and enterprise. In conclusion, the following recapitulatory table of the four prip- cipal branches of Russian manufactures is presented: A 8 Ktor dur deni Düt Annl qlüe rbu Ararh vente Uiu calu tlold. dhetl u h tbe lndvr dde db and dto t wn eeulf doum II ries; N partuens b TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 379 Gross value of man- Addition to national CLASS OF G00Ps. ufactures. wealth after deduct- ing cost of raw ma- terial. 4. Silver roubles. Silver roubles. Tinen and hemp. 112, 000, 000 75, 500, 000 Woolen ö... 46, 000, 00o0 29, 500, 000 Silk....e 15, 000, 000 7, 500, 000 Cotton.. 56, 000, 000. 35, 000, 000 Total. 229, 000, 000 148, 500, 000 The number of individuals employed in these different manufac- rures, either constantly or a portion of the year, including all who are employed in the handling of the raw material or in the production of articles outside the manufacture, is stated at, for Linen and hemp................ wͤx.. 4., 500, 000 Woolenn.. ĩ.................=......... 300, 000 GiI........................................ 40, 000 CottonD,Dð„oꝰ,Nͤ)...................„..„... 260, 000 Total..............„... 5,100, 000 —-— Under the heading of“ Foreign Commerce,“ the same author gives statements of the trade of Russia with other nations, at the period of writing. The exports of cotton manufactures as shown by a table exhibiting the mean annual exportation since 1824, are given in periods of five years. The Russian values are, for the sake of con- venience, reduced, in this table, as in those which follow, to our own. During the five years ending with 1853: 182„„„„.. S... 3589, 125 183 3...................:. 966, 300 183 8..................................... 904,500 1843................ 1............ 1,269, 000 1848....................... 114 3n 3s 2 S.ne s. Te.... 12615, 275 1853....................... w c 1., 959,525 Note.—In a note to this table it is stated that a change in the official valuation of the articles sold to the Chinese had taken place, so that the real augmentation in value of the exportations of cotton manufactures had been since that date as follows: 1842— 1844.—. wͤ 31, 533, 825 1845— 184f——r..-’ 1,5652,550 1848— 1850. we...... 2, 027, 100 1851— 1853......... 1, 963, 425 380 A4 GRIOCULTURAL REPORT. The market was Asia, as, in the whole period of 30 years, the exports to European countries had summed up to only§387, 000. The exportation to Asia was thus distributed: Chinua.§1, 048,500, or 53. 6 per cent. Steppes of the Kirghie. 605, 700, or 31.0 ee Tushkend.... 149, 400, or 7., 6 46 Bokhara.. 106, 800, or 5. 5 44 Khivaq........................= 22, 275, or 1. 1 6* Persia, Asiatic Turkey, and Khokan.. 23, 850, or 1.2 ee Total................ H1, 956, 675, 100.0 The exports to China consisted chiefly of cotton velvets and a species of nankins; to the other countries mostly of cotton prints. In the year 1853, Russia imported from England raw cotton to the value of§5, 444, 856; cotton twist to the value of§997,025; cotton manufactures to the value of 328, 575. In exchange, she sent, among other merchandise, grain to the value of§8, 140, 725; tallow of the value of§6, 119,925; flax to the value of 6, 042, 375;&c., &c., making a total of§36, 995, 950, against an importation of a total value of§19, 772,500. Raw cotton, nine-tenths of which was of the growth of the United States, constituted 28 ⅜ per cent. of all that England sent to Russia. In the same year, Russia received from the United States raw cotton to the value of§1, 487,700,(being sixty- eight hundredths of total import,) of the value of§2,187,350. In return, she sent us a total value of§1, 672, 875, consisting of sail-cloth and coarse linen, linen and hempen yarn, iron, cordage, hemp, bristles, feathers,&c. The direct trade in raw cotton between the United States and Rus- sia is, however, on the increase, she having received directly from our ports, in 1856, an amount of 124, 000 bales, which, at the rather low average of 450 pounds to the bale, would make a total of 55,800, 000 pounds. The communication of M. Boutowen, the president of the council of manufactures and commerce, at Moscow, kindly forwarded to me since L. left Russia, will show what are the chief obstacles to the further increase of direct importation. It may here be said, in pass- ing, that they consist, mainly, of the absence of financial facilities, and of the alleged defects in the classification and sorting of cotton in American markets. Answers to the questions relative to the cotton industrg in Russia. Question 1. In Russia there are, at this time,(November, 1857,) about 55 cotton spinneries, with a total of 1, 200, 000 spindles, and employing near 60, 000 hands. Weaving, dyeing, and printing cotton stuffs, occupy four times that number of people. The principal spinneries are found in the Governments of St. Peters- —mn —=g g=ͤ— x⏑———,—— ts ul- prin ton w 5; en Ale Er ö; uln gi o ztl ms d f A Ifnit ing oi 13 0, 1 kSul- ee l andE eetl in tbe n- a bl dus Heilts. Rub er N 1ils 9 ..Peteß „ſ 1 TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 381 burg, Twer, Moscow, and Wladimir. Moscow and Wladimir are the central points for the fabrication of cotton stuffs, but a large quantity of them is also produced in the small manufacturing establishments scattered through the country in the Governments of Kalouga, Taroslaw, and Riazan. The expenses for weaving vary greatly, according to the nature of the work by the task or by the day. The day’s wages of an adult man are of an average of 40 to 50 silver kopecks. We estimate at about 2 silver roubles the cost of the labor on a pood of yarn, Nos. 38 to 40. Question 2. In 1853, the Russian factories consumed 1,938, 000 poods of raw cotton; of this quantity 1, 814, 282 poods were of Ameri- can growth, imported almost exclusively by way of Cronstadt, and of which 475,000 poods were of direct importation; the remainder, or at least the greater portion of it, was from the ports of Great Britain. About 124, 000 poods were imported from Persia, by way of the Caspian Sea, or by the land route, on the backs of camels. from Khiva, Bokhara, Tushkend, and other countries of Central Asia, by way of Oldenbourg. An insignificant quantity was also im- ported from the Levant, by way of the Black Sea. The prices of American raw cotton, according to the quotations in the market of St. Petersburg, were, in 1853, from 5 to 7 roubles 50 copecks the pood. At Moscow, they were as high as 8 roubles 50 copecks. At that time, Asiatic cotton was selling at Moscow at 4 roubles 50 copecks. At this time, in 1857, the prices have risen at Moscow, for American cotton, to 9 and 10 roubles, and for Asiatic to 5 roubles 75 copecks, 6 roubles 75 copecks, and even 7 roubles. Hereafter, when the railroad between Moscow and Libau is finished, the importation of cotton through the latter place will become more advantageous than through Cronstadt. The Asiatic cottons are used only for the lower numbers of yarns, and cannot compete with Ameri- can for medium and fine numbers. Question 3. Under the tariff of 1857, raw cotton coming into Russia by way of the European frontier pays a duty of 25 copecks the pood; that which comes from Asia pays 5 per cent. upon the de- clared value. White cotton yarn is taxed at the rate of 3 roubles 50 copecks the pood; and so also is candle-wick. Dyed yarns of all colors are taxed 5 roubles the pood. The duties are still very high, and do not in any respect stop the growth of national spinnfng. In 1856, before the last custom-house reform, the duty on white yarn was 5 roubles the pood. Under the new tariff, large mills have been undertaken and are about to be put into operation at Vishnee, Volotchok, and in the vicinity of Narva. These establishments are not included in the estimate above given, in answer to question No. 1. Question 4. The spinning mills of the country produce yearly near 1,400, 000 poods of yarn, of the value of 21, 000, 000 silver roubles, the whole of which is consumed by the domestic manufacturers. Question 5. But little sewing thread is fabricated in Russia, the greater part of that description of spun yarn being imported, as well as of the yarns above the Nos. 40, 42. In the year 1852, the 382 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. importation of these two articles combined, by way of the European frontier, was 80,000 poods, of the value of near 1, 000, 000 silver roubles. Besides, hand-spun yarn was imported from Asia to the amount of 17,436 poods, and value of 143, 000 silver roubles; they are used only for the fabrication of the coarsest cloths. Question 6. From the quantity of spun cotton, both domestic and imported into Russia, the quantity of cotton stuffs therein manufac- tured annually is not less than 1,400, 000 poods, of which 400, 000 are sent into market bleached, and the remainder dyed or printed. The tissues principally fabricated are calicoes, mitrales, percales, nankins, ordinary indiennes, neck-handkerchiefs for peasant women, and shirt- ings for peasant men, persiennes for furniture, and, in general, those articles for which the yarns used vary between the lowest numbers and numbers 38-40. The fabrication of fine and elegant tissues, such as jaconets and muslins, is yet very restricted in extent. Question 7. The value of cotton tissues, of all descriptions, fabri- cated in Russia, may be estimated at about 65,000,000 silver roubles. Nearly all of it is consumed within the country. Russia exports cotton stuffs only to Asia, their value not exceeding 2,500, 000 silver roubles. Question 8. Several establishments fabricate mixed tissues of cotton and wool, such as mousselines de laine, covers for furniture, half cash- meres, cassinets, lastings,&. It is impossible to estimate, even approximatively, the value of the relative quantity of the cotton which enters into these fabrics. Besides which, it is included in the pre- ceding estimate of the value of yarn consumed in Russia. Questions 9 and 10. There is no direct exchange between Russia and America; nor are there, moreover, between the two countries, direct commercial relations between merchant and merchant. Some Russians have ordered cotton directly from America; but it was through the intervention of English merchants, who undertook the operation for a commission of one per cent. To purchase raw cotton, without an intermediary at New Orleans, or some other American port, it would be necessary for the Russian manufacturer to send thither an agent, with specie, or drafts bought in Europe. In the actual condition of things, it is much more conve- nient for him to buy his cotton from English merchants at London or Liverp9ol, who grant credits more or less extended, at 5 per cent. per annum; besides which, in England, and particularly at Liverpool, where cotton is sold, after having been sorted, and under guaranty, while in America, cotton is put upon the market without being sorted and without guaranty. It is to be observed that the prices of cotton acquire commercial stability only in the English market; consequently, a Russian specu- lator, who should go to buy raw cotton in America, even at the period of the crop being gathered, which is the most advantageous for the purchasers, would run the risk of paying for it more than the current price two or three months later. All these causes combined induce the Russian spinner to prefer the English market to the direct purchase of the cotton in America. * dunpen 0 Sbe auh 8 t edit u NAN. Gllha ed. l ll mläh rdl th uhe Sllé il on M r vlla in elyn 000 gr §ddahn ales näte en tton fül Nthe een IWd ecltti aN OfbW he IEE fs D Jore elft LLn!, pel 6 Lirerni- gum eing une onni sian Ge vel 1 1 Gantge m utt Seeulhe thäde greater waste. TEXTILE AND FPORAGE CROPS. 383 Exchange on London is, on three months' bills, from 37 to 38, and even 39 pence the silver rouble. At this date,(November, 1857,) it has fallen to 34. 1 1A Question 11. The United States being themselves producers of the principal articles of Russian export, it is difficult to answer this inquiry. However, it is plain that if the Americans could find it to their advantage to import from Russia, in exchange for their raw cotton, her cloths, of medium qualities, worth from 80 copecks to 2 silver roubles the arschine, with a breadth of 2 arschines, which are very good, as well as those stuffs called Flanders linens, and sail-cloths, which are already well known on the other side of the Atlantic, it is not to be doubted that it would lead to a more active commercial exchange, and facilitate the establishment of an interchange of pro- ducts and direct trade between the two countries. Question 12. Raw cotton, in transit through Russia, for the king- dom of Poland, pays a light transit duty of about 10 copecks the pood. Cotton brought by sea into the empire does not, since the abolition of the Sound dues, pay any transit duty. 1 Question 13. The best American cotton suffers a waste of near 15 per cent. For a pood of yarn, No. 38, 1 pood and 7 pounds of raw cotton are required. 1 The Asiatic cotton is much less pure than American, and shows a A. B0UTOWEN, Counsellor of State, President of the Section o the Council ꝗ&f Manufactures and Commerce, at Moscoν. An English gentleman, long resident at St. Petersburg, and inter- ested in two or more of the mills in the vicinity, furnished me with a memorandum of the amount of raw cotton received at that port up to the 1st of August of the last two years. In 1856, the amount was 1, 343, 038 poods(48, 349, 368 pounds;) and in 1857, it was 1, 645,606 poods(59, 241, 816 pounds.) This gentle- man owns shares in the“ Russian' cotton mill, the capital of which is 1,000, 000 roubles,(§750, 000,) in shares of 1,000 roubles, with 65,000 spindles, employing 900 hands, and yearly consuming 6, 500 bales of cotton; and the new mill, with a capital stock of 800, 000 roubles,(§600, 000,) also in shares of 1,000 roubles, with 55,000 spindles; it employs 1,300 hands, and consumes annually 10, 000 pales of cotton, being last summer, and perhaps still, worked day and night. The Russian mill produced yarns Nos. 20 to 40; the new mill Nos. 30 to 40, all for warp. Its spinning machinery was the English self-acting mules. A spinner, having charge of two mules, could clear 25 roubles(§19) per month. Ordinary workers got from 7 roubles (85 25) to 9 roubles(6 85) per month. The proportion of females to males employed was as 600 to 1,000. The raw material cost, on the average, delivered at the factories, 8½ roubles(86 38) the pood, or about 171 cents per pound, and the description of cotton was from middling to good middling. 1A HALES During the last eighteen months, the price of cotton yarn had ranged 384 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. petween 16 roubles and 22 roubles the pood(from§12 to§16 50) per 36 pounds weight(from 33 9 to 45 cents) per pound. The pro- duction to the spinner he believed to be, under the new tariff, about 3 ¼ roubles net, the pood, or rather more than 3 pence per pound(near 6 cents.) Notwithstanding the largely increased domestic production, a con- siderable quantity of English yarns was still imported, there having been received at the custom-house in St. Petersburg, up to the 1st of August last, 81, 570 poods(2,936,520 pounds) against 17,853 poods (642,708 pounds) up to the same period of the previous ycar. The importation of dyed yarns had been, respectively, 1,032 poods, (37,152 pounds,) in 1857, and 392 poods,(14, 112 pounds,) in 1856; of cotton fabrics and tissues, 10, 852 poods,(390, 672 pounds,) in 1857, and 2,079 poods,(74,694 pounds,) in 1856. My informant believed that, under the new. tariff lately enforced, the importation of dyed yarn and of otton fabrics and tissues would increase. The business of spinning had been more profitable than ever during the years 1856- 57, and hence the activity in all the mills, most of which had been working day and night, large additions having been already made to the number of spindles, and still others being con- templated, besides the erection of new. establishments on a grander scale than had been hitherto known. Whether the business was to continue as prosperous as it has of late been, he considered doubtful, as there might be both too great a production of yarn and too great competition among the spinners. Upon the question of the supply of fuel at reasonable rates, one of first importance to the Russian manufacturer, where all the estab- lishments are worked by steam, this gentleman informed me that the import of English coal up to the Ist of August, 1857, had been 49,005 chaldrons, against 25,464 up to the same period in 1856. The facilities for importation were better now than they had formerly been, and its employment would increase. He said that, although 10 roubles' worth of wood made as much heat as the same amount of coal, the latter was preferred. I was fortunate in procuring a letter of introduction to Mr. Robert Craig, the chief manager of the Newsky mill, in St. Petersburg, and am indebted to him for his very kind reception, and the readiness and intelligence with which he explained the nature and extent of the spinning operations at and near the capital, and the details of his own establishment, which is regarded by all as a model one. At the time of my visit, the Newsky mill was running 60, 000 spindles, which werée soon to be increased to 140,000. Its annual consumption was 6,000 bales, of about 420 pounds each, all of which, with the excep- tion of a very small quantity of Brazilian, was of the growth of the United States, and was spun into yarns, ranging from No. 30 to 40, the great bulk of which was sent to be disposed of in the Moscow market. The entire supply of the raw cotton used was purchased in Liverpool, and complaint was made that it had, during the preceding year, contained more sand and dirt than usual; there had been, how- 2—Sͤ ☛— — u— enia Sdes Rud- ver dui 8 UR arilg be deilg ur a gak e Räh ddau. oh gr tes WWi the Gi do hät Nad k 18i5. D d irue t I Waeie M. Whe b Fsburgu realn Hextell’ talb db TEXTIILE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 385 ever, but little wastage, as the high prices to which the article had risen compelled the spinners to work it all up. The policy of purchasing in the Liverpool market, instead of at Now Orleans, Mobile, or Charleston, was explained to be on account of the more reliable classification or sorting at Liverpool than in the United States. The duty of 25 copecks(¼ of a rouble, or 18 ¾ cents) per pood, „he considered as merely nominal, and not calculated at all to affect consumption. The mill annually produced about 62,000 poods, (2, 232, 000 pounds,) or, by spindle, one pood each of yarns, which, at an average of 18 ¾ roubles the pood, were worth 1, 162,500 roubles 8871, 875.) At that time, the market was good and rising. Mr. raig regarded the protection under the tariff, to the spinner, as equal to about 5 x pence per pound on the yarns spun. The mill employed 700 hands, nearly all of whom were boys, women, and girls; men not being liked, nor as readily to be had. The wages paid to this working force for 24 working days in a month, were 8, 000 roubles,(§6, 000,) they finding themselves. The operatives whom I saw, during their dinner hour, were healthy and cheerful in appearance, and I was told by Mr. Craig that they were always contented, and a much better class of people than they had sometimes been represented. With regard to the future consumption of raw cotton in the country, he regarded the prospect for its increase as very good, and on this point, expressed some solicitude as to the capacities of our cotton- growing States to keep up with the increasing demand throughout the civilized world for that raw material, as he felt satisfied that to the United States must the world look as the only certain and relia- ble source of supply for the great bulk of the demand. I felt authorized to reply that, if left to themselves, and paid remunerative prices, our planters could largely increase their production, so that its amount in the total production of the world would be proportiona- bly much greater even than it now was. In his remarks on this point, he showed a correct appreciation of the position and advantages of our cotton growers, as contrasted with those of other countries. At the establishment of Messrs. Thomas Wright& Co., near St. Petersburg, I was cordially received by the chief manager, also an Englishman, and my questions cheerfully answered. This mill has 85,000 spindles, employs 700 hands, nearly all boys, women, or girls, whose wages range from 10 to 20 roubles per month, and consumes annually about 70,000 poods of raw cotton,(2, 500, 000 pounds,) and turns out nearly the same weight of cotton yarn, No. 40. The cotton used is New Orleans, Upland, and Boweds, mostly of mid- ling quality, and its average cost, on reaching the mill, is 8¼ roubles (§6 19) to 8 ¾ roubles(86 38) per pood. The waste did not exceed 5 per cent.; supplies purchased in England. The price of the yarns spun varied from 13 roubles(89 75) to 21 roubles(15 75) per pood, according to the demand. There are several other mills at or near the capital; among them the Imperial Factory, belonging to the Government at Alexandrovsky, with a force of 55,000 spindles. It was said not to pay any profit on its operations. Nearly all these various establishments had lately 25 A 386 AGERIOCULTURAL REPORT.. made considerable additions to their number of spindles, or were about to do so. The quality of cotton consumed, that of the yarns spun, the rates of wages paid,&c., were, I was told, quite uniform. The ma- chinery is generally of the very best English manufacture, embracing all the most recent improvements on inventions. The same thing may be said of the mills at or near Moscow. The largest cotton importing house in Russia is that of Messrs. J. II. Prierichs& Co., of St. Petersburg, the resident partner being Mr. Marsh, to whom I am indebted for acts of courtesy and valuable information as to the state of the demand for cotton, present and pro- spective,&c.,&c. The extent of the business affairs of this house, in Russia, may be judged of by the fact, that of 2, 000, 000 poods of cotton imported into Russia, in 1856, 850, 000 poods passed through its hands. From Mr. Marsh, I learned that the importations were almost exclusively of American growth, Surats being never used, except when mixed with the better and longer stapled American cottons, a process not yet un- derstood by the native spinners. The firm had tried the experiment of importing two cargoes of Surats, but had concluded to order them to Liverpool for sale, finding they did not suit the Russian market. Mr. Marsh considers that the Russian practice of buying in the Liverpool market is, in no small degree, caused by the fact that the managers of the mills, who are all English, are unwilling to receive stocks purchased elsewhere, believing that in England alone the pro- per classifications for the descriptions of yarn in demand in the Rus- sian market are to be had, and their influence prevails over other considerations with the owners. In August last, as Mr. Marsh told me, all the customers of his house had obtained their supply of raw cotton up to the summer, and several even until the month of October, 1858. At the same time, he estimated the stock of cotton then on sale, at St. Petersburg, at 25,000 bales. The house of J. H. Frierichs& Co., which, in addition to its Russian business, has a large custom in Germany, had of late decided to change its former system of ordering its purchases of raw cotton in the United States to Liverpool, and hereafter to send them to Grimsly, on the cast coast of England, whence they might be more conveniently and rapidly distributed to the ports of the North Sea and the Baltic. As to the prospect of cotton-spinning in Russia, he regarded it as quite good, although it was not unlikely that some who were engaged in it, without ever having had the necessary capital, would have to succumb under increasing competition and high prices. It is a source of much regret to me that the statement, promised by Mr. Marsh, of the importation of raw cotton, yarns, fabrics, and tissues of all descriptions into Russia, with the average prices, and a list of the mills, the number of spindles, looms,&c., for the last four years, has not yet come to hand. The Russian cotton manufacturer, while subject to disadvantages caused by remoteness from the ports of the country which grows not less than nine-tenths of the raw material that he needs, from his dependence for those supplies on the intermediate market of England, „ wrd ünt SW h lhu tumn au- u LM tuer b dWäbi m ul M Uröine Eirelf votſär expern orier fig ut act büth gvren e tep thel ofer mers d uerd metle! 9. A 3 diim bs late bn ar coib onfelid Itheb) grrll 16 ero elon oldi hni pn abric 2 rie M the luil adrultes l gro 1 „ kron 1 1 f luu — TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 387 whereby he has to pay an enhanced price, which varies according to the abundance of money, the activity of speculative demand, or of the manufacturing interest in that country, to say nothing of the long array of brokers' and factors' commissions, charges for handling, warehousing, sorting, bankers' profits on several sets of bills of ex- change, affecting the raw material, and the difficulty attending the navigation of the Baltic, with its strong currents and interruption of navigation for more than half the year, has, nevertheless, advan- tages which insure him such profits, ordinarily, as to make him content with his position. He has abundant and cheap labor at his command, suffers no solicitude as to strikes or combinations among his opera- tives; and what is to him better than all, has a certain and profitable market for all articles produced by his capital and labor. There is but little prospect of this market failing for a long series of years to come, though the profits it now affords may be diminished to a point more nearly approaching the standard in other countries for similar industry. The importance and expediency of direct trade between Russia and this country is fully recognized by her government and the more intelligent of her subjects. It is understood that the Emperor is de- sirous of the establishment of American houses at St. Petersburg and Odessa, in order that the experiment of direct commercial intercourse may be fairly tried. The modifications made in the old tariff system by the tariff lately ordained. shows that liberal ideas, in that respect, influence the sovereign and his ministers. The great system of railroads, projected to promote rapid and cheap communication between the shores of the Baltic and those of the Black Sea, and between the banks of the Neva and those of the Volga, will be prosecuted. Already, the branch of the line between St. Peters- burg and Warsaw, which is directed on Libau, upon the Baltic, and almost touching the frontier of Russia, is being constructed with all practicable despatch, and, when finished, will have an immense influ- ence on the commerce of the country with Western Europe and the United States, as ships will be able to go there and discharge their cargoes a month earlier than they can do it now; that they have to contend, not only with the heavy current coming from the Gulf of Bothnia, and the north winds which sweep down it, but also with the ice in the Gulf of Finland, which rarely breaks up much before the Ist of May, and closes it by the Ist of November. The Russian government views the commerce by way of the Black Sea with great favor, and in the new tariff makes a discrimination in the rate of duty on cotton or cotton manufactures coming into the empire in that direction. Besides, being rarely frozen over in winter, the port of Odessa offers to ships carrying thither cargoes of cotton certain and profitable freights to Western Europe of grain, tallow, hides, or other articles of domestic growth, of which it is the great depot. Besides the gentlemen named above as having aided me in my inquiry, my particular thanks are due to Mr. Seymour, the minister, 388 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. and Mr. Pierce, the secretary of our legation at St. Petersburg, and to Mr. Claxton, consul at Moscow, all of whom exhibited much interest in the inquiry with which I was charged, and a desire to forward it to the extent of their power. 1 THE ZOLLVEREIN STATES. The German States have consumed a portion of the cotton crop of the United States since a period shortly posterior to its introduction in any considerable quantities into the European markets; and during the last decennial period, this consumption on their part of the raw material, whether of the growth of our own or other countries, has increased to such an extent as to command the serious attention of any one who takes a survey of the condition of cotton manufacture in Europe, and its influences on the industry, the trade, and the general well-being of those populations among whom it is carried on. Eleven German sovereignties have united themselves with the free Hanseatic city of Frankfort-on-the-Main for the formation of the Zollverein, or Customs' Union, at the head of which stands the king- dom of Prussia, the most important in population and political posi- tion, and at whose capital the affairs of the Union are managed. In the year 1853, the total number of inhabitants of this commercial league was 30, 687,939, which had increased, by the census taken in December, 1855, to the figure of 32,559, 161, of which Prussia counted 17,286, 284. In the year 1847, the total import of raw cotton was 364, 590 Zoll- centners, equivalent to 40, 326, 404 of our pounds. In 1853, it had increased to 810,439 centners, or 89, 395,474 pounds, having much more than doubled in the period of thirteen years. It will be seen hereafter that, during the same period, a marked decrease in the im- portation of cotton yarns had taken place, which shows that the demand was becoming yearly less and less dependent for supply upon the foreign spinning mills. In his Statistical Review of the most Important Ohjects of the Trade and Consumption of the German Zollverein, for the period from 1849 to 1853, published at Berlin last summer, Dr. C. F. W. Dieterici, director of the Statistical Bureau of Prussia, furnishes a series of illustrative tables which show the increasing importance of the cotton trade. As the work is regarded as of standard authority, the tables which accompany the report have, where credit is not given to other sources, been compiled from it. Table A exhibits the total of the imports, exports, and transit, of raw cotton into, from, or through each of the States of the Union during the year 1853. It will be seen that out of a total of 91, 126, 119 pounds imported, Prussia received 71,274,407 pounds. This was owing rather to her geographical position, and the facilities for trans- portation which it afforded, than to the extent of her manufacture, — in eh dtrodbem alii, d tem pntri tteutiat rütäctwhi the gan ol. ith n tion d t tleh Niielſs wagel 3 domnd sW blai Si wu G hl 1So in avilg M. vill u Seniht n3 tut Guppleh f 135 ron 19 rii un eilmtri otton n ables 1S 2n b 1 aul u0 f thelu⸗ TIbB esl bW andlcl A. TEXTIELE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 389 as, in that respect, she is exceeded by Saxony, which appears to have taken for consumption much less of the raw material. But it is diffi- cult to judge of the actual extent of consumption in any of the States of the Zollverein from these tables, for the reason that raw cotton being free of duty, there is no necessity for keeping an account of the real amount which goes into any one of the States composing it. In the year 1856, there were, according to Mr. George Von Vie- bahn, chief of division of the financial department of the ministry of commerce,&c., at Berlin, in the kingdom of Prussia, 88 spinneries, with an aggregate of 288, 907 spindles, which, at an estimate of 40 pounds, each, of the raw material per annum, required only 11,556, 280 pounds of it. According to official publications, kindly furnished me by Mr. Von Viebahn, the importation of raw cotton into the Zollverein, during the year 1855, amounted to 936, 406 centners, or 118, 820, 546 pounds; and for the first quarter of 1857, to 238,323 centners, or 26,288,219 pounds. With regard to the extent and condition of cotton manufacture, it may be said that its march, particularly during the past twenty years, has been, on the whole, steady and progressive, as within that period the extension of railroads into nearly every portion of the territory has afforded facilities which were before unknown for the speedy and cheap transportation of both the raw material and of articles fabricated from it; thus bringing into play the natural advantages for manufac- turing possessed by many of the interior countries of Germany, but which, owing to difficulty of access, had before remained unused. In this way, an impetus has been given to manufacturing industry in Bavaria, Wirtemberg, and the upper portions of the Grand Duchy of Baden, which promises, at no distant day, very important results. Cotton-spinning by machinery has been known in Saxony for nearly forty years; but neither there, nor in any other of the States composing the Zollverein, does it appear to have made any very marked progress until the year 1836, which is spoken of by all who speak or write on the subject, in Germany, as one fraught with interest in its history, as it was the era of the establishment in Bavaria and elsewhere of several extensive establishments modelled on those of England, and on a scale hitherto unknown, which, having met with abundant success in their operations, gave encouragement to others to embark their surplus capital in similar enterprises. Labor being abundant and cheap, and supplies of the raw material readily obtainable, the Ger- man spinners have been able, by a system of judicious management, and by studying the wants of their home markets, to place themselves on a firm footing. And the manufacturer of the present day, although subject to suffering from occasional fluctuations from financial crises in the commercial world, on the whole, holds a position which is quite satisfactory. Dr. Engel, the distinguished statistician of Dresden, in his Historg of Cotton-Spinning in Saxong, lately published, speaking of the con- dition and extent of those establishments in the Zollverein devoted to it, remarks:“The Zollverein, in 1855, contained 1,200, 000 spindles, consuming 63, 600, 000 pounds of raw cotton, and producing yearly 390 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. 50, 880, 000 pounds of yarn, with a waste of 20 per cent. on the raw- material; the annual yield per spindle being 42 ⅜ pounds, which appears higher than the yield in England, but the difference is ex- plained by the average number of English yarns being much higher.“ And again:"‧A comparison of these figures with the English is very encouraging to the enterprising spirit of the German mill owners. The supply thus furnished is equal to 12⁸ꝙ pounds to each inhabitant. Estimating the actual consumption at only 3 pounds per inhabitant, and supposing the supply to be altogether of domestic spinning, the amount of yarn produced would be 47, 000, 000 pounds more than is above stated, which would require an addition of from 1,000, 000 to 1,500, 000 of spindles.“* Since the year 1836, there have been established very extensive spinning mills at Augsburg, Kempten, and Immenstadt, in Bavaria; Urach, in Wirtemberg; Arlen, Ettlingen, and other points in Baden; and at various places in Rhenish Prussia, Rhenish Bavaria, and Silesia. According to Dr. Engel, the leading causes which have favored the development of cotton-spinning are the magnificent water power found in the highland districts of some of the States, the encouragement afforded by government, and the success of the establishments on a large scale, and in imitation of the English system. The German spinners have not attempted, so far, competition with England or other countries in fine spinning, avoiding thus both the increased expense of fitting their mills with the necessary machinery, and the additional cost of working up the raw material. By adhering to the plan of spinning the lower numbers only, the average, in 1855, being No. 23, they have obtained almost the entire supply of the home market. The duties being specific,(by weight,) instead of ad valorem, they would labor under great disadvantages in a struggle with a country so advanced in the art of cotton-spinning as England, as the duties by weight in fine yarns, although greater nominally, are really much less than those on the coarser and heavier qualities; hence, a considerable import of the finer numbers of yarns is still kept up, while that of the lower ones is quite limited, they having been appropriated by the domestic spinners, who have also, as Dr. Engel thinks, a fine prospect for spinning hereafter, with profit, the finer ones also. Table B presents a statement of the imports, exports, and transits of unbleached, single or double-twisted cotton yarn into, from, or through the States of the Zollverein during the years 1851- 53; and that marked G shows also the import, export, and transit of unbleached yarns, treble-twisted or over, during the same period. Of the first named-descriptions, the imports were as follows: 1851, 53,659, 839 pounds; 1852, 51, 209, 322 pounds; 1853, 52,517, 991 pounds. The exports were, in 1851, 1,498,379 pounds; in 1852, 1,461, 210 pounds; in 1853, 1,500, 034 pounds. The transits were, in 1851, 8, 106,512 pounds; in 1852, 10,493, 931 pounds; and in 1853, 9, 634, 529 pounds. Of unbleached, treble-twisted yarns, the imports were. in 1851, M d N ö ru Lle ba dllehe ülk il lndadka. Pri Dull, h oro tha twOhcht Fexbun in Dra Sin hi War a farordh oreriri urageue düelt he Ger Tuxbul e ce r, ault d dll, tthe etr p v Tanbgs Mp urh d andlaft er.E, nited, 4reah wita n, d trus jntey S ISl.i rngöi peril or: M. Hn . lB its Fetel TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 391 336,661 pounds; in 1852, 354,977 pounds; and in 1853, 336, 267 pounds. The exports were, in 1851, 1,938,410 pounds; in 1852, 2,212,054 pounds; and in 1853, 2, 740, 949 pounds. The transits were, in 1851, 1,311, 848 pounds; in 1852, 1, 178, 836 pounds; and in 1853, 1,086, 062 pounds. The official documents above spoken of, as furnished by Mr. Von Viebahn, show an importa tion of unbleached, single and double-twisted yarns, in 1855, of 492,186 centners, or 54, 290, 576 pounds; and in 1856, of 493,490 centners, or 54, 434, 413 pounds; and of unbleached, treble-twisted yarns, an import, in 1855, of 2,453 centners, or 270,579 pounds; and in 1856, of 2,495 centners, or 275, 211 pounds. The values are not given in any of these tables, not being required at the custom-houses; but the“ Germania,“ a politico-economical journal, published at Heidelberg, and regarded as reliable authority, places the value of the entire import of cotton yarn, in 1855, at the sum of 14,564,400 Thalers, which, at 69 cents each, is equal to 810, 049, 436; and in 1856, at 15, 164, 690 Thalers(§10, 463, 636.) The duty on unbleached, single or double-twisted cotton yarn, is 3 Thalers(§2 07) the centner(110 pounds); and on unbleached, treble, or over-twisted yarn, it is 8 Thalers, or 55 22, the centner. The transit duties are regulated according to the tariffs of the States through which the rivers, on which most of the carriage is accomplished, run. They vary somewhat, but are not onerous. Con- siderable time might be required to ascertain their precise nature and amount. Of cotton tissues, hosiery,&c., the importation, in 1855, was 7, 764 centners, or 856,408 pounds; and in 1856, it was 9,139 centners, or 1,008, 078 pounds, upon which the duty was 50 Thalers, or 534 50, the centner.. In the kingdom of Prussia, in the year 1856, there were 88 spinning mills, running 288, 907 spindles. In 1852, there were in the kingdom 71, 267 looms, of which 2,500 were machine looms, and the remainder hand. They produced every description of ordinary to fine cotton, pure or mixed stuffs. The cotton manufacture of Prussia is for the most part carried on in her Rhenish Provinces, which were not visited by me, for want of time. Of late, that branch of industry has made progress in and around Berlin. Saxony has hitherto peen considered at the head of cotton manufac- turing industry among the States of the Zollverein, though of late, Bavaria has begun to contest with her this supremacy. The work oi Dr. Engel, quoted above, gives many details on the past progress and the present condition of the industry.. In 1857, the number of mills in the kingdom, according to a state- ment kindly furnished me by Dr. Christian A. Weinlig, chief of division,&C., in the ministry of finance, was 135, running 600, 000 spindles. The consumption of raw cotton was about 30, 000, 000 pounds, of which 12, 950, 595 pounds were of the growth of the United States, almost all of which was imported via Bremen; and 11,432,463 pounds of the growth of the East Indies, imported via Hamburg. 392 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. On the American cotton, the waste averaged 18 per cent.; on the East Indian, 24 per cent.; making a general average waste of 20 8& per cent. The actual production, of yarn of all numbers—the average being 23— was 19,308, 160 pounds, of the total value of 5, 470, 645 Thalers. The prices of yarn are regulated by those current at the time in the English or Hamburg markets, adding 2 new groschen, or 4 cents, for duties, transportation,&c. 1 The domestic production of yarn is all consumed at home; besides which, there is an additional demand for about 15,000, 000 pounds of yarn and twist. 1 There are, it is said, but very few purchases of American cotton made by direct negotiation, intermediate agencies at Bremen or in England being used. This remark will apply also to most other parts of Germany. In the year 1857, there were in Saxony 20, 000 looms, of which 500 were machine, employed in weaving pure cotton tissues; from 8,000 to 10,000 looms employed in weaving tissues of mixed cotton and linen; and from 20, 000 to 25, 000 looms, of which 1,000 were machine, employed in weaving tissues of mixed cotton and wool; and 3,000 stocking weaving looms, about 400 of which consumed pure cotton thread. Mixed goods and tissues are the chief productions of Saxon manu- factures, consisting mainly of half cotton and half linen clothing stuffs, carpets, table and furniture covers, lastings,&. There are also fabrics of cotton, mixed with wool or silk, too various for particular mention. In 1855, according to Dr. Engel, the employés of the spinneries were: Adult males....................... 4, 216 Adult females.—... f““.......... 4, 717 Boys............................. 1,487 Girls.............................. 940 Officers, C&o..„„„„„„„„„„„„,„„,„,a ⸗....... 276 Total amount of wages and salaries paid, 8§906, 800. Of these, the men received 36 per cent.; the women, 40 per cent.; the boys, 12-% per cent.; the girls, Srνανσ per cent.; and the officers, 21⁵⅜ per cent. To the United States the exports consisted principally of hosiery, valued at 2,000, 000 Thalers; cotton and linen goods, valued at 1,000, 000 Thalers; woolen cloths, valued at 1,500, 000 Thalers; and other woolen goods, valued at 500, 000 Thalers. Want of time prevented my visiting either Bavaria, Wirtemberg, or Baden, though each offered an interesting field of investigation. Much might be done by a properly accredited agent of the govern- ment, who could remain long enough in the different States of the Zollverein to make the acquaintance of the leading spinners in doing away with their erroneous ideas as to the production and trade in cotton, and of the practicability of direct trade between those coun- tries and our own. Their errors, in this respect, have been created üneu cendn 6; Daih ·00 p. lenn äh enen ne) obermn vlüi fn h eottol a e wuxle and 3 ure ote xon n diux i te W rprin ſ ub theet :them f lwin mlul aler'd TEXTIILE AND FORAGE CROPSG. 393 and fostered, for the most part, by parties who have profited largely as the intermediaries of an indirect commercial intercourse, and whose plain interest it is to keep up the existing system. The operations of the merchants of Bremen have, indeed, done much to relieve the consumers of the interior from the additional price they have been paying for the raw material, in the shape of profits, commissions, and various other charges, to English factors, brokers, bankers,&c.; but there remains yet much to be done, which, once effected, cannot fail, in the end, to benefit greatly both the country of production and that of consumption. At present, the average price of cotton delivered at the mills in Saxony is 70 pfennings for Surats, and 100 pfennings for American middlings,“ after being cleaned. The two descriptions are gener- ally mixed in the proportion of one-third Surat to two-thirds Ameri- can. Of cotton yarn, the average price is 85 pfennings per pound. Six pfennings are equal to one cent of our currency. 1 A. Statement of the import, eæxport, and transit f cotton into and from ecch of the States o the Zollverein during the gear 1853; the weights redluced to the standard f the United Staltes. Irteyde, irrin he; oofell te sdt rs I n ti dtken hosoct n dfe STATES. Import. Export Transit. Pounds. Pounds Pounds Prussia, with Luxemburg. 9, 494— PBavarla 71, 274, 407 Saxony 902, 075 527,919 Wirtembeg.— 15, 239, 739 14, 084, 221 5, 969, 250 Baden c 27, 025 171,966 3, 202, 254 Electoral Hesse———— 3, 086, 224 185, 091 8, 226, 657 Duchy 0f Hesse 43, 681. Thuringia.. Brunswick-— 15,333— Nassau 525, 493—V— 9, 165 Frankfort-on-the- Mamn P D D DD—— Add import by the post 2, 648 Total 91, 126, 119 20, 943, 323 19, 660, 894 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 394 — 629 †gg 6*S0 009 1l 166 ‧119 2.9 196 967 ‧01 01 I9r ee 605 1g9 219 ‧901˙8 618 867,1 688 ˙,699 99 1240. -=== 867 ‧86—-⸗— 887 996--A--äeee sos Ileol ursM-o 0. 410IAuul 288 22 eés y.B. 220 05 ssN 911 0s 18⁵(28 699 65 986 1 140 18 683˙9 854* 999 711...... llu Suu —- 067 ygr--⸗ 708 9791.G· 2¹⁶6 ·,1601 uluxinu 090 002 106 TI22. 77o ele- ossoHl Jo Allond oll 011 897 932 1³³..== 287 261 199.B I9 0s. osSoll IelOrLA. 131 21 FIZ 5 978 178 9†9 99 IIF 99 991 929 18⁷ ˙691 718˙9 859 199 uopug 6† 11 91⁵ 92 917 011 98 01 661 11 798 6 †1 996 93 1†9 ˙65 980 976=e- ZoquezA 91 ⅞ 090 † 199 968 919 †2s 198 9812 † 891 087 619 1819 861 999 9 119˙‧399 6 5 LIF2;--- uoxne 980 09, 5 † 909 67 gee 84 I Lg94 IzI F 839 95 846 899 1 111 9(.96 9 1*8 99 100 88 1- vnAuel 25:-. 999 ooob.B 819 92 z399 268 62 ainquloxi 199 †lg I 0r 916 818 886 89 I23 †961 829 988 916 128 ‧88 825 009 1 299 881 z97 SCre 6Go......=vlssuad Sp uοσ SPναορσ Spunl SPνοσ Spu Spuno Spu SP uιορ Sp mνι AlSuu. SJlodx Sq1O0duIT] lSuBII.Sqlodx.Sq40dulI lSuuI, S1OdXN.Sadodul] SddVAS 9981..2981 1981 U. Sνμνσρ mρ ναννιμ* οm 5‿ο papuis 2„ o poonpod Sbdom*S50οmos„D20 O duO.‿⁴, αννονρν ρςει mυν 18I S4Dſ 272 Suνde urονοο ot,i 1o sνννεσο⁷⁷ Hnous pup duν ενuνo uuνſ εον pεs’-nop pup lbuxs Po⁴ονο Jo 285u,ig PuD S7.30cG S7,0Ludr 2 fO 2uε⁴ονν⁸σ 2— TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 290 980 ‧1 676 015 19 ‧gege 988 8111 v90 315'e 116—9 878 IIe'I 01* 8861 199 988 Io -.B 029 67. B. V2 16--Ie- 611 06= ue-OU- uo-2Oxuv. O--.-= 019*8===== nssbN †99 1 021 †1 179 3 9 † FII 08 596* 191˙3 960 11 219˙9— Nola sunad . 116 2. H912 2 1. I22 9 elsupmuJ . 869 01 188 2 126 6 ossoH Jo Allon- 96 8 86†˙ 1 1921 5 109˙1 960 3 191--ossoH Lu*O4ol 695 611 116 99 118(6 g85 I91 819 ‧91 999 21 915 881 199 ˙*9 126˙01-uabugl F†† 08 68½ ˙85„†96 † gZ gs 886 18 690 1 919 13 885 9 9199- 3 oaue 06 5 ,68 136 †1S 919 †† 198˙81 066 098 019 68 331 91 F1I 968 09 † ˙65= Luoxes 80 ⁵† 481 805 ˙˙38 092 11 698 †le 169 86 189 ˙11 266 ˙685 201˙98 8998˙‧31 erlbarg aol 116˙3 75:... 60 2 sereeeeeeee.. yas 1 128 101 688 100 35 261 991 892 089 172 †s9 I 910 991 881 0†8 868 9981 681 891— vulssuld SPνο‧ Sp ‿ SPνα 8pPu SPuν Spuνοσ SPνο Spνπ SPννοσ SuBII..SqTOdX Sqdtu] aiSuwr..Sqaod X Sq 10d uII alSuII.Sq10dX.Sa4OdulI SATVIS 9981 2981 1981 280 ½ ν oonosl SHm, 2 ee? 800ι8 D205 Luι ονω1 1981 bno³ pu duoο⁴ ν—ν νιςν᷑ υν Sdoda P³εοduν ⸗α‿ν ᷣυν 2-795.,7 9 S ν⁄σ ½ ⸗ππυm* ⁹ο ο 5ο⁸ν ο Su.p ur³ο ⁷ 5ο Sννεσ u⁴ uον¶ οοwμ]pun O 2uουιιμινανμρνα 396 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. It was not in my power to obtain any information as to the date of the establishment of cotton-spinning and manufacture in Austria or any of its German Provinces. Of late years, they have, however increased very considerably, having shared the general prosperity of that branch of industry in Europe. The import of cotton for the year 1856, according to the official review of the imports and exports for that year, published at Vienna, in 1857, amounted to 768, 197 Zollcentners, which, at 110 2☚ United States pounds, each, would make 84, 774, 371 of our pounds; of this 758, 895 Zollcentners, or 83, 747, 858 pounds, were for consumption, and 9, 302 Zollcentners, or 1,026, 503 pounds, were in transit. The importation of 1856, compared with that of 1855, exhibited an increase of 140, 936 Zollcentners(15,552,993 pounds.) The value of the cotton consumed was, in Austrian convention, florins 23, 760, 070, equal, at 48 ⅞ cents each, to the sum of§10, 938, 634. Upon raw cotton and its waste, imported for consumption, no duty is levied; if it be in transit, there is a small duty of 6 kreutzers(4 ½ cents per Zollcentners.) The Report of the Department Statistics, published byf the Directorg of Admindstrative Statistics f the Imperial Ministrg Commerce for the fourth gear, Vienna, 1855, gives a complete list of the cotton spinneries of the empire in the year 1854, from which the following table has been compiled: PROVINCES. Mills. No. of spindles. Description of yarns,&c. Upper Austria— 47 569, 979 No. 6 up to 40, 60, 80, 100, 110, 120, 140. Lower Austria 9 83, 590 No. 4 to 44, 50, 60, 80, 100. Styria. 3 25, 464 No. 6 to 40, 100. Carniola.. 1 12, 000 No. 6 to 40. Gratz. 2 18, 300 No. 4 to 44, 4 to 26. Tyrol— 22 214, 0904 No. 4 to 46, 6 to 46, 10 to 40, 30 to 40. Bohemia 71 449, 906 No. 1, 4, and 6, to 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 80, 90, 100, 120. Lombardy. 30 129, 046 No. 4 to 20, 6 to 20, 6 to 30, 6 to 40, 20 to 100. Venicc.... 2 28, 464 No. 6 to 40. Hungary%.. 1 1, 440 No. 6 to 16, 6 to 20. Transylvania.. 1 960 No. 6 to 16. Total... 189 1, ‚533, 243 Several of these mills, also, spin twist, particularly those of Felix- dorf, Nos. 30- 100(Truman, 6- 140;) and Haratic(20- 160.) It will be perceived that the great bulk of Austrian spun yarns is of the lowest numbers, ranging from No. 4 to No. 50, upon which the tariff affords a very high and almost prohibitive protection. I — — = — — Nuu meut de otl flo TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPsS, 397 The yarns produced are mostly unbleached, and a ready home market is found for them. The demand is principally for middling qualities 16-24, which are worth, ordinarily, in the Triest market 5 ¼ florins(§2 70) the package of 10 pounds. When imported, they are sent chiefly to Hungary, Bosnia, and Wallachia. Bleached yarns of the lower num- bers imported cannot ordinarily compete, by reason of the duties, with those of domestic production. At Triest, which is a free port, they are worth, generally, from 4 florins(§1 94) to 4 ½ florins(2 18) the package of 10 pounds, and are in demand for the Levant markets. The duty on bleached yarn and twist is 46 ⅓ kreutzers(near 36 cents) the package of 10 pounds. On bpleached and twisted yarn the duties are 54 ½ kreutzers(near 44 cents) in the package of 10 pounds, while on those which are dyed it is 1 florin 22 kreutzers(near 65 cents) for the same measure, and they are also excluded from the domestic market by reason of the duties. The domestic yarns are worth at Prague, which is the great centre of production, the Province of Bohemia having 71 mills and 449, 906 spindles out of a total of 1, 533, 243, from 42 to 45 kreutzers(35 to 36 cents) the pound. This does not, as I was told, materially differ from the prices at other points of Austria. A very active spinning business is carried on at Prague and the neighboring districts of Bohemia, the raw material being almost wholly supplied by way of Bremen. The mill of Mr. Richter—the only one visited by me— has 16, 000 spindles, employs 500 hands in spinning and weaving, and consumes, on an average, 10, 000 pounds of cotton per week, nearly all of which is„middling“ Georgia and Louisiana, which, delivered at the mill, cost from 45 florins(§21 83) to 50 florins(§24 25) the centner (110 pounds.) Surat is used but to a limited extent, and for the lowest numbers, being mixed with the other varieties. The yarns spun are chiefly Nos. 25 and 26, which are woven into ordinary cloths. The yarn of this and other lower numbers is worth at Prague from 42 to 45 kreutzers(33 1 to 36 cents) the pound. The wages paid are, for a head spinner, from 7 to 8 florins(3 40 to§3 86) per week. He is allowed one assistant, at 2 florins,(97 cents,) and two boys, one of whom receives 1 florin 48 kreutzers,(86 ¾ cents,) and the other 1 florin 30 kreutzers(72 cents per week.) For women and girls, the wages are from 15 to 25 kreutzers(12 to 20 cents) per day. For weavers, the average wages are 3 florins(§1 45) per week. The working day begins at 5 a. m. and ends at 7 p. m., and an ordi- nary weaver can weave from 24 to 30 Austrian ells(20 to 26 ¾ yards) per week... Spinning is also carried on in all the other provinces named in the table to a greater or less extent; the difference being mainly in the fineness or coarseness of the yarns turned out. In the two Provinces, (Upper and Lower Austria,) of Austria proper and Styria, a greater proportion of the finer numbers are turned out; but the new material consumed continues to be, for by far the greater part, of the growth 398 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. of the United States, and, as observed in a former part of this report, imported for the mills in the Vorarlberg, Vienna, and Styria, by way of Bremen or Hamburg, on account of the superior advantages the first-named city especially presents above Triest or Vienna in the lowness of freights. b Tihe Movimento della Navigazione e Commercio, in Trieste, nell' anno solare 1856— The Progress in Commerce and Navigation, in Triest, for the year 1856— an official publication, gives the following state- ment of the importation of raw cotton into that port in the year 1856, with the countries or ports from which it came: Ceniners From Austrian ports................................. 427 Papal States... 108 Greece............................... 99 Sardinia.......................... 184 France on the Mediterranean.. 25 France on the Atlanttoo S ⁰... 470 Malta............................ 12 Great Britain and IJreland.ͤddͤdd‚.. 60,594 Netherlansss„„........... 7 Turkey........................................ 5,180 Egypt........................... 102, 199 St. Domingo................................... 150 United States............................. 133,020 Total....(33, 375,326 pounds) 302, 430 The exportations for the same period were, by land, 171,387 cent- ners,(18, 913, 412 pounds,) and by sea as follows: Centners. To Austrian ports............... 1.................. 80,180 Papal States..................................... 442 . Kingdom 0f Naples............................... 1,449 lonian Islands..... d.......................... 43 Tuscany............................... p.......... 38 Turkey.................................. 178 Total..............(9, 088, 397 pounds) 82,356 The cotton exported to Austrian ports went, as I was informed, into Lombardy, by way of the river Po; and what was not demanded there went over the Alps into Tyrol, the Vorarlberg, and a portion also into Switzerland. The 171,387 centners exported by land were nearly all sent into Styria, Carniola, Gratz,&. What effect the completion and putting into operation of the entire railroad line between Triest and Vienna, t b t b TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 399 which was accomplished last summer, may have upon the importation f cotton, particularly from the United States, the East Indies, or South America, into Triest, remains yet to be seen. The great dbstacle to any marked increase is the uncertainty of obtaining return freights for cotton-laden vessels; and unless that be removed, Bremen will probably continue to maintain her supremacy as the entrepôt for the much greater part of the raw material, unless Genoa should deprive her of a portion of the trade, now that the Sandinian and Lombardy lines of railroad are so extensive, and by which means, it is thought, Lombardy, the Tyrol, the Vorarlberg, and even Venice herself, perhaps, may be supplied at a less cost of transportation than by ships going to either Venice or Triest, as that port offers much greater prospects of ready and paying return freights than any of the others. Through the kind attention of Messrs. S.& A. Blumenthal, bankers, at Venice, I obtained the following statement of the amount and value of cotton imported into that port during the years 1855 and 1856, and for the first seven months of 1857. The weights, French kilogrammes, and the values, Austrian livres, are here reduced to their corresponding values with us: 1855— 85, 867 pounds; value,§10, 820. 1856— 99, 256 pounds; value,§12, 654. 1857—(seven months) 58, 123 pounds; value, 87, 462. The condition of the spinning and cotton manufacturing interest in the Lombardo-Venitian Provinces is one of great prosperity, as none but articles which command a ready and profitable home market are turned out, the cost of production, deducting that of the raw material, being quite moderate. The communication which follows is from the highly respectable firm of Antonio and Andrea Ponti, of Milan, who appeared to take the greatest pleasure in giving information, so far as it related to Lombardy and the other Italian Provinces of Austria. The importation of raw cotton into Lombardy is estimated at 30,000 bales, of which 25,000 are of the growth of the United States, and 5, 000 of the Indies and the Levant; that is, cottons coming from Madras, Bombay, and Surat, and cottons coming from Macedonia, Smyrna, and Malta. The much greater part of the cotton from the United States, Malta, and the Indies, is received through the port of Genoa, and nearly all those from the Levant are imported by way of Triest, where there is a great entrepòôt of those qualities, and formerly a much more considerable importation was counted, but the low prices of cotton, in America, during the years 1840, 1844, 1848, 1849, and 1850, have broken up the culture of cotton in the countries of the Levant. Before the opening of the railroad from Genoa to Novara, a great deal of the cotton from the United States came in by way of Triest, and was sent to Milan by the river Po as far as Mantua, and after- wards, by wagon, to its destination; but now, the transport by rail- road furnishes a more rapid and economical way, and has annihilated 400 AGRICUILTURAL REPORT. the commerce of Triest as regards that article, Genoa being much nearer to Milan and possessing superior advantages, although the entire line of railway from Milan to Venice and Triest is now open. The transportation from Genoa to Milan, including all expenses of discharging, warehousing,&c., is calculated at ¾ cent per dollar on the American pound, while, on the contrary, the transportation from Triest to Milan would cost twice as much and take twice the time. At Genoa, cotton is bought directly through brokers, without other expense than a commission of one-half of 1 per cent., and is imported at less expense from the country of its growth than at cither Triest or Venice. The first importation of United States cotton into Genoa dates from 1827, by the house of Ponti, a member of which was, in that year, at New Orleans, making direct purchases, and afterwards, in 1841; the writer of this, resided in the United States for the period of eleven years, and carried on trade in this article by way of the Medi- terranean, bringing the consumption up to the point at which it now is, while the previous consumption was only one-quarter American to three-quarters Levant. Now many of the largest spinners import cotton direct from the United States, and are able to furnish a good supply to the smaller spinners. In Lombardy, we count 33 spinning mills of 800 horse power, 500 mule jennies, and 140,000 spindles; of this number, the Province of Milan contains 18 mills of 450 horse power, 300 mule jennies, and 80,000 spindles; the remaining 15 mills are scattered through the adjoining Provinces of Bergamo, Brescia, Sondrio, and Como. Our Ponti mill, at Gallavati and Solbrata Alona, is the oldest, and dates from 1810. It counts 18, 000 spindles, and is the most extensive in Lombardy. The yarn spun ranges from Nos. 2 to 34. The weight and quality are established on the same footing as in England. All its product is consumed in Lombardy and Venice. The yarns of all the Lombardian spinneries are consumed either in the fabrication of very common stuffs, made of Nos. 2, 4, 8, or 10, which the peasants carry to their homes to be worked up during the winter, making themselves their supply of cloth, or by contractors or whole- sale merchants. The merchandise fabricated by the large manufacturers may be estimated at 300, 000 pieces of domestics; 6, 000 pieces of velvets; 150,000 pieces of fustian; 170, 000 pieces of shirtings; 150, 000 pieces of cottonades; 80,000 pieces of other coarse tissues, and for con- sumption in our country. The length of the piece cannot be given, for the reason that each manufacturer has his own measure; but it may be estimated at an average of 60 yards. 1 The principal villages of production are Gallavati, for fustians; Busta, for domestics, fustians, and other stuffs; and Monza, for cotton- ades. These villages are all in the Province of Milan, and it may be said that they manufacture enough for the requirements of all the other Provinces of Lombardy and a good part of Venico. However, many inhabitants of the country also buy yarns of very coarse descrip- bͤd Mxa atm in 1 dü Vn N lh teain fen u M erolt delli üm Rir Aaml mG Uünt lis u mht „9. deta elthih heit ud I E Inu 11 rE 5 wh Dopis 1G 1 tel un his dr othr Rapü I 9 Nofe- desolg TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 401 tions tor the fabrication of heavy goods, such as socks, bonnetry,&c. The number of looms worked at Gallavati, Busta, and Monza is estimated at 18, 000, and nearly all the cultivators become weavers as soon as they have finished their field work. The piece costs from 81 to tl 25, according to the fineness of quality, and there are, at the least, 5,000 families who are supplied in this manner. Labor with us is so cheap because it is thus employed at hours and seasons when there is nothing elsewhere to do, and partic- ularly by those members of the families who do not till the soil; that is to say, by children under eight years, and by the aged people above sixty years old. The most extensive manufacturing firms are those of our house and of M. Turati. It was the first named which introduced, in the year 1808, the fabrication of fustians into Lombardy, with which the lower classes of people are at present clothed. Accept, sir, our most devoted salutations. ANTONIO& ANDREA PONII. MILAN, October 7, 1857. The importation of cotton yarns and manufactured goods, partic- ularly those which are bleached or colored, is discouraged by the imposition of duties which are in some cases heavy, and in others absolutely prohibitive. Up to the 30th June, 1856, the quantity of unbleached yarn im- ported was 50, 883 Zollcentners, equal to 5,615, 189 pounds, upon which the duty paid was 6 florins(§2 91) per centner; for the remainder of the year, the import amounted to 61, 855 Zollcentners, (6, 826,009 pounds,) on which the duty paid was 5 florins(§2 42.) The total value was 6,764, 280 florins, or§2, 279, 675; while the total duty paid was 614, 573 florins(§298,067.) Of bleached, but not dyed yarn, the import for the year was only 3,249 Zollcentners,(353,543 pounds,) paying a duty of 10 florins (§4 85) the Zoll centner, and its value was 324, 900 florins,(§ 57, 576,) paying a total duty of 32,490 florins(§5,757.) Of dyed varn and twist, the import was 1,211 Zollcentners(133,641 pounds.) It was valued at 157, 430 florins,(§ 6, 353,) which, at the duty of 12 florins 30 kreutzers, or 36 66 the Zollcentner, yielded a revenue of 15,137 florins(§7, 341.) Of this description, there were imported under"“the free trade with the Zollverein States,““ 15, 772 Zollcentners(1, 740,520 pounds), which paid only 2 florins 30 kreutzers, or 81 22 duty, the Zollcentner. Its value was 2,050, 360 florins,(§994, 424,) and the revenue derived from it amounted to 39, 430 florins(§19, 054.) On bleached, but not dyed yarns, coming in under the same arrangement with the Zollverein States, the duty is only 2 florins 30 kreutzers,(51 22,) while on unbleached yarns it is levied at the same rate.. Triest being a free port, with an extensive trade with the Levant, Bosnia, Servia, and Wallachia, there is a considerable demand for such qualities and descriptions of yarns as could not, if sent into the 26 A 402 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Austrian markets, at all enter into competition witn those of domestic production by reason of the enormous duties. The yarns destined for Triest are generally put up in packages of 10 pounds. But jealous as the Austrian government shows itself as to competi- tion with its domestic produce of cotton yarns and twist, it is still more so with regard to the introduction of cotton fabrics and tissues; and although it has not gone to the length that France has done, of prohibiting absolutely and in express language, their introduction within its territory, the same object is attained by the imposition of a scale of duties which are virtually prohibitive. Thus, on the most ordinary description of cotton stuffs, raw, unbleached, undyed, and unprinted,“ the duty imposed amounts to 40 florins(819 44) the Zoll- centner. On articles of middling fineness, dressed, bleached, dyed, &c., 75 florins(§36 24) the Zollcentner. If from the States of the Zollverein, 45 florins(§21 84). Muslins printed, 100 florins(or 648 24) the Zollcentner. If from the“free trade of the Zollverein States,“* 45 florins(§21 84). Bobbinets, English tulles, laces, and embroideries, 250 florins(§ 21 25) the Zollcentner; if from the efree trade of the Zollverein States,“ 200 florins(5897;) and if from the privileged factories of Venice, 228 florins 40 kreutzers (§110 90.) With such duties to contend against, it is not to be wondered at that the entire importation of all such fabrics and tissues into the Austrian empire, with its 39,500, 000 inhabitants, only amounted, in 1856, to 7,768 Zollcentners,(857,237 pounds,) of the value of 1,769, 680 florins(§858, 295,) while the revenue amounted to 649, 259 florins(§314, 890.) SARDINIA. Although somewhat later in the adoption of cotton-spinning, and the other branches of manufacture of which our great. staple furnishes the material, than many of the Continental States, Sardinia exhibits a healthy state of progress, if an opinion may be formed from the consumption of cotton, in proportion to the population, which, at the last census, was under 5, 000, 000. It must be remembered that this industry is carried on almost exclusively in Piedmont, while in Genoa, Savoy, and the island of Sardinia it is scarcely, if at all, known. The mills are, for the most part, to be found at or near the town of Arona, on Lake Maggiore. So far as I could learn, no industrial census of the kingdom is taken, and the number of mills, spindles, looms, and employés was unknown to all those with whom I conversed on the subject. An extensive importer of cotton at Genoa was kind enough to promise me such statistics on these points as he could procure among his customers, but they have not yet come to hand. The latest official publication relative to the imports and exports of cotton, yarns, and tissues, is the Movimento Oommeroiale del' Anno. 1855, 84 (Commercial Progress for 1855,) published by the ministry of finance uu äülbit demi it bil ddn. R dinl tnei ötndi Atteu 1 dſthell lel e Ates üt dor! Lül het E m t 1; i Dbar ronderet les uh nonlheli wl 1 693 inrin⸗ 4 le rs a exbiih 1 On. n ewenier mon 3 gütlf he imi )inibs 8 Sis us TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 403 in 1857, which is preceded by some preliminary observations and comparisons of results with those of former years. Of cotton, it is said: „This class is one of the most important, by value, and the number of commercial contracts to which it gives rise, and of which the united values of the importations and exportations is 40, 526, 512 livres, (§7, 537,931.) with an increase of 6 ⅛ per cent. on the last triennial mean, and of 3 ¼ per cent on the import of the preceding year.“ The accompanying table, marked A, compiled from the official publication above cited, will show the quantity and value of the cotton imported into Sardinia, and the countries whence it came. It will be seen that more than half of it was derived from the United States, while there can be no doubt that by far the greater portion of that reported as coming from France, England, Belgium,&c., was also of the growth of this country. The table marked B, also from the same official source, exhibits the import, export and consumption of cotton for the six years beginning with 1850, and ending with 1855. The exportation of the last year named showed an increase of 23 per cent. in the triennial mean, and of 30 per cent. when compared with the year 1854. Mr. Herbremont, the consul at Genoa, kindly furnished me with a statement of the quantities of cotton imported direct into that city from ports of the United States during the year 1856, and the three quarters of 1857, ending with the 30th September, by which it appears that the amount received in 1856 was 39, 659 bales, which, at 450 pounds per bale,(a moderate estimate,) would amount to 17, 844, 300 pounds; which, with the supplies derived from France, ngland,&c., would go to show a largely increased consumption, compared with the previous year. Up to September 30, 1857, the direct importation had reached 25,064 bales, which, at the average above assumed, would give 11, 278, 800 pounds of the raw material from the United States alone. There was, probably, a falling off in the receipts of this year in Sar- dinia, owing to the short crop of our country and the high prices, as was the case in other European countries. The export of raw cotton in the year 1855 was, altogether, 4, 134, 555 kilogrammes(9, 096, 021 pounds;) of which 3, 722, 780 kilogrammes (8, 290, 116 pounds) were sent into the Austrian empire. The quan- tity, therefore, left for consumption was 9, 921, 639 pounds. If the estimate of 40 pounds of the raw material per year to each spindle be applied to Sardinia, the result would be 260, 000, which. is probably near the truth. From all I could learn, the qualities of the yarns spun, tissues woven, wages paid,&c., resemble closely the same branches of the industry in Lombardy. The duty on cotton yarns imported is regulated according to the degree of fineness, it being the object of the government to protect its own spinners against competition in the home market. Thus, on unbleached yarn below No. 20, it is 20 centimes labout 3 1 cents;) if between No. 20 and No. 30, 30 centimes(about 5 1 cents;) if between Nos. 33 and 45, 40 centimes(about I ⁴ν cents;) it etween 46 and 60, 50 centimes(about 119% cents) the kilogramme of 2 ⅞ pounds. 404 AGRIOULTURAL REPORT On twisted yarns, up to No. 32, the duty is also 9 cents the kilogramme, and in all other numbers, 70 centimes(about 13 cents) the kilogramme. On bpleached or dyed yarns, of whatever number or quality, the duty is 80 centimes(about 15 cents) the kilogramme. The accompanying table, marked C, exhibits the imports of cotton yarns, tissues, and other fabrics, during the years, named. It is also compiled from the“ Commercial Progress for 1855. It is anticipated by the merchants at Genoa that the importations of cotton into that port, direct from the United States, or other countries of its growth, will continue to increase, not only to meet a domestic demand, but also to supply, by means of the Sardinian rail- road, the wants of the spinners in the Italian Provinces of Austria, and in those of Tyrol and the Voralberg. American shipmasters, however, complain no little at the want of liberality on the part of the authborities, as regards the port regula- tions, and the monopolies, with their exorbitant charges, which they sanction. There are few or no direct exchange operations between Sardinia and the cotton marts of the United States. Payments are made by drafts on London or Paris. The chief articles of export are fruits, oliva oil, silk, rice, wool, wine, grain,&c. S AuvosnI. unSlog nuen u s(0010uie oeds pur lelouos su uonounsp oules ou 8181XO ↄlou vlun 23 J0 uopSuIX ION T 2 5 8 92 ¹EI L16˙960'% L9 ‧169 81 619 893˙GI Le8 ee e lel. 998 gI9- 306 931 5 199 ‧060 61 245 6C'gl 187 112 5 265 ˙614 ÄÄÄêêêIloJ. 8 gFo gr. 886:es 900e 900 92...........e. gr0gy 886 gs 900 C9, 900 g92......[...................*..... SIPuI 18 uK 041„901 1*6 60 000 2L... 018 98 15 ˙69 004 1εα. volV UoN Segel 0I 8 180 0 egel FL. r80 1 5.„LolemV Lenue 9288 3e Sr SI 180 021 9069 88 166 81 I2⁵ 821 8.. vollo uV anoS 3 bre“ 71 4 20⁰. 4 0r0 8 4 Ppgel 20⁷ 0F0e8 EEE ee..........S..........IIauAg 49E Sl 5 Ck 908 I EEel9 11 90 123'6 CeI 902 1 467(159 II 9†8 IlC... S1u18 panluſi 188 1 Snell 29¹( 1E8 ScgI... epacls 1ee el eeeenr ſeeereee...... eiweIlI. eeIs 39 21 Leeen 878 II! d6 3 504 1 3.Cſ,C. 1.. oele A oclat.9505,24 4,. O98 S 108 ,PI 009 G5I 600 83 168 tcol 096 ℳ5 IISchl 009 LSI 169 901. SleEIL 866(Se‿ 86 Oer C e 11000ofF7.. 0c0 eL2L 866 Fop 687 ,660*„ vlerl? 3 2 6 6 926 ,846 119:8 O65,OoOc.. ,......(Geloo 88. 519 8 065 ·0..... Roe. he 5 957. 6 ⁸½ 615 OeIs 206 8rG'I 308 502. 961*I 016 ee Lrl v6eh 018 0Oels 816 greel 928 804 961 Ple 068 CéOoo................. 90 uu 4 A HO 404 4g H·O NAG„purl 48 HO 104· 4d H:O 1uN4d purl 49 E. onluA Iro onlvA 1. onluA IIolouuee spunod uonodun Iuloloue spunod 1uο P19150 Iero. 10dsunn Jo pold Jo nluA+O pPonloed luro.I. 11odsuun Jo epoN A.HDHOUd doNAHAM SsaluæNa00 A0OdAMNOO TVIOad8 AoAaKNOO lVNANNSD s, Podu, ſO 250 ½ 02 Poonpos Suνος sonpa Pun enlbom*„„„'senpa oo 202 OsEp pup 4sonpa Dioueudο poeeoop Än ggSI Svoh 20, Sudmp soεοn 2D uuo³⁴, peupan Onus por2odaus uo⁵oο mο Qππν„uυνuυ 4 V 9 SE— 406 Statement of the importation, exportalion, B. during the gears 1850 ¼0 1855, Inclusive, cial Progress'“ for 1855; the weights being reduced to pounds. AGRICULTURAL REPORT. and consumplion f cotton derived from the“ Commer- XEARS. Importation. Exportation. Consumption. 18950 C 7, 210, 940 1851— 19, 019, 772 9, 172, 073 9, 845, 939 1852.. 20, 313, 018 6, 722, 418 13, 590, 590 1853— 21, 772, 428 8, 067, 110 14, 365, 318 1854 17, 490, 041 6, 723, 121 10, 766, 930 1855 D— 19, 017, 660 9, 096, 021 9, 923, 639 C. tatement of the quantiti cottlon, imported into Saurdinia during the Hecr OCommercial Progress“ for 1855, and t of the United States. gHarns, tissues, and other fabrics s specified, talren from the he weights reduced to those . 1. 1 3 4 8. 2 8 2 S. E 5 VEARS FROM 2*= 5 2 ₰ 5 8 5. 2 8 2 5 A 8 8 5 3 5 8 8 A 8₰ 422 2 2 83 4 — S' 5 S 1844 to 1850— 218, 238 298, 712 442, 504 566, 082 131, 204 10, 413 1851.. 174, 220 661, 602 714, 459 978, 385 200, 367 34, 434 1352.... 189,455 602, 261 786, 279 1, 414, 903 207, 522 33, 944 1853 175, 182 562, 120 820, 6553 1, 279, 989 161. 113 32, 555 1354. 163, 238 590, 253 859, 883 1, 206, 115 155, 784 39, 197 1855 183, 588 735, 108 949, 432 1, 340, 379 187,55: 52, 490 BELGIUM. There exists no official return of the number of spinning millls, spindles, looms,&c., in the kingdom. imperfect in execution, was to be placed in the informati has unquestionably been a cotton since that date. An industrial census, very taken in 1846, but little reliance seems on which it afforded; besides which, there marked progress in the manufacture of M. Romberg, director of the division of industry of the ministry of the interior, in his Annual Industyy, Commerce, and Bankbing, in Belgium, the first volume of which was published last year, makes an approximative estimate, based on the mean consumption of raw cotton at the time he wrote, 22, 200, 000 pounds, and in the supposition that each spindle consumed yearly 44 Ayi — 1,Ag 13ä Ha Wän l rig hiha — er ſn fmn k Nba 81 ſal le oS ich der actnt risoldl Tudub hicl do- e 10! er 4 TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 407 pounds of the raw material, whereby he arrives at the conclusion that their number is about 500,000. It has already been seen that cotton-spinning was a branch of Belgian industry previous to the year 1801, when the first mule jenny was introduced at Ghent. The history of that and other departments of cotton manufacture in the country, down to the period of the breaking up of the first French empireé, is to be traced in what has already been said on the same sub- jects under the head of France. As a portion of Holland, and since her independence of that kingdom, Belgium does not appear to have advanced so rapidly in this as she has in several other branches of industry, although it has now attained to considerable importance, and is on the increase both as to the extent of consumption of raw material and the value of its products. The accompanying table A is a statement of the quantities of cotton imported during the six years, beginning with 1850 and end- ing with 1855, with the countries whence it came. The total value of the importations in 1855 was 13, 541, 941 francs(§2, 511,000.) Of the 10, 534, 318 kilogrammes,(23, 175,500 pounds,) the value was 11,418, 341 francs,(§2, 123, 811,) and of the 1, 784, 964 kilogrammes (3, 926,921 pounds) in transit, it was§730, 407. The quantities of cotton in transit during the years 1850 to 1855, inclusive, were as follows: 1850.................................... 2,580, 538 pounds. 1851................................... 4, 140, 697 1852.................................... 14,230, 153 1853..................................... 8,044, 399. 1854.........................*............ 6, 836, 437 44 1859..................................... 3, 926, 921 64 The entire importation of cotton yarn, in 1855, amounted to 1,662,249 kilogrammes,(3, 656, 948 pounds,) of the value of 6, 844, 095 francs (§l, 273, 002.) Of this, 194, 723 kilogrammes,(428, 391 pounds,) of the value of 1,572, 273 francs(5292, 443) were consumed in the country, and 1, 462, 205 kilogrammes,(3, 216, 851 pounds,) of the value of 5,258,430 francs,(§l, 015, 268,) was in transit. By far the greater portion of this yarn was neither twisted nor dyed, and of English roduction. Of the entire exportation for the year, which amounted to 1, 784, 608 kilogrammes,(3, 926, 127 pounds,) of the value Of 6,323, 653 francs, (§1, 236.199.) the Belgian yarns amounted to but 323, 403 kilogrammes, (711,487 pounds,) of the value of 1, 065, 223 francs(§198, 131.) Of these, 69, 683 kilogrammes(153, 303 pounds) were not twisted nor dyed, and 252, 649 kilogrammes,(555, 828 pounds,) of the value of 8164, 474, were twisted and dyed; and 71 kilogrammes,(156 pounds,) of the value of 6,745 francs,(§l, 254,) were of various descriptions of yarns above No. 140. Much the greater part of these yarns was sent into Prussia. M. Romberg, in the work above cited, says:“ Belgium imports and exports cotton yarns to an amount nearly equal on each side; 408 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. (approximatively, 200, 000 kilogrammes per year;) but, as to their value, the balance leans very sensibly in favor of the importation. The yarns which we receive from abroad are of fine numbers, or twisted and dyed, while we send out above all ordinary qualities. One would not be far from the truth in estimating the total value of the yarns produced by our factories at 26, 500, 000 francs(§4, 929, 000.)“ He estimates the average value of the yarns produced at 2 francs 50 centimes(47 cents) the kilogramme of 2 ½ pounds, which corresponds with the information obtained by me from several of the spinners at Ghent, which is the seat of that branch of industry. M. Romberg also adopts the opinion that fabrication quadruples the value of the raw material used, and considers that the value of Belgium cotton manufactures, on this hypothesis, would reach from 48, 000, 000 to 50, 000, 000 francs, equal to from§8, 928, 000 to 59, 300, 000. Of cotton tissues, the total import, in 1855, was 774,504 kilogrammes, (1.703, 909 pounds,) of the value of 11,396, 493 francs(§2, 101, 800;) of which 240,731 kilogrammes,(529, 608 pounds,) of the value of 3,486, 241 francs(§648, 441) were consumed, and 533, 263 kilogrammes, (1,173, 179 pounds,) of the value of 7,903, 459 francs(81, 469, 400) were in transit. The export of the same was 2, 222, 678 kilogrammes, (4, 889, 892 pounds,) of the value of 18, 882, 183 francs(§3, 496, 800;) of which 1,689, 415 kilogrammes,(3, 716,713 pounds,) of the value of 10,978, 734 francs(§2, 027, 400) was of domestic production. I was told that the articles principally produced were twills, pantaloon stuffs, and bleached or unbleached domestics. The above figures, except where credited to the Annual of M. Romberg, are official, and derived from the statement of the com- merce of Belgium for the year 1855, published in the year 1857, by the ministry of finance. The statement for the year 1856 had not appeared up to the 1st of November last. At Antwerp, the custom-house authorities were kind enough to furnish the following statement of the import of cotton into that port between January 1st and October 318t, 1857. The weights are re- duced to our standard. For oonsumplion. Pounds From Sweden............................... 65,300 « Pngland......................... 5, 305, 573 44 English East Indieorteopoopppph......... 3, 333, 585 United States............................... 11, 414, 955 64 Hayti.................................... 63, 668 6 Brazilttͤdltvd’’..,-,„,... 42, 242 TOtal......................... 20, 225, 323 — Sb potbän ten n ulia Anmi aA, I oreäyn pinleh; .Nrux ws üt jum ehh 90dooh ognun 6100 à3 wak Ogräun 1,41 Ognns 49684 the n o. Iu Daltn nunl d! the er r 1S 6 ldn 1 ½ enonad: tht ts Aek TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPsS. 409 In warehouse. .. 3 Pounds. From the United States............ d9r. 1, 098, 592 In transit. From England.................................... 232, 747 e United States............................... 40, 759 Total.............................. 273, 506 —— The number of people employed in the different branches of the cotton manufacture is estimated by M. Romberg to be from 26,000 to 28,000. The census of 1855 gave the entire population of Belgium at 4, 607, 065. At Ghent, I visited the mills of MM. Lonsberg and Jules de Hemptieme; the first named was then running 41, 000 spindles, which were soon to be increased to 70, 000, consuming Louisiana cotton of the lower classifications, which were converted into yarns No. 30. His importations were mostly direct. The loss on American cotton for spinning was ordinarily 10 per cent.; on good qualities of Surat, about 15 per cent.; on the inferior qualities, 25 per cent. The waste on American cotton is often mixed with East India cotton, to make heavy, coarse yarns. Of Egyptian, Surinam, and Brazilian cotton, the consumption is insignificant. Weaving is also carried on, the tissues produced being of ordinary low-priced qualities, particularly figured or fagonnés patterns. Number of hands employed between 1, 200 and 1, 300; wages for ordinary hands—men, 2 francs(37 cents;) spinners, from 3 to 4 francs(55 to 74 cents;) weavers, from 2 francs to 2 ½ francs(37 to 47 cents) per day. For women, the wages are 25 per cent. less. M. De Hemptieme consumes East India cotton exclusively, which he converts into yarns from Nos. 4 to 18, with a loss in the raw material of 20 per cent. Delivered at the mill, it costs about 6 pence the pound, and he thinks that its consumption will rapidly increase in Belgium, as American has reached so high a price. The yarns spun are worth, on the average, 2 francs 50 centimes the kilo- gramme,(46 ½ cents for 2 ½ pounds,) with a ready sale. The wages paid are—for men, from 12 to 13 francs(2 23 to§2 40) per week; kor boys, from 4 to 6 francs(74 cents to§1 12;) for women drawing frames, 7 francs,(§- 30,) and on bobinet frames, 10 to 13 francs(§1 86 to 82 42) per week. On all raw cotton imported into Belgium, there is no duties whatever levied. On yarns, simple and undyed, from England, valued by law at 2 francs 50 centimes(46 ½ cents) the kilogramme, the duties are 84 francs 80 centimes(815 78) the 100 kilogrammes, or 221 pounds; if from other countries, they are duty free. On twisted and dyed yarns 410 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. the duty valuation is 10 francs(51 86) the kilogramme, and the duties 106 francs(§19 72) per 100 kilogrammes(221 pounds.) On simple and double twist, unbleached, bleached, or dyed, above No. 140 in fineness, the valuation is 95 francs(817 67) the kilogramme, and the duties 5 francs(93 cents) per 100 kilogrammes(221 pounds.) On cotton tissues, if unbleached or bleached, the valuation is 14 francs(§2 60) the kilogramme, and the duties 180 francs 20 centimes (§33 52) the 100 kilogrammes. On dyed and printed tissues, if of Prussian or English fabrication, the valuation is 15 francs(§2 79) the kilogramme, and the duties 325 francs(§60 45) the 100 kilogrammes; if of French fabrication, the duties is 212 francs(§39 43) the 100 kilo- grammes. From all other countries these articles are free of duties. Cotton-spinning, like all other branches of industry, is prosperous and advancing with the Belgians. Traverse the country in whatever direction he may, the traveller scarcely ever loses sight of the tall chimneys of the factories, and he is frequently at a loss whether to admire most its evidences of high agricultural advancement or those of manufacturing activity which meet him at every turn. 1 To Mr. James G. Clarke, acting United States Chargé d'affaires at Brussels, and to M. Lambermont, of the ministry of finance, I was much indebted for the facilities and information they procured me. — „ 4 TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 1OIIe u Jo proil ou lopun uonpearoduut eul uesardox sonnSg eul 981 1804 du 10. 0 0leℳl 8 ur S010u leoodg,, Jo pronl oul 1opun uone*odun ell auesou- J0 uoeunsop 101roaln"u Or PeSe sI er“ 3010 ur ee;, uOdumnsuoo 40"— Kue Jo d au o Plop SeA uoneodun dol sonnSg oAOqe od»Alsnlou P981 0 0981 sTe 40„ 091 ˙608 93 294 661 12 160 999*3 216 159 99 221 9!e I2 823 ‧900 23= spunod Ieo 990(68 9,6ö656==: 069 I“ 2*8 ˙23.e-eeeee-=. Bval uo0 0 098 99 0 †1 96 018 81 9 9 ˙93 002 ‧‧92.“ vlonzouoA puu fuH 921 ‧099 ‧21 9*9 929 ˙01 091 004 11 285 †18 91 595 161 1I1 628 868 †l“ 8 1,8 Porlul 022011““.esess-“ sopul 4su UsIl3u gI9„ d Sr.-A rupeS 909 98971 0† 99G 091 17 889 †08 59† ꝓρ 3½ 6127 OI uvxääl 94⁰ 62,1 10⁵† ˙ 259 ‧5 895 ˙B2 FP 961 999 29 Fr2 tel v““ spurl-eνσ 819 091 11 996 ˙190 †1 10 ⁵ 90 31 96‧163 01 80 5 012 ˙6 198 gog,. 5 purlsud Spunod spunod spunod 1 spunod Spunod Spunod „-CAA.dOod NI S0NdAH.M -9981⸗—981 9981 2981 1981 0981 spunod saννινςσ ρsννι uςςσς‿mειοmun 2uνꝓ̃ud s40u.20 Sipd S⁷ D0ν 201 ει np αυαᷣ νοοπνιι, Dde d, Po2edad! os⁵οοds sansν οm? Sueunp unναμνρσ¶qomRᴵdun Pdoduν uμνο τ ſo 2uοuοινανμνασ Vv 412 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 90 NCLOSION. In conclusion it may be said that it would be difficult to over- estimate the importance of cotton in the movement of the industry and commerce of the civilized world. Since the inventions of Arkwright and Watt, in England, and Whitney, in our own country, its manipu- lation and fabrication have become so comparatively easy and cheap, and its adaptation to supply the wants or the luxuries of man have proved to be so multifarious, that the question of an adequate supply of it to the growing demand has become one of the very highest im- portance, being exceeded in interest by that ofthe Cereals alone. Its influence in the well-being of the masses by furnishing employment, sustenance, and cheap clothing has long since been fully admitted; and such has been the impetus afforded by it to the invention and improvement of manufacturing machinery, that, in his work, before quoted, M. Audiganne remarks that,„It was certainly a curious sight, that, of the different aliments afforded by cotton to labor, and the services rendered to man at this day by this substance, of which the consumption has increased tenfold four or five times in less than sixty years. Cotton is manufactured among the greater part of the nations that figured at our side in the Palace of Industry. Nearly all had sent there samples of their fabrication-—samples more or less numerous, more or less remarkable, but always worthy of attentive examination. T'he degree gf advancement qf each people in the coreer f industri might be measured by its sbill in the treatment of cotton.“ Illustrating its commercial and political influence as between the United States and Great Britain, Dr. Engel says of it:*That England and the United States are bound together by a single thread of cotton, which, weak and fragile as it may appear, is, nevertheless, stronger than an iron cable.“ No wonder, then, that the question of the adequate supply of this mighty and all-powerful agent soars at this day so far above many which, at the beginning of the present century, far outranked it in their bearings upon the interests of civilized man; and it may not, in this connexion, be deemed out of place to allude, briefly, to the his- tory of the supply in Great Britain, which has long been the principal receiver of the raw material, not only to meet her own growing de- mands, but to be distributed, to some extent, among those European countries which commercial supremacy has made tributary to her. Cotton planters and manufacturers are alike under great obligations to Joseph Rudworth Sharp, F. H. S., of London, for his valuable tables, published in September last, which exhibit in a clear and com- prehensive manner, the gross amount of receipts per year, with quin- quennial averages, and the countries of production of the cotton received in the United Kingdom,&c., from tne year 1821 up to 1855. These tables are admirably arranged, and mast have cost an immense amount of labor to their compiler; and witn full acknowledgment of ate ap ighetn Alk h lomn àduil etion u rk bin à eurns Hbor, M „ dni katteuin e durtr h.) twesl t Tnpa ofedtm dtrola wäb Ove W nkedti up n c the ä pribig ow Pardpes to bel. blonti raul and ol ith Gl de oitl to iTe 1 m TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPB. 413 the very great aid they have been to me, the second of them is an- nexed hereto, as affording, in a clear and succinct form, the best in- formation attainable on that subject. It will be seen from this statement how vast has been our own con- tribution of the raw material to Great Britain and Europe generally, and how much more reliable as a source of supply our cotton fields are than those of any or all other countries, as their production between 1851 and 1855 was five times that of the East Indies, and that, while during that period, all other countries exported to Great Britain 937,024, 275 pounds, our own sent her 3, 424, 502, 024 pounds, or more than three and a half times as much. In his first table, Mr. Sharp sets down the import from the United States into the United Kingdom, in 1856, at 780, 040, 016 pounds, that from the East Indies at 180,496, 624 pounds, and the total from all other countries than the United States at 243, 846, 512 pounds, leaving a balance in our favor of 536, 193,504 pounds, and also showing that in that year also we contributed more than three times as much to European supply than all other countries combined, while it must be remembered that our domestic consumption was advancing so rapidly as to require for its use 652, 739 bales, which, estimated at 450 pounds each, were equal to 293, 732, 550, or more than the import into England that year from all other countries than our own. Mr. Samuel S. Littlefield, editor of the New Orleans Price Current, than whom there is no better informed or more reliable authority on the subject of cotton and the cotton trade in the Union, estimates the value of our crop of 1857, 2, 931, 519 bales, after making all allowances for differences in their weights in different sections of the country, at an average of§50 per bale, making the total sum 0f §146, 975,950. This gentleman has also furnished me with much in teresting information, and several valuable suggestions. From what has been said under the various heads of this report, the following conclusions as to the influence of raw cotton among the nations who are our chief customers for it may be drawn: 1st. That it contributes vastly to their social well-being by furnish- ing labor, sustenance, and cheap and comfortable clothing to many thousands of their subjects or citizens. 2d. That to commerce, it contributes immensely by furnishing a great variety of articles, by which its exchanges are in a considerable degree regulated, and large profits continually realized. That to capital, it offers the means of profitable investment and returns, and aids greatly in its accumulation. 3d. That its political influence arises from the fact, that, by opening and extending commercial relations between different nations, it has created sympathies and ties of common interest, which make the policy of peace and its attendant blessings far more easy to main- tain than was once the case; that it adds to the national wealth and resources, and by furnishing employment and support to many thou- sands who might otherwise be without either, it makes contented those who would, through idleness or suffering, become burdens to the State. 414 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 4th. That the permanent and adequate supply of raw cotton thus pecomes to Great Britain and Continental Europe a subject of vital importance, and indeed of absolute necessity; and that any consider- able diminution in the crop of the United States would cause the gravest inconveniences, while the occurrence of any state of things whereby it should be entirely cut off would be followed by social, commercial, and political revulsions, the effects of which can scarcely be imagined. With high consideration, I am, sir, your obedient servant, JOHN CLAIBORNE. Hon. JosEPH HOLT, Commissioner Patents. 415 TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS. 4 o Houry uf ponleA su Wnuuvr 10d 000˙000˙8x lrvou Jo Wro olouA u 10¼ SoAg un Zuod 000 ˙000˙0123 Cus 10 uOIrOdord frorhouaſi orxo of uei edom Suneuos ae onluàA su* Jo Junoure usd eu ereuse 0 eduloo elquuosuol 2d DInOA⁴ 3⁰ 6910 pounsuoo Cgor⁵ο t periodur olqunleA 4sou l uO½2οο purlsl vos oul s puu 4rOdXe olflue Alau Jo(91 uunloo 00s g6·69) 4 ο0 10d 01 8s°—us 0o S01 ,8 porlul ec s Aoool auwnb da se zuqd: Kalunoo sIH*° pddus onlpa Ppre ee O lnomlp ed PlnoAo 31 s S JO ⸗ STL0K Gg Jo porlod olou& eur 10]1 Se5 ½10Au lenuuV -== ST804 Gg Jo porrod elou& ou 10] SIe-*O puel eel 0 128I MoOl 6081 01 958I uIOI e l a 8O 9681 MlOnl. Seele öa“ 0881 01 9381 uIOI. .“ 9281 01 1881 IO populou S10X 96 † 06 ˙6 867 268 01 266 983˙59 816 2798 1539(687 489 819 ſ687 911 6 957 185 I882 9891 ˙696 ‧628 1 0† †0O 917581†ZI 590*9181911„71 128 61 † 89‧˙6 986 ·928 0 119691 165(908 992 821˙9 968 ‚159 910 ˙9 606 489 ,—9 21 † ce 226 384 19 990 ·§99 ·965(118 980(199(8 176 ,827 109 ,9 918 ,319 ,87 39 ·8 90 1 171 109 99 991 ,978 ·993[vI9 ,19½ ,(„5F§ 118„2935 ,107·½ 808 ·96 7† 98 21‧9 92 ˙%I 18 716 99 121 161 I2s vI"098 129 3 119 998 989 ˙5 808 †00 ,8 21˙9 Fe eI[121 892„87 886 †19 103(607 016 969 1 719 ·986 ·199 ,1 964 980 p 83*˙9 95 ·,0l 881 98 4 ,1l3 281 221 BS8I ſ18 82„213 ,1 0r. ˙6 8 ,612˙1 179„288 ,89 96 ˙8 61 ·91 620 912˙93G 211 Sf L?l 0ors III 392[196 881 ·802(688 236 99 Saaud SaTd. rr.. Lop Teuop JF S18I0C spunod spunod spunod Pun 0ↄnPu. Jpuvu sο— Kououl Zull pollod oue pollad ovo un pollod Hovo unl poflod oue ur SZ u028-Kouoxmn-1018 0 poonpog ul enlexX Iaaol, alquunb Ieaor, allunnb 1¹οl, 4urunb Trrol. ul punodſ v ulql 10d enleAdod enleA ddaarHs sv dolvà darvxIISx.SIMOS TIV:SI2OS MAMANO TIV„dNVAISI vAS 2 9 8 ·9 V 9 8 9 3 SdOTMdd TVINNAIONIID I SAIVAS ddIINDI dHIL NOdd ddLdod Xd NOTLILOO o IITVA dNV XTIILNVIIO TVITOI. „doso /e hihᷣ Po⸗ο Q8I 2H⁴ονα⁴ uοᷣu.ng OOIPP!IL ννρσmOQηνGω̈ ν s.moſt ↄarf.n. ſo PO.od 2.32u5 2 40/Gs Sp. ae wnuu pup S,DOᷣ Pup.E 202 Pu ν oun 1200 C,81 02 1281 u³ο.ρ πmοοο s.o daνò o Sauon lods u*οαs 2½ ⁴̈ω sunu d202 2ννQΠ G⁷dν ο πσql ,ανιοο 8ν ‿‿ο Spο o unrop funu, oοο u suef, uO¶ᷣ o ‿παdmο up(Sνννσ meϑν pm_⁊/]ß n uOν ν,μοο 2οσο) Soννμν uz0.10 ℳD108 pu S r oduunsuo pup duo.?, 2.Odao Ouxᷣ„dOGTdle 2 Buxσοι⁷Mm oνm uυꝛ mHp.1ν 2½ 1ο J0.1280 3 Wbe ed 0 d dj lün den 3 ... 186 ˙886 197 010 †lL'e 109 918'5s 689 911˙35 297 169 ˙69 II†(.80 ·699[*s1e04 g8 Jo pofrod olou ula 10 sunoau lunuuvV Ze8 F19 618 ·9— g875 260 285 929 ‧279 ‧862 928 ‧840 9 9.11 116 ‧980% 698 ˙686 116 3I Sr8o4 g Jo PoLrod oloua ellr 10 S1u2o puvrp 8 470 939 198 ‚* 689 916 ,991 887,118 †II L913:,818 6 261 ,217 ,F9 740 209 ,Feygcg aal oz I98I urO2. S 826 ,629 710 8 19† ˙·9G9 ·89 981„221 ,gII 177 608 8 916 ˙685 ,568 vos gor Pese 6081 01 958l u FI8 920 190 ‧9 995 ,669 ,89 919 118 16 988 ·887.9 969 ,111 80 † 612 648 06F8S 5Sl o[F8l urO 986 086 808 ,5 111928 ˙69 210 199 †ol 911 996 9 627 †88 ,16 869 61 l's1...F0*8l 0l 9981 ul 2 09„L 699 ,1 811 †L3 ·98 176 ·9†9 †el 690 999(1 818 ,880 891 950 992 Ooal..egsl 0 Ie8I ulOh 218 9*9*911 913 816 ,18 166 00 1eI Z17 ·088 92 681 ,„ 5FIII 890 809 498“ eegSI 0 9281 u 8 v9l 391 778 170 199 9CF 919 82 ¶IR I171 ‧386 ˙88 928 979 79 F36 091 6909 9581 0 1881 ulord. 8 A 5 Spunod spunod sSpunod sSpunod sSpunoq Spuno populoul s.*ν ο½ — A 2 4 s0IIl unO0 1020 II S0418 poalul a u d doee eauoe SIIZ SolpulI 180 A S0PuI uO pllod Lo u Sodun Iuo]] 10110 Ile en e 48u o ee d d, .„SGOIHdd TVINXNAIIONIIIO 91 21 II 0r 6 8 SAIMLNHNOO MlVv KNOdd NOGdDXNIM dAIINII AHT OLNI NOLLOO dO SIMOdNI TVIOT 8 ₰ vponunu— I0 VdDdSdV CROPS. TEXTILE AND FORAGE 4runoo auu Pohlommüem os spunod 000 000˙193 80A13 eleq lod spunod 00† 30 03 810At un e oOlA. Soluq 691, 399 SuA⁴ 1804 48]I sea εσ porllu d eloAM uor 100 Jo AHuunb ou guch 10 21uns 0 4IadouUs Iod⁴³ 2— Ku -761 pur 261 suuin loo un unous su soliaunoo usleο puu uopSu pl dmse 01uo Jo 088 3u00-10d 10 suonlodonld eAl,eol el eSusuo KIIuIozunm oue ee Bumenn loanwavdu Jo d— IA poumado sn 8orurnb aug ang suolssossod Iuruoοloo uM⁴ louν m υοxs] lIIoloodso puuflofh puu douu Jo suo"uf p leAesI0 10 ueeuupe N eue eeg p 80lquunb portu ssod Kuul s uts Solaaundo ulo- ul uorduunsuoo Jo nunouup ↄuio.e 2u 81 stu auuh popusaend Jou si aI 083 1PL 103 199 124 891 10 08 86 ·69 695 ˙920 617 8114˙596 875—srro4 9g Jo pollod eloud olla 10 so3u-eAs TenduV IIS8 TFG O22 698 FIe 99.... 01F*†88 9(99 †l 316 621 LIIIS190K 9 Jo pollod olouA& dl 401 sluioh puul 686 69 929 3 ge2 99? 907, l 22 s 81 99 164 619 Irz 98 995 900 09-go8I 01 1981 mon 190 ‧198 217 1 886 ,289 990 1 92 ˙63 95 ‧01 678 ‚I9 869 ³8 850 8927 ,99)..... 0981 0 9781 u. 611˙599 ‧991 1 918 828 ,396 19 ·19 99 89 040 Q5L 098 5 yp4 989 1la au— gpSI ol[PSI utox 959 ˙811 696 918(001 08 91 ‧˙62„ 01 9z 99 Peal« 092 II9 611. 0 † SI 01 9981 uiong 19 † ˙999 ˙089 888 FI1 99† 97† ‧1 p9 52 659 ·008 †9pI rI0 5*6 FII“ 9881 0 1881 ulolg. 081 †96 809 835 2l 90 † 88 ·18 11‧89 898 aI2 9901 1496 628 6 0981 04 9281 ulo. 68⁵ 597 993 999 086 ‧561 28 ·92 89 †1 180 089 014 geI 285 9.,.. 9581 04 1381 uo. sSpunoq Spunoq. 4 00 4dold Jο0 10 spunod spunod popnloul s-νX 88 52 85 2 8 ⁵F⁵ 5 5 2² ⁸ 3½ ⁵ 28 58 823 88 8 ⁵ ₰—===A S 5. S. 25⁵ 585 82 ⸗ 55 ½ ☚ ⁸ 15 ,s S8 33 585 1 e 2 53 8 5. 2 22 8. 93·4 5 5. SdOrUdd TVINNMNONIIIO 33½ 41, ½5, 4. 3354 3 s A —& S S. 2. 24 2⁸ 2S 85⁸ 5.Z8 5 5 ⁸.*53 7 ¾ 52½ 8 5 3 35 5 5 3 61 81 21.91-91—1 Poenunue— AOVddSSdV AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 6 4 6 7 991 †0I 11 198 199 9 292 996 16 91‧88 98 99““-====STu0 gg Jo poliod eloq eu 10 so³eleAt IenuuV 6 6 4 6 957 959 869 817 199 T61 Z11 vSI 8278.. S.e... Sreof gg Jo pollod olou& eul 101 slu⸗*ο pPe 965 ·,181·931 260 901 ,†9 291 ˙119(67— ⸗Beeeeee 1SI1614,86 299 ˙(98 ,389 224 10 a 33 85 5 14“. ass 3 fal Wora 192 998 ,*8 223 F8I ,99 199 669 719 00 ˙62 oo-I. A hel wonn 328 ,131:†8 849 ,197 Pt 19†˙669 ,0g 21 18 88 89 derr 3 nüst zuoua 187 †9† 12 907 618* 11† ˙108(698 99 ‧82 17 I1,. BBV—BV 5 109 ˙661 19 986 ,551 81 6/1 099 9892 II ˙28 4“ 5 nest eat oe ,661. 2 68 19 deeisanste eteaeechkeese e 0 u 299 ,999 315 267 ,146 815. 186 151 LPI 69 ·93 Ier“““ dest 9 1234 on onleA onloA Spunoq 4uoο 1d οο 1d popnjoul 81½0, 8 8 O d 0 8 3 18 5 835 2 35 3 ⁸ 3 4 5r5 55 4 8 2. 3 2. 0 2. 2528 2.3. 5 .5 8 8.= 2 2- 5. S 8 5˙⁸ 3 2 ⁸ AE.s[935 23 3 5 55 5 3 5.9, 8 9 15 25 4 ⁸*⁵ 8 8 57 5 2 5 888⁸=3 5 gdolddd IVINNAHONIINO ³3 3 88⁸ 2 3 255 8* 3⁸ 8 5.5 5 85 5 55 8*8 8 E5N 58 Z. 35 13 03 261 261 penunu— IOVUASdV METEOROLOGVY. 419 METEOROLOGY. METEOROLOGY IN ITS CONNECTION WITH AGRICULTURE. BY PROF. JOSEPH HENRYX, SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. We intended, in this number of our contributions to Meteorology as applied to Agriculture,“ to give an account of the distribution of rain, of the phenomena of storms, and other matter pertaining to the climate of the United States; but the colored plates necessary to illustrate this subject were not ordered by Congress at its last session, and, therefore, we are obliged to change our plan. We have concluded to occupy the space allowed us in the Report of the Patent Office, with a more definite exposition of some of the general prin- ciples of science, especially applicable to meteorology, than is generally met with in elementary works. We are induced to adopt this course on account of the inquiries which we are constantly re- ceiving in regard to subjects of this class from all parts of the country; a great interest having been awakened during the last few years in the study of meteorology, principally through the efforts of the Smithsonian Institution and the Patent Office. We trust that our essay will be acceptable to the agriculturist, since, however remote the theoretical part of the communication may appear, at first sight, from his pursuits, yet a proper view of the relation of science and art will enable him to see that the one is dependent on the other, and that each branch of the study of Nature is intimately connected with every other. We take it for granted that the American farmer is capable of logical reflection; that he is not content with the ability merely to per- form with facility agricultural operations, and to direct with skill the ordinary routine of his farm, but that he is, also, desirous of knowing the rationale or scientific principles of all the processes he employs. We have no sympathy with the cant of the day with reference to practical men,“ if by this term is understood those who act without reference to well- established general laws, and are merely guided by empirical rules or undigested experience. However rapidly and skil- fully such a person may perform his task, and however useful he may be within the limited sphere of his experience, and in the practice of rules given by others, he is incapable of making true progress. His attempts at improvement are generally not only failures, involving a loss of time, of labor, and of materials, but such as could readily have been predicted by any one having the requisite amount of scientific information. It is the due combination of theoretical knowledge with 420 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. practical skill which forms the most efficient and reliable character, and it should be the object of the agricultural colleges which are about being established in various parts of our country to produce educational results of this kind.. It is not expected that the farmer is to be a professional scientist, büt that he should be familiar with the general principles of all branches of knowledge which more especially relate to his occupa- tion; and the wider the extent of his information, the better. Above all, he should be qualified to form a just appreciation of the value of original scientific investigations, and be ready at all times to adopt the principles which they may unfold, so far as they may be appli- cable to his uses; and, moreover, be willing to render a due acknowl- edgment for the benefits thus conferred, and to contribute in any way in his power to the necessary, if not liberal, support of those who seek, without the hope of pecuniary reward, to advance the bounds of human knowledge and of human power. The number of those in any age, and in any country, who successfully investigate Nature and discover new truths, which form valuable contributions to the existing stock of knowledge, is comparatively small. The successful labor of the hands is much easier than that of the head; and, therefore, those who have actually proved by what they have done that they possess the ability to enlarge the field of science, should be especially cared for, and their energies husbanded and directéd to the one pursuit to which they may have devoted their attention. Unfortunately, how- ever, there has always been in England and this country a tendency to undervalue the advantages of profound thought, and to regard onl) with favor those investigations which are immediately applicable to the wants of the present hour. But it should be recollected that the scientific principles which at one period appear of no practical value, and are far removed from popular appreciation, at another time, in the further development of the subject, become the means of individual prosperity and national wealth. About ffty years ago Sir Humphrey Davy moistened a small quan- tity of ordinary potash, and, submitting it to the current of a powerful galvanic battery, observed a number of brilliant particles burning and exploding on the surface. With the intuitive perception of a highly philosophical mind, he saw at once, in this experiment, a fact of the deepest significance—the verification of a previous a priori hypothesis, namely, that potash and the other alkalies and alkaline earths were not simple substances, as they had previously been consid- ered, but metals compounded with oxygen. This discovery, which had an important bearing on the whole science of chemistry, but which had no interest for the popular mind, has, in thé course of time, revolutionized many of the processes of art, and will furnish the means, in various ways, of adding to the comforts and conveniences of life. Within the last two years a French chemist has discovered a process of decomposing one of these alkaline earths, namely, the clay, which forms the basis of the soil of the farmer, and which, hardened by fire, constitutes the brick to build his tenement, and of obtaining krom it a metal as light as glass, as malleable and ductile as copper, m vhia 8 d puh geiait ples lb ten ter. In the wh. les th ähh 1 p be u ne achen af 1 dthoxn the bwu wof tuos JNatmoa thef Nas clällyan purri mateh, N tenden regrrld ppleah 3 ted thu 1 cticdl 1 her tus! fui Sal ſ fapo Ies bur- ceptol 1 melt 3 Ous à p9 nd 1 been ens 1 nlind but METEOROLOG. 421 and as little liable to rust as silver. These discoveries were made by men whose lives were devoted to the abstract study of Nature; they are not the results of accident, but logical deductions from previous conceptions of the mind, verified and further developed by the ingenious processes of the laboratory. It may be safely said, that for every one individual who is capable of making discoveries of this kind, there are at least a thousand who can apply them to useful purposes in the arts, and who will be stimulated to undertake enter- prises founded upon them by the more general and powerful incentive of pecuniary reward. When the process of procuring aluminum, or, in other words, the metal from clay, has been perfected, and some enterprising citizen shall have established a great manufactory for the production of the article for general use, he will have conferred a benefit on his country, be entitled to credit, and will probably receive the desired remuneration. But should the names of the chemists who originally made the discovery of the principles on which this public benefit depends be forgotten? Ought not their labors to enlarge the bounds of knowledge to be properly valued, and their names held in grateful remembrance? If living, should they not be afforded the means of extending their investigations, without the distraction of mind attendant on the efforts to obtain a precarious livelihood for themselves and families? In truth, we must say, not in the way of complaint, but for the pur- pose of drawing attention to the fact, and with the hope of somewhat changing the condition of things in this respect, that in no civilize d country of the world is less encouragement given for the pursuit of abstract science than in the United States. The general govern- ment has no power in the Constitution directly to foster pursuits of this kind; and it is only by an enlightened public opinion, and the liberality of wealthy individuals, that a better condition of things can be hoped for.. The great facts of the future of agriculture are to be derived from the use of the microscope, the crucible, the balance, the galvanic battery, the polariscope, and the prism, and from the scientific gen- eralizations which are deduced from these by the profound reflections of men who think, in contradistinction to those who act. The intelli- gent farmer should be able, as We have already said, properly to ap- preciate the value of scientific discoveries; and for this purpose his studies should not be confined merely to rules or empirical receipts, but also to the general principles on which they are or should be founded. Though some of the points we shall discuss in the following essay may appear, at first sight, to be of too abstract a character to be com- prehended by a casual reader, yet they will be found, on attentive perusal, by a person of ordinary intelligence, to be easily understood; but it may be well here to call attention to a fact frequently over- looked, thiat there is a great difference between reading and studo, or between the indolent reception of knowledge without labor, and that effort of mind which is always necessary in order to secure an important truth and make it fully our own. 422 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. CONSTITUTION OF MATTER. Lauos gf force and motion.— All the objects which are presented to us in the material universe, and all the changes which we observe taking place continually among them, whether those which imme- diately surround us or those which we perceive at a distance, either bpy the naked eye or by means of a telescope, are referable to two principles—malter and force. By the former, We understand the sub- stratum of that which affects our senses; and by force, that which produces the changes which we constantly observe in the former. The idea of force, was probably first suggested to us by our muscular exertions, and, indeed, the original meaning of the term is a muscle or tendon. But we cannot imagine a force without some bodily sub- stance against which it is exerted; the two ideas, therefore, of mat- ter and force are coexistent in the mind, and on a clear and definite conception of them depends that precise relation of the phenomena of Nature denominated science. Though the essence of force and matter may never be known to us, We Can study the laws by which they are governed, and adopt such a constitution of matter as will enable us to generalize a vast number of facts; to connect these with each other, or, as it were, with a central thought; to perceive their dependencies, and in some cases to control phenomena; to relieve the memory, and call into play the reasoning powers; and, finally, to pre- dict new facts, the existence of which had never yet been proved by actual experience. But such a generalization must be based on the well-established principles of the laws of force and motion, and be in strict accordance with accurately ascertained and properly estimated facts in the various branches of physical inquiry, in order that it may be an exact expression of the apparent cause of the phenomena, and that the prediction from it may be true in measure as well as in mode.— The laws of force and motion, to which we have alluded, may be expressed as follows: LAWS OF FOROCE. 1. Every particle of matter, at a sensible distance, attracts every other particle with a force varying inversely as the square of the distance. In electricity and magnetism, repulsion is also exhibited, acting in accordance with the same law. 2. Particles of matter attract and repel each other with great energy, the attractions and repulsions appearing to alternate. LAWS OF MOTION. 1. The law of inertia.—A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and when put in motion by the application of any force, tends to move forever in a straight line with a uniform velocity. 2. The lauw of the coexistence& motions.—A body impelled at the veseltel- Ve Chden lich un ans de ablé ur md theg that rü the em ur Vln 1S àIA dodlfa ore, u and dir Phennu f tree by n tter Bn tthesen reeinte relienet ully, um prone asel G M alllkif Vresiun rder tWti phenoua as Fellulf ed. Wrh nets te mare ü Herlühki b ni gu nate. tnit D k to 1 di b METEOROLOGV. 423 same moment by several forces in different directions, will, at the end of a given time, be in the same position as if the foroes had each acted separately. 3. The lauw f ackion and reaction.— When a force acts between two bodies of different masses, their momenta will be equal. These laws were first given to the world in a definite form by Sir Isaac Newton, in his Principia. They are ultimate facts of science, of which no satisfactory explanation is given; but by adopting them, as we do the axioms of geometry, and reasoning downward from them, all the great truths of modern astronomy have been evolved, as well as many of the facts of the molecular action of bodies. ATOMIC THEORVY. In connection with the laws of the forces and motion of matter, given above, we shall venture in this essay to express some of the widest generalizations of the present day in the form of what is called the atomic theorg. This was the original conception of an imagina- tive Greek philosopher, but in his mind it did not take that definite character which it has since assumed under the influence of inductive science. It was with him the vague and indefinite product of the imagination, unconditioned by the actual phenomena of Nature. It was adopted by Newton, who employed it with much success in the different branches of his investigations; but in modern times it owes its greatest development and practical application to Dr. John Dalton, of Manchester, England, and still later principally to Mr. Joule and Professor Thompson. By means of it we are enabled to present in a single line a series of facts which could not otherwise be expressed in many pages, and also to exhibit to the mind the connection of a series of phenomena which could not, without this aid, be definitely conceived. It is intimately connected with all branches of physical science, and, strange as it may appear, particularly with agriculture; and therefore we may be excused for presenting it in its broadest, generalization, and with some considerable detail. According to this theory, in its widest conception, every portion of the whole universe, or at least that part of it which is accessible to us by means of the telescope, is occupied by atoms inconceivably minute, hard, and unchangeable, separated from each other by attrac- tion and repulsion. This assemblage of atoms constitutes the matter of the material universe; and the attractions and repulsions, the forces by which they are actuated, and to which is referable all the power or energy which produces the changes to which matter is subjected. These atoms, thus endowed, form a plenum throughout all space, constituting what is called the ethereal medium, and in it, at wide intervals from each other, are isolated masses of grosser matter, which constitute our world, the planets, the sun, and stars. These also con- sist of atoms of another order, or of groups of atoms, with spaces be- tween them, wide in comparison with the size of the atoms, and these spaces pervaded by the minuter atoms of the ethereal medium. These 424 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. hodies move in the medium without sensible resistance, or such as is only rendered evident by the minute retardation of the nebulous masses denominated comets. According to this theory, the various isolated bodies of the universe act upon each other by means of the force of gravitation, and also by tremors or vibrations in this medium, radiating in every direction from each body as a centre. The atoms of each kind of matter are separated by intervals; and before we proceed further, it will be necessary to consider more par- ticularly this separation. It must be recollected that the hypothesis we are presenting is not the mere creature of the imagination, but formed upon a generalization of actual observation on the different states of grosser matter; therefore we will commence with the con- sideration, as an example, of the constitution of the air. This we assume to consist of atoms, each endowed with attracting and repel- ling forces. That these atoms are not. in contact with each other, will be evident from the fact, that, if we apply a sufficient pressure to a quantity of air taken at its greatest known rarity, it may be com- pressed into at least one ten-thousandth part of its primitive volume. The sum of the magnitudes of the void spaces is therefore, in this case, at least ten thousand times greater than the sum of the material parts, whatever be their nature. In order to explain this, we are obliged to suppose that each atom is endowed with a repulsive force, similar to that possessed by one pole of a magnet for a similar pole of another magnet. And this repulsion increases with the diminution of dis- tance between the atoms. It is feeble when the volume of air is expanded to its fullest extent, and exceedingly powerful when highly compressed. Whatever weight we may put on the top of a piston fitted to a cylinder filled with air will be sustained by the repulsion of the atoms. The piston will descend until each atom is brought precisely to that state of proximity to the next that the repulsive energy between the atoms just balances the weight on the piston, and thus the most delicate equipoise is afforded by the air. The slightest extraneous force is sufficient to disturb the equilibrium, which is again restored by a series of decreasing oscillations. If the atoms of the air, however, are removed to a much greater distance, the repulsion entirely ceases, and attraction of gravitation takes its place. If it were not for this, the atmosphere would fly from the earth by the repulsive energy of its own atoms. We may, there- fore, consider every atom of matter endowed with the property of obedience to the laws of force and motion; with inertia, by which it cannot change its place without the application of force, and, when in motion, cannot stop this motion without the application of an equal force in the opposite direction; and with attraction and repulsion, by which twe atoms, placed at ever so great a distance from each other, will tend to approach each other with a force increasing inversely as the square of the distance. When these atoms approach very near to each other they would cease their motion, and if pressed nearer than this point would repel. And it appears, from experiment and observation, that there are several alternations of attraction and 1 debuin tewie ry Gtein &ryäb, à ar Wohe K lypcs Inatiou he dtkn ith ten r. r aré l rce, un le of aib rticn d 6 ne dfü wheu 19 of àin de wpun iis N d rep pistme desliie ich b wch In grnritt old Hfhe may, ther rpe y Fli G, wla f aee u ach en rerseſ verf ld ged lan Ient l Ctiol Ul METEOROLOGY. 425 repulsion, at distances, however, too minute for our senses, and only indicated by certain phenomena. Repulsion exists between the atoms of the densest bodies. Platinum, for example, which is 21 times heavier than water, and 257, 000 times heavier than hydrogen, is still con- densable. It may be compressed into a smaller space; and since the shrinking takes place equally in all directions, it follows that the atoms of this substance, as well as those of all gross matter, are not in contact. Indeed, when the hardest bodies are violently impelled against each other, and each is indented by the other, they do not come into actual mathematical contact, but are mutually impressed by the repulsive energy, which, vastly increased by the diminished distance, produces the visible effect. All matter, therefore, is porous, whether in the liquid, gaseous, or. solid condition. The pores may be conceived to be of different orders, namely: pores between the atoms, between the molecules or assem- plages of atoms, and between the still larger particles. Gold itself is rendered brittle by being exposed to the fumes of sulphur, and solid iron is converted into steel by absorbing a large quantity of carbon, to which it owes that quality denominated temper. In the case of atmospheric air and gases, the repulsive energy is alone exhibited in most of the mechanical phenomena, while in solid bodies both the attractive and repulsive are evident. Thus, if we place a heavy weight on the top of a vertical iron bar, its length will be diminished. If the weight be removed, the atoms, by repul- sion, will spring back to their original distances; and this may be re- peated any number of times with the same result, provided the weight is not so great as to cause any permanent change, which consists in a newarrangement of the atoms. If we now suspend the bar from one end, and apply a weight to the other, the bar will be elongated; and if the weight be removed, the atoms, by their attraction, will return to their normal position. In this state, the atoms are at the distance which constitutes a neutral condition. If pushed together, they fly apart whenever the compressing force is removed; and if drawn in the direction of the length of the body, they are brought into the re- gion of attraction, and tend to bring the bar back to its original length when the elongative force is remitted. This constitution of matter may be represented by a series of balls separated from each other by helical springs. If we attempt to elon- gate this bar, the springs will be drawn out. When we attempt to compress the mass, the several spires of the springs will be com- pressed closer together, and an action similar to repulsion will be produced. This repulsion of the atoms is further demonstrated by the elas- ticity of a body, or the force with which it tends to restore itself to its former condition, when disturbed by any extraneous force. The elasticity, for instance, of a rod of tempered steel is exhibited when we bend it. It tends to return to its first form, in obedience to two forces. The atoms on the convex side, after the rod has been bent, are slightly separated, and are therefore in the region of attraction, while those on the concave side are brought nearer, and thus tend to 7 426 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. repel each other. If this be the case, there should be a line some- where near the middle of the bent rod, in which the atoms are neither compressed nor dilated; and that such a neutral line does really exist can be shown by polarized light, which enables us, when the experi- ment is made on a rod of transparent glass, to look into the interior of the elastic body and observe the changes there produced. The difference between the compressibilities of air and steel de- pends upon the difference in the repulsion of the atoms in the two cases. But in the latter, as well as in the former, there is the most delicate balance of forces; for, though a bar of good steel resists the weight of 60, 000 pounds to the square inch, tending to separate it in the direction of its length, yet the atoms may be thrown into vibra- tion by the minutest force; and this is the case with all solids. A single tap with the end of a penknife on the table of the large lecture room of the Smithsonian Institution is sufficient not only to throw into vibration every particle of air in the room, but also every par- ticle of the solid parts of the edifice. The axgitation of the air is proved by the sound, discernible in every part of the room, and the vibrations of the solid parts also, by the transmission of sonorous waves with even less loss than in the air. 3 The repulsion of which we have spoken, and which takes place only at minute distances, though these may be exceedingly great when measured by the size of the atoms, appears to be an essential endowment of matter, and is exhibited as well between the atoms of the ethereal medium as between those of air and other grosser assemblages of matter. All bodies, as a general rule, are enlarged by an increase of tem- perature. But this result, as we shall endeavor to show, is not from an increase of the original repulsion, but from an energetic vibration imparted to the atoms, which tends to separate them and to produce the phenomena improperly ascribed to an imaginary fluid called heat. We are obliged to assign to the ethereal medium a similar consti- tution to that possessed by grosser matter, namely, that it consists of inert atoms at great distances from each other relative to their own size, and each kept in position by attracting and repelling forces. Through this medium impulses or minute agitations are transmitted in celestial space, from planet to planet, and from system to system, and these tremors or waves constitute light, heat, and other emana- tions which we receive from the sun; or, in other words, the solar emanations are not matter, but motion communicated from atom to atom, beginning at the luminous body, and diffused in widening spherical surfaces, enlarging in size and diminishing in intensity, to the farthest portion of conceivable space. The atoms of the ethereal medium are perfectly free to move in all directions, so that the earth and denser bodies experience no retard- ation as yet measurable; though lighter bodies, such as comets, ap- parently exhibit an effect of this kind, for the same reason that a stock dt cotton is more retarded in falling through the air than a piece of lead. At first sight, it might appear paradoxical that atoms, which are kept in position by powerful attraction and repulsion, should yet artrei lrie eprätt mtſ UalhI lrxela vyv Pntt tie Vn dtom alki milar s it eowi v tlere llog in trrnr utos METEOROLOGY. 427 be perfectly movable among each other; but this condition is observed in liquid water, the particles of which, though they exhibit perfect mobility, yet repel and attract each other with immense force. This arises from the fact that every atom beneath the surface of a fluid is equally attracted and repelled on all sides by the surrounding atoms, and is, therefore, perfectly free to move. Not so, however, with the atoms at the surface; for they are attracted downwards without a counteracting force to attract them upwards, and hence great resist- ance is manifested when we attempt to separate them. The author of this essay has shown, from conclusive experiments, that the attraction of water for water is as great as that of ice for ice, and the difference of the two conditions consists in the perfect mobility of the atoms of the former, and not in the neutralization of cohesion, as is generally supposed. If we attempt to draw up from the surface of water a circular disc of metal, say of an inch in diameter, we shall see that the water will adhere, and be supported several lines above the general surface. This adhesion, on account of the perfect mobility of the atoms, is due alone to the attraction of the atoms of the ex- ternal film, and not to those of the whole mass which is elevated. This experiment, which is frequently given in elementary books as a measure of the feeble attraction of water for itself, is improperly in- terpreted. It merely indicates the force of attraction of a single film of atoms around the perpendicular surface, and not of the whole column elevated. The difference, then, of liquidity and solidity prin- cipally consists in the perfect mobility of the atoms. The immobility of the atoms probably depends on their being assembled in larger groups, forming crystals, tissues, fibres,&c., and when force is applied to separate them, they all resist together. In breaking a piece of steel, for instance, by extension, all the parts throughout the cross section of the mass resist separation; and hence the great tenacity and rigidity of this substance; between which and pure water, other substances may be found having intermediate con- sistencies. We have said that the atoms of the ethereal medium pervade those of all other bodies, and this assumption is analogous to the inter- penetration of different bodies of different substances between the particles of each other. If a piece of copper, plated with silver, be heated to redness, the latter metal will be absorbed into the former. Water absorbs a large portion of air, and between the atoms of the air itself there may exist an indefinite number of other gases. Melted silver poured into water gives out a large portion of oxygen, which it had previously absorbed from the air in its liquid state. If we suppose solid bodies to be composed of a series of groups of atoms, the larger in succession formed from the smaller, the vacuity in all cases may far exceed the solidity. Let us now consider more minutely the nature of the emanations from the sun- light, heat,&c.—in connection with the doctrine of atoms. And in order to this, we shall institute comparisons be- tween the phenomena of light and heat, and those of sound, passing, 428 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. by analogy, from the palpable and well-known cause of familiar phenomena to that which is apparently not as readily accessible to our investigations, but which, when properly understood, is equally satisfactory in the explanation, prediction, and control of the phe- nomena. Analogy of heat and sound.—If a heavy cannon be discharged at the distance of five or six miles, we shall see the flash almost instanta- neously, and in about half a minute after the window will be violently agitated. What is the cause of this agitation? No substance shot from the gun has reached us, for the same effect may be perceived on all sides. The simple and true explanation of the phenomenon is, that the atoms of air just around the mouth of the piece were, for an in- stant, violently pressed outwards by the blast of powder; these atoms were pressed against the next layer, and these against the next, and 3o on, until the impulse reached the distant window. Each atom makes a short excursion or vibration, moving but little from its first position, and it is not, therefore, matter which proceeds from the cannon and produces the distant effect, but a propagation of motion from atom to atom. The atoms are endued with inertia, and time is therefore required, even though immense force may be applied, to give them full motion. And, again, the atoms are not in contact, but are kept at a distance by repulsion, which increases when the atoms are pressed nearer ach other. Hence, the second layer of atoms does not begin to move with full velocity at the precise moment when motion commences in the first. The effect would be similar to that which would take place in a series of balls kept apart from each other by helical springs interposed. If a blow is given to the first ball, so as to drive it nearer to the second, the motion would not be instantaneously communicated; the second would resist a change of state, and would not move from its position until the spring was considerably bent. And in this way time would be required to propagate motion from the first ball to the second, from the second to the third, and so on, throughout the series. If a series of lighter balls were substituted for the first, the springs remaining the same, it is evident the motion would be transmitted sooner, because the inertia would be in proportion to the weight of the balls. Hence, sound is transmitted more rapidly in lighter than in heavier gases; in hydrogen its velocity is greater than in carbonic acid.. Again: we may suppose the stiffness of the springs to vary, or, in other words, the repulsion between the atoms to become greater or smaller. If the springs become stiffer, then it is evident the motion will be transmitted sooner; for if the springs were infinitely rigid, or, what is the same, if a perfectly solid body were interposed between the balls, then the first ball could not move, without, at the same mo- ment, giving motion to the last. Hence, ifk we increase the elasticity of a medium, and at the same time diminish the size of its atoms, any required velocity can be attained. Now, though the flash is appa- hun b ccegät ul e argedute St Vnr De vidha ot kon ired ut Non k ta ün ssel Ir ginum Mel 6 heni interyo garer d’ catel”- pre kn i lbN balut ttheset tegit rarslie weigh eltert in erle reater’“ the vonn pigii 1 deren 3 Salnd M-- ästelt tol05 1” i METEOROIL.OGV. 429 rently perceived at the same instant at different places on the sur- face of the earth, yet we know, from the most satisfactory evidence, that this is really not the case, and that light and heat, as well as sound, require time for their propagation. Every impulse of the sun requires about eight minutes before it is felt at the distance of the earth. The analogy between light and sound does not cease here; and to exhibit the resemblance still further, let us suppose a large bell placed in mid-air to be struck a single blow with a heavy hammer; we know that the lower rim of metal will be thrown into a state of vibration; it will be compressed into an elliptical form, the shorter axis in the direction of the blow. The elasticity will bring it back to its normal state, and will then carry it beyond in the other direction; and thus the part of the bell, for example, which is struck will continue to move backwards and forwards rapidly for a considerable time, which would be indefinitely prolonged were the experiment made in a perfect vacuum. and were no change produced in the atoms of the metal. In open air, however, the motion becomes feebler and feebler, and after a few minutes dies away and entirely ceases. The principal cause of this diminution is, evidently, the imparting of the motion of the metal to the immediately surrounding atoms of the air, and these to the next, and so on. It is evident that, at the moment that the rim of the bell is going from the spectator, a tendency to a vacuum would be produced, and the atoms of the first layer of air will follow the metal by their elasticity, and thus produce a rarefaction into which the atoms of the second layer of air will rush; and this will advance from layer to layer until it reaches the ear'of the observer. But before it has got far on its way, the side-of the bell will return, and will con dense the air in contact with it, and send a positive impulse in the same direction with the first. These two impulses, travelling with equal velocities, and the one immediately succeeding the other, form an undulation. The effect may be strikingly illustrated by water in a long trough. If a small block of wood of the width of the trough be suddenly drawn out of the liquid at one end of the trough, the water in imme- diate contact with the block will flow in to fill the vacuum; the water next will flow into the space thus left, and so on, a hollow or negative wave will be propagated from one end of the trough to the other. If the same block be suddenly thrust down into the water, the effect will be as if a quantity of water had been suddenly added. The liquid will rise at the side of the block, and in its fall another wave will be elevated outside of it, and so on, continually, a positive wave, or one of elevation, will be transmitted to the farther extremity of the reservoir. If the two motions of the block be made, one immediately succeed- ing the other, a compound wave or an undulation will be the result. The transfer in this case is again that of form and not of substance. The atoms of water remain in place, as will be evident by placing bits of wood on the surface; they will rise and fall, but will not ad vance as the wave passes. This is an illustration of an undulation, 430 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. but not an exact representation of a sound wave, which consists in a slightly alternate backward and forward motion of each particle be- tween the bell and the observer. An undulation of sound, therefore, consists of two parts— a con- densed and a rarefied part; and hence, when two series of undulations of the same wave length follow each other at a distance of half an undulation, they neutralize each other—the protuberance of the one undulation, as it were, exactly filling the hollow of the other; or, to express it more accurately, the rarefied and condensed parts of the two waves will neutralize each other, and in this way silence may be produced by two intense sounds. From analogy, therefore, if light also consists of waves, two series may be brought together, so as to produce darkness. Both these inferences are fully borne out by ex- periment. Let us now consider the effect of the sound waves upon a distant object—such, for instance, as a delicate membrane stretched over a hoop and strewed with sand. We shall find that in the case of the sounding of an instrument at a distance, the sand will be violently agitated; and if the vibration is in unison with any of the strings of a neighboring piano, they will give forth an audible sound. It may be well to stop one moment to inquire in what this unison consists. It is well known that a string of a given length performs all its vibrations in the same time. Now, if the impulses from the sounding body reach a string of such a time of vibration that the effect of the second impulse may be added to that of the first, or while the string is moving in the same direction as that given it by the first impulse, then the sounding will take place, or the string will be aroused into a motion harmonious with that of the sounding body. But if the impulses are not timed exactly to the vibrations of the string, they will meet the latter in its forward as well as in its backward movement, and thus tend to neutralize the effects of each other. In the case of liglit and heat, the luminous or heated body is sup- posed to be in the condition of the bell during its sounding. The ethereal medium is the analogue of the air, and the vibrations of the optic nerve that of the tympanum of the ear. Further: in the case of heat, when the vibrations, for example, of the sun impinge upon the surfaces of solids and liquids, the ethereal medium within the interstices of these bodies, and also the atoms of gross matter, are put in a state of harmonious vibration, and thus give rise to the phenomena of the heat of temperature or expansion. When, as we have previously indicated, the vibrations of the atoms of solids become sufficiently violent to throw them beyond the sphere of cohesion, the matter is converted from a solid into a liquid, and finally into an aeriform condition. But the question naturally arises, What is it that puts in. vibration the luminous body— a candle, for instance—and keeps it for several hours in this constant state of agitation? The answer is, the continued rushing together of atom after atom of the carbon and hydrogen of the candle, and those of the oxygen of the surrounding air. Some 1 ———· nätn. rüidek b-a dlain d hla the ler, arts es unrt 6 Ek 7, 3Uä olt hs 1à ün- hedemn case d e vik Ktrilg this h re t the in e K. brating: 1un tts da irn- lng Yo dft rample de ethera the att „anlüb xpain the atb he gphe iquil: rürn r efen endnE Inend r I METEOROILOGVY. 431 action of this kind, we must infer from analogy, is constantly pro- ducing, at the surface of the sun, impulses of a similar character. From the analogies of light, heat, and sound, we might infer, since there are different lengths of waves of the latter, which give rise to the different notes of music, that there are different lengths of waves of the ethereal medium, producing different sensations in us and different effects upon gross matter. And this furnishes a ready explanation of the well-kknown phenomena of the different colors of the spectrum, and also of the less familiar but equally remarkable phenomena of the different kinds of radiant heat, as well as of the chemical and phosphorogenic emanations from the sun. That there may be different forms of wave transmitted through the same medium will be evident from inspecting the following figure, and considering the motions of the atoms which may be produced by a single impulse. c If we strike, for example, the atom a, it will be driven towards the second atom, and the second towards the third, the third to- wards the fourth; and so on, the motion will be transmitted along the central line of atoms to the other extremity. But while this motion takes place through the centre line of the assemblage of atoms, the motion of will also bring it nearer to the atoms b and c, on either side; and these will, therefore, be repelled from their positions of qui escence, and lateral waves, in which the atoms vibrate transversely to the direction of the ray, will be produced. It is probable that both kinds of vibration are transmitted through the ethereal medium, and perhaps also through the air; but such is the constitution of our eyes that we can only perceive the results of those of the second kind, and such the constitution of our ears that'’ we can only take cognizance of those of the first. The transverse vibration of light and heat was a happy conception of Dr. Thomas Young, one of the discoverers of the key to the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and was applied by himself and Fresnel to the explanation of a large and interesting series of facts classed under the name of polarization of light and heat.. Besides the invisible emanation from the sun, which gives us the sensation of heat, there are others equally invisible which produce other effects. Indeed, it is possible that there are an indefinite num- ber of waves, differing in length and perhaps in form, though many of these must be so minute as to produce no appreciable physical effect at the distance of our planet. If a beam of light be decom- posed by a prism, it is well known that it will be separated into parts, producing different colors. Now, if we subject to this spectrum, a piece of paper which has been soaked in a solution of nitrate of silver, we shall find that the salt of silver will be decomposed, and the paper will be blackened by the reduced metal. But the interesting part of the experiment is, that the blackening will be more intense at a point 432 AGRICUILTURAL REPORT. in the prolongation of the spectrum, which is entirely in the dark. There is, then, in a sunbeam, besides light and heat, a ray which may be separated from the former by a prism, which produces chemical decomposition, and is hence called the chemical ray. I need scarcely remark that it is this ray, and not that of light, which produces the picture in the photographic and daguerrean processes.. Again: it is well known that, if we expose for an instant a diamond to the rays of the sun, and then convéey it to a dark place, we will see it glow with a pale phosphorescent light; but this effect, long familiar as it has been to the natural philosopher, is now known to be the result of an emanation differing in some essential particulars from all the other emanations which we have mentioned. To prove this, it is sufficient to place the diamond under a plate of transparent mica, a substance which transmits freely light, heat, and the chemical emanation. This will screen the diamond; and the glowing, which was before very striking, will not now be produced. That this effect is not the result of the absorption of a ray of light will be evident when we mention the fact that a diamond will glow when placed under a thick plate of smoky quartz, which intercepts both light and chemical emanation, but freely transmits what is denominated the phosphorogenic ray. These results are all in accordance, in a general way, with the constitution of the ethereal medium which we have presented. Light and heat appear to differ only in the lengths of the waves, which become shorter and more intense as the temperature of the source of emanation increases; though in some cases, as in that of limi- nous phosphorus and the light of the glow worm, it is emitted freely from bodies of low temperature. It is possible that light from these different sources may possess different physical properties. Plectricit,j.—The phenomena of light, of heat, of the chemical and phosphorogenic emanations, have all been referred to vibrations of the ethereal medium, and all the facts which have thus far been observed are in accordance with this generalization. The question, however, naturally arises as to what explanation we can give of the multiplied and various phenomena which are constantly presenting themselves to us in eonnection with all the changes which are taking place around us in Nature, or which exhibit themselves to the chemist and physicist in their investigations of the minuter reactions which are brought about by their agency, and which are classed under the general term of electricity. It is a recognized principle of philosophy to adopt no other causes for the explanation of phenomena than are true and sufficient; and although the existence of the ethereal medium may by some be doubted, yet to me it appears as certain as any fact, can be which rests upon influences drawn from observed phenomena. The wave motions which we refer to it, and which exactly agree with the observed facts, are precisely such as are produced in gross matter under the action of the laws of force and motion, and therefore we have nearly the same reason for believing in the existence of this diffused substance as in that of gross matter itself. Besides, the tendency of science is to reduce rather than increase the number of METEOROLOGY. 433 agencies to which effects are referred as causes. We shall, therefore, assume that the ethereal medium is also the agent by which the phe- nomena of electricity are produced; but the facts classed under the head of electricity cannot be explained on the principle of wave mo- tions, and we must therefore seek for some other probable mechanical action from which they may be rationally deduced. Electrical phenomena may be referred to two great classes, statical and dynamical, or such as appear to be produced by the repulsive action of a fluid at rest, and by the same fluid in a state of motion. In some cases, we have action at a distance on surrounding bodies which develop new and permanent properties so long as the condi- tions remain the same; and in other cases effects, which exactly resemble those of a transfer—not of a property, but of actual sub- stance, from one body to the other. Now, these phenomena may be referred to an accumulation of the ethereal medium in one portion of space, and a corresponding diminution in the adjacent space around. If the particles of the ethereal medium, when thus accumu- lated, act at a distance on other portions of the same medium, we shall have a rational exposition of the phenomena of statical electricity; and in the restoration of the equilibrium of the medium, or in its return to its normal condition, we have a plausible cause of the dynamic effects belonging to the same class. But how is this dis- turbance of the equilibrium of the ethereal medium produced? The answer is, by the agency of gross matter. From the refraction of of light and the various effects of heat, we must infer that the ethereal medium is intimately connected with gross matter; and although the latter may move in it without disturbing the equilibrium, yet when two pieces of gross matter are rubbed together, an accumu- lation of the atoms of the ethereal medium may take place on the one, and a deficiency in the other. According to this view, there can be no electrical excitement in celestial space; for there gross matter does not exist, without which the medium cannot be coerced or the equi- librium disturbed. It is not supposed, in accordance with this hypothe- sis, that there is an absolute vacuum produced in the medium, but that a condensation exists in a given spot, and a corresponding rarefaction in the space around it. The degree of this condensation and rarefaction may be exceedingly slight, in comparison with the whole elastic force of the medium, and therefore it is not essential to the truth of the hypothesis that any very perceptible changes should be produced in rays of light passing in close approximation to elec- trified bodies. This hypothesis is adapted to the theory of either one or two fluids. In the second case, the ethereal medium must be supposed to consist of two kinds of atoms, the separation of which gives rise to the phenomena observed; and in the first, that it consists of but one kind of atom, and that the effects observed are due to its being in excess in one body, and in deficiency, at the same time, in another. In a new investigation of the discharge of a Leyden jar, by the author of this essay, the facts clearly indicated the transfer of a fluid. from the inside to the outside, and a rebound back and forward 28 A 434 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. several times in succession, until the equilibrium was attained by a series of diminishing oscillations. The magnetic phenomena may be referred to an assemblage of electrical currents, according to the theory of Ampère, or to a peculiar arrangement of the ethereal atoms within the magnetic body. The electro-magnetic phenomena appear to be due to the action of the atoms of gross matter combined with that of the ethereal medium. . We cannot, in this place, go into an exposition of the facts of electricity and magnetism, but will merely point out one inference from the hypothesis we have given, that electricity is not in itself a primary source of motion or mechanical energy, tending to produce change by a kind of spontaneity, as is frequently supposed, but the effect of a disturbance and subsequent restoration of an equilibrium, which disturbance has been produced by the application of an extra- neous force. This conclusion may also be arrived at, without reference to the hypothesis, from the study of the facts themselves, which clearly demonstrate that the electrical equilibrium, whatever may be its nature, is never disturbed by its own action, but the disturbance is always the effect of the application of some other power, and is the mechanical equivalent of such disturbing cause. COrystalline forms.—We will now consider the grouping of the atoms, which is intimately connected with the various properties of different kinds of bodies. When the atoms of gross matter are suffered to approach each other, without disturbance or agitation, and, from an aeriform or liquid condition, gradually to assume the solid form, they exhibit beautiful geometrical figures, familiarly known under the name of crystals. For example, if a quantity of common salt be dissolved in water, and the liquid be suffered to evaporate in a still place, beautiful crystals of a cubical form will be found in the vessel; or, if ordinary saltpetre be dissolved in warm water and suffered to cool, regular six-sided crystals will be obtained. ff these crystals be reduced to an impalpable powder, and again dissolved in hot water, the same result will again be produced, provided the liquid be not in excess. The most interesting illustration of crystallography to the meteo- rologist is that exhibited in snow and hoar frost. These generally consist of stellar figures in one plane, with rays and branches of rays, all making angles of 600 with each other, and, under different conditions of the atmosphere, are exceedingly varied and beautiful. To explain these figures in a general way, let us suppose three sepa- rate atoms to be within the sphere of mutual attraction and free to move; they will approach until they come within the sphere of re- pulsion, and will then evidently be found in the same plane at the angular points of an equilateral triangle, since each must be at the same distance from each of the other two. If a fourth atom be suffered to approach in the same manner, it will, also, arrange itself at an equal distance from each of the three others at the apex of a regular triangular pyramid of equal and similar faces. The next symmetrical arrangement which could take place would be in case a fifth atom were added; and if this were situated on the other side of the base of the Imn elaInp tle u- deduet giren 33 ob appro plcat Tn aiffer inves offers of int tudy App thems Iate: primit clles Abo i tro 8 sübje 4 Suf erap eryst from aly Albste c 8al ce lu whel ane tion plac aine mag rela eryj we per sin the diel ad. t og Sänl that vit W tha Wllng de n vetle i do zein al deln le keb e iller tin iel to puik ed, h GTuilbm ok me dtretehn dich cer Iny bi sturbzur r. andöt ping d roperte! Wattek? itatimma e lüin dissolmit dthe li- the wi 1 gelenl branche jer diten d benutt thres dr and frer here dt lane dt t bott De sdkr Itselk di pfarad- Tatum ſtk pase üh METEOROLOGV. 435 pyramid, a regular six-sided figure would result. We see, from these examples, that regular geometrical forms are the necessary effect of the undisturbed grouping of the atoms, though it is impossible to deduce all the facts from considerations as simple as those we have given above. To adapt the hypothesis to the facts of the case, we are obliged to assume that crystalline forms are not the result of the approximations of single atoms, but of molecules of more or less com- plicated structure. Though the exact representation of the groupings of particles of different kinds of matter has exercised the ingenuity of a number of investigators, the subject is still in a very imperfect condition. It offers, however, a rich harvest for scientific culture, and a number of interesting conclusions have been deduced from the crystallographic study of bodies, particularly by M. Gaudin. We are obliged to suppose that the primary molecules which enter into crystals are themselves of a geometrical shape, due to the arrangement of the ulti- mate atoms of which they are composed, and such forms are called the primitive forms of the crystalline molecules. These primitive mole- cules vary in form and size, as we shall see hereafter, and they vary also in these respects, in some cases, of their combinations. If the two salts we mentioned in the commencement of this division of our subject—namely, saltpetre and common salt— be dissolved together in a sufficient quantity of water, and the liquid be suffered gradually to evaporate, they will be found at the bottom of the vessel in separate crystals. The cubes of common salt can readily be distinguished from the long-sided prisms of saltpetre, and when these are chemically analyzed, each is found to be exclusively composed of its respective substance. Not a single atom of the saltpetre is found in the crystal of salt, nor one of the latter in the former. The same effect takes place if magnesia and saltpetre be dissolved in hot water and the solution be suffered to cool. The case, however, is altogether different when sulphate of magnesia, and sulphate of nickel or sulphate of zinc are crystallized together, from the same solution. The separa- tion of the two substances, as in the former instance, does not take place—the individual crystals formed will contain both sulphate of zinc and sulphate of magnesia, or sulphate of nickel and sulphate of magnesia, and this in every possible proportion, according to the relative amounts of the two salts in solution. Now, if we compare a crystal of sulphate of magnesia with a crystal of sulphate of nickel, we find they have identically the same crystalline form. There is no perceptible difference in their angles, edges, or solid angles. Now, since a large crystal is built up of an aggregation of small ones of the same form, it is evident that the primitive molecule of sulphate of nickel must have the same form as that of the sulphate of magnesia; and, therefore, that in forming in a large crystal they may be mingled together in the way we have just described, provided they are of the same size, or perhaps some multiple of the same size, for it is evident that it would be impossible to build a wall of symmetrical structure with bricks of different angular forms and sizes, since the parts would not fit or exactly fill the spaces. We must therefore conclude, that though the ultimate atoms of bodies may be spherical, the 436 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. groupings of them, which form the primitive crystallizing molecules, are of different geometrical shapes and sizes. T'he atomio weights or combining proportions.— Though the primordial atoms may all be of the same weight and size, and the different kinds of matter the result of the different forms in which they are grouped, yet in the present state of science there are sixty-one substances which are classed by the chemist as simple bodies, and which must continue thus to be classed until they shall be actually decomposed into two or more separate components. If these bodies consist of elementary atoms, or of groups of atoms, always of the same number and form, it will follow that all combinations of them will take place in definite and fixed proportions. For example, it is known that one part of hydrogen by weight unites with eight parts of oxygen to form water, and this liquid, whenever found, always contains the same proportion of these ingredients. But there is another compound of oxygen and hydrogen, of which the components are in the ratio of onè to sixteen, and this result is precisely that which might have been anticipated from the theory of atomic combination. In the first case, if the atom of hydrogen weigh one, for instance, 155 55th of 2 grain, and the atoms of oxygen I ½ oths, then any amount of com- bination will have the same proportion. The combinations then will be one to eight, one to sixteen, and if another combination of oxygen and hydrogen exist, it will be in the ratio of one to twenty- four. In the first instance, it is one atom to one; in the next, of one atom to two; inthe third case, would be one atom to three. This is also beautifully shown in the union of oxygen and nitrogen, of which there are five different compounds, as exhibited in the ac- companying table. V Weight. Ratio. NAMES OF COMPOUNDS.— V N. O. N. O. Protoxide of nitrogen 14 8 1 1 Binoxide of nitrogen 14 16 1 2 Hyponitrous acidd 14 24 1 3 Nitrous acicd 14 3² 1 4 Nitric acicd 14 40 1 5 A glance at this table will show the justice of the remark of M. Dumas, that, granting matter to be atomic, it must necessarily com- bine as it is found to do in this instance. We refer to any work on chemistry for a table of atomic weights, and shall only give here those of the atoms which form the principal part of animal and vege- table bodies, namely: hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen: Atomic weight. Hydrogen...................................... 1 Carbon........................................ 6 6 Xyg O........................................ 8 r one ttomie fanmno. n the iitrog litrog rlile 40 atoms Consi ence may! can h tomi glleel, depriund Gerarrui doe gune de üu. Ivlihu deconne les Couit Same u lll tk h à Eom ts dm. coutain: ber em e in ten h Wigttb . Ithi mnl mount d ons tha mbinain dne to ta u the unr othres! 1 Litrpe ted n 11 remark cesarlſa auf Iu uly 7 4 mäl Wlſ5 iitrogd zuuin 1 3 . . 1 METEOROLOGVY. 437 To these, in lesser quantities, are added sulphur, 16; phosphorus, 32. We may say, therefore, that the whole atomic system of animal and vegetable physiology depends principally on the four numbers 1, 6, 7, 8. Wherever the substances above mentioned are found in combination in any of the three kingdoms of Nature, they always combine according to these numbers, or multiples of them— a statement which contains in a single line a truth of the widest significance; which has rendered chemistry an almost mathematical science, and its applications to agriculture an art of the highest value and of com- paratively easy attainment. To facilitate still more the use of this generalization, the atoms are expressed in abbreviated language. Thus water is represented by HO—that is, one atom of hydrogen, 1, and one of oxygen, 8, making nine for the weight of the liquid. Two atoms of water would be represented by 2 HO; carbonic acid by CO, or one atom of carbon, 6, and two atoms of oxygen, 16; making for the atomic weight of the acid 22. Nitric acid is represented by NO,, and ammonia by NH.,, and nitrate of ammonia by NOs+ NHa;; indicating, in the formation of nitric acid, five atoms of oxygen and one atom of nitrogen, and in that of ammonia, three atoms of hydrogen to one of nitrogen. The attainment of a knowledge of this notation is easy, while the use of it is exceedingly convenient. Atomic volumes.— The spheres of repulsion of different chemical atoms, or rather molecules, are probably different; and as we may consider these spheres as constituting the size of the atoms, in refer- ence to the space which they occupy in combination, their magnitudes may be calculated with a view to ascertain whether any similarity can be found in the properties and action of bodies having equal atomic volumes. To explain how this may be done, let us suppose we wish to know the number of atoms in a given volume of matter of which the whole weight is known, and also the weight of a single atom; we shall then evidently have the required number of atoms by dividing the weight of the one atom into the weight of the whole. Now, if we know the number of atoms in a body of given size, we can find the size of each atom by dividing the bulk of the whole by the number of atoms; but since we can only ascertain relative atomic weights and volumes, we suppose the volume of the mass to be unity, and the weight of the same to be the specific gravity, or weight rela- tively to that of water. If we then divide the atomic weight into the specific gravity, we shall have the relative number of atoms; and if we divide this number into 1, or, what is the same thing, invert the fraction and divide the atomic weight by the specific gravity, we shall have the relative atomic volume. We find in this way that there are groups of simple bodies having nearly the same atomic volume, and that, when crystallized in the same form, one may be substituted for the other, giving rise to compounds of similar forms, and in some cases of similar properties, though of different chemical constitution; and, on the other hand, by the differences in the group- ing of the same atoms, bodies may be formed having entirely, difirent properties. It frequently happens that, in the union of different bodies in the 438 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. gaseous state, a condensation takes place, and the volume of the compound molecule is not equal to the sum of the volumes of atoms of which it is composed; and in other cases the reverse effect has place, and an expansion is the result. The following table, from Faraday's lectures, exhibits the combina- tion of volumes to illustrate this subject. In this the volume of ni- trogen, N, is considered as unity, and that of oxygen as half unity: Table showing the volumes elements in various nitrogen compounds, and the difference in quality, eyfected by oombination. N N 0 V Gas, inodorous, sweet, inactive. NXOO 0 Liquid, acid, colorless, corrosive. 00o0 NX0 V 9 Gas, colorless, not acid, insoluble, oxidizing. RXO 0 Gas or liquid, colored, acid, soluble. 0 0 NXO0 V 6 Liquid, acid, unstable. V N V H V H V H V Gas, alkaline.(Nitrogen and hydrogen.) N V C V C V C G Liquid, detonating.(Nitrogen and carbon.) N V I V 1 b I Solid, detonating.(Nitrogen and iodine.) NX 0 V 0 Gas, combustible, odorous, poisonous. One of the peculiarities of the chemical combination of bodies is the neutralization, in a greater or less degree, of their attractions. Thus, sulphuric acid and quick-lime, which have a powerful attraction for other substances, and therefore highly corrosive, when united, form plaster of Paris—a neutral, inert substance. An analogous result takes place when the north and south poles of two magnets of equal power are brought into contact; if they are not of equal power, a residual action will be left in one. In a similar manner, two s dep Dio von. d g. refer elect arou havé 3s I indic atten d ye U Ilt opon heen rrope entür liebi oopai widel in t Samne DrO solidh comny Trop Su nomc fact atol the ple tot by bin ert 7 for ch the lar —) eer dlu I wh oluws, Des de einl the eu Woluu s bulluf dn olnn fion. ire. ablé clüü soludle d ydne en and es- and iulr 1sOOd, n d bibs ir attus⸗ ertul ttus rhel 15 An 1odlgs wo mggi felune Dannel. 2 METEOROLOGY. 439 glass balls, electrified, the one plus and the other minus, both, when separate, attract the surrounding objects; but when brought into proximity, they rush into contact, and neutralize one another's attrac- tion. This fact distinguishes chemical attraction from the attraction of gravitation, in which there is no neutralization of this kind, and refers the former to that condition of the ethereal medium called electric, in which it probably exists in strata of different densities around each separate molecule. The facts in reference to this point have been classed under the head of electro-chemistry; and in this case, as in every other subdivision of our general subject, we have merely indicated a group of phenomena, each of which has occupied the attention of a number of scientists, and in some cases during a term of years. Until recently it was supposed that the physical qualities of bodies must depend on the nature of their elements, or, in other words, upon their chemical composition; but a great many substances have been discovered, composed of the same elements in the same relative proportion, and yet exhibiting physical and chemical properties entirely distinct one from the other. For example, according to Liebig, the oil of turpentine, the essence of lemon, oil of balsam of copaiba, oil of rosemary, oil of juniper, and many others differing widely from each other in their odor, in their medicinal effects, in their boiling points, in their specific gravities, all contain the same elements, carbon and hydrogen, and in precisely the same proportion. The crystallized part of the oil of roses, a volatile solid, of which the delicious fragrance is so highly esteemed, is a compound body, containing exactly the same elements and in the same proportions as the gas employed in lighting our streets. Such bodies are called isomeric—literally, equal parts—and the phe- nomena are classed under the head of isomerism. These remarkable facts can only be accounted for by the different groupings of the atoms. They exhibit, as it were, the economy of Nature in producing the most multiform effects from combinations of the simplest princi- ples, and almost revive in us the dreams of the alchemists relative to the transmutation of matter. Combinations of this kind are generally of a very unstable char- acter, and the atoms can sometimes be made to change their positions by an impulse from without, or by the addition of heat, and to com- pine again, forming other substances having entirely different prop- erties. The changes we have mentioned are those of bodies which are formed of groups of many chemical atoms; but a fact of a similar character has been observed with reference to bodies belonging to the class which the chemist calls simple or elementary, because they have not as yet been decomposed. Of these bodies, we may mention oxygen, chlorine, sulphur, and phosphorus. They all assume, under certain conditions, entirely different properties to such an extent as almost to lose their identity. Oxygen, when exposed to a series of sparks of electricity, is converted into a substance called ozone, of which we shall speak more fully hereafter. Sulphur, exposed to a 440 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. temperature of 2260 F., is melted, and if maintained in fusion at a temperature not exceeding 3000, and then suddenly thrown into water, will be found to have suffered no change; if, however, the fusion be continued above 3000, the material becomes black and almost solid; and if it now be poured into water, it maintains its dark color, and assumes a consistence of heated glue or softened India- rubber. In this condition its medical and other properties are changed. Sulphur is also capable of assuming two different crys- talline forms belonging to two primitive classes entirely distinct. Phosphorus undergoes a similar change, and chlorine, after exposure to the light, exhibits new properties. Phenomena of this kind are elassed under the head of allotropism. Organio molecules.—8The groups of atoms which we have thus far been considering, are principally those which have been formed under the influence of what is called the chemical force, and result from the ordinary attraction of the atoms. These are comparatively simple groups; but there is another class of groups of atoms of a much more complex character, and which are formed of new combinations of the ordinary atoms under the influence or, we may say, direction of that mysterious principle called the vital force. We are able to construct a crystal of alum from its elements by combining sulphur, oxygen, hydrogen, potassium, and aluminum; but the chemist has not yet been found who can make an atom of sugar from the elements of which it is composed. He can readily decompose it into its con- stituents, but it is impossible so to arrange the atoms artificially, as in the ordinary cases of chemical manipulation, to produce a substance in any respect similar to sugar. When the attempt is made, the atoms arrange themselves spontaneously into a greater number of simpler and smaller groups or molecules than is found in sugar, which is composed of molecules of high order, each containing no less than 34 atoms of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The organic molecules, or atoms, as they are called, are built up under the influence of the vital principle of inferior groups of simple elements. These organic molecules are first produced in the leaves of the plant under the influence of light, and subsequently go through various changes in connection with the vital process. After they are once formed in this way, they may be combined and recombined by different processes in the laboratory, and a great variety of new com- pounds artificially produced from them. But what is this vital principle, which thus transcends the sagacity of the chemist and produces groups of atoms of a complexity far ex- ceeding his present skill? It is generally known under the name of the vital force, but since the compounds which are produced under its influence are subject to the same laws, though differing in com- plexity, as those produced by the ordinary chemical forces; and since in passing from an unstable to a more stable condition in the form of smaller groups, they exhibit, as will be rendered highly probable here- after, an energy just equivalent to the power exerted by the sunbeam, under whose inffuence they are produced, it is more rational to sup- pose that they are the result of the ordinary chemical forces acting n din em wegtt 8 Uuke ils bu- ſtevel u operta, derentn rely ün ſter n this lure krre formeiu Sut tn. tirelh u aà mür natios- ectcn dt eto Gon hur Wn s m eleuer into lbt tieiulh, ce Aslb “s Ma: ter Vull- und i M- taiuingu ne lit dups da- lin tok- tyg tr Atter terſ econbi pOf 1ee sthe ug- Vexityk r the u roddcede ering i ces, uls i the in robälk H the gl- bule forces l METEOROLOGVY. 441 under the direction of what we prefer to call the vital principle. This is certainly not a force, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, or in that in which we confine this expression to the attractions and re- pulsions with which material atoms appear to be primarily endowed. It does not act in accordance with the restricted and uniform laws which govern the forces of inert matter, but with forethought, making provision far in advance of a present condition for the future de- velopment of organs of'sight, of hearing, of reproduction, and of all the varied parts which constitute the ingenious machinery of a living being. Matter without the vital influence may be compared in its condition to steam which, undirected, is suffered to expend its power in producing mechanical effects on the air and other adjacent bodies, marked with no special indications of design; while matter under its influence may be likened to steam under the directing su- perintendence of an engineer, which is made to construct complex machinery and to perform other work indicative of a directing intel- ligence. Vitality, thus viewed, gives startling evidence of the imme- diate presence of a direct, divine and spiritual essence, operating with the ordinary forces of Nature, but being in itself entirely distinct from them. This view of the subject is absolutely necessary in carrying out the mechanical theory of the equivalency of heat and the correlation of the ordinary physical forces. Among the latter, vitality has no place, and knows no subjection to the laws by which they are governed. All the constituents of organic bodies are formed of organic mole- cules, and, as we have said, these are of great complexity, and are readily disturbed and resolved into a greater number of lesser groups. Thus, the constitution of cane sugar is represented by Ci, Hu, Ou, making in all 34 atoms. Organic bodies are, therefore, in what may be called a state of power, or of tottering equilibrium, like a stone poised on a pillar, which the slightest jar will overturn; they are ready to rush into closer union with the least disturbing force. In this simple fact is the explanation of the whole phenomena of fer- mentation, and of the effect produced by yeast and other bodies, which, being themselves in astate of change, overturn the unstable equilibrium of the organic molecules, and resolve them into other and more stable compounds. Fermentation, then, simply consists in the running down from one stage to another of organic molecules, chang- ing their constitution, and at last arriving at a neutral state. There is, however, one fact in connection with the running down of the or- ganic molecules which deserves particular attention, namely, that it must always be accompanied with the exhibition of power or energy, with a disturbance of the ethereal equilibrium in the form of heat, sometimes even of light, or perhaps of the chemical force, or of that of the nervous energy, in whatever form of motion the latter may con- sist. It is a general truth of the highest importance in the study ef the phenomena of Nature, that whenever two atoms enter into more intimate union, heat, or some form of motive power, is always gene- rated. It may, however, be again immediately expended in effecting 442 AGRIOCULTURAL REPOR. a change in the surrounding matter, or it may be exhibited in the form of one of the radiant emanations. Balance of Nature.— The term balance of organic nature was first applied, we think, by Dumas, to express the relations between matter forming animals and vegetables, and the same matter in an inert condition. We shall apply the term ¹ balance of nature,“ in a more extended sense, and include within it the balance of power, as well as the transformations of matter. The amount of matter in the visible universe is supposed to remain the same, though it is subject to va- rious transformations, and appears under various forms— now built up into organic molecules, and now again resolved into the simple inor- ganic compounds. The carbon and other materials absorbed from the air py the plant is given back to the atmosphere by the decaying or- ganisms, and thus what may be called a constant balance is preserved. But this balance, if we may so call it, does not alone pertain to the matter, but also to the energy which is employed in producing these changes. It may disappear for a while, or may be locked up in the plant or the animal, but is again destined to appear in another form, and to exert its effects, perhaps in distant parts of celestial space. To give precision to our thoughts on this subject, let us suppose that all the vegetable and animal matter which now forms a thin pellicle at the surface of the earth were removed—that nothing remained but the germs of future organisms buried in the soil and ready to be de- veloped when the proper influences were brought to bear upon them. Let us further suppose the sun to cease giving emanations of any kind into space. The radiation from the earth, uncompensated by im- pulses from the sun, would soon reduce the temperature of every part of the surface to at least 600 below zero; all the matter and liquid substances capable of being frozen would be reduced to a solid state; the air would cease to move, and universal stillness and silence would prevail. Let us now suppose that the sun were to give forth rays of heat alone; these would radiate in every direction from the celestial orb, and an exceedingly small portion of them, in comparison with the whole, would impinge against the surface of our distant planet, would melt the ice first on the equator, then on the more northern and southern parts of the globe, and, finally, their genial influence would be felt at the poles. The air would be unequally rarefied in the different zones, the winds would again be called forth, vapor would rise from the ocean, clouds would be formed, rain would descend, and storms and tempests would resume their sway. If the sun should again intermit its radiation, all these motions would gradually diminish, and after a time entirely cease; the heat given to the earth would, in part, be retained for awhile, but in time would be expended; the water would slowly give out its latent caloric and be again converted into ice. Something of this kind takes place in the northern and southern parts of the earth during the different periods of summer and winter. Since the mean temperature of the earth does not vary from year to year, it follows that all the excess of Heat of summer received from the sun is given off in winter, and dd u n d wa d feelut A ui nam „Gyl de ü jecthn oy buln implein ed hu lecryin resena rtain vi deing i dwnt other in al Späs oppoei thin fä- emmäübedk Vyvnt rpaik diowdr watel ii f evern Mätter 2 cod tha9 Sand Sis 14)8 1 3 celesüuls on vüt lanet Vu- oxthen u nce Full the düns d rben ADd 89 lese Wxis w, he „ but u lientann lubss the Äöens atmed theeles wintel 3 METEOROLOGV. 443 hence the impulses from this luminary which constitute all the energy, producing the changes on the surface of the earth, merely lingering for awhile, are again sent forth into celestial space, changed, it may be, in form, but not in the amount of their power. The solar vibra- tions have lost none of their energy, for the water has returned to the state of ice, and the surface of the earth is again in the same condition in which it was before it received the solar impulse. The energy of the solar vibrations communicated to the ice overcomes its cohesion, converting it into the liquid state, and the ice again becom- ing solid gives out the same amount of heat in a less energetic form. Even the motive power of the wind is expended by the friction of its particles in producing an amount of heat equivalent to that which gave rise to its motion, and this also is radiated into celestial space. But the most interesting part of our inquiry relates to the effects which the radiation alone of heat from the sun would have on the vegetable germs buried in the soil. If these germs were enclosed in sacs filled with starch and other organic ingredients, stored away for the future use of the young plant, as in the case of the tuber of the potato, or the fleshy part of the bean, as soon as the sun penetrated beneath the surface in sufficient degree to give mobility to the com- plex organic molecules of which these materials consist, the proper degree of moisture also supposed to be present, germination would commence. The young plant would begin to be developed, would strike a rootlet downward into the earth, and elevate a stem towards the surface furnished with incipient leaves. The growth would con- tinue until all the organic matter in the tuber or sac was exhausted; the further development of the plant would then cease, and in a short time decay would commence. But let us dwell a few minutes longer on the condition of the plant and the tuber before the downward action becomes the subject of consideration. If we examine the condition of the potato which was buried in the earth, we shall find remaining of it nothing but the skin, which will probably contain a portion of water. What has become of the starch and other matter which originally filled this large sac? If we examine the soil which surrounded the potato, we do not find that the starch has been absorbed by it; and the answer which will, therefore, naturally be suggested is, that it has been transformed into the material of the new plant, and it was for this purpose originally stored away. But this, though in part correct, is not the whole truth; for if we weigh a potato prior to germination, and weigh the young plant afterwards, we shall find that the amount of organic matter contained in the latter is but a fraction of that which was originally contained in the former. We can account in this way for the disappearance of a part of the contents of the sac, which has evidently formed the pabulum of the young plant. But here we may stop to ask another question: By what power was the young plant built up of the molecules of starch? The answer would probably be, by the exertion of the vital force; but we have endeavored to show that vitality is a directing principle, and not a mechanical power, the expenditure of which does work. The conclusion to which we 444 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. would arrive will probably now be anticipated. The portion of the organic molecules of the starch,&c., of the tuber, as yet unaccounted for, has run down into inorganic matter, or has entered again into combination with the oxygen of the air, and in this running down, and union with the oxygen, has evolved the power necessary to the organization of the new plant. Ife we examine the skin of a potato, we shall find it perforated by innumerable holes, through which the oxygen penetrates into the interior to enter into combination with the starch; or, in other words, to burn it by a slow combustion, and through which the carbonic acid and vapor of water again find their way into the atmosphere. We see from this view that the starch and nitrogenous materials, in which the germs of plants are imbedded, have two functions to fulfil— the one to supply the pabulum of the new plant, and the other to furnish the power by which the transformation is effected, the latter being as essential as the former. In the erection of a house, the ap- plication of mechanical power is required as much as a supply of ponderable materials. But to return to our first supposition. We have said(and the as- sertion is in accordance with accurate observation) that the plant would cease to increase in weight under the mere influence of heat, however long continued, after the tuber was exhausted. Some slight changes might, indeed, take place; a small portion of pabulum might be absorbed from the earth; or one part of the plant might commence to decay, and thus furnish nourishment to the remaining parts; but changes of this kind would be minute, and the plant, under the influ- ence of heat alone, would, in a short time, cease to exist. Let us next suppose the sun to commence emitting rays of light, in addition to those of heat. These, impinging against the earth, would probably produce some effects of a physical character; but what these effects would be we are unable, at the present time, fully to say. We infer, however, that the light, not immediately reflected into space, would be annihilated; but this could not take place without commu- nicating motion to other matter. It would probably be transformed into waves of heat of feeble intensity. Let us now suppose, in addition to heat and light, the chemical rays to be sent forth from the sun. These would also produce various physical changes, the most remarkable of which would be in regard to the plant. The carbonic acid of the atmosphere, in contact with the expand- ing surface of the young leaves, would be absorbed by the water in their pores, and in this condition would be decomposed by the vibra- ting impulses which constitute the chemical emanation. The atoms of carbon and oxygen, of which the carbonic acid is composed, would be forcibly separated; the atoms of oxygen would be liberated in the form of gas, and the carbon be absorbed to build up, under the direct- ing influence of vitality, the woody structure of the plant. In this condition the pabulum of the plant is principally furnished by the carbonic acid of the air, while the impulses of the chemical ray furnish the primary power py which the decomposition and the other in Mhender waun lla i Sarfh korttel les uht ther un arbcuitn Thersi naterib us wil. the ole d, teht OüSe ten à leul k aat the encs dk Soei abumn ht em ug len dder thel t. äs d M e er but mut WoW. 1' nth 8 thot er de trie the de rodlee d- d beuw the er p the Tu METEOROLOGVY. 445 changes are effected. This is the general form of the process, leaving out of view minute changes, actions and reactions, which must take place in the course of organization. All the material of which a tree is built up, with the exception of that comparatively small portion which remains after it has been burnt, and constitutes the ash, is derived from the atmosphere. That this is so, can be proved by growing a plant in perfectly pure flint sand, to which a minute quantity of foreign substance is added, and sprinkling with distilled water. In this case, the plant will yield the usual amount of carbon or charcoal, although there was none in the soil in which it grew. In the decomposition of the carbonic acid by the chemical ray, a definite amount of power is expended, and this remains, as it were, locked up in the plant so long as it continues to grow; but when it has reached its term of months or years, and some condition has been introduced which interferes with the balance of forces, then a reverse process commences, the plant begins to decay, the complex organic molecules begin to run down into simpler groups, and then again into carbonic acid and water. The materials of the plant fall back into the same combinations from which they were originally drawn, and the solid carbon is returned in the form of a gas to the atmosphere. whence it was taken. Now, the power which is given out in the whole descent, is, according to the dynamic theory, just equivalent to the power expended by the impulse from the sun in elevating the atoms to the unstable condition of the organic molecules. If this power is given out in the form of vibrations of the ethereal medium constituting heat, it will not be appreciable in the ordinary decay, say of a tree, extending, as it may, through several years; but if tho process be rapid, as in the case of combustion of wood, then the same amount of power will be given out in the energetic form of heat of high intensity. This heat will again radiate from the earth; and in this case, as in that we have previously considered, the impulse from the sun merely lingers for a while upon the earth, and is then given back to celestial space, changed in form, but undiminished in quan- tity. It may continue its radiating course through stellar space, until it meets planets of other systems; but to attempt to trace it further would be to transcend the limits of inductive reason, and to enter those of unbridled fancy. In the process we have described, the carbon, hydrogen, and other substances which are absorbed from the atmosphere, are returned to this great reservoir to be used again, and, it may be, to undergo the same changes many times in succession. The earthy materials are again returned to the earth, and all the conditions, as far as the individual plant which we are considering is concerned, are the same as they were at the beginning. The absorption of power in the de- composition of the carbonic acid gas, and its evolution again when the recomposition is produced of the same atoms, is precisely analo- gous to that which takes place in forcibly separating the poles of two magnets, retaining them apart for a certain time, and suffering them to return by their attractive force to their former union. The energy 5 44⁴6 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. developed in the approach of the magnets towards each other is just equal to the force expended in their separation.. By extending this reasoning to the vast beds of coal which are stored away in the earth, we are brought irresistibly to the conclusion that the power which is evolved in the combustion of this material, now so valuable an agent in the processes of manufacture and loco- motion, is merely the equivalent of the force which was expended in decomposing the carbonic acid which furnished the carbon of the primeval forests of the globe; and that the power thus stored away millions of years before the existence of man, like other preordi- nations of Divine Intelligence, is now employed in adding to the comforts and advancing the physical and intellectual well-being of our race.. In the germination of the plant a part of the organized molecules runs down into carbonic acid to furnish power for the new arrange- ment of the other portion. In this process no extraneous force is required; the seed contains within itself the power and the material for the growth of the new plant up to a certain stage of its devel- opment. Germination can, therefore, be carried on in the dark, and, indeed, the chemical ray which accompanies light retards rather than accelerates the process. Its office is to separate the atoms of carbon from those of oxygen in the decomposition of the carbonic acid, while that of the power within the plant results from the combination of these same elements. The forces are therefore antagonistic, and hence germination is more rapid when light is excluded; an inference borne out by actual experiment. Animal Organism.— Besides plants, there is another great class of organized beings, viz: animals; and as we commenced with the con- sideration of the seed in the first case, let us begin in this with the egg. This, as is well known, consists of a sack or shell containing a mass of organized molecules formed of the same elements of which the plant is composed, viz: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, with a minute portion of sulphur and other substances. Indeed, this material is derived exclusively from-he animal kingdom. Without attempting to describe the various transformations which take place among these organized molecules, a task which far transcends our knowledge or even that of the science of the day, we shall merely consider the general changes which occur of a physical character. As in the case of the seed of the plant, we presume that the germ of the future animal pre-exists in the egg, and that by subjecting the mass to a degree of temperature sufficient perhaps to give greater mobility to the molecules, a process similar in its general effect to that of the germination of the seed commences. Oxygen is absorbed through some of the minute holes in the shell, and carbonic acid con- stantly exhaled from others. A portion then of the organic molecules begins to run down, and is converted into carbonic acid, and, possibly, water. During this process power is evolved within the shell—we cannot say, in the present state of science, under what particular form; but we are irresistibly constrained to believe that it is expended under the direction, again, of the vital principle, in re- derd vüha d Gouäden is Wrenl d aul expandit rben dn Ktolelm her pa lline b velläein ed Wbei vep unn eous bht tthe wr Pok iie he dantr 1s rätlert DMS d er dic aciln ombüürin agolisit ; miue greit k vih the tlö nit Nlort nents d „adlüns . ndelt len. Fte ien tben tranSceld e Shall M Icharacke that ter suüjeclt: 8 ee tbe de rhat pu ere Sdi 3 rncihk! 14 METEOROLOGV. 447 arranging the organic molecules, in building up the complex ma- chinery of the future animal, or developing a still higher organization, connected with which are the mysterious manifestations of thought and volition. In this case, as in that of the potato, the young animal, as it escapes from the shell, weighs less than the material of the egg previous to the process of incubation. The lost material in this case, as in the other, has run down into an inorganic condition by combining with oxygen, and in its descent has developed the power to effect the transformation we have just described. We have seen, in the case of the young plant, that after it escapes from the seed, and expands its leaves to the air, it receives the means of its future growth principally from the carbon derived from the decomposition of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and its power to effect all its changes from the direct vibratory impulses of the sun. The young animal, however, is in an entirely different condition; expo- sure to the light of the sun is not necessary to its growth or existence; the chemical ray, by impinging on the surface of its body, does not decompose the carbonic acid which may surround it, the conditions necessary for this decomposition not being present. It has no means by itself to elaborate organic molecules, and is indebted for these en- tirely to its food. It is necessary, therefore, that it should be sup- plied with food consisting of organized materials, that is, of complex molecules in a state of instable equilibrium, or of power. These molecules have two offices to perform: one portion of them, by their transformations, is expended in building up the body of the animal, and the other in furnishing the power required to produce these transformations, and, also, in furnishing the energy constantly ex- pended in the breathing, the pulsations, and the various other me- chanical motions of the living animal. We may infer from this that the animal, in proportion to its weight before it has acquired its growth, will require more food than the adult, unless all its voluntary motions be prevented; and secondly, that more food will be required for sustaining and renewing the body when the animal is suffered to expend its muscular energy in labor or other active exercise. 3 The power of the living animal is immediately derived from the running down of the complex organized molecules, of which the body is formed, into their ultimate combination with oxygen, in the form of carbon, water and ammonia. Hence, oxygen is constantly drawn into the lungs, and carbon is constantly evolved. In the adult ani- mal, when a dynamic equilibrium has been attained, the nourishment which is absorbed into the system is entirely expended in producing the power to carry on the various functions of life, and to supply the energy necessary to perform all the acts pertaining to a living, sen- tient, and, it may be, thinking being. In this case, as in that of the plant, the power may be traced back to the original impulse from the sun, which is retained through a second stage, and finally given back again to celestial space, whence it emanated. All animals are con stantly radiating heat, though in different degrees, the amount in all cases being in proportion to the oxygen inhaled and the carbon ex- 448 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. haled. The animal is a curiously contrived arrangement for burning carbon and hydrogen, and the evolution and application of power. i this respect it is precisely analogous to the locomotive, the carbon burnt in the food and in the wood performing the same office in each. The fact has long been established, that power cannot be generated by any combination of machinery. A machine is an instrument for the application of power, and not for its creation. The animal body is a structure of this character. It is admirably contrived, when we consider all the offices it has to perform, for the purpose to which it is applied, but it can do nothing without power, and that, as in the case of the locomotive, must be supplied from without. Nay, more, a comparison has been made between the work which can be done by burning a given amount of. carbon in the machine, man, and an equal amount in the machine, locomotive. The result derived from an analysis of the food in one case, and the weight of the fuel in the other, and these compared with the quantity of water raised by each to a known elevation, gives the relative working value of the two machines. From this comparison, made from experiments on soldiers in Germany and France, it is found that the human machine, in consuming the same amount of carbon, does four and a half times the amount of work of the best Cornish engine. The body has been called““the house we live in,“ but it may be more truly denominated the machine we employ, which, furnished with power, and all the appliances for its use, enables us to execute the intentions of our intelligence, to gratify our moral natures, and to commune with our fellow beings. This view of the nature of the body is the furthest removed possible from materialism; it requires a separate thinking principle. To illus- trate this, let us suppose a locomotive engine equipped, with steam, water, fuel— in short, with the potential energy necessary to the ex- hibition of immense mechanical power; the whole remains in a state of dynamic equilibrium, without motion or signs of life, or intelligence. Let the engineer now open a valve which is so poised as to move with the slightest touch, and almost with volition, to let on the power to the piston; the machine now awakes, as it were, into life. It rushes forward with tremendous power, it stops instantly, it returns again, it may be, at the command of the master of the train; in short, it exhi- bits signs of life and intelligence. Its power is now controlled by mind— it has, as it were, a soul within it. The engine may be con- sidered as an appendage or a further development of the body of the engineer, in which the boiler and the furnace are an additional ca- pacious stomach for the evolution of the power; and the wheels, the cranks and levers, the bones, the sinews, and the muscles, by which this power is applied. There is, however, one striking difference between the animal body and the locomotive machine which deserves our special attention, namely, the power in the body is constantly evolved by burning, as it were, parts of the materials of the machine itself, as if the frame and other portions of the wood-work of the locomotive were burnt to produce the power, and then immediately renewed. The voluntary motion of our organs of speech, of our hands, of our feet, and of every ür bunn dd pn dhs erhu lerann e geldrie rrulent; auiwalht dd Wlar eto wü. aat Ku Nay En de bn aud M a ved bnh! lin thock by au wo Wacl Sin Gem -usulll,. moultn ethe lore maGlün- lanossi nce, Vgt ng. nofedp iple. U d vüm Sary h 2 mains llas er intellge as to llſe- D the po lfe. UE retorse: wSor le F coutrdle e Ifki he boifü adütin he vles eles N heuil eeiul äten Vr bunn 4 t 5 bacdis o Wele, TIE uE et Eich 4 8 METEOROLOGX. 449 muscle in the body, is produced, not at the expense of the soul, but at that of the material of the body itself. Every motion manifesting life in the individual is the result of power derived from the death, as as it were, of a part of his body. We are thus constantly renewed and constantly consumed, and in this consumption and renewal consists animal life. When the proper balance between these two processes is destroyed, the derangement and death of the body ensue. The rational, directing, thinking, willing soul, analogous to that Divine intelligence manifested in all the works of Nature, dissolves its con- nexion with matter, and finds in another, and perhaps successive conditions, an immortal existence. In this great perpetual circle of change nothing is lost. The earthy matter absorbed by the roots of the plant are given back to the earth in the dejectments and decay of the animal body; the car- bon, the hydrogen, the nitrogen, are returned to the air whence they were drawn; the solar impulses by which all the transformations were effected, are given off unaltered in quantity to the celestial space; and, in the case of man, the soul, fraught with the moral effects of its connection with matter, returns to its Divine Creator, the source of all power, moral, intellectual, and physical. MECHANICAL ENERGY. The last remarks will lead us naturally to the subject of mechani- cal energy and the correlation of physical forces, a comparatively new class of ideas, which is at present occupying the attention of some of the first men of Europe and this country. Indeed, one reason which has induced us to adopt the atomic theory in this essay is, tbat we might give the clearest and simplest, view of these new and in- teresting ideas, as well as some of the deductions which have been made from them. The fact has been long conclusively established in the minds of scientific men, that matter cannot be annihilated, ex- cept by the almighty fiat of Him who called it into existence; and the idea has been lately adopted, that the natural forces associated with matter, namely, the attractions and repulsions, are also as inde- structible as the matter itself; moreover, the tendency of scientific speculation at the present day is to the conclusion, that all energy, as it is called, or that which produces the changes in the material universe, is due to the movements produced by attraction and repul- sion of the atoms in passing from a primordial state of instability to onc of final stability or relative rest. It must be evident to any person who is acquainted with the simplest principles of mechanics. that in a umverse in which all the atoms are in equilibrium, or have approached each other as nearly as possible, there can be no sponta neous motion. Such a universe must ever remain, in all its parts, a dead, inert, and lifeless mass. It can only be awakened to life and motion by the application of power from without. Mechanical energy is only exhibited while two atoms are rushing together; when they have united in combination, they exhibit an ap- parent neutralization of all power to produce change in themselves 29 A 450 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. or other bodies. ‧Fill,“ says Mr. Faraday,“'an India-rubber bag with a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen in the proportion of 8 parts to 1 by weight; and, blowing up a number of soap bubbles in a large dish to confine the gases, apply a lighted taper to the bubbles and observe the result. It is a violent deafening explosion, attended with the evolution of light and heat, giving evidence of tremendous power. But let us now consider the result of this explosion. What is it? Water, and nothing but water. To me, the whole range of natural phenomena does not present a more wonderful result than this. Well known, and familiar though it be—a fact standing on the very threshold of chemistry— it is one over which I ponder again and again with wonder and admiration. To think that these two violent elements, holding in their admixed parts such energy, should wait until some disturbance is effected, and then rush furiously into com- bination, and form the bland and unirritating liquid water, is to me, I confess, a phenomenon which awakens new feelings of wonder as often as I view it.“ Wonderful as this may appear, it is but a simple illustration of a general law. The power exhibited was in the momentum produced by the energetic action of the two atoms on each other, and the con- sequent high velocity with which they rushed into union. The noise produced was due to the intense agitation given to the air; the light and heat to the agitation of the ethereal medium; and these together are equal to the energy generated by the reciprocal motion of the atoms. If by any means a force were applied to separate the atoms to the same distance at which they were at first, this force would be just equal to that due to the rushing together of the atoms. Two atoms separated, and in a condition to be violently drawn to- gether, are said to be in a state of energy or Powwer, but when they have entered into combination, they are then in a state of inertness. The same may be said of a weight elevated above the surface of the earth. A certain amount of muscular power must be exerted to overcome the attraction of gravitation, and to raise the weight to the given height, say ten feet. It is then in a state of power, or in a condition to produce permanent changes in matter, and other effects which we technically denominate work. The energy developed in the weight may be employed to drive a pile into the ground, or it may be made to turn a mill and grind corn; but the work done in these two cases, when properly measured, will be the same, and just equal to that expended in elevating the weight. If the weight be raised to double the height, twice the force will be expended in accomplishing this effect, and the weight in its descent to the earth will also do a corresponding amount of work. The ex- planation of the development of the energy exhibited in the fall of a body from a height will be plain, when we consider that gravity acts on the mass with a force proportioned to the number of pounds in its weight at every point in its descent; and if we suppose that in the first instant this attraction gave it a certain velocity, and gravity were then to cease, the body, on account of its inertia, would con- tinue to descend with this velocity to the end of its course. But if ber h l8 Nälg bls A Rteude eeläen N. 6 rälge eoult i ing at aganu wo rüla louli ruwm nKin Woller; tratioodi roduei- d thbu nion. 1 the u.t ul oeal wi epaxdt ¹ th ir fthe un fdamt vle F inerhs rfachd hererti eight n wel, Mr n other et dto din lgruder METEOROLOGV. 451 the attraction continues to act, new impulses are imparted at every instant, and the velocity will continually increase until it reaches the ground, where it will produce an effect which is the equivalent of the power accumulated in its descent. The mechanical energy of matter, therefore, is measured by the distance of the atoms into the intensity of the attraction at the different points of their path of approach. If the atoms of any part of the material universe are in the condition of the atoms of oxygen and hydrogen after they have united to form water, that is, in the closest approximation and a complete neutraliza- tion of their affinities, the matter in this portion of space will be entirely inert, and, unless disturbed by extraneous force, no change can take place among its parts. Matter wanting that peculiar char- acteristic which eminently distinguishes mind, namely, spontaneity of action, all will be in perfect quiescence. From the researches of the geologist, the chemist and the physicist, we are enabled to assert that such is the condition of our earth and its attendant satellite. All the chemical elements which are found in the crust of the globe have gone into a state of permanent quies- cence. The metals and oxygen have united to form oxides, and these with the acids to form other stable compounds; and were it not for the disturbing influence of the impulses from the sun, the present system of continued change, of growth and decay, of storms and of calms, would cease, and the whole surface of our planet would exhibit, a dreary desolation of darkness and stillness, of silence and death. Indeed, as it is, the changes and ever-varying phenomena in which we are so much interested, and a knowledge of which constitutes the highest earthly wisdom, are confined to an almost infinitesimal pel- licle at the surface of the earth. Organic matter is found but a few feet below the surface of the soil, and plants cannot exist in the ocean beyond the depth to which the rays of the sun penetrate. But this state of things has not always existed. It is conclusively proved by the past history of the globe, as written upon the rocks which form its outer strata, that its atoms were once in a state of intense agitation, or, in other words, that the globe was in a condition of high temperature, and that the vibrations have been imparted to the surrounding ethereal medium and thus radiated off into space. We arrive at this conclusion, not only from an examination of the condition of the strata, but from the fact that wherever we penetrate beneath the surface, beyond the depth of the influence of external climate, the temperature uniformly increases at the rate of about 10 for every 50 feet. Our globe, then, consists of a mass of matter which has been gradually cooled from a state of high intensity, and at its surface has arrived at a condition of equilibrium, the heat which its surface gives off into space being just compensated by that received from the sun. The permanency of our temperature, there- fore, depends upon that of the great central luminary of our system itself. But whether The sun himself shall fade, And ancient night again involve a desolate abyss,“ wust be left for future consideration. 452 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. The ideas which are here given had their origin in the attempts which were made to produce self-moving machines. The possibility of such contrivances appeared to be sanctioned by the apparently spontaneous motion of men and lower animals. The idea that these motions were the results of the chemical action of food had not yet entered the mind; and it was only after many fruitless attempts, and the expenditure of much thought, time, and labor, that the conclu- sion was at length arrived at that a machine is a mere instrument for the application and modification of power or energy, and that in no case can it do more work or produce more changes in matter, or, in other words, it can break apart no more atoms, than are equivalent to the power which has been applied to it. The same amount of power which we apply at one extremity of a machine, properly esti- mated, is equal to the sum of ths resistances at the other, and the two precisely balance each other. From considerations of this kind we arrived at the conception of the correlation of the physical forces and the reconversion of the equivalent of one into that of the other. We may do the same work by heat properly applied, or by a fall of water, or by muscular energy. For example, a disc of iron may be made to revolve rapidly with a mill driven by a fall of water, and if this is allowed to rub with some pressure against another iron plate, a great amount of friction will be produced; the mechanical collision of the surfaces will set the atoms of the plates in that state of vibra- tion which constitutes heat, and which, if unobstructed, will be com- municated to the surrounding ethereal medium, and radiated to adjacent bodies or off into celestial space. But if detained and applied, it may be used to produce changes in matter, such as the boiling of water, the driving of a steam engine, and other objects. Now, if it were possible to collect and concentrate all the impulses of the heat vibrations, and apply them without loss by means of a machine to the elevation of water, the quantity thus raised and the height to which it is raised would be precisely equal to the height and quantity of water, the fall of which produced the first effect. Similarly, if by a steam engine we put in motion the plate of a large electrical machine and disturb the equilibrium of the ether, condens- ing a portion of it in one part of space and rarefying it in another portion, the force which would be exerted in the restoration of the equilibrium, or in the electrical discharge, would be just equal to the amount of energy exerted in producing the coerced condition. If in this case the coerced equilibrium is retained for a day, a year, or a century, so long the amount of energy expended to produce it will, as it were, be locked up, but not lost. It will be ready to appear and do work as soon as the detent which prevents the commencement of motion is removed. As a further example of this, suppose a heavy weight to be elevated by steam power to the top of a high pillar, and there placed on an equipoise, so that the least force applied may overturn it and enable it to commence its fall. In its descent it will receive at every instant a new impulse from gravity, and when it arrives at the ground it will expend its accumulated energy in pene- trating the surface and in the production of heat, sound, and tremors hy aredd- the dot ſ 8 1 cone nent t hn u dirän voutt erpe aul b thush eall le ohe faüli nEr- er Vli ou l leollän om Ubeck diatei ined n Ulab r hftt innis eans alt d bes nt ek ok an wolie 1 aMrä- teune 1 wnd; ualbb m. H ear, d. ls i3 * METEOROI.OGVY. 453 of the earth. When the weight is resting on the top of the pillar, ready to fall off with the slightest touch, it is said to be in a state of potential energy; and when it has almost reached the earth and is moving with the full velocity of the fall, it has converted its potential energy into actual power. The general conclusion which has been arrived at is, that all the different physical energies, whether that which is called chemical action, heat, light, electricity, magnetism, or museular motion, or mechanical power, are all referable to the disturbance of the equi- librium of the atoms, and its subsequent restoration due to their at- tractions and repulsions; and that all these forms of energy are, in one sense as it were, convertible into each other; or, in other words, the force generated in the restoration of the equilibrium in one case is sufficient to disturb it, though in a different form perhaps, in another. We must guard against the erroneous idea which some have inconsiderately adopted, that one form of power can be actually con- verted into another, as heat into electricity, or the converse. The theory of energy merely declares that the power exhibited in the electrical discharge is the equivalent of the muscular energy expended in charging the battery, and not that muscular energy is converted into electricity. The origin of heat produced by friction for a long time perplexed the most sagacious philosophers. Our celebrated and ingenious countryman, Count Rumford, caused a quantity of water to boil for several hours by the heat generated in boring a cannon; and after the process was ended, he found that the borings and the cannon con- tained as much heat as at the commencement of the experiment. From this result he boldly proclaimed that heat was not matter, but the vibrations of the atoms of matter, and that in his experiment the heat was generated by the friction of the drill on the metal. Later researches have constantly tended to strengthen the proba- bility of this view, and even to establish the general fact, that when mechanical power is produced by the expenditure of heat, a quantity of heat disappears, bearing a fixed proportion to the power produced; and conversely, that when heat is produced by the expenditure of mechanical power, the quantity of heat produced bears a fixed pro- portion to the power expended. Thus, in the case of a steam engine doing no work, the quantity of heat given out in the waste-pipe would just be equal to that received into the boiler, provided there was no loss from conduction and radiation; but in the engine drawing up water, for example, a quantity of heat is actually annihilated in doing the work. The vibrations of the atoms, which constitute heat, are stopped in giving motion to the piston-rod. Conversely, if the water, which has been pumped up to an elevation, were made in its descent to produce heat by means of revolving disks, the amount generated would be just equal to that which disappeared in the other case. For practical purposes, it is, therefore, of great importance that the ratio of equivalents of heat and mechanical power should be ac- curately determined, and for this purpose M. Jule, of Manchester 454 AGRIOCULTURAL REPORT. has made a series of most delicate and beautiful experiments on the heat evolved by the revolution of paddle-wheels in baths of water, mercury, or oil. Motion was given to the paddle-wheels by a known weight descending from a given height; the amount of heat was found to be precisely the same with a given expenditure of mechanical power, whether the wheel fevolved in water, mercury, or oil, proper allowance being made for the different densities and the different capacities of these bodies for heat. In this way, he found that the fall of a weight of one pound through 772 feet, or what would be the equivalent, the fall of a weight of 772 pounds through one foot, was just sufficient to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree of Fahrenheit'’s scale. Seven hundred and seventy-two pounds falling through one foot is, therefore, considered as the unit of the working power of heat; and, in honor of the investigator who has thus enriched modern science with one of its most valuable means of cal- culation, applicable to every part of physical research, it is denomi- nated“Jule's unit.“” Byit we are enabled to express in terms of the descent of a weight the equivalency of all the forces of Nature, and thus to reduce the mechanical conception of their relations to its greatest simplicity, and to apply mathematical reasoning to a variety of problems heretofore excluded from the province of this great logical instrument, so essential in the deduction of effects from com- plex relations. The descent of a weight is chosen, because it is per- haps the most familiar, and of the easiest conception and application. The value of a fall of water is always estimated by the quantity of liquid multiplied by the height, through which it descends. If we multiply these together, and divide by 772, we shall have the number of degrees of heat that this will impart to a pound of water; and con- versely, by knowing the number of degrees of heat as measured by the number of pounds of water raised one degree, we shall have the number of pounds of water which can be elevated to a given height by a perfect machine; and when such effeets are submitted to this calculation, we find that the steam engine, in its most improved form, is far from utilizing all the heat applied to it; by far the greater por- tion is expended in the separation of the atoms of water in radiation, in overcoming friction, and in the production of vibration and useless motion. Mr. Jule also established the relations of equivalence among the energies of chemical affinities of heat, of combination, or of combus- tion, of electrical currents in the galvanie battery and in electro- magnetic machines, and of all the varied and interchangeable mani- festations of caloric action and mechanical force which accompanies them. A series of experiments has also been made on the heat of animals, which is found to be the equivalent of the chemical com- bination of the food and the oxygen which they inhaled. The influence which investigations of this kind are to have on the future history of mechanical arts and the production of labor-saving machines, and on the increased power of man in controlling the innate forces of matter, it is impossible to estimate. Ab vm bum Ru dhaurl Nüh lhn dat dhet uetn atek u opnn t hWth ed S deleu W turs,a W n àun di mn from te tEp pltn mnäih. 8. Ir d Wnh „mdn ndn Serl- Ihn den bel ed b wedin eater hl mdtil 1d b us f coblk 1 dhe able 1” euße he bett liel m borS- the vun METEOROLOGY. 455 TThe food of animals is either vegetable or animals fed on vege- tables, or ultimately vegetable after several removes. Except mush- rooms and other fungi, which can grow in the dark, are nourished by organic food like animals, and, like them, absorb oxygen and exhale carbonic acid, all known vegetables get the greater part of their substance— certainly all their combustible matter--from the decom- position of carbonic acid and water absorbed by them from the air and soil. The separation of carbon and of hydrogen from oxygen in these decompositions is an energetic effect equivalent to the heat of recombination of those elements by combustion or otherwise. The beautiful discovery of Priestley, and the subsequent researches of Sennebier, De Saussure, Sir Humphrey Davy, and others, have made it quite certain that those decompositions of water and carbonic acid only take place naturally in the daytime, and that light, falling on the green leaves, either from the sun or an artificial source, is an essential condition without which they are never effected. There cannot be a doubt but that it is the dynamical energy of the lumi- niferous vibrations which is here efficient in forcing the particles of carbon and hydrogen away from those of oxygen, toward which they are attracted with such powerful affinities, and that luminiferous motions are reduced to rest to an extent exactly equivalent to the potential energy thus called into being. Wood fires give us heat and light which have been got from the sun a few years ago. Our coal fires and gas lamps bring out, for our present comfort, heat and light of a primeval sun, which have lain dormant as à potential energy peneath seas and mountains for countless ages.“— Prof. Thompson. A striking example of the transformation, as it were, of the force of motion into heat is exhibited by an article of apparatus now in the cabinet of the Smithsonian Institution, and devised by M. Leon Four- cault, of Paris. Between the poles of a strong electrie magnet a heavy metallic disc is made to rotate, and although the revolving body does not touch the magnet, yet its motion is stopped by it in a few seconds. The momentum of the dise which is thus overcome gives rise to heat; for the reaction of the magnet produces a eurremt of electricity, and in the resistance to this the heat is generated. A body in motion is in a state of power, and it cannot come to rest without producing some effect on the surrounding matter. The ulti- mate effect in this case is an agitation of the atoms of the metal. C0NDITION OF THE EARTH IN SPACE. Having given a general view of the atomie theory in its widest generalizations, we now propose to consider its application to the physical phenomena of our globe. For this purpose, we will briefly recall some of the elementary facts of astronomy. The earth is a globe slightly flattened at the poles, isolated in space, supported upon nothing, and only connected with other bodies of the universe by the all-pervading force of attraction in connection with them, through the impulses of the ethereal medium. In this 456 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. free space it turns upon itself with a regular motion around an ideal axis which pierces its surface at two opposite points or poles, which have never varied their position. It also moves in space, describing around the sun, in the course of a year, a slightly elliptical curve called its orbit. But this movement of translation around the sun does not interfere with the rotation of the earth around its axis; for, in accordance with the second fundamental law of motion, two motions of this kind may exist in a body at the same time. If the earth's axis were at right angles to the plane of its orbit, but slight varia- tions would be found in the temperature at its surface in different periods of the year. The axis, is not, however, thus placed, but is inclined at an angle of about twenty-three and a half degrees to the plane above mentioned; and this fact, which at first sight might ap- pear of little consequence, in reality produces all the alternations of seasons, and is connected with all the changes of climate of the surface of the globe. Gradual changes of climate cannot be produced by a change in the axis of rotation, as some have supposed, since this would alter the whole form of the earth, and produce other changes incompatible with the facts of observation. The position, the form, and the movement of the earth are similar to those of the other planetary masses which we see isolated in space under the form of globes, turning around on an axis within themselves, and around the sun in elliptical curves. While we observe that the earth is the centre of the orbit of our moon, we see that four moons turn around Jupiter, seven around Saturn, and six around Uranus. A planet, with the moons which accompany it, form what is called a Planetarg system, and all the planets taken together, with the sun, constitute what is denominated the solar system. In this system the earth occupies the third place from the sun, from which it is removed ninety-five millions of miles at its mean distance. Neptune occupies the most distant limit, and is more than thirty times further removed than the earth from the principal centre of influence. But these dis- tances, though greatly beyond our definite conceptions, are nothing in comparison with the intervals which separate the sun from the fixed stars. These bodies, like the sun, are self-luminous, and are, without doubt, centres of planetary systems; but they are at such an inconceivable distance that light itself, which requires but eight minutes to reach us from the sun, occupies years of time in its jour- ney from the nearest of them. But all the stars which are visible to the naked eye form only a single group, which, if viewed at a suffi- cient distance, would appear in the heavens as only a luminous cloud or spot, and would resemble the nebulous patches which we perceive here and there in different parts of the heavens by the aid of powerful telescopes. This universe, then, unbounded by human intelligence, is composed of isolated groups of stars, and perhaps of orders of arrangement still more elevated. In this magnificent assembly our nebula is only a spot in the infinity of spots; our sun is only a star in the midst of the stars of the group to which it bolongs; and among the planets which revolve around our sun, the earth is one of an infe- rior order. Sta Gusly ress moon Sl, solid rialu the i o Iyj were disca n thi⸗ aphy Pstel In a) efery with! tare. mire sum Wes wlie nott have its at to usc 1 thet Pron- the: Sens uni mar n 1 e VIn aei el an Ihha un Towoin de eant pitm. üühr el kri reeshib uin rutit the ouke duwri Aes b er(hes Ars dun lige hewwehe we tb Hnr un dd Uran S all htka Sd † E de cen er P tthexet re 1 1 fo 5 8 uln atamit bMtd in W jr evö at 3 K ob ie METEOROLOGY. 457 Starting from the grouping of gross atoms, which we have previ- ously given, and extending the analogy, the thought has been ex- pressed that our earth might be compared to an atom; the earth and moon to a compound atom; the whole system to a molecule; and our sun, and all the stars of the group to which it belongs, as the great solid of solids, and thus in one conception embracing the whole mate- rial universe. But, to limit our speculations, we may inquire whether the infinity of stars by which we are surrounded have any influence upon the climate and temperature of this earth. Influence of the stars.—It is well known that at one time the stars were supposed to influence human destiny, and though astronomy has discarded most of the pretensions of her progenitor, astrology, yet, in this instance, modern science has shown that the stars have really a physical influence upon our earth and on every other planet of our system. If from any point in space a line be extended in thought in any direction, it will ultimately meet a radiating body; and hence every point in space must be constantly traversed from all directions with radiating impulses which give it a definite and fixed tempera- ture. For example, our sun sends a ray to every point of the universe, and every other sun sends a ray to the same point, and the sum of all these rays will constitute the temperature of that point. We say the temperature of that point, by which we mean the effect which would be produced upon a thermometer if put in that place; not that there is any temperature in celestial space, for this, as we have seen, belongs to gross matter, and is produced by the motion of its atoms. The term, however, is convenient, and we shall continue to use it. If the radiating power of the suns remained without change, then the temperature of each point in space would be unchangeable. From this consideration it follows that, independent of the heat of the sun, the planetary space in which our earth is moving has in one sense a fixed temperature derived from all the other suns of the universe; and this temperature, as we shall hereafter see, has a marked influence on the temperature of the globe. We shall return to this subject again, and at present shall merely state that at the polar regions of our earth, during the months of winter, the space immediately contiguous to the surface is screened from the heat of the sun, and consequently the earth, by its radia- tion, must sink in temperature nearly to that due to celestial space. A similar screening takes place in succession on all parts of the earth's surface during the night; and as the loss of heat by radiation depends, as we shall see, upon the temperature of the space into which the rays are sent, every part of the earth's surface must be affected more or less by the temperature of interplanetary space; and if this were to vary, though our sun might continue constant in its emanation, the average terrestrial temperature would be subject to a change. We cannot, however, explain the effect of the temperature of planetary space upon our earth until we have further considered the subject of heat. 458 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. HEAT OF THE EARTH The temperature of the earth is derived from three sources, namely. the original heat of the earth, the heat of celestial space, and the heat of the sun. Before, however, giving an account of the heat derived from these sources, we shall first consider the character of radiant heat, as developed by the researches of Melloni and others. Radiant heat.— The impulses which are received from the sun, as we have seen, are far from being simple in their nature. We know that a beam from this luminary consists of at least four different classes of emanations, namely, of light, of heat, of chemical action, and of phosphorogenic effect. We also know that the first class, that of light, consists of anumber of different emanations which produce in us the sensations of the different colors of the spectrum, and from analogy we might have inferred that the heat emanations also consist of a number of rays, possessing different properties, and producing at the surface of the earth different physical and perhaps physiologi- cal effects. Let us begin with heat of the lowest intensity, or that which is supposed to be composed of waves of the greatest length; for ex- ample, the radiation from a canister of hot water suspended in mid- air. If this is elevated in the least degree above the temperature of the surrounding bodies, they will increase in temperature, while the vessel itself will slowly cool. The rapidity of cooling will gradually diminish in a geometrical ratio, as the temperature of the canister approaches that of the surrounding bodies, and they will finally arrive at a state of dynamic equilibrium. The canister, at this point, does not cease to radiate, but continues to send impulses in every direction, receiving as many impulses from the surrounding bodies, including the air, as it sends off from its own surface. The heat from this source possesses peculiar properties. First, it is readily absorbed by all bodies in proportion to some peculiarity of the texture of their surface, but is awholly independent f the color, or, in other words, this kind of heat, unlike light, is absorbed by light-colored substances as well as dark, and this fact would be in accordance with the hypothesis assumed, which supposes these two emanations to consist of waves of different lengths, and perhaps of slightly different form. Secondly, this kind of heat is incapable of passing by direct radiations through many media, which are freely traversed by light, such as glass, alum, and many other transparent substances, while it is freely transmitted through polished plates of rock-salt, and partially through many other bodies, some of which are impervious to light. The first class of bodies are called alher- manous, the latter diathermanous. Let us now suppose the radiating body to be one which can be increased in temperature until it becomes red-hot. At a certain stage of incandescence, other rays than those described capable of exciting heat begin to be given off along with the former, which are distinguished by different properties. First, they tend to be absorbed sübste la — — Lampt White Lingla Indian Khellac polishe n. alt the R arnet, dd chn dem. Ne w din etia à. tii pwien. aul h Wo eut Tro phröine at vli k; Me lel ur enpenr e,Wüib gnukat le al rällren Poli ünri ch8 . Im cdart f dsorde woudb thexn METEOROLOGVY. 459 by all bodies in proportion to the darkness of their color, and ap- proximate in this respect to the property of light. Secondly, they possess a property of transmissibility without diminution, through all transparent substances, through colorless media, and in various proportions through colored media, according to the nature of the latter. While bodies heated below redness give off exclusively rays of the first class, though approaching in character those of the second, as the temperature is increased, incandescent bodies simultaneously give off both species. As the intensity of heating still further increases, rays of less and less length are given off, until they arrive at the limit of the percep- tibility of the sense of vision, and only render their existence mani- fest by chemical and phosphorogenic effects. The following table exhibits some of the results which Melloni obtained by experimenting with different sources of heat and different, substances: Relative absorbability, of diſferent kinds of heat byf different substances. Naked Incandescent Copper, at Copper, at SuESraNCES. flame. platinum. 750 F. 2120 F. Lampblack 10⁰ 10⁰ 100 10⁰ Wnite lead.. 53 56 89 100 Isinglass. 5² 54 84 91 Indian ink. 96 95 87 8⁵ Shellao 43 47 7⁰ 72² Polished metal 14 13. 5 13 13 As au illustration of the effects of radiant heat of different kinds, we may mention’the fact, long observed, of the melting of snow near the trunks of trees and other dark-colored bodies. That this effect is not due to the natural heat of the plant is evident, from the fact that it is equally exhibited around the stumps of dead trees, and dark-colored objects of an entirely different character. The rays of heat from the sun, as we have before stated, are those possessing luminous properties, are absorbed by dark substances, and freely reflected from light ones. The facets of the small crystals of snow reflect this heat almost entirely, while it is absorbed by the dark surface of the wood of which it raises the temperature, thus produe- ing a new source of emanation. The heat however given off from the wood, is that of long waves of low intensity, which is equally absorbed by light and dark bodies; hence it enters the snow, raises its temperature, and converts it from a solid to a liquid condition. We may imitate this action by supporting at a little distance above a surface of new fallen snow a piece of pasteboard, both sides of which have been covered with lampblack, and the whole being freely exposed to the sun's rays. It will be found that the melting of the surface within the shadow is much more rapid than that exposed to 460 AGEICULTURAL REPORT. the direct rays of the sun. The same result may be produced by the rays from an argand lamp. Having filled a square box with new fallen snow slightly packed, and all above the rim having been re- moved by means of a ruler, so as to present a uniformly plain surface, the box is turned on its side opposite the lamp, and the pasteboard interposed. In a short time the plain surface of snow will be hol- lowed out beneath the disk, and at the end of half an hour the cavity will be several lines deep at its centre. When the same experiment is repeated by substituting for the lamp an iron pall heated to about 400° F., the phenomena present themselves in a reverse order, that is to say, the melting of the snow would be more abundant where the direct rays impinge on the surface, than where they are intercepted by the interposed disk, and instead of a hollow, a protuberance would be produced at the centre of the shaded portion. If we substitute in this experiment for the black disk of pasteboard one covered with white lead, the heat will not be absorbed, but will be reflected as from the snow itself. Another example of the transmission and, as it were, transforma- tion of radiant heat from the sun is afforded in the high temperature produced by the ordinary hot-bed of a garden. The solar rays, con- sisting of short vibrations, readily pass through the glass cover, and are adsorbed by the dark ground, the atoms of which they put into more rapid vibration, and these, in turn, give rise to new emanations, which, consisting of long waves, are arrested by the glass, and thus the temperature of the enclosed space is constantly increased. It is also on the same principle that the radiant heat of a stove does not pass out into space through the windows of a house, though a con. siderable portion of the radiant heat from an open fire would be lost in this way. We may apply the foregoing principles to explain the accumula- tion of heat at the surface of the earth. The transparent envelope which covers the surface of our planet, is not entirely diathermanous; and though it transmits freely the intense rays of the sun, it stops those of the long vibrations. The surface of the earth is then in the condition of the ground under the glass of the hot-bed; it is con- stantly absorbing and receiving heat of high intensity, and constantly radiating off heat of intermediate intensity. Let us suppose all heat removed from the earth, and the sun suddenly allowed to shine upon it. In this case, all the rays which traversed the atmosphere and reached the earth would be absorbed. None would be radiated into space until the temperature of the surface was so elevated that the rays emitted from it could permeate the atmosphere. The surface of the earth at first would therefore receive more rays than it gave off. Its temperature would increase, and with each increase of temperature a greater number of rays would be produced of such intensity as would enable them to permeate the atmospheric envelope, and finally an equilibrium would be attained in which the rays sent off in a given time would be just equal in number to those received. The point of teomperature at which this equilibrium would take Jlace Pthe de l tempe in a8 dense lighe ture Foulc be pe surfac Ha ap Deat W Jow. lrom The r atmoOsj A the t beco erial accum Tloug Dlst ztars leare ly t ttribt withon N. on t unex to WI 00ns in di dlose ellec fllec upor was tally to ci düh wih dn 3 dee nart täbtar U bu bur 1 ile a wini elresn Mwoul rhes b Isteadii tre d r the hh vüun trmsim ewperir rmRn Jore ey lti eälään 8 Allh Wed. l we Gh ough an woold e e wemt ant ert- thermas un,R ztheu ut d, tüt d corsiw- pose12 pShien oepher ¹ ndinted- ted ti we wore- d vi⁰ be Tn äch u ni3 ber b’” 1 null 3 METEOROLOGVY. 461 place will depend on the height and permeability of the atmosphere. If the aerial envelope offered no impediment to the escape of heat of the lowest intensity, the equilibrium would take place at so low a temperature that all bodies capable of freezing would perpetually be in a solid state. If, on the other hand, the atmosphere were more dense than it is, or, in other words, more impervious to rays of a higher intensity than those which now pass through it, the tempera- ture of the surface of the earth would increase until the heat given off would again be equal to that received. The new equilibrium would be permanently retained, and the whole average temperature of the surface of the globe would be elevated. Heat from the stars.— The temperature, therefore, of the surface of a planet depends upon the nature of its atmosphere, provided the heat which falls upon it is derived from a source of high temperature. Now, radiations from the stars are of this character, since they come from self-luminous bodies, which are probably suns of other systems. The radiations from them can, therefore, readily pass through our atmosphere, and excite heat vibrations in the materials of the surface of the earth. The intensity of these vibrations must increase until it becomes so great that the radiations produced can permeate the aerial covering, and in this way even the heat of the stars may so accumulate as sensibly to contribute to the temperature of the earth. Though at first sight it might appear that the effect from this source must be exceedingly feeble, yet when we reflect that the heat of the stars comes from every part, as it were, of the whole concave of the heavens, while that of the sun proceeds from a disk which occupies only the five-millionth part of the whole sky, we may be inclined to attribute to the stellar radiation a much greater importance than without this reflection we should ascribe to it. M. Pouillet, of Paris, has made a series of very ingenious researches on the subject of the temperature of space, and has arrived at very unexpected results. He employed in his observations an instrument to which he gave the name of.“ actinometer,“ or ray-measurer. It consisted of a cylindrical box of polished silver, about eight inches in diameter, and five in height, enveloped in swan's-down, and en- closed in an outer cylinder, so as to prevent as much as possible the effect of the temperature of the circumambient air. The box was filled with several layers of swan's-down, so supported as not to press upon each other. In the centre of the upper surface of the open box was placed the bulb of a thermometer, the stem projecting horizon- tally. A cylindrical border was raised round the edge of the box, to cut off the lateral rays, and at such a height that two-thirds of the whole sky could be seen by an eye at the point occupied by the bulb. The thermometer, thus enclosed, was turned during the night to the zenith, and exposed to the radiation from the clear sky. The tem- perature of this thermometer and one exposed to the air at four feet from the ground was observed hourly. If the heat of the surrounding air were entirely excluded from the enclosed thermometer, it is evident that it would only be affected by 462 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. the radiation from celestial space, and from the atoms of the air in the column between it and the top of the atmosphere. Of these two sources of radiation, one, namely, that of celestial space, would be constant, and remain the same during the whole night, as well as different nights, while the other, namely, the radia- tion from the air, would vary from hour to hour, since it depends on the varying temperature of the atmosphere. By obtaining a series of observations in different states of the atmosphere an assumption could be made as to the fixed temperature of space, which, when subtracted from the temperature observed, would give the radiation of the column of the atmosphere. Since it was impossible to cut off all the heat from the instrument except that which it receives from the sky and air above, and since it was exposed to but two-thirds of the celestial hemisphere, some correction was necessary to reduce the observed temperature to the true one. This was found by making an artificial sky, formed of a zinc vessel about forty inches in diameter, the bottom coated with lampblack, and the whole filled with a refrigerating mixture. Be- neath this the“ actinometer“ was placed vertically at such distances as to expose it successively to one-quarter, one-third, and two-thirds of the hemisphere; and by repeating these experiments with different temperatures of the artificial sky, it was found that if from the tem- perature of the surrounding air+ of the lowering temperature of the actinometer were taken away, the temperature of the artificial sky would be obtained, since the same ratio would obtain in the case of the real sky. In order to find, therefore, in all future experiments the temperature which the actinometer ought to assume under the radia- tion from space and the air above, it was only necessary to subtract the degree given by the instrument from the temperature of the surrounding air and multiply this by ½. From a series of observations thus corrected, he found for the fixed part of the temperature given by the instrument, or, in other words, the temperature of space, a value of— 1420 C. or— 2220 F. This temperature is much lower than that obtained before from considerations of a more theoretical character. M. Pouillet, however, thinks that it cannot be far from the true temperature of celestial space, since a thermometer placed upon the coldest part of the earth, and exposed to the clear sky, always falls by its own radiation several degrees lower than the tem- perature of the air; which it would not do if the temperature of space were not lower than— 600, since as it approached that tem- perature at places near the pole, the extra cooling from exposure to the sky would be very little. Mr. Espy concludes, from theoretical data, that the estimate of Pouillet is near the truth. He finds, from the data given above, that the total quantity of heat which space transmits in the course of a year to the earth and atmosphere, would be sufficient to melt a stratum of ice upon our globe of 86 ½ feet in thickness. From other investigations of a similar character, which we shall presently describe, he finds that the quantity of solar heat received by the earth in the course of a year is sufficient to melt 103 ¼ feet of ice. From these two sources together, then, the earth: Ihese bF ins theyh till o Ter ollt ๠it wou would of hes gcale. lft d Spa —? Witt 1Wo. earth! the en- Poui —f hea wlich the Su- Was Of m ine tilled therm inthe The surfac 9t Nes in à mere of f while 1oss, agair deat. tney orde mim of tl exp the Lof leat mst dlo Aece Seale facs e ir ede de m ¹ the M depeuh atss teupennd e oder iustwe he alli- Dhem h ratarent torwedd eceteän Ixtue. jch dötmr d tmh rith dike ron ibe rate di artenlt n the es erinelht ler ten po Lih atur 1 obserni raturge 2 df Gn muh M d therri the krn neter Ä de dens han be npenir di tur exphr n Pen METEOROLOGV. 463 earth receives a quantity of heat sufficient to melt 190 feet of ice. These results are of so unexpected an amount that, though obtained by instruments and methods which are apparently unexceptionable, they have not fully obtained acceptance, and the subject is therefore still open for further examination. Terrestrial temperature.— If the earth were exposed in space with- ont an envelope and without receiving radiation from any source, it would sink to the zero of temperature, or that at which the atoms would cease to vibrate, and this, according to the mechanical theory of heat, would be about 5000 below the freezing point of Fahrenheit's scale. If the earth were exposed without an envelope to the temperature of space it would, according to the results obtained by Pouillet, fall to— 2220 of the same scale. With the present envelope and stellar radiation it would stand at 1280. The heat necessary to make up the actual temperature of the earth beyond this degree is due to the sun's accumulated heat under the envelope. Pouillet has also made a series of researches on the absolute amount of heat from the sun. He used in his investigations an instrument to which he gave the name of pyr-heliometer(measurer of the heat of the sun.) It consisted of a flat cylindrical vessel, the top of which was of thin silver, of about four inches in diameter and six-tenths of an inch in height or thickness. It was filled with 100 grammes of dis- tilled water, and in the middle of this liquid was placed the bulb of a thermometer with a fine bore and a long stem projecting downwards in the direction of the axis of the cylinder through its lower surface. The observations were made in the following manner: The upper surface of the vessel, coated with lampblack to render it absorbent of heat, was turned directly towards the sun, the water being kept in a state of constant agitation in order to equalize the heat. The increase of temperature received from minute to minute in the course of five minutes was noted. The vessel was then placed in the shade while its face was exposed to a portion of clear sky near the sun, and the loss of temperature from minute to minute, dauring five minutes, was again noted. A little reflection on the principles of the interchange of heat, according to which bodies are constantly radiating even while they are receiving heat from other bodies, will render it evident that in order to find the amount of temperature communicated by the sun in a minute of time, we must add the loss of temperature during thé shading of the instrument to the gain of temperature noted during the direct exposure to the sun, for while the instrument was receiving heat from the sun it was at the same moment radiating heat to that body. To find, from the indications thus obtained, the absolute amount of heat which falls on the face of the vessel in one minute of time, we must make a correction for the absorption of heat by the metal, and allow for the specific heat of the water, that is, the relative quantity necessary to elevate a pound of this liquid one degree of Fahrenheit's scale. In this way the quantity of heat which falls on a given sur- face, say a square foot, perpendicular to the solar beam at the surface 464 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. of the earth, is determined. But this quantity is not all that would be given to the same surface were the atmosphere removed, or if the same experiment were made at the outer limits of the aerial covering of the globe. A portion of the heat is absorbed and another portion reflected from the atoms in its passage through the air, and, in the solution of the problem under consideration, it became necessary to know the amount of loss from this cause. To ascertain this, the experiment was made while the sun was on the meridian and at different degrees of elevation, even down to near the horizon. The diameter of the earth, the approximate height of the atmosphere, or the length of the column of air traversed by the ray which passes from the zenith, and also the angle of elevation of the sun, being given, the lengths of the several lines through the atmosphere traversed by the respective rays were readily calculated; and if we suppose that the amount of heat received at the outer limit of the atmosphere is invariable, it is not difficult to determine the part which is absorbed. The numbers obtained by observation consisted of two quantities, a constant and a variable one; the former being the heat of the sun, and the latter the amount absorbed in passing through the different lengths of atmosphere. From these data, the amount of heat received from the sun on a square centimetre at the limit of the atmosphere, and which it would equally receive at the surface of the earth, if the air did not absorb or reflect any of the incident rays, was ascertained to be 17, 633 units of heat in one minute of time. It was also found that the atmo- spheric abuorption of the rays directly from the zenith was comprised between eighteen and twenty-five-hundredths of the whole, even in cases where the sky was perfectly clear. After having ascertained the quantity of heat which the sun sends to the earth during one minute of time, by its perpendicular action, on one centimetre, it was not difficult to ascertain the total quantity of heat received by the whole illuminated hemisphere in the same time. Indeed, this quantity is nearly the sume as that which would fall on the plane of a great circle of the earth. From this can be readily deduced the amount of heat which would fall upon the earth during a year; and this was determined to be 231, 675 units falling on each square centimetre of surface which limits the atmosphere. Calculating the amount of ice which this quantity of heat would melt, the following result was obtained, namely, a thickness of 30.89 metres, or a little more than 101 feet: that is, if the total quantity of heat which the earth receives from the sun in the course of a year were uniformly distributed over all points of the globe, and were employed without loss in dissolving ice, it would melt a stratum which would have the above thickness. The data given by these experiments enabled the author to solve another problem, which would appear even of a more transcendental character. This consisted in determining the amount of heat given off by the whole surface of the sun in a given time. For this pur- Jese, pher earth netre each! pace then, 0l 89 of he lr I Dlofe evele and in The obgh recis physi Ori pace moth duces zurfa and i I b mseell at ge g or 1 RM METEOROLOGV. 465 pose, it was only necessary to consider the sun as the centre of a spherical enclosure, the radius of which is the distance from the earth to the sun; and it must be evident that in each square centi- metre of the concave surface of this vast sphere is received during each minute of time as much heat as is received during the same space of time on a square centimetre at the surface of the earth. If, then, the number 17,633, before obtained, is multiplied by the number of square centimetres in this spherical surface, the absolute quantity of heat given off by the sun during a given time will be ascertained. The number expressing this quantity for each minute of time is 84, 888 thermal units. If this quantity of heat emitted by the sun were exclusively em- ployed in dissolving a stratum of ice, applied to the solar surface, and enveloping it on every side, it would melt in one minute a stratum of 11.8 metres thick; and in one day a stratum of 16, 992 metres, or 10 ½ miles. These results cannot be considered more than approximations. though, in the progress of science, they may be rendered much more precise, and may be applied to solve many problems relative to the physical phenomena of the earth and our solar system. Original heat o the earth.—Besides the smaller influence of celestial space, and the governing one of the emations from the sun, there is another source of terrestrial heat, which, though it at present pro- duces scarcely an appreciable effect upon the temperature of the surface, was once powerfully active in effecting geological changes, and in so modifying the surface of our planet as to give rise to the diversities of surface constituting mountains, seas, and continents, which now determine the varieties and peculiarities of our present climates, and may in the future be of vast practical value in its appli- cability to the wants of life. We allude to the internal heat of the earth. That the earth was once at least in a liquid condition by heat, can scarcely be doubted, when all the cumulative evidence in favor of the hypothesis is considerecdcd.. First. Self-luminous bodies are met with in every part of the visible universe, and if we follow the strict inductive process, allowing no more causes than are true and sufficient, we must admit these bodies are intensely heated. It is, therefore, not impossible that the earth itself may have been at one time a self-luminous star. Second. The surface of our moon, though it now gives no indi- cations of heat except of the lowest temperature, when viewed through a powerful telescope appears almost covered with the craters of extinct volcanoes; and hence we may infer that it has cooled down from a high temperature to its present condition. Third. Every portion of the earth's crust exhibits the remains of igneous action, and the facts of geology are inexplicable on any other hypothesis than that of the past high temperature of our globe. Fourth. On every part of the earth's surface where the experiment has been made, starting from the point where the sun's influence 30 A 466 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. ceases, there has been found an increase of temperature as we de scend toward the centre, at the rate of about a degree for every fifty feet. Fifth. On different parts of the earth's surface springs of hot water are found bursting forth. Sixth. There are on the surface of the earth several hundred vol- canoes, which occasionally emit heated materials. and, in some cases, ignited lava. Seventh. The oblate form of the earth is on an average that which would be due to the rotation of a liquid mass. From all these facts we may safely now admit the hypothesis, which was at first a mere antecedent probability, as a definite theory, namely, that the earth was at one time in a highly heated state, and that its interior, even at the present moment, is still at a very elevated tem- perature. If we apply this hypothesis to the facts of geology as they are generalized and arranged at the present day, we have a complete explanation of the whole; or if there be any outstanding phenomena not yet included in this generalization, their number is so small in comparison to those included in it, that they may reasonably be left for the present until further discovery shall throw more light upon their character. The great principle of universal gravitation was not abandoned, though at one time several facts in regard to the motion of the moon could not be referred to it. The same con- sideration applies to moral subjects as well as to those of science. EQUILIBRIUM OF THE ATMOSPHERE. The aerial covering which surrounds our earth may be compared to an ocean, of which the bottom is composed of land and water, which has a definite surface above, probably agitated by tidal waves of great extent and magnitude. Although nearly eight hundred times lighter than water at the surface of the earth, yet it possesses a very appreciable weight, since a cubic yard of it weighs about two pounds, and consequently, when moving with high velocities, it produces great mechanical effects upon bodies subjected to its momentum. This ocean, unlike the aqueous ones belonging to our earth, diminishes in density very rapidly as we ascend, and finds its limit at that elevation, at which the repulsion of the last layer of atoms added to the centrifugal force of the earth's rotation is just balanced by the attraction of gravitation. In order to simplify the conditions, and to give precise ideas of the mechanical equilibrium of the atmo- sphere, we will at first suppose it to be a body consisting of simple atoms, which, though they obey the attraction of the earth, repel each other. This repulsion increases, as we have said in our exposition of the atomic theory, with a diminution of the distance of the atoms— a fact which may, perhaps, be best illustrated by a portion of air con- fined by a movable piston in a tube closed at, the bottom, as in the case of the ordinary fire syringe, the well known instrument used for igniting tinder by means of the condensation of a portion of air. If such an instrument be placed under the receiver of an air-pump, and te p eonta large, atoms F' we dir is qpuil repul to th and i- veig giren cases jven Thi ülos vanel t bea The the cs d ho grea perat 3 mu the g the in water Uaw à- Imite thec vn d n- m red eSA A cs r el ib d E balun Ndüis hesv METEOROLOGY. 467 the pressure of the atmosphere be removed from it, the air which is contained under the piston will expand; and if the tube be sufficiently large, this expansion will continue until the repulsive energy of the atoms under the piston is just equal to the weight of the piston itself. If we now double the weight of the piston, it will descend until the air is compressed into half its first volume. At this point, a new equilibrium will take place between the weight of the piston and the repulsive energy of the atoms. If, again, another addition be made to the weight of the piston, it will descend through another distance, and in all cases the compression will be inversely proportioned to the weight applied; but the density of the air, that is, the weight for a given quantity, increases as the bulk diminishes, and therefore, in all cases of a gas. the density or the number of ponderable atoms in a given space will be inversely proportioned to the pressure applied. This fact was discovered independently by an English and a French philosopher, and is generally known by the name of the discoverers, namely, the law of Boyle and Mariotte, but perhaps more frequently it bears the name of the latter. The same law applies to all other gases within certain ranges. In the case of atmospheric air, within the limit of experiment it appears to hold without variation, or, if any, with a very minute one, when great pressure is applied in connection with a great reduction of tem- perature. In the case of carbonic acid, the range of distance of atoms is much less in which this law is found; for, by mechauical pressure, the gas is converted into a liquid, a sudden change taking place in the intensity of the repulsion of the atoms at this point. Vapor of water, separated from the liquid which produced it, obeys the same law as that of air; but in this instance the range of atoms is still more limited than that of carbonic acid, and with a slight pressure, and at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, the vapor is converted into a liquid. The atmosphere being subject to the law of Mariotte, we shall now proceed to inquire what will be its condition of equilibrium or rest. First. If we suppose the whole atmosphere surrounding the earth to be divided into a series of strata of equal weight, as thin as may be necessary, and separated by ideal surfaces perpendicular to the plumb line. these surfaces will rest upon each other, and be in a state of equilibrium when each part of the same stratum is of the same density.. Second. In order to a stable equilibrium, the density of each stratum must diminish from below upwards. Third. The upper stratum must be below the point where the centrifugal force, derived from the rotation of the earth, becomes equal to the weight of the air at this point. If the first condition is not fulfilled, that is, the equality of the den- sity of the strata the same at all points, the heavier parts will flow below those which are less dense, and buoy them up in the same manner as the heavier liquid sinks below the lighter one; and it is evident that if the upper strata were heavier than the lower ones. an 468 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. unstable equilibrium would be produced, which the slightest agitation would overthrow. Lastly, if the atmosphere extended upwards above the point where the centrifugal force equalled the weight of the gas, the whole atmo- sphere, strange as it may appear, would fly off into void space. To explain this, it is necessary previously to demonstrate the important. though paradoxical fact which results as a logical consequence of the. law of Mariotte, that the total height of an atmosphere surrounding a planet does not depend upon the quantity of gas of which it is con- stituted. To prove this, let us imagine a vertical column, say an inch square at the base, filled with air of a given density extending to the top of the atmosphere. Let us suppose this column to be divided into portions an inch high throughout its whole length by movable planes, and into each one of these portions double the quantity of air to be introduced. The lowest portion, namely, the first inch, will not be enlarged by this condition; for though twice as many repellant atoms are introduced into the same space, tending to repel upwards the first dividing plane, yet this plane will pe pressed downward by twice the weight, because twice the number of atoms have been introduced into all the strata above. The same reasoning may be applied to all the successive strata until we come to the very highest. On this no additional weight is placed, and it would therefore expand until the diminution of its elasticity just equals its own weight, and at this point the equilibrium will take place. If, however, this point should be just at the place of equi- librium where the weight of the atom would be overcome by the centrifugal force, the upper film would be removed, another would expand into its place, and another, and another, until the whole atmo- sphere would be withdrawn. This, as we have said, is a logical consequence of the extension of the law of Mariotte, and has been applied by Dalton and others to determine the heights of mixed atmospheres, or of atmospheres of different densities. But the height of the atmosphere is probably far below the point where the weight of the atom is equal to the force of gravity, since this may be found by calculation to be at about 5. 6 times the earth's radius from the surface at the equator, or about 22,400 miles. If we suppose the column to be formed of a lighter gas, as for example hydrogen, the atoms of which have the same repulsive energy as those of air, then the column will be inversely proportioned to the density at the sur- face, and from this we can readily calculate the relative heights of atmospheres of different gases, having different densities at the sur- face of the earth. These heights will evidently be inversely as the densities, or, in other words, the specific gravities, of the same gases under the same pressure. If the specific gravity of hydrogen be represented by 1, that of nitrogen in round numbers will be 15, that of oxygen 16, and that of carbonic acid 22, and the total heights of atmospheres of these gases will be inversely as these numbers; or if we call the height of an atmosphere of oxygen 60, then the heights of atmosphere of these gases will be as follows: zöiein dtb dee. aes. 1 unne wect moun ün Mau 1 ni e un Fun; tiy Ar lantan Ranb dwm lntoke dobn Sah Imb 34E METEOROLOG. 469 Gases. Specific gravity. Height of atmospheres, oxygen being 60 miles. Hydrogen 1 960 Nitrogen 15 6 4 Oxygen% D— 16 60 Carbonic acid 22 44 — In the foregoing the repulsive energy has been considered as in- creasing in conformity with the law of Mariotte, directly as the pres- sure and without regard to the increase of repulsion caused by heat; Put if we suppose that the repulsion of the atoms of the lower stratum is increased by heat, they will be separated further apart, and the space occupied by them enlarged. But if the heat extends upwards through the whole, each of its parts will be uniformly expanded, andl hence the relative height of atmospheres of different grades will not, be altered by an increase of heat, provided this increase is the same in each gas. The absolute heights will, however, be increased 9 part for each degree of Fahrenheit's scale above its volume at the freezing point. In order to obtain or determine an equilibrium of the atmosphere when the natural repulsion of the atoms is increased by heat, each stratum as we ascend must at least contain the same amount of caloric. In this case, if a quantity of air be removed from a lower to a higher position, it will expand on account of the reduced pressure, and the same amount of heat being now diffused through a larger space, the intensity of its action or its temperature will fall, and thus a reduction of sensible heat will be observed as we ascend in the atmosphere. The equilibrium we have described would not, however, be a stable one, and hence the upper strata of the atmosphere contain more heat per pound than the lower. Until about the middle of the last century, the atmosphere was supposed to consist of one simple homogeneous substance, and after modern chemistry had discovered it to be a compound, the ingredi- ents were thought to be chemically united. It was also supposed, until the researches of Dalton proved the contrary, that the vapor of water found in the atmosphere was dissolved in it, as one liquid is dissolved in another. Dalton was the first to advance the proposition that the atoms of different gases neither attract nor repel each other; and though each. offers a slight mechanical obstruction to the free motion of the other, yet, if sufficient time be allowed, each will arrange itself as if the other did not exist; or, in other words, while the atoms of the same gas repel one another, those of different gases exert no action of this kind, and are in fact statical though not dynamical vacuums each to the other. The fundamental fact upon which this theory is based is the following: If, for instance, two wide-mouthed jars be placed, one on the other, mouth to mouth, the lower one being filled with oxygen or heavy gas, and the upper one with hydrogen, the lightest of all 470 AGRICULTURAL REPORT gases, and thus suffered to remain, after a short time it will be found that the two gases will be thoroughly mingled through both jars; the light gas will descend and mix with the heavier, while, in turn, the heavier will ascend and mix with the lighter. There will be no in- crease or diminution of bulk of the two gases after they have thus mingled. In order to explain the mixing of gases, three hypotheses may be assumed: First. We may suppose that the atoms have an affinity for each other in their gaseous state. But if this were the case, from general analogy there should be a diminution of the bulk; the number of centres of repulsion would be diminished, and also the intensity of the action of each would be at least partly neutralized. Secondly, we may suppose that the two classes of atoms repelled each other, but in this case no mixture could take place; the heavier gas would remain in the lower vessel, while the lighter one would occupy the upper position. Thirdly. If we suppose the atoms of the two gases have no action on each other, but are free to obey their own repulsions, then the atoms of each gas will expand into the void space of the interstices of the other, and the diffusion indicated by experiment will be produced. It follows from this hypothesis that the bulk of the mixture should remain the same before and after the mingling takes place. Let us suppose each vessel to contain a foot of gas, and that the repulsive energy is sufficient to sustain a weight of 15 pounds to the square inch; and let us suppose the interior of the vessel containing the hy- drogen is a vacuum. Then it is evident that the oxygen in the lower vessel, being relieved from the pressure of the atmosphere, will expand and fill both vessels, and, by the law of Mariotte, its elastic force or repulsive energy will be reduced to one-half or 7 ½ pounds to the square inch. The same will take place with regard to the hydrogen. It will expand downward and fill both vessels, and its elastic force will be reduced to one-half or to 7 ½ pounds to the square inch. If, there- fore, the gases are vacuums to each other, they will each expand into the other and form a mixture of two gases, the pressure of each of which against the sides of the vessel will be 7 ½ pounds to the square inch, and consequently the whole pressure will be 15 pounds. The theory of Dalton is in exact accordance with all the facts, though it may be difficult to conceive of atoms, such as those of oxy- gen and hydrogen, as being without action on each other, particularly when highly compressed. Indeed, Mr. Dalton, in the latter part of his life was inclined to refer this seeming want of repulsion to the fact of the different sizes of the atoms, or, in other words, to the dif- ference in the spheres of their repulsive energies. If two classes of atoms were thus mingled with each other, it is evident that they could not be in equilibrium until the one was generally diffused through the other; this would give a ready explanation of the diffusion of the two gases through each other in close vessels. But it does not seem to us to be applicable to the explanation of free atmospheres coexist- ing on the surface of the earth, as appears to' be the case, particularly with reference to the gases and aqueous vapor of the atmosphere. METEOROLOGVY. 471 I have dwelt upon this point because very erroneous ideas are frequently entertained as to the theory of Dalton, which, whatever may be its truth, has had a very important bearing on the progress of meteorology. By one class of writers on the subject it has been the basis of all investigation, and by another it has been tao much neglected. All our hygrometrical calculations relative to the amount of water in the air rest upon it. While there remains but little doubt that if the air, as a whole, were at rest. and sufficient time were given for the establishment of an equilibrium, the several ingredients would arrange themselves in accordance with this theory; yet since the atmosphere is constantly agitated with currents, and diffusion is carried on more rapidly through this agency than that from the self-repulsion of the atoms, we can only suppose, particularly in the lower strata of the atmosphere, that there is merely a constant tendency to assume the statical condition indicated by the theory. 90 MPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. At the level of the sea and at all accessible heights our atmo- sphere principally consists of nearly an invariable mixture of two per- manent gases, oxygen and nitrogen, and a number of other variable substances, of which we enumerate carbonic acid, nitric acid, ammonia, hydrogen, mineral powders, animal and vegetable matter, odoriferous substances, and, above all, a considerable quantity of water in a state of invisible vapor, and that of partial condensation in the form of cloud. Indeed, it must be a reservoir of all the emanations which arise from the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter, and which are given off from all substances in minute quantities under the application of heat. Though the variable portions of the atmo- sphere form but a small per-centage of the whole mass, yet they exert an important influence on animal and vegetable life, and deserve the special attention of the agricultural chemist. Analysis qf the air.—But, before proceeding to give an account of these, it may be well to pause here for a moment to describe the simplest method by which the constitution of the air may be approxi- mately analyzed. For this purpose, we introduce into a large glass vessel filled with ordinary air a small quantity of limpid lime water, or, better still, baryta water, and having closed the vessel agitate the liquid. All the soluble substances, including the carbonic acid, will be absorbed. The latter will unite with the lime or baryta water and form insoluble carbonates, which may afterwards be separated from the water, dried and weighed, and the amount of carbonic acid thus determined. To obtain the amount of vapor in a given quantity of air, the latter is drawn through a tube containing chloride of lime, a substance which has a great affinity for moisture. The increase of weight found after the process will indicate the amount of water in the portion of air submitted to the experiment. The volume of this air may be readily ascertained by attaching the tube containing the chloride of lime to the upper part of a vessel, say of a cubic foot in capacity, filled with water. from which the liquid is suffered to run 472 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. out by an orifice at the bottom; an equal bulk of air will enter through the tube containing the chloride, and when all the water has run out, the vessel will be filled with air, or, in other words, one cubic foot of the moist atmosphere will have passed through the drying tube. The quantity of aqueous vapor is more variable than that of the carbonic acid. After having separated the water and carbonic acid, in order to ascertain the amount of oxygen and nitrogen in a cubic foot of air, we burn in the mixture a piece of phosphorous, which combines with every atom of the oxygen, forming a soluble substance called phos- phoric acid, which is absorbed by the water, leaving the nitrogen in a separate state. Other and more refined methods are frequently employed, but this will serve to indicate in a general way, the mode in which the results are obtained. In this manner, we find that the atmosphere consists of 20.01 parts of oxygen to 75.29 of nitrogen in volume, or 23.01 parts, by weight, of oxygen and 76.9 of nitrogen. These numbers are not precisely those which would result from a chemical union, as was at first supposed, namely, one volume of oxygen and four of nitrogen. They are not also entirely invariable, but are found slightly to differ at different places at the level of the sea. Observation has not shown any appreciable variation from year to year, though it is not improbable that during the geological periods changes have taken place in its proportions as well as in its amount. The quantity of carbonic acid is found, by the mode we have described, to vary from the rαοth to 1παν of the weight of the whole. Oxygen, as we have seen in the exposition of the atomic theory, is a very energetic element widely diffused through Nature, and per- forms an important part in the transformations of inert matter into plants and animals, and back again into carbonic and other inorganic compounds. The nitrogen also is an important element in vital econ- omy, and is associated with all the most instable organic compounds. Its atoms appear to exert a great repulsive energy on each other; and hence, when confined in a solid state by surrounding atoms of other substances, the slightest jar will overturn the instable equi- librium, and produco a violent explosion. Carbonic acid is a transparent substance that is produced when charcoal is burnt in air or oxygen, and is composed of one atom of the former to two of the latter, or three parts of the one to eight of the other by weight. It furnishes the carbon of the plant, and though it exists in small quantities in the atmosphere, animal and vegetable life could not be continued on the surface of the globe without it. The quantity of carbonic acid contained in the air varies between the hours of night and day, the quantity being at its maxi- mum towards morning, and its minimum towards the middle of the day. In this respect, it follows a law analogous to that of the heat and moisture of the atmosphere. A part of this variation may be referred to the absorption of carbonic acid by plants during the day, though this cannot be the principal cause; a more efficient one is probably the varying quantity of moisture, which may serve as a kind of vehicle for its transportation to and from the ground. There is rühnne ork otdt Ahes lln Urgal denler theu Atbet itneu uütne u ſeri Alpn Raddi deserke V 6. theri ml atter W nn iitalen upoui ch Me tuls. ablé egt ced atoll; 9 digt Mnt 4 idlg le g dir n its D leis te METEOROLOGV. 473 also a great difference in the amount of carbonic acid in different places, perhaps in different countries, and it is possible that a part of the variations of fertility, the other conditions being the same, may in some cases be referred to this cause. We find, from experiment, that vegetation is favored by the increase of this ingredient until, according to Saussure, we arrive at the proportion of eight parts to one hundred, which is eighty times more than the ordinary quantity existing in the atmosphere. The same portion would entirely extin- guish the life of the red-blooded air-breathing animals. It is on this fact that some geologists have founded the hypothesis that the luxu- riant vegetation which existed on the earth during the coal period was due to an atmosphere charged with carbonic acid, and the am- phibious character of the animals existing at that period would seem to favor this supposition. M. Chevandier has shown that one square mile of forest land produces annually 441 tons of fixed carbon in the wood,(Compte Rendus,) and Liebig increases the quantity to as much as 504 tons to the square mile. The same author also shows that all other vegeta- ble productions yield nearly the same quantity of carbon to the square mile. Now, a prism of air extending to the upper limits of the atmosphere, and having a base of one square mile, contains 4, 260 tons of carbon, whence it results that the annual consumption of car- bon by thrifty vegetation amounts to about one-ninth of all the carbon of the atmosphere which rests upon it.— Gasparin, vol. 2. From this, at first sight, it might appear that the carbonic acid of the air ought rapidly to diminish, and in a few years to be entirely exhausted; but, as we have seen, the carbon thus extracted is not lost to the air, but lent, as it were, to the organized matter of the globe; for by the process of combustion and decay an equal amount of the same substance is restored to supply the place of that previously ab- stracted, and the whole quantity of carbon in the atmosphere remains nearly the same from age to age, the measurable variations being only perceptible during the lapse of the ages which constitute a geological periocd. When we consider, however, the great amount of coal con- sumed at the present day in the mechanical arts and locomotion, it would appear that the amount of carbonic acid is increasing in the atmosphere; but when we compare with this the improvements made in agriculture, and the stimulus thus afforded to the growth of plants and animals, the effects of these artificial conditions would apparently nearly balance each other. There is another source of abstraction of carbonic acid from the atmosphere, namely, that which takes place through the agency of animal life in the production of coral; but this again may be probably balanced by the carbonic acid emitted from the various active volcanoes of the globe. We do not, however, by these remarks attempt to establish the fact that in all parts of Nature there is an exact compensation, and that our globe has always remained in the state in which it now exists, but that the great changes which affect our planet are exceedingly gradual, and the conditions may be considered constant during the age of individuals, or even of nations. 474 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Should the carbonic acid of the air sensibly increase with the limits before mentioned, the vegetation of the earth would, as we have seen, become more luxuriant, and animal life degenerate into a lower type. If, on the other hand, the carbonic acid should be diminished, the reverse would probably take place, vegetable life would become less, and animals either correspondingly diminished in number, or would assume a higher type. M. Floriens supposes that the amount of organic life on the surface of the globe has remained the same through all periods, though exhibited under different forms, but this would be dependent upon the permanency of the amount of organizing force from the sun. Saline matter.— The air which passes from the surface of the ocean contains a portion of the saline ingredients which produce in positions near the sea, and in some cases further inland, a marked effect upon the character and condition of vegetation. Dr. Dalton found, at Man- chester, one part of salt in one thousand parts of rain water. Brandes found in rain water, in Germany, besides common salt, chlorate of mag- nesia, sulphate of magnesia, carbonate of magnesia, chlorate of potas- sium, sulphate of lime, oxide of iron, oxide of magnesia, and salts of ammonia, the greatest part of these being ingredients of sea-water. This explains the fact that certain plants do not grow luxuriantly near the ocean unless screened by a fringe of trees or houses, or pro- tected in some other way. Near the ocean, a number of garden plants cannot be made to grow unless placed near a fence which intercepts the wind from the ocean. We might infer from this that the saline matter is carried mechanically by the air, and not diffused through it, as in the case of vapor. We are informed by Mr. Browne that a gentleman at Nahant has succeeded in raising pears to perfection by protecting the trees on the ocean side by a high brick wall, per- forated at intervals with comparatively small openings, sufficient, however, to keep up the ventilation. Mineral matter in the atmosphere.— There is also constantly diffused through the air a considerable quantity of mineral substances, in a state of impalpable powder. This is carried up by the ascending columns of air which are constantly arising under the varying heat of the different portions of the ground due to the influence of clouds and the various conditions of the surface, and it is brought down in the rain which falls in the beginning of a shower. The presence of this material is, at all times, rendered evident when a ray of light enters a small hole in the window shutter of a darkened room. By ome, it has even been conceived to be an essential ingredient of the atmosphere. The amount of this is much greater than we might be led, by casual observation, to suppose. It falls upon the decks of vessels in mid-ocean, and forms dry clouds, which were observed by Prof. Piazzi Smyth, at the height of several thousand feet, upon the side of the Peak of Teneriffe. Its constant prevalence in the atmosphere furnishes an explanation of the presence, in the composition of certain plants, of a minute quan- tity of mineral matter, which is pot found in the soil in which they grow. bünd Ne den i ph dedeb Welg ok pnu- Mouht 1 woulle un in dhe doha Doäin bet Huh Nark bdiu dfn d alhi eä-g Merie SMm leu-hu teran ltun rne tu kera lE Aübelu METEOROLOGY. 475 Pollen of plants.— At certain seasons of the year, the pollen of the pine tree and other plants is carried to immense distances, and, after a thunder-storm, is often found on the surface of water in our rain casks, and, from its yellow color, is frequently mistaken for sulphur. Ozone.— Another substance, which, of late years, has been dis- covered in the atmosphere by the indefatigable labors of Prof. Schön- bein, the inventor of gun-cotton, is known by the name of"ozone,“ which is supposed, from all the researches made upon it, to be oxy- gen in a peculiar condition, in which its affinity for other substances or combining power is highly exalted. When a stream of frictional electricity is made to flow from the point of the prime conductor of an ordinary machine, a peculiar odor is perceived, due, as is sup- posed, to the oxygen of the air assuming an altered condition, and hence it has been inferred that ozone consists of oxygen with an extra dose of electricity. M. Clausius, however, has advanced another hypothesis, which appears to be in accordance with other facts, namely, that an ordinary atom of oxygen, of which the atomic weight is eight, is in reality a molecule composed of two atoms, and that under the influence of elec- trical repulsion thesc atoms are separated, and in the unneutralized affinity, consequent upon this separation, the increased avidity of com- bination is evinced. 1 Whatever be the nature of ozone, it is certain it possesses great powers of combination with many other substances, and thus tends to produce chemical effects. It is probably produced on a large scale in the atmosphere, on the same principle by which it is obtained in the laboratory, namely, by the electrical discharge in the form of lightning from the clouds. The test for ozone consists of one part of iodide of potassium, ten parts of starch, and one hundred parts of water, poiled together for a few minutes. A thin coating of this preparation applied to writing- paper with a brush, being exposed to an atmosphere containing ozone, is rendered blue from the evolution of the iodine. In order to bring out the blue color distinctly, it is necessary to dip the paper in pure water. Besides the action of the electrical spark, ozone may be produced by the action of phosphorus on atmospheric air, provided moisture is present. It is also produced in the gas evolved in the galvanic de- composition of water. But by whatever process obtained, it always presents the following properties: First. It is a gaseous body of a very peculiar odor, approaching that of chlorine when intense; when diluted, it cannot be distin- guished from what is called the electrical odor. Second. Atmospheric air strongly charged with it renders respira- tion difficult, causes unpleasant sensations, and by its action on the mucous membrane produces catarrhal affections. It soon kills small animals, and, undiluted, must be highly deleterious to the animal economy. Third. It is insoluble in water. Fourth. It is a powerful electro-motive substance. 476 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Fifth. It discharges vegetable colors. Sixth. At common and even low temperatures, it acts powerfully upon metals, producing the highest degree of oxidization of which they are susceptible. Seventh. It destroys many hydrogenated gaseous compounds. Eighth. It produces oxidizing effects upon most organic substances. But the question regarding it, of the greatest general interest, is a physiological one. It is not found in places abounding in miasma, and from its energetic powers of combination, it is thought to decom- pose the organic molecules, of which. this effluvium is supposed to consist, and hence observations in regard to it are highly desirable. Dr. Smallwood, near Montreal, who has made an extended series of observations upon ozone, concludes that its presence in the air does not depend upon temperature but moisture. He has observed traces of it when the thermometer was at 200 below and at 800 above zero. But in general it was present in large quantities during the fall of rain and snow, which may account for its greater prevalence near the sea shore than elsewhere. It appears to exist in great quantities in dew, and to this fact has been attributed the remarkable rusting effect produced on iron when exposed to this form of precipitation of water. Malaria, or miasma.—In certain places, there is diffused through the air an exceedingly minute quantity of a substance which has a pow- erful effect on the human system, and frequently offers in such districts a serious obstacle to the cultivation of the soil. It is this which gives rise to intermittent fevers and perhaps to maladies of a more malignant character. This substance is found in marshy and low places where animal and vegetable matter of an aqueous character is in a state of decomposition, but the winds which pass over these places transport the malarious effluvia to a distance and thus render whole tracts of country unhealthy. The corpuscules of this substance appear to adhere to the molecules of water, and are elevated with the latter by the ascending currents of air to heights which vary in different countries. Around the Pontine marslies, in Italy, the malaria disappears at the height of from seven hundred to one thousand feet, while in South America, ac- cording to Humboldt, it is found at an elevation of three thousand feet; usually, however, its effects are exhibited with intensity at a much lower elevation than that first mentioned. It is also observed that humid air, which transports miasma, is deprived of this noxious material in passing through trees, and that in many cases, in the same neighborhood, a screen of foliage is sufficient to produce a marked difference between two places otherwise similarly situated. Double screens of fine gauze also placed in the windows of sleeping rooms answer a similar purpose, and should be resorted to in all cases as a precaution wherever there is danger of disease from this cause. It is probable that the diffusion of malaria in still air, as in the case of vapor, is exceedingly slow, and hence anything that tends to interrupt the current will much retard its transmission. It is asserted that in some cases near the focus of emanation it is less delete ear! and t' inpin opini sourc Mil to be⸗ zeriol vy thi recl 1 hu erap Scen zwall ok the In m- expoe the time emütt matt ok th mala mef prot agai- grett does the wM perl b k rb 1 Sdädes kedh k; Nünu. derm Doselt unlk derik är Ie unh Säpn. däsri b fA and N racbei er t Srelä- nolcegk eorrat Row itf d hseras Moli 4 9 odlbe! tat deii 21¹ mb 3Ä ttai METEOROLOGVY. 477 deleterious than at places at a considerable distance. It would ap- pear from this to ascend vertically with the columns of heated air and to be afterwards wafted horizontally to a distance, and there impinging on the first elevation produces its effects; or perhaps this opinion has arisen from the screening influence of objects near the source. Miasma in perfectly dry air is in such small quantities as not only to be inaccessible to the investigation of science, but also insufficient, seriously to affect human life. It is otherwise, however, in air cooled by the radiation of the evening and night. It appears then to be precipitated into the lower strata of the atmosphere with the mass of humidity with which it seems to be connected, and when this is evaporated again at sun rise, it carries up with it the miasma in its ascentional movement. At this time it is taken into the system by swallowing, respiration, and perhaps by absorption through the pores of the skin, in sufficient quantities to manifest its deleterious effects. In malarious districts, therefore, caution should be taken against exposure to the evening precipitations and morning evaporation of the humidity of the atmosphere. Ground which has been a long time under water retains during a series of years the property of emitting the effluvia. The virgin soil in which decaying vegetable matter has accumulated for years, when first exposed to the action of the air by the labor of the pioneer, gives off a large amount of malarious effluvia; care should therefore be taken in the new settle- menft of a country not only to select a proper location, but also to protect the houses by a border of trees, particularly on the side against which the prevailing wind impinges. And it is to be re- gretted that good taste, as well as the comfort of an agreeable shade, does not more frequently induce the husbandman to spare some of the original products of the forest which are found near the spot on which he erects his dwelling. It is also stated that plants in active vegetation, as in the case of sunflowers, absorb deleterious effluvia; but whether this effect is produced independently of the screening we have mentioned has not yet been settled. In the fertile regions of the tropics where heat and moisture abound— for example, the valley of the Amazon— and where vegetation is luxuriant, the mala- rious effluvia is at its maximum; while in dry countries with less vegetable life, such as those west of the Mississippi, it is not found. Nature thus is not indiscriminately benevolent to civilized man; in his uncivilized condition different races are confined to different dis- tricts, and the influences which affect one are inoperative on tho other. It is only by investigating the causes of these differences, and thus in some cases arriving at the means of controlling them, that the civilized man becomes a citizen of the world, and within certain limits is enabled to overcome the natural enemies to which in his primitive ignorance he is exposed. The difficulty of investigating the nature of miasma has induced some to believe its effects due to variations of temperature and moisture; but this is not sufficient to explain all the phenomena, as places very different in this respect vary greatly in their sanitary ,9 478 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. condition. The quantity of material(whatever it may be) which constitutes malaria is too minute to be immediately detected by the eudiometer, the instrument usually employed to analyze air. M. Moscati, in order to collect it in considerable quantities, employed a- glass globe filled with ice, on the surface of which the aqueous vapor of the atmosphere was constantly precipitated. He found that the water thus collected in infected places was of a white color, inodorous, slightly alkaline, and after standing a short time lime-water and acetate of lead produced in it a light precipitate. It contained ani- mal matter, ammonia, and chlorate and carbonate of soda. The effect of this water upon animals has not, so far as we know, been tested, though it is said that sheep which feed upon grass covered by the morning dew in infected districts are subject to peculiar maladies. The presence of organic matter may be detected in the process just described by dropping into the water a little sulphuric acid, and by afterwards evaporating the fluid we will obtain traces of carbon. If the experiment, for example, be made in a slaughter-house, com- paratively a large amount of this substance will be obtained; and yet from abundant observation it is known that the animal effluvia to which the butcher is constantly exposed is not of a morbific char- acter, since the followers of this occupation are proverbially healthy. It would appear from this fact that the hurtful miasma is of vegetable, not of animal origin. That collected by Regaud had the odor of burnt plants when incinerated. The same investigator asserts that a marshy odor does not always indicate feverish infection, and that in malarious districts it was above all to be feared at times when the air appeared pure and inodorous. From all the facts, then, it appears most probable that the substance called miasma is an organized body, endowed with life, and first generated in the decomposition of aquatic vegetation; that its introduction into the circulation of animals is a real innoculation affecting especially the nervous system; finally, that, when it commences itself to decay in the open air, it ceases to be deleterious, though it gives rise to disagreeable odors. This investi- gation opens a wide feld for chemical resear ch, to which the later improvements in the art of analysis may perhaps be successfully applied. Whatever may be the cause of the disease spoken of, ex- perience has indicated the following precautions for those exposed to its influence: 1st. In malarious districts avoid as much as possible going out before the dew has evaporated. 2d. Do not go out fasting, but before exposure to the morning air take some slightly exciting drink, such as coffee or tea, in place of spirits. The former produces a healthful exhilaration, which prevents an attack of the miasma, while the reaction which succeeds the exhil- arating effects of the latter tends to favor the absorption of the poison. 3d. Wear flannel garments next the body, which tend to stimulate the skin and prevent the deleterious effect. 4th. The use of disinfectants, though perhaps less energetic in destroying miasma than in decomposing odors, should not be entirely neglected; and for this purpose, a small quantity of chloride of lime un OWdde 8 warm öth. provi Ith⸗ water to wh sth. be dis It⸗ temper of the zuchp to the throw with water lessen. ol der Nil conta comb form ducti accou forme gpher of u vNc the taini the elec duci and of à the its the and hea Sph ( togt ok t mim iner ” Wape thth düorn ter ul dela- hech test Uw dalades ce wul don. J Se, Cr tlf durk inni the her ceSlil Ndh d ebe 1 dinr d virgi phd greſe deeii llid tmult riel drtre- R Wn METEOROLOGVY. 479 may be carried about the person. It is said the flashing of gun- powder in a room answers the same purpose. 5th. Screens of trees should be planted to interrupt the damp and warm wind from the focus of the emanation. 6th. During warm weather, when ventilation is more necessary, provide the doors and windows with screens of fine gauze. Ith. Use boiled water in preference to any other, or pure rain water, or that which has fallen some time after the rain commences, to which add a small portion of vinegar or acetic acid. Sth. In cool evenings of summer, the dampness of the house should be dissipated by a blazing fire upon the hearth. It appears that the malarious influence is produced at a certain temperature, and that it is favored in marshy places by the heating of the water in shallow pools. It has been recommended to divide such places by deep parallel ditches or narrow canals at right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind, the earth of which is to be thrown up on the side in the form of dykes, which are to be planted with rapidly growing trees or large shrubs. The ditch collects the water in too large bodies to be much heated. and this effect is further lessened by the shade of the trees. The latter also serve as a series of screens to intercept any malaria which may arise. Nitric Acidl.—If sparks of electricity are passed through a tube containing atmospheric air, the oxygen and nitrogen, which do not combine under ordinary circumstances. will chemically unite and form nitric acid. This union is supposed to be the result of the pro- duction of ozonized oxygen, which unites itself with the nitrogen on account of its increased combining energy. The nitric acid, thus formed, combines with the ammonia, which is also found in the atmo- sphere as an original though a variable constituent, and forms nitrate of ammonia. To the atmosphere is also probably due the nitric acid which forms the nitrate of lime, from which the nitrate of potash, the principal ingredient of gunpowder, is reached from the soil con- taining the base. We have in this instance another confirmation cf the conservation and transformation of power. The discharge of the electricity in the heavens expends a portion of its energy in pro- ducing a change in the condition of oxygen, which, in its turn, attracts and imprisons, as it were, a portion of nitrogen— a substance which, of all others, appears to possess the greatest repulsive energy, and the violent breaking loose again of this from its combination exhibits its power in the explosion which ensues. In this way, as it were, the bolt of Jove may be said to be transformed into that of Mars, and the thunder of war to be but a reverberation of that of the heavens. The same result is produced on a large scale in the atmo- sphere by the discharges of lightning. Odors.— The observations which have been made during the pho- tographic process have revealed the fact of the existence in the air of the vapors of metals and other substances, which, though so minute as to have escaped particular attention, are yet sufficient to interfere materially with the operations necessary to the production 480 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. of perfect pictures. Almost all metals heated to redness give off effluvia perceptible by the sense of smell. The diffusion in the air of the odoriferous principle of plants and other substances is a subject worthy of more attention than it has yet received. The wide diffusion of an almost infinitesimal quantity of matter in these cases may well excite our astonishment. A single grain of musk has been known to scent a room for twenty years; and, in order to this result, the minuteness of the atoms must be beyond the conception of the imagination. From the influence which chlo- rine has upon animal and vegetable odors, it is probable that hydro- gen is an essential part of their composition. The atmosphere itself, when pure, is inodorous; but the absence of perceptible odor may be due to the fact that our sense of smell ceases in some cases to indi- cate an odor after having been for a certain time subjected to its influence; for example, the nauseous effluvia which arises in some process of the arts becomes often insensible to the operator, and the same may be said in regard to the effect of animal effluvia on the inmates of crowded and ill-ventilated houses. The sense of smell, like our moral faculties, thus becomes blunted by misuse or improper association. Matter in the aeriform condition is generally transparent, though different gases exhibit occasionally different colors; even the atmo- sphere possesses this property in a slight degree, as is evident in the fact of the slightly blue appearance of distant objects. „Tis this that“lends enchantment to the view, * And robes the mountain in its azure hue.“ From all that we have said, it appears that the aerial ocean, like the aqueous one, is a vast reservoir, principally composed of two ingredients of nearly constant proportions, and a number of adventi- tious materials, which, in some cases, though in very minute quanti- ties, have a marked influence on animal and vegetable life. There is, however, another variable ingredient, to which we have alluded in a general way, which, by its production and condensation, is the agent to which nearly all the fitful variations in our atmosphere are to be ascribed. I allude to the aqueous vapor of the atmosphere. But, before proceeding to consider this, it will be necessary to treat more fully of some of the principles of heat and its influence on the climates of the earth. MAXIMA AND MINIMA OF TEMPERATURE. A certain degree of heat is necessary to give mobility to the sap of plants, and this differs in each species of plant. Vegetation is accelerated and becomes luxuriant, provided it is furnished with a corresponding amount of humidity to compensate for the evaporation as we increase the quantity of heat. It is, therefore, important to determine the average amount of heat in different places; but for this certain precautions are indispensable. It is not the direct heat of the sun that we, at first, wish to ascertain, but that of the air. It is necessary, therefore. to suspend the thermometer to a badly-con- ductir volumD: atmos. May 1 mome he ipt arrive les8 mmall, the ft perat mean! Inall, of the⸗ Mecte digh the buu For in im ple, a ol he⸗ has ch ingm aroun radiat for, i Sions therm dide Uobs it be prote exce this, curr. more If teri it w day hou divi tem met METEOROLOGV. 481 ducting body, and the instrument itself should not have so great a volume as would prevent its readily taking the temperature of the atmosphere. If the bulb is large and the stem small, the degrees may readily be divided into small fractions; but in this case the ther- mometer will fall behind in its indications, since, if the temperature be increasing, some time must elapse before the instrument can arrive at this new condition; and in case it be falling, a similar tardi- ness will be exhibited. If, on the other hand, the bulb be very small, the degrees will be of less length; and since there is little of the fluid to be heated or cooled, it will more readily take the tem- perature of the circumambient air. For determining, however, the mean temperature of a place, the thermometer should not be toc small, since, in that case, it will be more easily affected by the heat of the body during observation, and at the same time it may be affected by an accidental or fitful stream of air, and thus give too high or too low an indication. One of the ordinary size, in which the bulb is about half an inch in diameter, is preferable. For a similar reason, the thermometer ought not to be suspended in immediate contact with a large solid conducting body, for exam- ple, a stone or brick house, since this will retain the effects of a term of heat perhaps for several hours after the temperature of the air has changed. It should be suspended from an imperfectly conduct- ing material, such as wood, and so situated that the air may circulate around it on every side. It should also be screened from the direct radiation of the sun, and from the reflection of surrounding bodies; for, if this be not done, it will indicate the average of all the impres- sions received, and not simply the temperature of the air. The thermometer, therefore, ought to be placed in the shade on the north side of the house, but a few feet above the level of the ground, in an unobstructed place; and, indeed, it has been recommended to suspend it between two large parallel horizontal disks of wood, which will protect it from the earth below, the sky above, and every influence, except that of the stratum of air in which it is situated. Instead of this, however, we may enclose it in lattice-work, easily permeated by currents of air, and painted white on the outside to reflect off the more intense rays of heat which may accidentally reach it. If our instruments consist of a maximum and a minimum self-regis- tering thermometers, exposed to the air in the way we have indicated, it will be sufficient, in order to obtain the average temperature of the day approximately, to note the temperature but once in twenty-four hours. If we then add together the maximum and minimum, and divide the sum by two, we shall have approximately the average temperature; but this is not precisely the quantity required for meteorological and agricultural purposes, or that which enables us to judge of the heat of different days or different periods, since the thermometer may, at different times of the day, be suddenly elevated or depressed, and not reach its maximum and minimum gradually, as is usually the case. To determine these with more precision, and the average tempera- ture of the air during the day, we must observe the thermometer at 31 A 482 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. very short intervals; for example, every quarter of an hour. If we add these into one sum, and divide by ninety-six, we shall have the mean or average temperature of the day. Before division, however, caution is to be observed in combining the observations taken in winter, or, when the temperature sinks below zero, to subtract the sum of the observations with the minus signs from the sum of those with plus signs. In running our eye down the column of a series of observations of this kind, we can mark not only the maximum and minimum tempera- ture for the day, but also the time at which they occurred. If we continue these observations, during a month of thirty days for ex- ample, we shall obtain thirty maxima, and as many minima, and an equal number of mean temperatures. If we now add these thirty observations of the same kind together, and divide by the number thirty, we shall obtain the maximum, the minimum, and the mean of the month. Similar observations, continued throughout the year, and thus combined, will give us the mean of all the maxima, of all the minima, as well as the general mean of all the three hundred and sixty-five or three hundred and sixty-six days of which the year may be composed. There is still another way of combining these observations. We may take, for example, the mean of all the temperatures of mid-day for the month or the year, or of any other hour of the twenty-four. and from this, obtain the mean temperature of all hours of the day and night. Finally, instead of limiting our observations to a single year, we may extend them to a series of years, in order to determine more accurately the mean temperature of a given place, all accidental varia- tions of particular years and seasons being reasonably supposed to balance each other. It is by this admirable invention that order and regularity are deduced from phenomena which appear under the in- fluence of no fixed laws, and that we are enabled to arrive at perma- nent and constant quantities by eliminating those which are irregular and variable. 3 A series of observations continued during the day and night through a number of years, or even a single year, involves an amount of labor which few men of science can afford to bestow upon meteorology, or who have the indastry and perseverance necessary to so prolonged and tedious an effort. This task, however, has been performed under the direction of several persons in this country, namely, Prof. Dewey. in Massachusetts; Capt. Mordecai, at the United States Arsenal, near Philadelphia; Prof. Bache, at Girard College; Prof. Snell, at Amherst; and Col. Le Froy, of Toronto. not to mention the names of a large number of persons who have executed the same work in Europe. Could it be repeated in a number of different places in this country, the results would be of essential importance in correcting the ordi- nary observations made at fixed hours of the day. To illustrate these observations and the uses to which they may be applied, we will select a series made since 1816, at the Observatorv of Paris, py M. Bouvard, at six different epochs of the day, namely, METEOROLOGVY. 483 from nine o' clock till mid-day, and from three to nine in the evening, the other hours being given by interpolation: TEMPERATURE. Hours. Centigrade. Fahrenheit. 0 0 Midnight. 8. 5 47. 30 1 8. 1 46. 58 2 7.7 45. 86 3 7. 4 45. 32 4 7. 13 min. 44. 83 5 7. 5 45. 50 6 8. 2 46. 76 7 9. 2 48. 56 8 10. 3 50. 54 8 ⅓ 10. 67 mean. 51. 21 9 11. 21 52. 18 10 12. 1 53. 78 11 12. 9 55. 22 Noon. 13. 5 56. 30 1 14. 1 57. 38 2 14. 47 max. 58. 05 3 13. 91 57. 04 4 13. 4 56. 12 5 12. 8 55. 04 6 12. 2 53. 96 7 11. 6 52. 88 8 10. 8 51. 44 8 ½ 10. 67 mean. 51. 21 9 10. 19 50. 34 10 9. 7 49. 46 11 9. 1 48. 38 Mean 10. 67 51. 21 From this table we see, first, that the annual mean temperature at Paris is 10.67 centigrade, or 510.21 F. Second, that the minimum is near four o' clock a. m., and the maximum about two o'clock p. m. Thirdly, which follows from the last, the air is heated during ten consecutive hours, and is cooled during fourteen hours. Fourth, that we fall into a small error in deducing the meãn temperature from the maximum and minimum of the day, the true mean being 100.67; the other is 100.8. Fifth, that the mean temperature is at 8 n. 20 min. in the morning and 8 h. 20 min. in the evening. From this it is evi- dent that, in order to find the mean temperature of the year, it is sufficient to observe the thermometer each day at twenty minutes past eight in the morning and at twenty minutes past eight in the even- ing; but if our object is to obtain the mean for each month of the year, it is necessary to change the hour in question, since it is found that for January 1 0'clock is the proper hour; for July, 7 o' clock; and for all the other months, the hours intermediate. The epoch of the mean of the evening experiences similar changes. 484 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Having discussed the variations of the temperature of different hours, it now remains to speak of the monthly variations. From twenty years' observations at Providence, Rhode Island, the follow- ing result has been obtained by Professor Caswell, of Brown Uni- versity. This gentleman has made a series of observations extending through upwards of a quarter of a century, and has presented the whole to the Smithsonian Institution for publication. Temperalure Of Providence, Rhode Island, bν Prof. A. CAsWELI. MoNTHs. VEARS. 8 25. 5 5 NVear. 8 8—. 3 3 3 5 8 — 8 ‿— E S 3 3 8. 33 5 ₰ 2 5 3 3 8 2 2 2 5 2 5 2 8 838......„... E.... 32.5 17.9 35.1 40.8 53.5 68.2 75.0 71.0 ⁰ 61.4 47.2 35.3 25.8 47.0 1839........„.„.....* 26.3 27.9 34.9 46.7 56.0 62.2 71.7 67.9 61.1 51.5 37.3 30.6 427.8 1840... wtͤ 18.6 32.9 36.0 47.5 57.3 67.6 72.2 70.9 58.5 51.3 39.2 27.7 48.3 184aal:ꝛ:p„ẽ„ Q.. 30.5 25.1 35.1 42.2 54.1 68.6 70.0 69.2 63.2 45.8 37.3 32.7 47. 8 1844... 30.8 34.4 39.7 46.3 53.4 64.2] 71.8 68.3] 59.3 50.9 38.7 30.2 49.0 1843......... 34.2 22.4 28.7 45.3 54.4 64.3 68.8 69.8 61.3 49.3 37.6 30.9 47.2 1844......... 20.2 28.2 36.3 50.6 58.5 64.6 68.4 67.8 59.6 49.9 39.1 32.2 47.9 1845.. 30.7 28.5 41.3 44.6 54.2 64.8 69.0 68.2 57.5 50.7 42.5 24.9 48.1 18466ͤ. 27.3 21.7 39.4 46.3 53.2 60.7 67.5 71.2 66.0 50.2 44.6 29.8 48.2 1844.. 209.3 28.7 32.3 43.0 54.3 65.6 71.3 68.7 62.3 49.8 45.8 39.6 49.2 Mean of 10 years.. 28.0 26.8 35.9 45.3 54.9 65.1]% 70.6 69.3 1 61 0 49.7 I ne. 1 2 1 1 1 70 2 9 4 999.7 5... T S.., 30.9 .....-9.6 69.9 00.5 50.9 47.3 31.2 48.3 „85000 ö30.5 32.2 34.0 43.1 52.3 67.2/ 72.4 67.8 60.7 52.9 43.5 29.3 48. 8 418555... 29.8 32.1 38.5 46.3 56.4 64.2 70.6 67.7 61.0 53.7 36.9 25.5 48.5 18ö550505. 23.9 28.6 34.7 41.8 57.1 67.7 72.4 66.6 62.6 52.4 39.7 37.8 48.8 18555555).. 28.4 30 5 36.0 44.4 57.0 66.9 70.8 69.2 62.5 49.4 42.6 28.6 48.9 18574 26.4 25.6 33.1 42.9 57.7 65.9 72.9— 68.6 61.4 52.9 40.7 26.5 47.9 185b55. 30.0 21.1 32.6 44.1 54.7 65.3 72.9 67.9 61.9 52.4 42.0 32.3 48.1 180606 109.3 22.7 27.8 46.8 53.5 67.7 72.1 69.8] 63.2 50.2 39.4 25.5 46.5 18577 156.3 32.7 32.2 41.0 52.8 62.0 69.9 66.8 60.3 50.5 42.3 34.6 46.8 Mean of 10 years. 26.1 27.5 33.9 44.1 55.4 66.1 71.5 69.4 61.4 51.7 41.2 30.9 48. 3 Mean of 20 years. 27.1 27.1 34.9 44.7 55.2 65.6 71.0 69.3 61.2 50.7 40.5 30.6 48.2 It appears from this table that the coldest month is January, and the warmest are July and August, which are nearly the same. The mean temperatures of April and October are nearest to the mean of the year. In the two periods of ten years each, at Providence, the difference between the mean temperatures is but two-tenths of a degree; the differences, also, between the mean temperatures of the several months in the two decades scarcely differ a degree in the whole series. If the times were further extended, the agreements vould lacts the d- eleme ositi 8 t exists ple, 6 Tranc differe whole ind We at Par I0st: I ex stanth whole consta that g dt 12 be th recei- air W about earth and t pont the! thes and and eart the ture wer min but ture the whi ligh At a tot cre⸗ METEOROLOGV. 485 would probably be closer, the instruments remaining the same. These facts illustrate the truth of what we have previously said relative to the deduction of definite results from the most complex and variable elements, and the permanency of the mean temperature of a given position; the sum of the variations consisting in oscillations on either side of the mean, which, in the aggregate, neutralize each other. It is known, from extended observation, that the same weather exists at the same time over a large extent of country. For exam- ple, during a cold winter, it is comparatively cold over the whole of France, and in the State of New York, though the temperature be different in different places, a cold January will be cold over the whole State; hence a table carefully made at any one place will serve to indicate the relative temperature of others in the same district. We see from the foregoing table that the greatest heat of the day, at Paris, happens at 2 0'clock, while we know that the solar rays are most intense at 12 O0'clock. We have, in a previous report, given un explanation of this phenomenon, namely, that the earth is con- stantly radiating heat into space and receiving it from the sun the whole time it is above the horizon; the temperature, therefore, will constantly increase while the amount of heat received is greater than that given off. The greatest amount of heat received in a minute is at 12 O'clock, and hence the increase of temperature at this time will be the greatest; but the earth, after 12 0'clock, still continues to receive more heat than it gives off, and hence the temperature of the air will still continue to increase, though at a less rapid rate, until about 3 O' clock, in our latitude. The radiation into space from the earth and the absorption from the sun about balance each other, and the temperature will then remain stationary at its maximum point during some time, the loss and gain being equal. After this, the loss is greater than the gain, and this goes on continually until the setting of the sun, when the radiation is entirely uncompensated, and cooling takes place, at first with a sudden accelerated velocity, and then gradually diminishes in intensity until daylight, when the earth has arrived at the minimum of temperature. After this, again, the earth begins to receive more heat than it loses, and the tempera- ture of the air constantly rises again until 2 0'clock. If the earth were to radiate heat as rapidly at night as it does in the day, the minimum temperature would be at about 9 0O'clock in the morning; but on account of the diminished radiation with diminished tempera- ture, the compensation takes place about the rising of the sun. When the radiation towards the sky is prevented by a transparent covering which admits the radiation from the sun, as in the case of a house lighted by windows in the roof, the maximum temperature takes place at a much later period of the day; and, indeed, were the radiation to the sky entirely stopped, the temperature of the earth would in- crease indefinitely. Temperatures below the sunface.— At a certain depth below the sur- face of the earth there is a stratum of invariable temperature, the depth of which augments with the latitude, and in our climate is from about 100 to 115 feet. In general, the temperature of this 486 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. stratum appears to be a little more elevated than the mean annual temperature of the surface, and this excess appears to increase with the latitude. This stratum, it is evident, cannot be a regular surface, since it must necessarily partake in a considerable degree of the vary- ing contour of the external surface of the earth. The first observa- tions which were made upon this subject were in the cellars of the Observatory at Paris, at the depth of 67 ⅛ feet below the surface. They extend over a period of more than fifty years, and show an inva- riable temperature of 530.28 F. The thermomeèeter used in these observations was a most delicate one, constructed by Lavoisier, and it, in no instance, showed a variation of one-tenth of a degree Fah- renheit above or below 530.28; and even these variations, small as they are, have been traced to accidental causes. Below the surface of the ground, and at a depth of from 65 to 80 feet, but few observations have been made, and these have been principally applicable to the middle latitudes of the northern hemi- sphere. From all the observations Pouillet gives the following de- ductions: 1. The diurnal variations are not perceptible at depths greater than about 40 inches. 2. The mean annual temperature of the different strata differs little from the mean annual temperature of the air. 3. The differences between the maxima and minima of the different strata decrease in a geometrical progression, while the depths increase in an arithmetical progression. 4. From all the observations it appears that, at a depth of from 26 to 29 feet, the annual variation is only 10.8 F.; at from 49 to 52 feet, it id bu 0⁰. 18 F.; and at a depth of from 65 to 81 feet, it becomes only 5. At the depth of about 26 feet, or where the variation is 20 F., the seasons are precisely reversed; that is, the maximum temperature occurs about the 1st of January, and the minimum about the end of June. Efect of heat on plants.— We have stated that all the transforma- tions of matter going on around us, the power exhibited in the growth of the plants, in the functions and motions of animals as well as in the winds, are all referable to impulses received from the sun; but the mere continuance of the heat of a body at a certain temperature does not produce a continuous change in it; for example, a piece of metal, when kept at the same temperature, may remain unchanged for years, provided the intensity of the heat is not sufficient to melt it. In order, therefore, that heat may do work, or effect a permanent change in matter, it is necessary that it be applied by means of some mechanical arrangement analogous to a machine. In most cases, an intermediate agent, such as steam or heated air, is employed in con- nexion with the machinery, and we have a striking natural arrange- ment of this kind in the organization of the plant. If the stem of a plant were solid, and did not consist of minute cells filled with evaporable liquid, the heat of the atmosphere, so long as it were constant, could produce no change. To understand this, let us sup- pose a tube of glass, with a minute bore-— for instance, the tube of a uud e vi drhes ſer. doern 1 ure. n d thes er u ee Nl Wal a 5 w he bel 1 laM iux 4 gra ersltt diterur jncren Pn Jt ke nesch SPl. peräm the al Gfor- ennt M u, M deratur pieo henei meki- rmjäleli Of LU; 808 1 jn eöl- rlg- gtelrd à 1 t Fet 1 5 bed METEOROLOGV. 487 broken thermometer—to have its lower end placed in water, the liquid will rise perhaps to an inch above the general level of the liquid in the vessel, and here it will remain. The cause of this ascent is the attraction of the glass for the liquid and the liquid for itself, and is familiarly known under the name of capillarity. A perpetual flow of water can never be produced by this action, since, if we cut off the tube before mentioned, leaving but three-fourths of an inch above the water, the attraction of the glass will draw the liquid up to the very top, but will not permit it to run over, because the same attraction which suspends it will prevent it from overflowing. The atom of water at the top of the tube will be attracted as much down- ward by the glass as the next one below will be attracted upwards; hence an equilibrium will ensue. If, however, we apply heat to the upper surface, which will evap- orate the water, a new portion will be drawn up to restore the equi- librium; and if this process be continued, a constant current will be maintained, and a definite amount of mechanical work will be per- formed. If the liquid contain different substances in solution, these will be retained, it may be, in the solid form, and in this Way a solid substance may be brought up and deposited at the end of the tube. If across the lower end of the tube a porous membrane be stretched, and if the liquids above this, and that in the vessel below, be of a different quality, which would necessarily result on account of the evaporation mentioned, then the ascentional power would be very much increased by the process called endosmose. Without consider- ing at present this action very minutely, we may apply the principles we have here given to the means by which heat becomes a motive power in building up the plant. The stem of a tree is an arrange- ment analogous to an assemblage of minute tubes, such as we have described, terminating in leaves above, from the surface of which constant evaporation is going on, and a current of liquid ascending called crude sap, which consists of water containing in solution the various substances imbibed by the roots, and elaborated by the leaves. The tubes are not continuous, but are elongated cells analogous to a glass tube, the ends of which are closed with porous membrane. We can scarcely doubt that by this arrangement, the motive power which gives rise to the circulation of the sap is the heat derived from the atmosphere and the direct rays of the sun. But a small part, however, of the material of which the plant is built up, namely, carbon, is elevated from the roots. This is furnished, as we have before stated, by the decomposition of the carbonic acid absorbed from the atmospheres into the pores of the leaves, and there decom- posed by the chemical ray of the sun. It is at this place that the liquid brought up by evaporation is elaborated into true sap, under the principle of vitality, and this is carried downward through the cells by endosmose, and serves by secretion to build up new cells, and thus to increase every part of the plant. The rapidity of evaporation will depend, the amount of heat being the same, upon the quantity of vapor already in the atmosphere; and hence, with the same degree of temperature, the amount of work performed would appear to be 488 AGRICULTURAL REPORT greater in a dry than in a moist atmosphere; but since the carbonic acid, which is decomposed, is probably absorbed by the water in the leaf, too rapid an evaporation will retard rather than increase the useful effect. But little is known of the minutia of this process, and how far other causes than those that are now known to exist influence the results cannot at present be stated. We are assured, however, by observa- tion, that beyond a certain degree of heat, a given plant cannot have a healthy condition, and also below a certain temperature, which is still above freezing, the sap of plants ceases to have an active, if any, circulation. Heat necessarg for the growth of plants.— The hypothesis was early advanced, that for each plant a certain amount of heat is requisite in order to its development from one stage of growth to another; for example, in the case of zwheat, from the time it begins to sprout until it arrives at its full maturity, a definite quantity of heat is re- quired, other conditions being the same, though the time in which it may be furnished may be different in different instances. Different methods, however, have been proposed for estimating this heat. Reaumur, who first advanced the hypothesis of the definite amount of heat, as well as late writers on the subject, has proposed to calcu- late it by multiplying the number of days the plant is in passing through its growth by the mean temperature of each day; while M. Quetelet, of Brussels, who has made more experiments on this subject than any other person, thinks that the heat ought to be measured, not by the simple product of the sum of the temperatures of the several days, but by the sum of the squares of the temperatures of these days. He deduces this rule from the consideration that if heat be due to vibration, the impulses from it ought to do work in proportion to the square of the intensity, and not simply in proportion to the intensity. For example, a cannon ball moving with twice the velocity, will penetrate a wall four times as far— moving with three times, nine times as far, and so on, in proportion to the square of the velocity. In accordance with this, let represent the amount of heat required to produce the full development of the plant, and t and tl bethe mean temperatures of the several days; then will S=(t)2+()2+(0)²,&c. It follows, as a consequence of the law of the square of temperatures, that alternation of temperatures within certain limits may produce greater effect than a uniform temperature. For example, if on three consecutive days, the temperatures were 70°, 600, and 800, and on three other days, 700, 700, 700, though the average heat is the same, the effect of the former will be slightly greater than that of the latter; since the sum of the squares of the first is 14, 900 while that of the latter is 14, 700. From a priori considerations there can be no doubt that, to produce a given amount of organization, a definite amount of power must be expended; but we are unable to say in the present state of science how much of the power which may disappear is lost in producing other than useful effects. Also, in the foregoing investigation, it might reasonably be supposed that the mean heat of the day, in part, 8 un Of the— rect r to thes the te¹ ter ill princi nature thes compät Should tor is! Anoth resultss begin Aloc Neat ro explar dlmate being! each perlec expen ſt. 1 furnis posedd furnis cesses The ol Be Head selec ton, taini in d T' were acc but eno The deg Sou tion itse stoo to? of gre METEOROLOGY. 489 should be derived from the heat of the sun, and not alone from that of the air. The upper surface of a plant will be heated by the di- rect rays of the sun, while the lower will be exposed, in the shade, to the heat of the air. It has, therefore, been proposed to employ the temperature obtained from the mean of the observed thermome- ter in the sun and in the shade during the day. To render this principle of use in practice, a series of observations on the tempe- ratures in different seasons of the year, of thermometers in the sun and in the shade, would be necessary. Besides this, since vegetation is comparatively but little advanced at night, the length of the day should be taken into account, which in the neighborhood of the equa- tor is 12 hours, and in the vicinity of the polar circle nearly 24 hours. Another correction is necessary in order to reliable comparative results, namely, that which is due to the fact that different, plants begin to show signs of vitality in the spring at different temperatures. Allowing the truth of the proposition, of the definite amount of heat required for the full development of each plant, we have a ready explanation of the fact that some grain will come to maturity in climates of very different temperatures, the less intensity of heat being compensated for by the longer duration of the day. Though each species of plant may require a definite amount of heat, for its perfect maturity, yet this is bpy no means the measure of the power expended in the organization, though it may bear a definite ratio to it. The chemical ray of the sun decomposes carbonic acid, and thus furnishes the greater part of the material of which the plant is com- posed, and, in the process of germination and assimilation, probably furnishes a portion of the power necessary to carry on these pro- cesses. The following table is selected from the memoirs of M. Quetelet, of Belgium, and contains the times of leafing, blossoming, and fructi- fication of plants found in this country, as well as in Europe. The selection has been made at my request by Dr. L. D. Gale, of Washing- ton, and it is hoped that the times will be compared with those per- taining to the same periods of the developments of the same plants in different parts of this country. The observations from which the original table was constructed were made in the garden of the Royal Observatory, at Brussels, and, according to the author, they may be applied not only to Belgium, but also to the whole of Europe, due regard being had to the differ- ences of latitude and elevation between Brussels and other places. The correction for each degree of latitude is four days for each degree, to be added or subtracted according as the place is to the south or north of Brussels. The correction for elevation is a retarda- tion, also, of four days for every 330 feet above Brussels, which is itself about 195 feet above the level of the sea. It must be under- stood that these corrections are only approximate, for we are obliged to abstract the consideration of the nature of the soil, the es posure of the plant, and the more or less continental locality, that is, the greater or less distance from the sea. Plants that grou in Europe and in the United States, whether indägenous 490 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. or introduced—ewperiment continued ten geurs. BX M. OQUETELEIT, OF BRUSSELS. The lime of leafing latitude of Brussels. NAMES OF PLANTS. Mean time. Earliest. Latest. Acer pseudo-platanus, false sycamore, a maple-- April 20 April 7 April 28. Asculus hippocastanum, horse chestnutu—— April 6 March 27 April 27. Amygdalus persica, peach March 28 March 4 April 19. Berberis vulgaris, barberry March 22 Feb. 26 April 14. Betula alba, white birch.. April 9 March 27 April 20. Bignonia catalpa, catalpa tre. May 1 April 17 May 19. Cratægus oxyacantha, English hawthorn.. March 23 Feb. 25 April 16. Clematis viticella, Italian clematis— March 25 Feb. 23 April 20. Daphne mezerem. March 13 Feb. 23 April 4. Fraxinus nigra, black ah April 26 April 15 May 5. Juglans nigra, black walnututut April 28 April 19 May 190. Lonicera Tartarica, Tartarian honeysuckle.. March 6 Jan. 30 April 5. Morus alba, white mulberry May 2 April 21 May 15. Philadelphus coronarius, mock orange. March 18 Feb. 23 April 13. Populus balsamifera, balm of Gileead.... April 5 March 14 April 22. Prunus cerasus, cherry laurel. April 6 March 27 April 21. Prunus domestica, common plum— April 2 March 6 April 23. Prunus spinosa, sloe, black thorn April 1 March 1 April 23. Pyrus communis, common pear. March 30 March 10 April 22. Pyrus malus, apple March 30 March 12 April 20. Rhus typhina, staghorn, sumachh. April 19 April 1 May 7. Ribes grossularia, gooseberry March 8 Feb. 18 April 3. Ribes rubrum, red currant March 17 Feb. 25 April 8. Ribes nigrum, black currant March 17 Feb. 24 April 8. Robinia pseudo-acacia, white locust.. April 23 April 9 May 10. Sorbus aucuparia, mountain ahnh April 7 March ls April 21. Tilia Europæa, European linden tree... April 7 March 18 April 22. Populus alba, white poplaN. April 12 April 1 May 1. Magnolia grandiflora, great flowered magnolia- April 19 April 4 April 29. Gleditschia ferox, honey-locust tree May 9 April 30 May 26. Time ꝗf. flowering. Acer pseudo-platanus, false sycamore, a maple. April 28 April 19 May 10. Achillæa millefolium, yarrow July 13 July 5 July 30. Aconitum napellus, monkshooh June 1 May 15 June 12. Esculus hippocastanum, horse chestnut May 3 April 23 May 16. Amygdalus Persica, peachh. March 20 Feb. 27 April 8. Berberis vulgaris, barberty May 4 April 18 May 20. Betula alba, white birch April 8 March 22 April 22. Cratægus oxyacantha, English hawthorn. May 4 April 16 May 23. Clematis viticella, Italian clematis June 29 June 2 July 14. Daphne mezereum:. March 15 March 3 April 2. Lonicera Tartarica, Tartarian honeysuckle May 9 April 23 May 23. Morus alba, white mulbery May 22 May 15 June 3. Philadelphus coronarius, mock orange May 23 May 11 June 4. Populus balsamifera, balm of Gilead..— March 23 Feb. 28 April 20. Prunus cerasus, cherry laurel April 16 April 2 May 4. Prunus domestica, common plum April 16 March 27 May 3. Prunus spinosa, sloe, black thorn April 7 March 2 April 30. Pyrus communis, pear trecf. April 13 March 9 May 2. pyrus! ln t 1i Ribes 915 Sibes I Ribes n Bobiniat ſelch METEOROLOGY. 491 Plants that grow in EFurope and the United States— Continued. NAMES OF PLANTS. Mean time. Earliest. Latest. Pyrus malus, apple April 25 April 12 May 8. Rhus typhina, sumachh July 13 July 5 July 25. Ribes grossularia, gooseberry May 3 March 12 April 22. Ribes rubrum, red currant April 2 March 18 April 22. Ribes nigrum, black currant. April 14 March 28 April 30. Robinia pseudo-acacia, white locust May 30 May 17 June 12. Sorbus aucuparia, mountain ah May 2 April 16 May 15. Tilia Europæa, linden tre June 9 May 15 June 17. Populus alba, white poplaru. March 23 Feb. 28 April 20. Magnolia grandiflora, great flowered magnolia April 16 March 8 April 25. Amorpha fruticosa, common false indigo. June 12 May 28 June 24. Anthemis cotula, mayweed. June 5 May 6 June 19. Time of. fruit. Acer pseudo-platanus, false sycamore, a maple. April 30 Oct. 25] Nov. 3. Amygdalus Persica, peachh. Aug. 22 Aug. 5 Sept. 11. Prunus cerasus, cherry laurel. June 11 May 30 June 24. Pyrus communis, common pearf Aug. 26 July 28 Sept. 14. Ribes grossularia, goosebery June 25 June 16 July 8. Ribes rubrum, red currant June 15 June 6 June 29. Ribes nigrum, black currant June 15 June 8 June 27. Haat on different surfaces.— The amount of heat which falls upon a given surface depends upon the inclination to the different points of the horizon. A feeld, for instance, in our latitude sloping towards the south, receives a greater, and one towards the north a less amount oſl heat; moreover, the former obtains more than an equal extent of ground parallel to the horizon, and the latter, as in the other case, much less. A field, also, which slopes in an easterly direction receives less heat than another inclined towards the west, inasmuch as more reaches the latter, since the maximum heat of the day takes place after the sun has passed the meridian; as it is, each of these enclosures gets a less amount than one of equal extent parallel to the horizon. Estimate ꝗf temperature by rings in trees.— It frequently happens that permanent records are found of the past condition of our globe in the impressions retained in the rocky strata, and that the yearly occurrences of certain phenomena, such as the annual deposit from the overflowing of banks of rivers. Such records may be rendered available in determining the time of actions which may have long since ceased, or which continue to the present day. It is well known that the trees of our latitude increase in size by the deposition of an ad- ditional layer annually between the wood and the bark, and that a transverse section of such a tree presents a series of concentric, though irregular rings, the number of which indicates the age of the tree. The relative thickness of these rings depends on the more or less flourishing state of the plant in the year in which they were formed, and therefore indicates the relative state of heat and moisture during the same period. Furthermore, each ring in some trees may 492 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. be observed to be subdivided into others during the same year, in- dicating that the vegetation was advanced or checked at intervals during the season. Furthermore, it has been found by observation that even the motion imparted to a tree by the wind has an influence on its growth, giving an oval form to its trunk, the longer direction of which will be that of the prevailing wind. A thin slice, therefore, cut from a large tree at right angles to its axis, carefully polished and varnished, forms a natural record of the weather well calculated to call forth admiration and to impart instruction. It is scarcely necessary to remark that the year should be carefully identified, corresponding to a given circle, in order that the whole might be properly numbered. Mr. Babbage has proposed an ingenious application of this prin- ciple for carrying back the series of records by means of trees which are found in the deep bogs of different parts of Great Britain. By searching for corresponding thick or thin rings in the outer circum- ference of one tree and in the inner of another, a number of trees may be arranged in a series, and thus the record extended back into the geological periods. Whatever may be the practical value of this plan, it is certainly ingenious and worthy of attention. Since the trees found in bogs are, we may suppose, the regular and consecutive productions of the primitive forests, they would probably represent the successive vegetation of a series of centuries. The remains of plants found in the rocky strata indicate that the same diversity of weather and the same changes of seasons existed in the past geological ages as at the present time. By carefully studying the rain marks on sandstone, the direction of the wind, during storms in the ancient periods, may be determined; and this will probably be found the same as in thunder showers of the present day. The re- mains of plants and animals of a tropical character, found abundantly in the northern regions, assure us that the temperature of the surface of the whole globe has undergone remarkable changes. EMect of difterent surfaces.— The rays of heat from the sun which strike the earth are partly reflected into space and partly absorbed by the surface in producing an elevation of temperature. The absorbent and reflective powers are complementary to each other, and vary very much in different substances, and, as we have seen, according to their color and texture. Lampblack possesses this power of absorption in the greatest degree; and if we represent this by 100, that of common glass will be 90, and that of polished metallic surfaces about 6. Consequently, the latter have a high reflective power, While that of lampblack and other dark substances is very weak. This is a matter of interest to the agriculturist, since the amount of heat which may be received by a given suface will depend very much upon its color; and, indeed. in some cases, charcoal or other dark substance has been strewed over the ground to increase its absorptive power. The following tabie by M. Schubler is copied from Becquerel, and gives the greatest clevation of temperature obtained by different soils exposed to thie direct rays of the sun, while the surrounding air was at about 780. 3 — Glcareolt ueims — Filicious rgillace Calcareots Nould, 17 Garden et — — Thet doe to: m the! Stanced may k. Aps. bodiest intens dale from a Tecäll nnmel- 1ASSo board the 8 of te posec ness. 1. u. rynl naton lone elti dähne Aäbe ultti arc ditti pu- wü u J lrem f trs Kin ot lceih eentin äsär lat ih stedi oer Sel pſa p fhes n isb. Whi 1 1 tallt offel. 1u! Perelt T 1' tk METEOROLOGY. 493 Mawimum temperatures of various eurths ewposed to the sun, bg Sohubler. Maximum temperature of the superior layer, the mean tem- perature of the ambient air KIND OF EARTH. 770 F. Moist earth. Dry earth. 0 0 Silicious sand, yellowish grauy 99. 05 112. 55 Calcareous sand, whitish grav 99. 10 112. 10 Argillaceous earth, yellowish gravy.. 99. 28 112. 32 Calcareous earth, white— 96. 13 109. 40 Mould, blackish grau 103. 55 117. 27 Garden earth, blackish grav 99. 50 113. 45 The differences of temperature exhibited by the two columns are due to the heat expended in the evaporation of a portion of the water in the moist earth, while the differences between the different sub- stances are principally to be ascribed to the colors, though the texture may have some effect. Absorptive power is connected with that of emission; and those bodies which possess the greatest absorptive power for heat of a low intensity, also possess the greatest emissive power for heat of the same xind. Prt the preceding remarks have reference to the rays rom ros ann and Lot to those of dark ueat;, and here I must stop to rocail tne fact which is frequently neglected, even by scientific men, namely, that color has no effect upon the absorption or emission of rays of low intensity. For example, if we pass our hands over a sign- board, on which dark letters upon a white ground are exposed to the sun, we can readily perceive, with our eyes shut, the difference of temperature; but this would not be the case were the board ex- posed in the dark to the heat of a stove of a temperature below red- ness. PFurthermore, if the same board were exposed to the clear sky and suffered to cool by its own radiation, no difference of temperature would be observed in the different parts of its surface, except a very slight one, which might be due to the difference of the radiating power possessed by the substances of which the black and white paints are composed. On this subject, Prof. Bache, the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, has made a series of very interesting experiments. He found that canisters of tinned iron filled with water and painted externally of different colors required the same time to cool through a given number of degrees. The facts in regard to this point may be generalized by saying that color has no influence whatever upon the emissive power of different bodies, but that its influence is con- fined to the reception of rays of high intensity, or those which approxi- mate in quality to the luminiferous emanations. Hence a black or a white dress is equally cool in the night, though in the sunshine the darker one would absorb the greater amount of heat. 494 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. Besides color, as we have stated. the humidity of the soil has great influence upon the temperature it acquires, a portion of the heat. being expended in evaporating the water. We have seen the state- ment somewhere that the average temperature of whole districts in Great Britain has been elevated one degree by the system of drainage adopted in that country. In addition to the preceding causes, there are two others which affect the temperature of the soil, namely, conduction and capacity for heat. In a porous, badly conducting substance the heat which may escape from the surface is not readily supplied from the interior, and hence such bodies are long in cooling. Again, different bodies con- tain very different amounts of heat at the same temperature, and hence one body may take a much longer time to cool down to the same temperature through the same number of degrees than another. That two different bodies of the same weight at the same temperature possess different amounts of heat, may be shown by first heating, say a pound of each in boiling water, and afterwards plunging them separately into equal amounts of cold water of, say 320. It will be found that the heat which they severally impart to the water in the two cases will be very different. The following table, also from Becquerel, gives the relative reten- tion of heat by different soils, that of calcareous sand being one hun- dred, and also the time of cooling of cubes of the same size of the different earths: Table of retention of heat, b, Becquerel. Capacity for heat, that V Time required by 18 of calcareous sand feet cube of earth to KIND OF EARTH. being 100. cool from 1440. 5 to 700. 2, the tempera- ture of thesurround- ing air being 610. 2. h. GCalcareous sSand.... 100. 0 3.30 Silicious sand= 95. 6 3. 27 Argillaceous carth. 68. 4 2. 24 Calcareous earth................ 61. 8 2. 10 Mould.. 49. 0 1. 43 EFFECT OF COLD. While the periodic temperature of a given place depends upon the position of the sun in its course, the abnormal hot and cold periods, or terms, as they have sometimes been called, are due principally to winds from certain directions. The cold terms in this country gen- erally begin in the northwest, and advance southerly and easterly, and are accompanied with winds from the north and northwest. We do 9 tions vdies9 effecte M low tet heavldch i its other 8 the cot dottons the fh but, o becom t follo sübsec woir M i vei doyn? be con stract! To? and p.ü tions in onc mome- serye remair dred a M3 Water The! peric and, laten heat Wate abst ther the 8low tem twe and dong sor- tem thor belo METEOROLOGX. 495 do not, however, intend in this place to discuss these abnormal varia- tions of temperature, but to consider the effect of cold on different bodies, including plants and animals. We shall first consider its effects on a surface of water. Effect of cold on awater.— When the surface of water is exposed to a low temperature, the upper stratum is cooled, it becomes specifically heavier, and sinks. A lower portion then comes to the surface, which, in its turn, is cooled, becomes heavier, and again gives place to an- other stratum, to pass through the same process. This continues till the column of water originally included between the surface and the bottom is reduced to a temperature of about 390 F., at which point the fluid ceases to shrink, or, in other words, to become heavier, but, on the contrary, expands with every diminution of heat, until it- becomes entirely solidified. After it has assumed the solid condition, it follows the law observed by other solids, and shrinks with every subsequent fall of temperature. After the water of a given reser- voir has arrived at a temperature of 390, since it does not increase in weight, it continues to float on the surface, and is rapidly cooled. down to 320, or the point of congelation. Before, however, it can be converted into a solid at this temperature, it is necessary to ab- stract from it a large amount of latent heat. To render this plain, let us suppose a lump of ice, taken at zero, and placed, with the bulb of a thermometer in it, under such condi- tions that it shall receive from surrounding bodies one degree of heat. in one minute of time. We shall find in thirty-two minutes the ther- mometer will come up to the freezing point; but here we shall ob- serve that the mercury ceases to rise, although the supply of heat, remains the same, and it will continue stationary during one hun- dred and forty minutes, or until all the ice is melted, after which, it: will again begin to rise, and continue its upward march until the water begins to boil, when a second stationary point will be reached. The heat, which continued to flow into the ice during the stationary period, appears necesssary to convert it from a solid to a liquid state, and, inasmuch as it does not affect the thermometer, it has been called latent or concealed heat. Water, therefore, at 320 contains 1400 of heat more than ice at the same temperature. In the freezing of water, a reverse process takes place, and 140° of heat have to be- abstracted before the liquid is converted into a solid. Freezing, therefore, independent of the previous cooling down of the mass in the reservoir to 390 and the upper film to 320, is comparatively a. slow process. For example, if we expose a stratum of water at a- temperature of 200 above freezing to the air below 320, and it requires twenty minutes to reduce it to the point of congelation, one hundred and forty minutes will be required to solidify it, or seven times as long. In melting the ice, the same amount of heat has to be ab- sorbed, so that a large extent of deep water becomes a regulator of temperature, preserving the air immediately over it at near 320, though the atmosphere in the vicinity during the winter may be far below zero; conversely in the spring, though the temperature of the 496 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. same latitude may be 60° or even 800, that of the air immediately over the water wijll be near 320. It is evident, from these facts, that the deeper the reservoir the longer will the continuance of low tem- perature be required to freeze the surface, and the longer the time necessary for melting it again. These principles are illustrated in our great lakes. The greatest known depth of Lake Superior is 792 feet, and soundings of 300, 400, and even 600 feet are not uncom- mon. In the coldest weather, the water over these deeper places is above 320, and does not freeze, while over the shallow parts a coating of ice is formed, which, gradually cooled by the slow diffusion of the water underneath, retains its solidity until the last of June. Indeed, ice is sometimes found at the surface in the middle of July. At this period of the year, or a little later, the smaller ponds of water in the vicinity have a temperature of 720 to 740. Lake Erie, being much shallower, sometimes freezes entirely across, and becomes in summer heated throughout its extent to nearly the temperature of the super- natent air. At the beginning of September, 1857, the temperature of Lake Huron was 560, while that of the water from Lake Erie, which passed over the Falls of Niagara, was 720, precisely that of the air. All bodies, as we have previously said, in passing from a liquid to a solid state, tend to assume a regular geometrical arrangement called crystals. This is particularly observable when the process has been slow, and undisturbed by agitations or tremors. The form peculiar to each substance is exhibited when a portion, only, of liquid has as- sumed the solid state, as in the case of the shooting of spicules across the surface of water, in a metallic basin, exposed to the cold. It will be found, on inspection, that the fillaments of ice arrange themselves at definite angles of either 600 or 1200, and that the triangular openings are bounded by sides making the same angles with each other. In reference to crystallization, there is an im- portant law to be borne in mind, namely, that the axis of the crystal always tends to be at right angles to the surface of the cooling mass. For example, if a quantity of melted zinc be poured into a cylin- drical hole in cold sand, and the bar thus formed be broken across, the crystals will be found to be arranged in the form of radii, with their bases in the circumference; and in some cases, there will be found a cylindrical hole along the axis, from which the metal has been drawn away by the shrinking at the time of cool- ing and crystallization. A precisely analogous arrangement takes place in the freezing of water, which may be observed by placing aà quantity of this liquid in a globular glass vessel, and submit- ting it to a temperature of some 100 below freezing. We shall find then that the crystallization will begin at all sides of the globe, and proceed gradually towards the centre, expelling before it all the air, and most of the foreign substances which may be contained in the water. If the cold be continued, the portion of water last frozen will be found in the middle, until finally the process will end by collect- ing at this point a quantity of air surprising in amount. Before, hmg mwich ³ Jowev dion o be 80]¹ 4 will tei alter 4 poir, other griven! de entt that ne extend? Aecn vould a the wa: deseril wich downst Thes df vbi and the that, i InEnD liable ducing surfae mn evit Wäter! Gener the su perim lee s rea those aware not p à 800 wate coun A sevé this thicl have som. not the: e alle ſated L tbe wtell e tlle tel u 5 0 rnonn. 4ces b eoaüin i ldeel Att ruh n ue Supe. eratur e E thatd nlt. tealel as beel ecler Wb- aCInS Innx; at tle ugls an ir- rrSal I cplr 4r0 nii ther⸗ h tie t cod- tabes Nacils obri. lbei 6, aIl de d in the 2L ril Nect- efore, METEOROLOGV. 497 however, this takes place, the glass vessel will be broken by the expan- sion ofthe ice. The crystallization at the upper surface of the water will be somewhat irregular at first; the spicula of ice around the margin will tend to shoot out at right angles to the surface of the glass; but after a pellicle has formed over the top of the fluid, this will serve as a point of attachment, and the crystallization will go on, as in the other case, at right angles to the surface; the air bubbles will be driven down before it, and if the freezing be very gradual the air will be entirely expelled, and the ice assume a perfectly transparent and homogeneous structure. If the freezing be more rapid, the air which has been expelled from the higher stratum will be caught by that next below, and in this way we shall have a series of air-bubbles extending downwards to the surface of the unfrozen water. Accustomed as we are to see bubbles of air rise in the water, it would appear at first sight that the bubbles seen in ice come up from the water below; but from actual observation in the manner we have described, it is clearly proved that the bubbles are composed of air which had been absorbed at the surface of the water, and expelled downwards from stratum to stratum in the process of freezing. The ice, then, over a lake or pond, consists of crystallized water, of which the axis of crystallization is at right angles to the surface, and the principal cleavage in the same direction. It results from this that, in the thawing of the ice in spring, it tends to resolve itself into innumerable prismatic crystals at right angles to the surface, and is liable to be disintegrated by a strong wind, in a single night, thus pro- ducing the phenomena of a sudden disappearance of ice over a large surface, a fact which has been erroneously attributed to its sinking, an evident impossibility, since the minutest portion of crystallized. water is specifically lighter than the same substance in a liquid form. General Totten, several years ago, arrived at the same conclusion as to the sudden disappearance of ice, which I have demonstrated in the ex- periments before mentioned. Ice, before it tends to give way, becomes pervious to water, which is readily transmitted through the interstices of the crystals; hence, those who are accustomed to travel upon frozen lakes or rivers are aware of the fact that so long as the water of the melted snow does not pass through the surface of the ice underneath, it is safe and in a sound condition, though we must be careful not to confound this water with that forced up by hydrostatic pressure from below, on ac- count of the bending downwards of the whole field. A simple method has been proposed for determining the relative severity of different winters, by observing the thickness of ice. For this purpose, a shallow vessel of water is exposed to the air, and the thickness of the ice produced measured each day. From what we have said, it is necessary, first, that the vessel be made of wood or some other non-conducting substance, in order that the freezing may not take place at the sides; and, second, that the water be always of the same depth; for if there be two vessels of the same diameter, but one contains more water than the other, the thickness of ice will be different, unless the fluid in both is at the temperature of thirty-two 32 A 498 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. degrees at the commencement of the exposure. If we would as- certain more accurately the measure of effect, the ice must be bro- ken, and its thickness measured or the amount. weighed very carefully every day; for if we suffer it to accumulate, we shall have a less re- sult, since the first coat tends to screen the water, so that with the same temperature the process goes on more slowly. This method is very simple, and, when properly employed, furnishes reliable data for determining the relative intensity of different winters. By simply measuring the thickness on a lake or pond, from year to year, We may approximately arrive at a similar result. But, as we have said, the upper stratum screens the lower ones, and a knowledge of this fact has been taken advantage of in some parts of New England to increase the quantity of the ice for economical purposes. To this end, water is suffered to flow over a surface of ice already frozen, and thus, by frequently repeating the operation, a much greater aggregate thick- ness of ice is produced. From what we have said, however, it must be evident that ice made in this way is more porous, and contains more air than that formed by ordinary freezing, since all the air evolved from the strata after the first must be retained by the next below. The more solid the ice, the longer it will resist thawing; first, pecause it contains more water under a given external surface, and, second, because a portion of radiant heat is always absorbed at any surface, whether it be external or internal; for example, if We expose a piece of ice containing a bubble of air to a source of radiant heat, wé shall find that the bubble will gradually enlarge, thus proving an internal melting to be going on. In the preservation of ice for do- mestic purposes it is therefore important that it should be gathered as a general rule, will contain more impurities than the upper, since the process of crystallization tends to expel all the foreign ingredients downwards; and hence a storehouse filled with thin ice will contain more impurities, and, on account of the multitude of bubbles and amount of surface exposed, will melt much sooner than if well packed with thicker blocks. The temperature of ice, moreover, may be re- duced considerably by exposure for some time to the weather, when below the freezing point, and thus the value of its cooling effect be enhanced. This diminution of free caloric, however, is only con- tinued by the slow conducting power of the ice, and though it may retard considerably the melting of the mass, we think the effect is scarcely perceptible in ice transmitted to warmer climates. We have never found a thermometer, inserted in a hole in the centre of blocks of Boston ice, in the city of Washington, to sink below 320. In filling the ice-house, however, and in compacting the mass, advantage should be taken of the coldest weather. In the preservation of ice the smaller the amount of surface ex- posed between the several parts, and the greater the amount accu- mulated in a given place, the longer it will resist melting; for the tendency to become liquid will pe in proportion to the surface exposed, since the heat which produces this effect must pass through the sur. in masses as thick and large as possible. The lower side of the ice, ntio oll the ten diamete Of ab amount v Sho, accoum the ne. gcarcellt order ti tle surn Such as. Jess of house trees,? rays WI suffere hetwee by dolc melted We this e⸗ exerte a canl the pe by a solid; perat toag serve upon chan solid very prese unite the brin we! melt to re Roys old g. he bm. caredud- alRn wüh detboli detatr FSu- 2 W 1 vüll k ttlüh oinerak ad, wi liw ate tlit r. tI leonti Uba the m ing. M facs, ul ed u- Vfe elhe daut as rg ce it tden f the in per in grelene lem Dbles u lack up lèk ler, V ekbc— only dh hhiw Hekeel! We hr Of ho 2.! drarte- rhace d unt glol' . for th ¹ ayee the Sl. METEOROLOGV. 499 face; for example, in a cubic block of ice, containing one cubic foot, there are six surfaces exposed, each one foot square, namely, the four sides and two ends. Now, if we cut this same block into two parts, by a plane parallel to one of the sides, we shall present two addi- tional superfices each a foot in extent, and the aggregate amount of surface exposed will be increased in the ratio of six to eight. For a similar reason, if we have two ice-houses of like form, the one ten and the other twenty feet in diameter, the capacity will be in the ratio of one to eight, while their surfaces will be as one to four; hence the tendency to resist melting will be in direct proportion to the diameters of reservoirs of similar forms. Of all geometrical solids, a sphere is that which contains the greatest amount of space in a given surface. All other conditions being equal, we should choose this form of excavation for preserving ice; but on account of the difficulty of lining a pit of this shape, we may select the next most economical form, which is the cylindrical. It is scarcely necessary to mention, in this connection, the fact that, in order to succeed in preserving ice, it should be well protected from the surrounding earth and air by strata of non-conducting materials, such as straw, powdered eharcoal, or saw-dust, the greater the thick- ness of which, the better the purpose in view will be answered. The house should also, as an additional precaution, be shaded above by trees, and have the cover painted white, to reflect off the more intense rays which may reach it indirectly. Moreover, the ice should not be suffered to rest upon the bare ground below, but on a double flooring, between which a non-conducting substance is placed, communicating by holes with a deep pit or drain through which the water from the melted ice may percolate. We have stated that water at 390.1 begins to expand, and that this expansion increases until solidification takes place. The force exerted on this expansion is immensely great, being sufficient to burst a cannon, or to cause water to pass in the form of a fine frost through the pores of solid metal. When, however, this expansion is opposed by a sufficient external pressure, the water is not converted into a solid at thirty-two degrees, but assumes this condition at a lower tem- perature; a piece of ice, therefore, at thirty-two degrees, subjected to a great pressure, ought to be converted into a liquid; and this may serve to explain a fact frequently noticed, that pieces of ice thrown upon each other adhere at the points of contact—the percussion changing these from a solid to a liquid, which immediately afterwards solidifies again. But this cause is scarcely sufficient to explain the very remarkable fact, that if two lumps of ice be placed so as to present two flat surfaces, and these be pressed together, they will unite as one mass; and this will take place even in hot water while the external surface is rapidly melting. The pressure necessary to bring them into contact would, no doubt, tend to produce the effect we have already mentioned, though it is not improbable that the melting of the ice, as in the case of the evaporation of water, tends to reduce the temperature slightly below 320. Mr. Tyndal, of the Royal Institution, has recently made an interesting series of experi- 500 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. ments on the plasticity of ice. He finds that it may be bent. and moulded into a variety of forms by subjecting it to pressure, par- ticularly when near the melting point, and has very ingeniously applied this property to the explanation of the stratified appearance of some of the glaciers. If pressure is applied to any plastic sub- stance in which are disseminated globules of air or irregular patches of other material, the mass will assume a lamellar structure at right angles to the direction of the compressing force; and in this way, the laminated appearance which is exhibited after the confluence of two separate streams of ice, which exert a great pressure upon each other, is explained. It is well known that when alcohol and water are mixed together the attraction of the two bodies is so great that a diminution of bulk, and a consequent rise of temperature, ensue. The same affinity exists between ice and alcohol; but when these are mixed, strange to say, a considerable diminution of temperature is the result; and those who habitually or otherwise mingle these two ingredients as a beverage, are sometimes surprised to find the fragments of ice frozen in a solid mass to the spoon by which the mixture is stirred. When two liquids having an attraction for each other are mingled together, and a diminution of bulk ensues, heat must be evolved, on account of the power generated by the approach of the atoms. For an anal- ogous reason, when the attraction between the atoms of two bodies is diminished, a quantity of heat must disappear; hence, when a solid is dissolved in a liquid for which the attraction is not very intense, a quantity of heat disappears, or cold is the result. In the case of the alcohol and ice, the cold produced by the liquefaction of the solid greatly exceeds the heat which might be produced by the union of the water and the alcohol. When the affinity, however, is very great, as between nitric acid and copper, then the heat of the chemical com- bination of the two substances far exceeds the cold due to the lique- faction of the solid, and a high temperature in the mixture is the result. On the same general principle is explained the melting of ice by sprinkling the surface of it with salt-— a process sometimes resorted to for clearing the sidewalks after an intense cold has succeeded rain. The union of salt and ice produces a liquid which freezes many de- grees below the solidifying point of water; and hence, when they unite in a solid state by their surfaces a liquefaction must necessarily ensue, provided the union takes place at 320; and this, in accordance with the general law, must be attended with a great reduction of tempe- rature in the surrounding bodies, on which depends the application of salt and snow to artificial freezing, as in the manufacturing of ice- cream. In places where ice is scarce, the same principle may be ap- plied to produce a much greater reduction of temperature from a smaller quantity of this substance. Three parts of ice and one of salt mixed together in a thin vessel will reduce the temperature of a large quantity of water; and since the same salt may again be obtained in à solid form by exposing the solution to the sun, we think the freezer might in some cases be economically employed. The artificial production of ice in hot countries on a scale sufficient for domestic use, has, it is said, of late been successfully accomplished. A attenn E eal lis Wass dable te De abun Lnoth Parrisole 1ld re-e with coſh cold prä- Mally d5 Dadé to¹ wductiot Mthot aueing te mn arranl t would) iehtly 6 te lattch troke 8. vndenst u rece The clieffy: venefici man is perate! ok thet amelor abunda in Indi use of suitab! apartn rigor The be in in the the th other pansi in the whic! watel jee b crack Aft andl corda kr t m l udg drde eM. Rtale rit W dw 1R peie fb 1” Ar b al nt 3 tror Wx geie zecou. n- ols 4A leloe! d e al Tiod METEOROLOGX. 501 An attempt of this kind was made a few years ago at New Orleans, by means of the rapid evaporation of water, but the cold produced in this way being small, the process was not sufficiently economical to enable the manufactured article to compete in price, in that city, with the abundant supply of ice imported from New England. Another process, which is said to be more effectual, is that of a Mr. Harrison, of England, and consists in the evaporation, liquefaction. and re-evaporation of ether. If the bulb of a thermometer covered with cotton and wet with ether be exposed to the atmosphere, tue cold produced by evaporation will cause the mercury to descend many degrees below the freezing point; and if the evaporation be made to take place under the receiver of an air pump, a much greater reduction of temperature will be produced. Although we have not seen any account of the apparatus for re- ducing to practice the plan above referred to, we can readily imagine an arrangement which would produce the result. For this purpose, it would be sufficient to put the water to be frozen in thin vessels, tightly closed, and place them in a large receiver containing ether, the latter being connected with an air pump, of which the upward stroke should exhaust the atmosphere, and the downward stroke re- condense the vapor in a separate vessel, to be again let into the freez- ing receiver, and so on. The establishment of the ice trade, for which the present age is chiefly indebted to an enterprising citizen of Boston, must have a beneficial effect upon the sanitary condition of the world. The white man is especially adapted by his physical organization to the tem- perate regions, and succumbs to the intensity of the prolonged heat of the tropics, unless, through the agency of science, he is enabled to ameliorate the effects of the ardent rays of a nearly vertical sun. An abundant supply of ice not only adds to the comfort of the European in India, but is indispensable to the continuance of his health. The use of this article will probably be very much extended, and by a suitable system of ventilation applied to the cooling of the air of apartments in a manner analogous to that of heating them during the rigor of winter at the North. The expansion of a quantity of water passing into a solid state will be in the direction of least resistance, and hence we find a bulging up in the centre of the ice in a pitcher; but if the freezing be continued, the thickening of the ice in this direction will produce a reaction in other directions, which causes the rupture of the vessel. This ex- pansion, as we have stated before, only takes place while the water is in the act of solidifying; and it is not the stratum of ice first formed which causes the bulging up in this case, but the expansion of the water beneath. This is fully explained by the plastic character of ice before mentioned. If the bulging up, however, be too great, cracks are produced at the most elevated parts. After a quantity of water has been solidified, it ceases to expand; and, with a still further diminution of temperature, shrinks, in ac- cordance with the law to which all solid bodies are subjected. Indeed, it is now known that all liquid substances which pass into the solid 502 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. state enlarge their volume at the moment of transition, and that the phenomenon exhibited by ice is only a conspicuous illustration of a general rule. Ice once formed is found to shrink more rapidly with aà diminution of temperature than any other substance on which ex- periments have yet been made. The expansion of water and shrinking of ice serve to explain a variety of phenomena presented in the operations of Nature and the processes of the arts. Those who reside near the borders of rivers or fresh-water lakes are often startled during cold winter nights by explosions apparently as loud as those of discharges of heavy ord- nance. These are produced by the rupture of long lines of ice—the gradual shrinking which has been going on during the reduction of temperature tending to bring the whole mass into a state of tension, which is relieved by the sudden giving way along the line of least strength. Tam informed by Captain Meigs, who has paid particular attention to the cracking of ice on Lake Champlain, that it most frequently takes place in the narrower parts of the lake—the shrink- Ding of portions on each side of this line of least resistance tends to separate the two masses. The water sometimes rises in the cracks thus formed, a new freezing takes place, and when tlie weather mode- rates and the field expands to its original dimensions, it becomes too large for the area it covers, and long lines of ridges are thrown up. Ksimilar effect is sometimes produced on the surface of damp ground subsequently frozen. During the winter of 1856 and 1857, we received accounts of injury done to several brick houses by the separation due to the shrinking of the surface, passing through the foundation of the edifice, and extending up along the walls. We might infer, from the principles already stated, that the line of sepa- ration would, in preference, pass through a house, as this is the direc- tion of least resistance, for the cellar may be considered as a line of esure between the two masses of earth, or a crack already com- menced.. During a very cold night, when the temperature is rapidly dimin- ishing, and the ground covered with snow, slightly encrusted on the surface by previous thawing and freezing, a continued series of minute explosions may be heard, depending in frequency and loudness upon the thickness or thinness of the crust. In some cases, it resembles a crackling, and at others a series of distant, though not loud or sharp explosions. 1 There is a phenomenon connected with ice, in rivers, which has given rise to much discussion as to its cause. I allude to the freezing which takes place at the bottom of running streams, where, in some cases, it remains until it is separated by its buoyancy and rises to the surface. It presents a peculiar angular appearance, and is sometimes known by the namé of anchor ice. Its formation appears to be an exception to the general rule of the freezing of water, which, on account of the decreasing density, usually takes place at the surface. It was at first supposed that it was due to the radiation of heat through the clear water above; but Arago has shown that this expla- nation cannot be the true one, since rays of low temperature cannot nore I assul. ass tl othort low th be con. ressel? dr thet ampidt varmeſ materlo pectt of thas constru- 1s supl. Kter b. perätu uot bei itsi causet uy ef and th pipe thawi ing, anoth freezi dt le⸗ Pla VAlO tion cold sap leay thin whi METEOROLOGXY. 503 pass through water, and hence no such radiation can take place. A more probable explanation has been given, I think, by the same author, in referring it to the fact that still water can be reduced be- low the freezing point without congealing, and that it will immediately be converted into ice if a bit of solid matter be thrown into the vessel in which the experiment is made, which may serve as a nucleus for the crystallization. When water in this state is passing through a rapid channel, it is mixed together, and the coldest as well as the warmest part is brought into contact with the bed of the stream, the materials of which, acting as a point of rest, serve as a basis of crystallization. Peculiar mechanical effects are sometimes produced by alternations of thawing and freezing— as, for example, in the case of water pipes constructed of lead or other malleable metal. To render this plain, let us suppose a lead pipe one foot in length to be filled with water, and, after being hermetically sealed at each end, exposed to a low tem- perature; the expansion would merely stretch the pipe, the extension not being sufficient to burst it, and no continuation of cold or increase of its intensity would produce any further effect, as this would merely cause the ice to shrink; neither would thawing and refreezing produce any effect, since the water would merely return to its original volume, and the ice again expand to the same extent as before; but if the pipe communicated with a reservoir of water, so that when the thawing took place, the whole space, enlarged by the previous freez- ing, were again filled with water, a second freezing would produce another enlargement of its internal capacity, and a third thawing and freezing, under the same circumstances, would repeat the process, until at length the sides of the tube would give way. Plants filled with sap and exposed to a low temperature, are variously affected, according to the character of the plant, the dura- tion of cold, and the season of the year at which it occurs. A sudden cold will tend to burst the cells. The velocity of the motion of the sap depends principally on the amount of evaporation from the leaves and stems, and this diminishes with temperature, all other things being the same; hence there is a certain degree of cold at which the sap ceases to flow, and the functions of the plant are sus- pended. The different parts of the same plant are killed at different temperatures below thirty-two; the more succulent and tender suffer first, and the woody, or that in which the sap is better defended by non-conducting materials, last. A sudden fall of temperature, even if it be extreme, if of short duration, may not penetrate to the sap and produce freezing. It would also appear that the sap of different plants congeal at different temperatures, and it is highly probable that other changes than those of a mechanical character are produced; but on this subject much research is required, and every intelligent farmer may add important materials to our stock of knowledge by carefully recording the observations he may make relative to the re- duction of temperature and its continuance by which certain plants are destroyed. 504 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. It is shown by repeated observations that alternations of freezing and thawing are more hurtful to the tender plant than a uniform con- tinuation of cold; whether this is produced by an action analogous to- that we have described in reference to the water-pipe, or is due in part to this and other changes, we are unable to say. When, how- ever, the sap of a plant, killed by frost, is examined with a micro- scope, we find in it portions of destroyed tissue. It has also been observed that air may sink a few degrees below the freezing point without injury to the plant, provided the air at the time be very dry. It would seem from this that the freezing of the vapor, and the pro- duction of the minute crystals which constitute hoar frost, are, in a degree, essential to the effect. As a general deduction from chemical and mechanical principles, we think no change of temperature is ever produced where the actions belonging to one or both of these principles are not present. Hence, in mid-winter, when all vegetable functions are dormant, we do not believe that any heat is developed by a tree, or that its inte- rior differs in temperature from its exterior further than it is pro- tected from the external air. The experiments which have been made on this point, we think, have been directed by a false analogy. During the active circulation of the sap and the production of new tissue, variations of temperature belonging exclusively to the plant may be observed; but it is inconsistent with general principles that heat should be generated where no change is taking place. All animals, so long as life continues, generate heat, and have tem- peratures peculiar to themselves. In the higher class of air-breathing animals this temperature varies within comparatively slight limits under the influence of motion, rest, or of external circumstances; and a reduction of temperature by the application of external cold, pro- duces, as it is well known, a sluggish condition, which finally termi- nates in death. The effect of external cold can be prevented by arti- ficial covering, or it may be obviated, in the case of domestic animals, by an extra allowance of food. The sagacious farmer is aware of the fact that a well-sheltered enclosure for cattle is not only a humane, but an economical provision. Many observations have been made on the temperature peculiar to different animals, and a considerable number of observations recorded of a less scientific character in regard to the effect of the variations of temperature to which they may be subjected without permanent injury. The most astonishing fact, and one which could scarcely be believed, if we were not in this country familiar with it, is, that many cold-blooded animals can be actually frozen, and be to all appearance dead, and yet be revivified by gradually thawing in water near the freezing point. Fish, as we are assured on reliable authority, are often brought to our Northern markets from a great distance in a frozen condition, and may be restored to life by the process we have mentioned. This is a subject, as it appears to me, of high interest in a physio- logical point of view, and would richly repay the application of well-devised systems of investigation. Can it be possible that the wimal ended lloode nged the cas Ubrium; were, 1½ tions 1 realile! veprese: actirelht The fear, iss cdd, he the frs ral, an- to be c vovlie remoy the ott s esta take ¹ 80 Ol. coolec heat ceedi be 80 tensi the! the reac- 4 the surf cov. cule As Sn0 mat ent the of! the. gro K70l - erui mai- Wa K te uäle lr h ordel tich anedt N- d Ual ranos rthe METEOROLOGVY. 505 animal is frozen entirely through, and that every vital act is sus- pended? To what degree can a like result be produced on warm- blooded animals, and how far can the state of hibernation be pro- longed without death to the individual? Will it ever be possible, in the case of the higher mammalia, to so maintain the unstable equi- librium as to prevent decay, and, at the same time, to preserve, as it were, in a latent state the vivifying principle? Though investiga- tions on this point would be interesting, we can scarcely hope to realize from them one of the fancies of Dr. Franklin, that of sending representatives of one age down to another to keep alive more actively the sympathies of the present with the past? The depth to which ground is frozen in some places, from year to year, is also an indication of the severity of the seasons; the effect of cold, however, will penetrate very differently in dry or moist soil; in the first it will depend entirely on the conducting power of the mate- rial, and in the second, it will also depend upon the amount of water to be congealed. The conducting capacity being the same, the depth to which the given degree of cold will penetrate will be much greater in dry than in wet soil, on account, of the great amount of latent heat given off by the water before it is solidified. In dry conducting soil, the propagation of cold downwards may continue some time after the surface of the ground has become considerably heated. In a conducting body, all parts tend to an equilibrium of tempera tureé. If the upper end of a vertical iron bar be heated, and then removed from the source of heat, it gradually becomes cooled, while the other parts increase in temperature, until gradually an equilibrium is established; conversely, if we cool the upper end of the bar, it will take heat from the next lower part; and this from the next, and so on, until the cooling reaches the extreme end, which will be cooled last. If, before the cooling has reached the lower end, we heat the upper part, the next below will be heated, and so on, pro- ceeding downwards; thus waves, as it were, of heat and cold may be sent through the length of the bar, becoming less and less in in- tensity as they descend. In this way explanations have been given of the phenomenon of caverns colder in summer and warmer in winter— the cold wave due to a lower temperature requiring six months to reach the point of observation. The freezing of the ground in certain soils is hurtful to vegetation; the frozen stratum, expanding irregularly from pelow, heaves up the surface, and frequently loosens or breaks the roots of the plant. A covering of snow is a protection, since this substance, from its floc- culent nature and the air entangled in it, is a bad conductor of heat. As a general rule, during cold weather a thermometer in air on the snow will exhibit a lower temperature than one under the same material at the surface of the ground. This effect, however, is not entirely due to the screening influence of the covering, but in part to the fact that the intense rays of the heat of the sun, as well as those of the light of the same body, penetrate the crystals of the snow as they do the glass covering of a hot-house, and, absorbed by the dark ground beneath, elevate the temperature. For the same reason in 506 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. bright days the snow next the slate roof of a house is seen to melt, while the upper surface remains unaffected. There is a singular phenomenon observed during the spring of the vear in damp, sandy places, which has attracted much attention, namely, the ice-columns which spring from the earth during cold nights, ele- vating small gravel-stones on their tops, and raising, as it were, above its usual level the general surface of the ground. These crystals have been carefully studied by Professor John Le Conte, and appear to be due to the law we have before mentioned of the axis of crystallization being always at right angles to the surface of cooling, as well as to the attraction of the water for itself, and the consequent excluding effect of all extraneous bodies. The water of which these crystals are formed is drawn up from below by capillarity; is frozen as it comes up to the surface in vertical prismatic crystals; a new portion is drawn between the bases of the crystals first formed and the ground, which is also frozen; and so on the process is continued until stopped by the failure of moisture, or the increase of the temperature due to the advancing heat of the day. The next subject in order, of which we intended to treat, was that of the vapor of water in the atmosphere; but this is of so important a character in its connection with all the phenomena of the fitful changes of the weather, and the peculiarity of climate, and agricul- tural products of a country, that justice cannot be done to it within the limits assigned to meteorology in this Report, and therefore we shall defer it until next year. ntitude⸗ Houls 1 frost il (ORXIS 1 — — Tbermomet Therm'r ey Rain, incht — * Latitude, 0f obse in aute — — Thermon Therm'r Rain, inc METEOROLOGV. 507 MEAN AND EXTREME TEMPERATURES, WIITH THE AMOUNT OF RAIN FALLEN AT DIFFERENT POINTS, DURING THE YEAR 1857. AIKIN, S0UTH CAROLINA. Tatitude, 330 32 N.; longitude, 810 34/ W. Flevation above tide-water, 565 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 7; earliest frost in autumn, November 19; period without frost, 225 days. Observer, Jonx H. CoRNISH. Dan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct.(Nov. Dec. Annual. Weneneden 33. 73 58.86 51.58 55.69 68.85 77.50 76.40 79.56 75.13 61.87 32,86 51,23 02. 11 66 92 d, 92 90 178 4 Therm'r extremes. 8 21 33 66 64 69 55 4 19 31[.... 50 Rain, inches.... 0. 70 3.18 2.23 4.11 2.22 5,15 6.95 0.17 0.81 1.97 4234 38. 15 ALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA. Latitude, 38⁰ 48/ N.; longitude, 770 01/ W. Elevation above tide-water, 56 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 p. M. Latest frost in spring, April 6; earliest frost in autumn, October 22; period without frost, 198 days. Observer, BENJAMIN HALLOWELL. Apr. May. June July. Aug. gept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 23.59 42.23] 40. 4 ½ 47 51 63.38 74.04 76.31] 75.65 6 89 3 Jan. Feb. Mar. 4 7.34 55.75 45.50] 42 93 54. 59 40 75 84 90 A A a eere e. Tnerm'r extremes.) 6 11 2. 42 85 358 70, 34, e...... Rain, inches....... 3.05 0.49 2.42 4.45 4.86 4.54 5.30 2.30 1.93 5.44 37.66 . AMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS. Latitude, 420 22˙ N.; longitude, 720 34/ W. Elevation above tide- kater, 267 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 8; earliest frost in autumn, September 7; period without frost, 151 days. Observer, Professor E. S8. SNELL. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jan. June.] July. Aug. Sept. Oet. Nov. Dec. Annual. 63.30 70. 63 67.23] 59.83] 48.63 38.90] 31.62 46. 18 Thnermometer, mean. 3. 50 31.46 31.34 41.04 56.75 69 54.5 55 85) 81 90 99 86 76 67 52[„.... Therm'r extremes.. 1—- 3 4 114 40 49 53 V 54 32 2 3 2..... Rain, inches..... 3.54 2.40 2.12 7.68 6.81 2.66 4.98 3.14 3.03 3.87 2.06 5.31 47.56 ANNAPOLIS, MARYLANDP. Latitude, 380 58 N.; longitude 760 29" W. Elevation above tide-water, 20 feet. Hours of observation, 7. 4. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 7; earliest frost in autumn, October 21; period without frost, 196 days. Observer, WIIIIAM B. GOODMAN. Jan. Te. Mar. V Apr. May. June. July. Au V 44.81 823 07 71. 21 75.58] 74.92 68.76 55.88] 44.70 42.20 53. 44 68 94 90 95 89 71 71 60 25 83 56 43 31 3. 68 6.32 8. 589 6 19 5 96 1.53 3.43 1 g. Sept. Oet. Noy. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 23. Therm'r extremes. 6 69 6 — Rain, inches 2.97 6 50 15 V 20... 1.67 7 6.44 51.64 39.60 38. 31/4 508 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. AUGUSTA, ILLLINOIS. Latitude, 400 12/ N.; longitude, 870 45 W. FElevation above tide-water, 200 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 19; earliest frost in autumn, October 20; period without frost, 183 days. Observer, S. B. MEap, M. D. Jan. rov. Wru. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oet. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 11.59 35·96 32.43 39.49 57.61] 68.40 76.21 71,56 66.57 50.27 59, 9 35.03 48.07 45 62 68 69 85 88 98 92 88 75 6: 56 Therm'r extremes., 23— 8—2 15 36 52 58 50 41 24 2 17 Rain, inches 0.39 4.80 2.55 0. 88 2.03 3.70 1.44 4.10 2.72 2.32 2.43 1.36 . BATTLE CREEK, MIOHIGAN. Latitude, 420 20 N.; longitude, 850 10/ W. Elevation above tide-water, 750 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 20; carliest frost in autumn, October 3; period without frost, 165 days. Observer, W. M. CaMPBEII, M. D., Jan. Feb. Mar. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oet. Nov. Dec. Annual Apr. Thermometer,mean. 14,01 32.,37 30.68 33,43 54.58 66.21 72 61 79:24 63.82 47.59 32.24 33.08. 46.32 36 58 58 63 85 32 90 69 7i 62 54[....... Therm'r extremes.) 26—3—2 18 34 48 56 53 41 26- 16 6 BB Rain, inches...... 1,12 5.83 1.15 1.73 3.13 3.26 4.87 4.40 1.18 1.05 2.31 1.20 31. 23 1 BELLEVUE, I0WA. Latitude, 420 15 N.; longitude, 900 25/ W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 p. M. Latest frost in spring, April 28; earliest frost in autumn, September 23; period without frost, 147 days. Observer, JoHN C. Fokx. Jan. Peb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean.] 4.26 26.46] 27.17 35,61 54. 54 68.45 21, 69.68 64 39 48.86 29. 95 30.39 44.57 4 37 46 58 60 84 88 97 92 87 75 60 52 Therm'r extremes.]—32. 52 50 33 20— 6 12...... Rain, inches..... 0.95 4.80 1.90 1.83 4.19 3.92 3.51 5.27 2.47 2.47 3.57 1. 17 36.05 BELOTT, WISCONSIN. Latitude, 420 30 N.; longitude, 870 04' W. Elevation above tide-water, 750 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, May 12; earliest frost in autumn, October 19; period without frost, 159 days. Observer, Professor WILLIAM PORTRR. 2 * Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Noy. Dec. Aunual. ar. Feb. Thermometer, mean. 6,99 27.76 28.59 36.32 22 60 65.25 5 66 8 V 72.97 67.78 62.38 47.34 29.95 31.37 44. 11 40 52 64 4 G9 95 93 86 75 61 532... Therinr extremes.-- 25—8— 6 12 29 46 57 53 33 23 AN2o 15... Rain, inches.. 7 1.33 2.80 4.23 4.35.63 5.42 1.91 3.91 1.92 1.05 Iom les t 1,L, .Arne METEOROLOGV. 509 BERRYVILLE, VIRGINIA. Latitude, 390 09 N.; longitude, 780 W. Flevation above tide-water, 575 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 7; earliest frost in autumn, September 7; period without frost, 152 days. Observer, Miss EIIEN KoOuUNSLAR. 462 Dec. Annual. June. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. — Tnermometer, mean. 21.77 40.62 37.96 43.59 58.80 69.87 70.15 70.81 63.70 52,63] 41.50 38.70¹ ꝑ50. 84 39 67 71 66 79 86 88 91 89 72 76 69 Therm'r extremes. 12 13 24 40 57 54 55 41 31 II 22....... Rain, mnches...... 2.95 0,9 1.72 3.03 5.88 6.20 3.96 3.01 1.81] 1.03] 1.73 5.70 38.61. BRIGHTON, ILLINOIS. Latitude, 390 N.; longitude, 900 13/ W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 p. M. Latest frost in-spring, April 20; earlicst frost in autumn, September 23; period with- out frost, 155 days. Observer, WILIIAM V. ELDRIDGE. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 15.24 37.85 35.08 37.31] 60.80 76.52 85.40 83.95] 72.09 52.63 31.57] 33.79 51.85 71 68 64 89 92 106 99 89 81 59 64. 0 7 19 34 50 68 70 35 27 1 16.. 2.40 1.70 1.40 1.40 2.40 1.00 1.50 0.70 0.40 2.30 1.30 17.73 Jan. Feb. Mar. Therm'r extremes. 413 Rain, inches 1. 23 BURLINGTON, NEW JERSEVY. Latitude, 400 N.; longitude, 750 12 W. Flevation above tide-water, 26 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 8; earliest frost in autumn, November 4; period without frost, 209 days. Observer, E. R. SoHMipr, M. D. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annuai. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. ———— Thermometer, medn. 20.26 37,.92 36.85 43.29 58. 91 8271 72.84 71.66 64.69 54.33 42.72 38.136 50. 75 39 66 8 6 6i1 65 8i 90 gi 383 6i... Jan. Therm'r eéxtremes.) 15 6 7 20 43 53 54 56 43 Rain, inches R4. 25 2.96 1.92 6.03 5.70 6.55 5.88 6.76 1.80 . 14 17 3.24 1.50 5.18 51.80 3 caMDEN, sourH CAROLINA. Latitude, 340 17/ N.; longitude, 800 33, W. Flevation above tide-water, 275 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 à.4 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 25; carliest frost in autum, October 1; period without frost, 158 days. Observer, J. A. Youxd, M. D. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Ocet. Nov. Dec. „an. Peb. Mar. Apr. 7 5 92 ter, mean. 32. 14 55.14 47.67 54.26 67.63] 77 24 76.00 77.84 73.79 58.93 50.76 48.89 39.93 Thermometets mean 9 78 80 78 86 95 90 93 79 99 77 37 17 22. Therm'r extremes.] 6 235 16 35 51 64 63 6 3 47. Rain, incheg.....** 4.07 1.33 3.18 2.63 3.83 2.67 6.90 8796 0.90 1.30 1.06 4.838 141.68 510 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. CANONSBURG, PENNSVLVANIA. Latitude, 400 25/ N.; longitude, 800 07/ W. Elevation above tide-water, 936 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 24; earliest frost in autumn, October 1; period without frost, 179 days. Observer, Professor WIILIAM SMILTH. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aus. sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 17.79 41.58 35.81 39.81 56.25 65.48] 69.76 69.39 65.19 50.60/ 38.87 34.66 48. 77 40 67 68 65 80 82 8⁶ 86 85 71 76 588.. — 6 12 8 18 38 48 44 32 11 26. .4 Therm'r extremes. 55 57 1.55] 1.91 1.29 2.16 5.73 5 8 4. 45 4.48 2.91 3.61 3.73 3.50 40. 83 Rain, inches. 1 CARLOWVILLE, ALABAMA. Latitude, 320 10˙ N.; longitude, 870 15“ W. Flevation above tide-water, 300 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 y. M. Latest frost in spring, April 7; earliest frost in autumn, November 20; period without frost, 226 days. Observer, H. L. Allsox, M. D. 7 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 1. Thermometer, mean. 38. 86 59.31 53.20 58.11] 69.74 78.98 77.93 79.24 75.05 61 64 52.40 55.19 63.30 Therm'r extremes 79 8⁰ 5 92 91 89 81 78 80 3 27 30 32 52 60 6²2 70 59 42 26 38.. Rain, inches 4. 77 2.10 4.87 4.88 6.75] 2.05 4 96 6.92 1.32 0. 85 3.90 3.87 47.44 CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA. Latitude, 320 46 N.; longitude, 800 W. Elevation above tide-water, 30 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, March 3; earliest frost in autumn, November 20; period without frost, 267 days. Observer, JosEPH JoHNSON, M. D. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 4 Thermometer, mean. 40. 75 58.39 53.61 58.31 71.03 79.38 78.30 80.15 76.02 63. 31] 57.87] 57.46 64.55 76 87 88 87 77 8 7 eee 7 Therm'r extremes.; 1 37 54 70 64 68 57 46 20 39...... Rain, inches..*...⸗⸗ 1⸗60 1.35 2.50 3.95 2.25 2.86 9.57 2.25 1.21 2.32 2.87 5.35 38.12 OHROMEDALE, PENNSYLVANIA. Latitude, 390 55/ N.; longitude, 750 25/ W. Blevation above tide-water, 196 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 pP. M. Latest frost in spring, April 16; earliest frost in autumn, September 24; period without frost, 160 days. Observer, JoskPH EpwARps. lan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. f. June. July. V Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. V Dec. Annual. 3 Thermometer, menm h, 37.16 34.96 42.20 58.95 68.52 73.79 70.87 63.46 52.52 40,8987,83 50. 10 2 63 83 84 89 89 72 74 62 4 66 60 Thewnor oxtremes.“ 5 63 5o„ 21l 40 31l ed e e ie en 13 ſ.eee ee:, Rain, inches..... 2.66 1.38 1.55 5.65 5.33 6.39] 1.97 8.26 1.03 3.72] 1.51 162 4.14 16:3 4 Thermol- Tnenn Rain, iht — Thermo Thenn Rain, i ——— 8 89 e, Ann — 6 kb 1„ana METEOROLOGY. 511 CINCINNATI, OHIO. Latitude, 390 06 N.; longitude, 840 27 W. Elevation above tide-water, 540 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 17; earliest frost in autumn, November 10; period without frost, 206 days. Observer, GEOROE W. HARPER. Feb. Mar. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept.- Oet. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 21.42 43.57 40.40 44.68 61.31] 71.76 77,84] 76.47 71,58 55.82 42.17 41.83 54.07 44 75 7 92 hi 95 5 9i] 85 71 63.. Tnermner extremes.— 10 10 12 21 38 56 J. 57 58 45 33 12 25. Rain, inches.... 6.53 1.98 0.76 2.72 5.53 3.08 2.50 2.92 0.75 4.92 5.36 3. 82 34.88 Jan. CRAFTSBURY, VERMONT. Latitude, 440 40 N.; longitude, 720 30" W. Elevation above tide-water, 1,100 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, May 12; earliest frost in autumn, September 19; period without frost, 129 days. Observer, JaMEs A. PADpDOCOK.. 7 Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 1 1 4 Thermometer,mean. 3,9 23.89 2,24 36,5,] 5910 ei 67.26 3us 55.35 43.57 32,97 22.730% 39.96 458 54 79 76 si 30 6z 61 40... Tnerm'r extremes.— 34- 21— 6 43 52 50 34 26 2 8....... 5716 55 2.23 4.54 2.25 3 80 47. 10 . 2 256 3 Rain, inches......- 2.90 3.31 2.53 4.75 4.00 5.68 1 CRICHTON'S STORE, VIRGINIA. Latitude, 360 40 N.; longitude, 770 46' W. Elevation above tide-water, 500 feet. Latest frost in spring, April 25; earliest frost in autumn, October 1; period without frost, 158 days. Observer, Lieutenant R. F. AsTRoss. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May. June. Thermometer, mean. 31,57 52.59 47,83 52,56 67.57 80.08 78.40 80.25 71.71 59.36 50.59 48.95 60.12 inermr exi 50] 77 7i 74 8à 959 91 96 92 74 82 74....... ermer extremes. 8 25 26 32 45 359 56 65 51 38.23 30[... ,. Rain, inches......·- 0.90 0.31 1.55 2.30 4.05 3.09 11.46 1.06 3.68 1.50 1.22 2.97 34.09 11 EASTON, PENNSYLVANIA. Latitude, 400 43/ N.; longitude, 750 16/ W. Elevation above tide-water, 320 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 Py. M. Latest frost in spring, April 17; earliest frost in autumn, October 22; period without frost, 187 days. Observer, SELELEN J. COFTIN.. Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Des. Annual. Thermometer, mean.] 16,22,84.52 35,87 42,60 5662 65,34) 71.57 69.04 61,82 50.24 38,34] 34.63 48. 97 . 36 66 62 64 84 86 89 87 64 73 75 541.... Therm'r extremes.) 14.5 4 10 19 39 51 52 51 36 31 9 7... Rain, inches........ 2 1.70 1,04 5.74 7.34 5.76 3.94 3.46 1.07 3.15 1.48 5.26 43.26 512 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. FLATBUSH, NEW YORK. Hours Latitude, 400 37/ N.; longitude, 740 01 W. Elevation above tide-water, 54 feet. of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, May 1; earliest frost in autumn, September 30; period without frost, 151 days. Observer, Rev. R. D. VAN KLPOK. Jan. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. aea July. Aur. Sept. Thermometer, mean. 19.32 35.10 34.63] 42. 17 55.87] 65.03 71.23] 70.55 63. 23 52.29 2.10 32:2 49.07 67 5 lnemererremer! h e e e e e e ree Rain, inches. 8.45 1.56 2.14 7.49 63 457 6,37 3.81 3,48 33s 4.94 49.72 FREDERICKR CITY, MARVLAND. Latitude, 39° 24/ N.; longitude, 770 18'W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M Latest frost in spring, April 7; earliest frost in autumn, October 1; period without frost, 176 days. Observer, HENRY E. HANSHEw. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 28,60 33,84 44,6 60,71 1.19 es 71.91 64.63 52.66 40.49 38.95] 51.23 6 8 8 86 88 73 73 57 Therm'r extremes. 6 76 3⸗ 2 e e e e e öeee... Rain, inches......-. 1,8 bn 2.29 2.56 7.51 10.72 3,12 2.36 1.27 1.35 1.13 5.76 42.27 Thermometer, mean. 20. 35 GARDINER, MAINE. Latitude, 440 11 N.; longitude, 690 46 W. Elevation above tide-water, 90 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 8; earliest frost in autumn, September 7; period without frost, 151 days. Observer, R. H. GARDINER. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Dec. Annual. 35 36 50 58 81 90 90 87 Therm'r extremes.— 32— 10 4 19 41 50 56 52 Rain, inche 4.22 2.46 4.03 5.30 4. 74 3.58 2.33 5.50 1. 324 42 29 2 eee .. 4. 3.62 4.18 46.21 Thermometer, mean. 12.20 26.82 30.20] 41.65] 56.57 61.46 71.38 66.59 59..54 47. 37.63 24. 83 44. 77 57 13 GETTYSBURG, PENNSYLVANIA. Latitude, 390 51˙ N.; longitude, 770 15/ W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 p. M. Latest frost in spring, April 22; earliest frost in autumn, October 21; period without frost, 181 days. Observer, Professor M. JACOBs. 1 3 May. June July. Aug. Sept. Ocet. Nov. Dec. Annual. phermometer, menn. 16,82 35,93 34,69, 41399 60,25 69,15 73,58 71.67, 63,78 53.25 38,16 35:97 49.73 27.40 70 66 73 a8s 50 91 96 90 87 76h 385....... Therm'r extremes.) 20— 13 6 21 41 53 55 53 41 25 4 16 Rain, inches.. g0.600.77 1.80 3.12 6.23 7.44 3.53 1.97 1.39 1.12 2.30 3.94 38.22 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. Ihermomete Therm'r ex Rain, inche 1 Latitude, Tdermom Thermr Dz„ Rain, ine Latitue Late frost — 1a 4 1411A 14015ℳ .497 — METEOROLOGV. 513 HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA. Latitude, 400 16/ N.; longitude, 760 50 W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 p. M. Latest frost in spring, April 7; earliest frost in autumn, November 15; period without frost, 221 days. Observer, Jonx HEIsELEY, M. D. 4 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, wean enn 37.77 38.79 45.71 61.88 71.58 77.11] 74.51 68.14 55.64 43.47 39.82 52.93 mernore 8 63 e wi wi i e e e...ee. Therm'r extremes.¹— i2 1 14 26 43 57 38 59 4 35 19 26 ſeile... Rain, inches......- 1.2 ⸗ ⸗ 2.80 8.03 11.20 3.23 2.93 3.09 1,18 1.00 5.67—* HIIISBOROUGH, OHIO. Latitude, 390 13/ N.; longitude, 830 300 W. Flevation above tide-water, 1,000 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, May 12; earliest frost in autumn, September 29; period without frost, 139 days. Observer, JosrPH MoD. MATHEws. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 48.90 Thermometer, mean. 17.55] 41.33 35.16] 40.62 56.28 66.04 69.88 69.46 64.44 50.67 37.48 37.92 66 69 58.. Therm'r extremes. 41,7 6⸗ 73⁸ 69 81 85 8⸗ 85 52 5 5.5 20 353 50 53 52 41 32 9 20. Rain, inches 1. 73 21. 19 1.05 3.03 4.90 5.43 4.92 4.71 0.100 3.99 4.81 3.55 41.23 HIRAM, OHIO. Latitude, 410 20/ N.; longitude, 810 15 W. Flevation above tide-water, 675 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, May 18; earliest frost in autumn, September 22; period without frost, 126 days. Observer, S. M. LorHnh. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 13.43 38.04 31.68 37,.06 53. 84 64.62 70.62 67.29 63.88 48.82 34.52 35.80 Therm'r extremes 37 64 66 63 84 86 88 85 86 70 65.. 1— 9 3 4 18 31 50 53 54 40 30 5 241411.. Rain, inche 27 3. 45 0.80 2.78 3.96 5.80 5.14 2.49 1.54 4.33 4.44 2 LAWRENCE, MASSACHUSETTS. Latitude, 420 42/ N.; longitude, 710 11 W. Bours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 p. M. Latest frost in spring, April 8; earliest frost in autumn, September 7; period without frost, 151 days. Observer, JoHN FALLON. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 1, o4 32.97 32.11 31.73 54. 19 62.43 70.98 69.34 59.82 48.29 40.23 31.57 45.94 54 67 55 65 86 82 91 91 86 65 70 52[....... Therm'r extremes.) 25— 6 5 13 36 47 51 51 3 25 13...... Rain, inches.......ẽ 0.52/ 2.07 3.48 9.85 4.82 2.86 4.88 6.29 2.65 5.98 2.35 4.84 56.60 1 514 Latitude, 400 45 sunset. Earliest frost in autumn, October 17. AGRICULTURAL REPORT. LOGANSPORT, INDIANA. Observer, CHARLS B. LASSELLE. N.; longitude, 860 14' W. Hours of observation, sunrise, noon, and Jan. Feb. Thermometer, mean. Therm'r extremes. Rain, inches. 66 89 41 June. July. Aug. 73 72 99 96 5 46 1 4.50 2.75 4.38 Nov. Dec. Annual. 35 36 48 65 60... — 1 22.. 3.24 2.00 39.86 LOWVILLE, NEW NORK. Latitude, 430 46 N.; longitude, 750 38/W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, May 12; carliest frost in autumn, September 7; period without frost, 117 days. of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. in autumn, October 8; period without frost, 128 days. Jan. Feb. June. July. Aug. Nov. Dec. Annual Thermometer, mean. 5. 42 20. 70] 24.80 58.17 66. 32 62.54 35,00 29.10 41.66 Therm'r extremes.¹- 3a 14 3 50 43 74.[.. Rain, inches 1.61 4.80 3.14 4.35 1.42 4. 96 5.15 4.69 47.32 MaADISON, OHIO. Latitude, 410 52/ N.; longitude, 810 W. Elevation above tide-water, 650 feet. Hours Latest frost in spring, May 12; earliest frost Observer, ADEILIA CUNNINGHAM. Jan. Feb. June. July. Aug. Sept. Nov. Dec. Tnhermometer, mean. 15 90 858,60 64.35 7.4 67.61 62. 62 35.30 35. 19 58 88 95 92 88 65 56 Therm'r extremes.) 9 1 46 5⁴ 52 3 18 Rain, inches... 1.93 4.44 7.25 6.07 3.26 8.40 2.78 Annual. 46.60 . MANCHESTER, ILLINOIS. Latitude, 390 33 N.; longitude, 900 34 W. Elevation above tide-water, 683 feet. Hours Latest frost in spring, April 23; earliest frost of observation, 7 A. M. and 1 and 9 p. M. in autumn, September 23; period without frost, 152 days. Observer, JoHlN N. GRANT. Jan. Feb..June. nu. Aug Thermometer, mean. 14.05 36.24 57.84 67.67 74.82 70.97 Therm'r extremes. 3 7 55 95 85 52 Rain, inche 6. 85 6.91 3.84 2.28 4. 52 Nov. Dec. 34.86 35.36 65 58 3.83 1.35 1 Annual. . Thermom Thermte Ruin, inel — Iatitud Hours frost THIOE — Themon Therm'r Rain, in Therm Therm Nain, i — — Them Them Riin, — d 9I vithou 144461 Hous est fo 14II METEOROLOGX. 515 MILWAUKIE, WISCONSIN. Latitude, 430 04 N.; longitude, 870 57/ W. Elevation above tide-water, 593 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, May 11; earliest frost in autumn, October 19; period without frost, 160 days. Observer, C. WIRKLER, M. D. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. Nov. Dec. Annual. May. V June. July. Aug. V Sept. Oct. 7.75 27.72 27.03 33. 32 49.19 61.01 68.89 67. 4 61.04 46.81 29 57 30,71. 42.55 34 49 49 54 84 85 88 93 87 69 57 44 24 — 19— 12— 3 15 27 51 53 39— 3 7 3.41 3.14 3.l 2.73 2.96 1.50 1.70 Thermometer, mean Therm'r extremes. Rain, inehes....... 1.85 1.20 3.69 4.60 MEADVIIILE, PENNSYLVANIA. Latitude, 410 39, N.; longitude, 800 11 W. Elevation above tide-water, 1, 088 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, May 11; earliest frost in autumn, September 23; period without frost, 134 days. Observer, T. F. THIOKSTUN. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee. Annual. Tnhermometer, mean. 13.56 36.23 30,24 36.88 54.39 64. 82 72.02 56.77 62.36 48.50 34.42 34.16 45.36 0 5 88 92 72 4 66 55..... Therm'r extremes.]— 12— 4 3 16 52 50 40 30— 10 14..... 32 45. Rain, incheg 2 12 3.15 1.92 3.70 3.40 8.57 4.39 3.89 1.95 5.40 0.96 4.75 44. 35 NORRISTOWN, PENNSYLVANIA. Latitude, 400 08/ N.; longitude, 750 19⸗W. Elevation above tide-water, 153 feet. Hours of observatiop, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 7; earliest frost in autumn, September 30; period without frost, 175 days. Observer, Rev. J. GRIER RALSTON. p Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 20.28 37.50 35.97 41.90 56.39 66.33] 71.70 69.91 62.80 51.85 41.29 39.10 49.58 37 60 61 81 87 87 88 80 71 74 65.. Therm'r extremes.)— 16 6.5 10 21 40 53 42 32 14 20..... 52 53 20 Rain, inches 3.36 0.89 1.46 6.84 6.77 6.600 2.72 6.77 1.71 3.34 1.69 6.90 47.55 MORRISVILLE, PENNSVYI.VANIA, Latitude, 402 12/ N.; longitude, 740 53, W. Elevation above tide-water, 30 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 p. M. Latest frost in spring, May 13; earliest frost in autumn, September 30; period without frost, 139 days. Observer, EBENEZIR HANC. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean 18.95 36.69 35.49 43.08 57.67 66.23 71.46] 69.98 63.47 52.50 42.32 37.53 49.61 36 3 2 3 5 Therl: 79 60 64 82 86 89 90 81 72 73 7..... nerm'r extremes.]— 17 4 7 20 40 54 52 56 44 33 14 14........ Rain, inches..... 2.60 1.00 1.20 6.60 5.80 7.80 4.10 8.00 1.40 1 2.90 1.20 5.20 47.80 ” 516 Latitude, 41⁰0 26 N.; longitude, of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. AGRICULTURAL REPORT. MUsSCATINE, IOWA. in autumn, October 19; period without frost, 135 days. 910 05 W. Flevation above tide-water, 586 feet. Hours Latest frost in spring, June 5; earliest frost Observer, T. S. PARVIN. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oet. Nov. Dec. Annudl. Thermometer, mean. 6,.23 * 8 Therm'r, extremes.,— 30 Rain, inches 60. 61 28.99 29.02 57 58 — 12— 5 5.70 2.44 NANTUCKET, MASSACHUSETTS. Latitude, 410 16 N.; longitude, 700 06/ W. Elevation above tide-water, 30 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 3; earliest frost in autumn, November 26; period without frost, 137 days. Observer, WILLIAM MITOHELL. Jan. Feb. Mar. Thermometer, mean. 23.76 35.86 35.67 2 Therm'r, extremes. 46, 57 52,5 Rain, inches 6.75 2.20 3.97 Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 68.44 63.98 54.67 48.91] 40.211 49.86 84 74 64 56.. 58 49 38 22 21 7.03 2.51 3.25 2.22 5.14 49.87 NEW BEDFORD, MASSACHUSETTS. Latitude, 410 39 N.; longitude, 700 56/ W. Elevation above tide-water, 90 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. in autumn, October 22; period without frost, 196 days. Latest frost in spring, April 8; earliest frost Observer, SAMUEE RODMAN. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oet. Nov. Dec. Annual. ee Thermometer, mean. 18.58 33.07 32.84 41.24 53.60 62.42 69.57] 67.99 61.33 51,99 43.17 35.99 47.65 „— 40 57 56 56 81 81 86 88 78 7 66 53.. Therm't, extremes. uo 1 o ie 41 53 53 57 38 3b l5 l1...e2; Rain, inches. 5.51 1.64 2.24 5.35 3.29 2.05 4.10 3.50 2.06 2.34 1.64 4.88 38.60 NEWARK, NEW JERSEV. Latitude, 400 45 N.; longitude, 740 10/W. Elevation above tide-water, 30 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 6 p. M. autumn, November 12; period w Latest frost in spring, April 18; earliest frost in ithout frost, 207 days. Observer, W. D. WHITEHEAD. Thermometer, mean 19.33 37 Therm'r, extremes. 12 Rain, inches. J. 83 Peb. Mar. 35.97 35.81 68 60 7 8.5 1.50 1.99 Apr. May. June. July. 57.25 65.48] 71.76 7.16 6.03 5.35 5.68 89 51 4.02 Aug. Sept. Oct. 69.77 62. 80 52.59 41.71] 24.84 81 70 73 57 39 33 16 3.81 3.95 Nov. Dec. Annual. 48.39 11.. 9.87 5.79 V 49.37 ¹ Therm Tberm Rain, i — ——— t. Uun lest in t. Reun dliest ke ME ee. Annu A 4 t Er METEOROLOGV. 517 NEW HARMONY, INDIANA. Latitude, 380 08 N.; longitude, 870 50 W. Elevation above tide-water, 320 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 15; earliest frost in autumn, October 20; period without frost, 187 days. Observer, JoHN CHAPPEIISMITH. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. gune. July. Aug. Sept. Ocet. Nov. Dec. Annual. Twarhommeer, ms) 0, 4, 45.90 40.00 44.00 61.20 71.47 76.77 75.79 69.89 51.68 41.10 40.856 53.26 aun„ 48 69 74 69 84 91 92 91 88 76 1 63⁰..... Iherm rextremes.) 13 12 14 28 41 66 5s 61 4 ½ 29 li 263...... Rain, inches 1.10 3.49 0.48 2.86 3.35 5.56 3.74 6.60 1.91 0.96 6.81 2.80 39.66 NEW LONDON, CONNECTICUT. Latitude, 410 32“N.; longitude, 720 03 W. Elevation above tide-water, 90 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 7; earliest frost in autumn, October 21; period without frost, 197 days. Observer, Rev. T. EpwARps, D. D. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Lept. Oet. Nov. Dec. Annual. TLermmomerer,mcan. 18,97 33.80 33.76 42.38 53.87 62.22 69.30 69.98 62,1 52.94 42.62 35, 13 48. 17 9 66 55 60 76 82 84 90 83 73 66.. V 15 ſer. Therm'r extremes.) 16 4 8 18 41 52 53 58 44 6 Rain, inches..... 2 7 2.60 6.25 4.61 3.43 6.13 4.66 2 4.18 2.20 4151 32 15 Y. NEW LONDON, WISCONSIN. Latitude, 440 21˙N.; longitude, 880 45 W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 Py. M. Latest frost in spring, May 19; earliest frost in autumn, September 20; period without frost, 124 days. Observer, J. EVvERETT BRRRD. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Ocet. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 4.18 31.54 25.36 35.68, 51.13 61.02 71.78 64.98 60,17] 43.72 27.51] 26.68 41.11 4 34 45 56 66 86 92 08 6 5 85 75 52 42[....... Therm'r extremes. 28- 23— 10 16 25 42 56 46 37— 23— l!1— 4.. Rain, inches..... 15.75 2.92 2.48 2.50 3.61 2.62 2.45 4.38 1.69 1.99 1.85 OTTOWA, ILLINOIls. Latitude, 410 20˙N.; longitude, 880 47/ W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 y. M. Latest frost in spring, May 11; earliest frost in autumn, September 29; period without frost, 140 days Observer, J. 0. HaARRIS, M. D. —— ⸗ Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oet. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 9.76 31.43 29.98, 37.10 54. 35 66.63 73.98 70.04 63.38 49.07 31.86 33.01 45.88 87 2 1 Therm'r extremes.— 16 4 L7 16 32 44 58 52 35 22— 4 17........ 45 3.06 1.42 3.65 3.95 3.97 6.10 0.89 2. 68 2.95 11.24 Rain, inches. 7 4. 518 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. PENN YAN, NEW NORK. Latitude, 420 42 N.; longitude, 770 11 W. Elevation above tide water, 740 feet. Hours of observation, sunrise, and 2 P. M. and sunset. Latest frost in spring, May 18; earliest frost in autumn, September 20; period without frost, 124 days. Observer, H. P. SrARTWIT, M. D. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 15.09 33.68 30.60 37.75 52.037 61.49 72.67 65.79] 60.77] 46.12 38.17 34.44 45. 74 36 65 54 85⁵ 92 Therm'r, extremes.¹18 2 1 11 24 43 49 47 36 23 9 16... ain, inches...e=- 6.1 1.13 1.09 4.79 3.37 1.15 2.81 4.87 1.63 6.56 4.21 2.12 44.90 PEORIA, ILLLINOIS. Latitude, 400 36/ N.; longitude, 890 30/ W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 19; earliest frost in autumn, October 20; period without frost, 183 days. Observer, FREDERICK BREMNDEII, M. D. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 13.44 35.06 33.58 40.60 58.90 70.91] 78.38, 74.27 68.84 52.18 35.19 35.24 49. 72 43 59 89 90 99 95 90 73 63 54. Tbermr,ektremes. 16—17—1 18 36 53 59 30 45 25— 2 18...... Rain, inches..... 0.37, 5.32 3.84 1.39 2.80 2.77 B1.40 5.61 2.16 2.91 1.28 1.50 30.45 PERRXY, MAINE Latitude, 450 N.; longitude, 67°0 06 W. Elevation above tide-water, 100 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 30; earliest frost in autumn, October 1; period without frost, 153 days. Observer, WIILIAM D. DANA. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 15.89 26.79 28 43 37.74 48.31 54.90 62.64 60.76 55.66 46.20 36.89 27.40 41 80 38 56 82 80⁰ 62 54 4... Therm'r, extremes.—19 10 5 15 33 44 50 50 35 28 6 9 0 Rain, inches 4. 90 6. 11 7 7.20 3.50 4.70 3.70 6.40 3.20 7.10 3.60 4.20 PERRYSBURG, OHIO. Latitude, 410 39/N.; longitude, 830 40/ W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, May 11; earliest frost in autumn, October 20; period with- out frost, 161 days. Observer, D. K. HorIENBEOK. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oet. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermemeter, mean. 16,39 38.19 36 69 41,25 57.42 70.31, 75.30, 72,00 66 58 50.90 36,50 37.522 49 92 48 68 67 665 84 89 9²2 90 96h 74 70 64..... Thermor, extremes.-—i3 4 3 23 32 51 65 52 45 25— 7 21[........ Latitu- of 0 in à KII — — Thermol Therm'r Rain, in — Latito Late fros ec. Amu. t. Buw diest hs D — c. AEnnd METEOROLOGV. 519 PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA. Latitude, 390 57 N.; longitude, 75 11/ W. Elevation above tide-water, 60 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A M. and 2 and 9 P M. Latest frost in spring, April 7; earliest frost in autumn, October 21; period without frost, 196 days. Observer, Professor JAMEs A. KIRKPATRICK. Aug. Sepi. Oet. Nov. Dec. Annual. 77.26 5 27 69.17 56.19 45.86 41,03 53. 46 38 68 63 64 85 76 77 63 xtr 90⁰ v. Therm'r extremes. 5 9 10 23 42 55 56 61 45 36 20] 21 Rain, inches....... 2.39 0.92 1.7 6.93 6.04 7.43 3.37 8.04 1.13 2. 74 1.38 3.50] 48.45 Jan. Feb. Mar. Ap May. June. July. Thermometer, mean. 20.92 39.94 38.02 45.43 61 20 71.20 5. 5 86 87 ., PLATTEVILLE, WISCONSIN. Latitude, 420 45 N.; longitude, 910 W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in soring, May 11; earliest frost in autumn, September 30; period without frost, 141 days. Observer, J. L. PickARD, M. D. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. — rnermometer, mean. 1.85 24.92 28.41] 36.66] 55.88 58.46] 78,05 72.38 65.82 50.63 28.90] 30.95 45.24 Thermor extremes.] 36 4/7 62 66 94 102 99 90 75 60 50 rm'r extremes.) 25 al—1!1 12 33 50 660 54 38 23 lo, 14.Z; S Rain, inches.....-. 1.30 2245 1,48 2.11 4.40 3.97 3.46 3.57 5.08 2.49 2.52 1.99 34.82 Jan. POC08SON, PENNSYLVANIA. Latitude, 390 54 N.; longitude, 750 37/ W. Flevation above tide-water, 218 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A M. and 2 and 9 P M. Latest frost in spring, April 16; earliest frost in autumn, September 24; period without frost, 160 days. Observer, FENELON DAR- LINGTON. —˖.— Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. ——y— Jan. Sept. Oet. Nov. Dec. Annual. — 37.65 36.15 42.65 58.45 69.15 74.70 73.22 64,77 52.85 41 84 33,73 50.69 4965 360 e,, eee e t ie eie69 Therm'r extremes.+ 19 7 6 22 40 55 54 57 41 32 12 9 Rain, inches.....---h 3·87 0.94 2.18 5.28 6.96 5.75 2.51 7.17 1.28 4.14 1.42] 5.62 46.72 Thermometer, mean. 19. 15 POMFRET, CONNECTICUT. Latitude, 410 52 N; longitude, 720 23 W. Elevation above tide-water, 596 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A M and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 22; earliest frost in autumn, September 7; period without frost, 137 days. Observer, Rev. D. HpuNr. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oet. Nov. Dec. Annual. —— — 14.95 32.07 30.86] 38.95 52.57 58.84 68.29 65.85] 58.77 48 87 39.33 31.111 45. 04 Thermometer, mean. 14,95 32,07 330 69 ſei 76 d4 85 8) 2Il 6 36..r.... Therm'r extremes.. 15— 3 7 13 37 50 50 54 33 27 12 8[...... 3.42 7 3.09 6.70 4.71 2.35 5,52 5.48 3. 61 3.48 2.94 7.05 2 1 Rain, inches.. 520 Latitude, 430 39 N ; longitude, 700 15 W. Elevation above tide-water, 87 feet. of observation, 7 4. M. and 2 and 9 p. M. in autumn, September 30; period without frost, 153 days. AGRICULTURAL REPORT. PORTLAND, MAINE. Hours Latest frost in spring, April 29; earliest frost Observer, HrNKRY WIIIIS. Jan Feb. — Mar. 5 Apr. Oet. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. Therm'r extremes. Rain, inches. 38 — 25— 11 6.46 1 58 14.06 29.17 62 4 40.31 39. 82 5 5 49.10 39.7 1 30. 07 47 11[ 4 15 44.75 . 49. 56 Latitude, 450 50 N P. M. PRINCETON, MINNESOTA. ; longitude, 930 45 W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 without frost, 106 days. Observer, 0. E. GARRISON. Latest frostĩ in spring, June 5; earliest frost in autumn, September 20; period Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. No Dec. Annual. — Thermometer, mean. 38 12.14 21.41 29.61 53.28 64.75 76.26 69.24 59.81] 46. 40 25.50] 22.72 39.60 3 28 40 50 60 84 92 96 93 9⁰ 72 52 52„ Therm'r extremes.)— 33. 4b— 34 0 33 338 6 6 o... Rain, inche. 2 2.34 1.35 3. 78 3. 42 2 1.04 3.86 3.05 0.79 3.69 2 2 RICHMOND, INDIANA Latitude, 390 47/ N.; longitude, 840 47/ W. Elevation above tide-water, 800 feet. Hours of observation, 7. 4 M. and 2 and 9 p. M. in autumn, September 23; period without frost, 133 days. Latest frost in spring, May 12; earliest frost Observer, JosEPH MoOoRE. Jan. Feb. Mar. Thermomeier, mean. Therm'r extremes. Rain, inches. 18.08 40.95 14.5 15 0.61 3. 88 43 66 Apr. 40.27 1 May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 1 55.06 66.17] 71.70 71.08 61.90 48.60 36,99 36.63 48.48 8 86 60) 3 76 65 55[. ⸗ 33 51 54 351 30 26— 6 18.. 5.99 5.88 1.98 3.48 Y.90 3.51 7.38 2.75 39.54 RUTHVEN, VIRGINIA. Latitude, 370 21˙ N.; longitude, 770 33⸗W. Hours of observation, 7 Latest frost in spring, April 21; earliest frost in autumn, October 13 frost, 162 days. Observer, JuIIAN C. RUFFIN. 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. period without Jan. Thermometer, mean. Therm'r extremes. Rain, inches. 25. 78 44 — 12 3.34 May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oet. Nov. Dec. Annual. 62.45 73.49 74.76 75.30 63.,64 55.08 36.32 42.89 54.69 87 96 91 96 90 76 2 6... 43 52 58 58 45 32 2 222... 6.92 2.63 3.47 2.78 4.72 1.75 V 1.81 4. 07 37.12 1 1 1 Iatitud 0f 01 THO — — Thermom- Term'f Pein, inc — Iatitud obser autu- — — Thermon Therm'¹ Rain, in Then Then Rain, METEOROLOGY. 521 SACRAMENTO, CAIIFORNIA. Latitude, 380 35/ N.; longitude, 1210 40 W. Flevation above tide-water, 49 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, March 23. Observer, THoHAs M. Locax, M. D. 8 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual, V Thermometer, mean..... 49.04 56,43 62.33 66.50 71.93 71.47 63.93 67.93 61,50 58.24 47.38 7 Iexirenes.“..= 29 66 75 8, 936 e e h e ee ſeee Thermvyr extremes.]..- 34 44 48 53 d e e ee e e e eeeee. Rain, inches...... F 4.82 0. 6s 7 0.00 0.35 0.01 7 0.00 0.66 2.40 1.638* SAG HARBOR, NEW YORK. Latitude, 410 N.; longitude, 720 20 W. Flevation above tide-water, 40 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 7; earliest frost in autumn, November 15; period without frost, 221 days. Observer, EPHRAIM N. BRYAN. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 72 36.20 34.89 43.38 56.17 65.43 71.70 71.42 65.21 54.68 45.41 39.47 50.39 — 4 66 58 65 537 634 9 36 45 as 46 75. Therm'r extremes. 6 5 10 19 42 51 52 60 43 36 21 18.. Rain, inches...... 4.36 1.33 2.75 4.97 3.05 1.94 4.44 4.17 1.65 3.80 2.70 2.05 37.21 Thermometer, mean. 20. SAYBROOK, CONNECTICUT. Latitude, 410 18/ N.; ngitude, 720 20/ W. Elevation above tide-water, 10 feet. Hours of observation, 7a M. and 2 and 9 r. M. Latest frost in spring, April 7; earliest frost in autumn, October 21; period without frost, 196 days. Observer, JAMEs RANKIN. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Bune. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. annual. Thermometer, mean. 18.85 31.98 32.02 40.41 52.64 61. 1 68,57 69,45 62,53 53,43 42,30 35,99 47.44 r. 40 50 48 56 74 82 85 76 69 63 50... Thermr extremes.)-12 4 9 20 41 52 57 40 32 15 13...... Rain, inches......·.ẽ 5.14 1.45 2.49 6.55 3.87 3.53 7.37 4,38 2.25 3.88 2,42 6,08*48.57 SHAMOKIN, PENNSYLVANIA. Latitude, 400 45/ N.; longitude, 760 31'W. Elevation above tido-water, 700 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, May 13; earliest frost in autumn, August 25; period without frost, 103 days. Observer, P. FRIEL. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 4 Thermometer, mean. us 80 36.43 33.49 40.43 54.52 63.41 69.69 66.78 60.11 48.51 38.33 35.44 46.70 3 3 8 60 90 92 96 94 86 72 70 59.... Therm'r extremes. 24 43.5⁵. 12 28 V 38 48 39 3* 22 4 12.. Rain inches.... 2.96 1.90 2.50 6.24 10.60 9.76 6.05 4.08 1.91 2.69 2.41 5.91 57.01 3 1 522 AGRIOULTURAL REPORT. SHELBURNE. VERMONT. Latitude, 440 23/ N.; longitude, 730 W. Elevation above tide-water, 150 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, May 11; earliest frost in autumn, October 22; period without frost, 163 days. Observer, GoRGE BLISS. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 62.05 70.97 65.49 57.59 44.40] 36.46 27.46 43. 15 78 91 83 80 64 68 44s8s. 48 53 51 37 27 5ñ ñ.. 54 48 64 8 30. 5.17 6.42 6.54 1.54 5.05 2.00 2.62 48. 16 Therm'r extremes.]— 30— 15— 7 Rain, inches 1.90 4.40 1.61 7.87 3.04 Thermometer,mean. 7.50 23,94 26. 12 39.07 19, ST. AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA. Latitude, 290 48/ N.; longitude, 810 35⁰ W. Elevation above tide-water, 8 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, January 23. Observer, T. B. MAURAN, M. D. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer,mean. S0. 36 62.39 60.72 65.01] 73.60 78,5¹ 78. 99 80.50 80 76 71.20 65.74 65.336 69.46 79 86 85 82 Therm'r extremes. 19 48 41 Rain, inches 6. 58 0.53 5. 18 ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI. Latitude, 280 37 N.; longitude, 900 165 W. Elevation above tide-water, 46 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 19; earliest frost in autumn, Ootober 20; period without frost, 183 days. Observer, A. WIsrIzEüVS, M. D. Aug Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Tnermometer, mean. 19.30] 42.10 39.47 44.44 61. 0 72.68 79.4 78 28 71. 30 54.60 39.07 40.58 33.12 45% 74 74 77 38 92 101 358 93 81 67 55[..... Therm'r extremes.]— 1355 ³%. 10 2²0b. 39 ³2 59 9 4s e e u.eeeee Rain, inches....... 0. 41 7.74 1.80 1.72 4.81 3.71 2.82] 4.15 3.18 3.02 3.80 1.87 39.03 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. SALT PONDS, FLORIDA. Latitude, 240 33/ N.; longitude, 810 486 W. Elevation above tide-water, 4 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 P. M. Period without frost, 365 days. Observer, WIIILIAM C. DENNIS. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 82.08 81.74 83.39 83.53] 74.85 74.67 74.95 75.69 Thermometer, mean. 63.74 67.98 70.35 71.07 77.93 78 87 88 89 89 8³ 85 855 Therm'r, extremes.) 42 30 30 5 85 70 78 1 59 61 Rain, inches... 0.48 0. 74 2 1.44 054 2.90 9.62 3.43 9.11 4.29 1.07 0.72 . 2 Latituodt Hour WIILI Tbermom. Inermne RMin, nel- — Latitud Of obs in aut — Themmon Therm. Rain, in — t. Imm atlnti §II — e. IIn. METEOROLOGXY. 523 SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA. Latitude, 57° 48 N.; longitude, 1220 23 W. Elevation above tide-water, 115 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 P. M. Period without frost, 365 days. Observer, WIIIIAM O. AYRES, M. D. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. sepr. Ocet. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 51.59 51,69 56.19 59.62 57.16 61.12 59.92 59.80 62.33 61.59 56.37 51.77 57.43 92 85. 1 668 68 75 83 78 938 73 97 70 61. Therm'r, extremes., 36 38 47 5l 51 53 53 53 54 32 4t 43........ Rain, inches...... 1.30 4.93 0.81 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.00 7 0. 00 0.24 2.22 3.34 12.97 SAVANNAH, GEORGIA. Latitude, 320 05 N.; longitude, 810 17/ W. Elevation above tide-water, 42 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, March 3; earliest frost in autumn, September 20; period without frost, 200 days. Observer, JoHxN F. PosEx, M. D. 8 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oet. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 11.33 57.83 53.37 59.23 70.50 79,30 76 97 78.88 76.27 62.62 57,50 57.230 64.26 Thermr. e 66 79 80 830 88 97 88 96 92 80 79 78.... ermr, extremes.;, 13 34 29 38 53 68 63 67 57 45 27 88....... Rain, inches....... 1.85 0.95 2.80 2.66 1.25 0.85 10.27 4.74 1.08 3.12 1.03 2.91 33.51 SAVANNAH, OHIO. Latitude, 410 12/ N.; longitude, 820 30/ W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 y. M. Latest frost in spring, June 6; earliest frost in autumn, September 23; period without frost, 108 days. Observer, JoHN INGRAM, M. D. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 14.17 37.01 32.29 38.36 56.76 69.14 74.26]/ 71.33 66.08 50.16 34.59 34.64 48.23 59 6; 74 476 ds 97 0s 08 956 77 695 58.y.. Therm'r, extremes.)-=2bo O 4 18 32 47 54 53 37 23 10 I8.. Rain, inches......-, 1.73 3.40 1.23 2.76 4.34 3.69 5.63 3.63 1.0 5.46 6.60 3.75 44.50 SPRINGDALE, KENTUCKV. Latitude, 380 07 N.; longitude, 850 34' W. Elevation above tide-water, 57 0 feet. Latest frost in spring, April 28; earliest frost in autumn, September 30; period without frost, 184 days. Observer, Mrs. LawRENGCE YOUNG. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 21.24 47.87 40.54 42.68, 58.58 69.69 73,70 73.61 69.59 54,944 41.76 41.59 53,03 1 43, 85) 77 95 93 906 55 93 h 4—...... 414 3 ii is 46 1s 4, s, 3e e ie e ideeeeee. 1,69 3.76 0.50 5.54 5.17 5.17 4.33 4.39 0.87 1.99 5.32 5.00 46.75 Therm'r, extremes. Rain, inches. 524 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. THE ROOK, GEORGIA. Latitude, 320 52'N.; longitude, 840 23/ W. Elevation above tide-water, 833 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 14; earliest frost in autumn, November 19; period without frost, 218 days. Observer, JAMEs ANDERSON, M. D. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Tnermometer, mean 33.56 56.57 52.03 56,51 68.17 76.24 76.86 76.76 74.19 69.83 51,48 50.78 G61.41 3 65 90 93 9i 95 93 Si 80 72 Therm'r extremes.] 63 26 28 32 59 58 62 52 40 20 30 0 42... Rain, inches.. 2.45 0.41 2.10 3. 02 5.37 0.90 5.10 4.64 0.51 0.67 5.87 5.79 36.83 ; TORONTO, CANADA. Latitude, 430 39N.; longitude, 790 21/ W. Flevation above tide-water, 108 feet. Hours of observation, 6 A. M. and 2 and 10 P. M. Latest frost in spring, May 17; earliest frost in autumn, September 21; period without frost, 116 days. Observers, OPERATORS OF MAG- NETIO OBSERVATORX. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 13.01] 28.47 27.67 35.01 48.45 56.74 67.39 64.70 58.11 45.34 33.67 32.03 42.55 2 50 1 — 32 56 52 72 74 85 85 81 6 58 46...... Therm'r extremes. 1s— 6- 3.7 10 28 41 52 50 37 29— 2 5. 7 Rain, inehes.....ẽ 2.21 4.22 1.52 3.05 4.15 5.06 3.48 5.27 2.64 1.06 3.93 4.11 40.67 WALLINGFORD, CONNECTICUT. Latitude, 410 26˙ N.; longitude, 720 50 W. Elevation above tide-water, 133 feet. Hour of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 16; earliest frost in autumn, September 30; period without frost, 166 days. Observer, B. T. HARRISON. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 13.42 32.52 31.89, 41.27 64. 39 62.51 69.75 67.70 60.69 50.29 38.43] 34.21 46.44 gnerm 36.5 66 57 62 84 62 90 99 84 72 68 58[........ erm'r extremes.=i— 1— 6.5 15 36 49 52 52 32 27 9.5.... 4 Rain, inches......· 4 39 2.47 7.11 7.76 3.23 8.29 5.62 3.17 5.88 2.06 4.38 8 1 WESTFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS. Latitude, 420 06/ N.; longitude, 720 48 W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 p. M. Latest frost in spring, April 30; earliest frost in autumn, October 1; period without frost, 153 days. Observer, Rev. EMERSON DAVIS, D. D. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. Su. An Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 13.65 31.37 31.34 40.53 54.39 62.80 69.34 66.53 59.65 48.60 38.42] 31.644 45.68 31 63 54 59 85 81 90 9 8/ 2 67 35.. Thermn'r extremes. 44 O 0 14 36 V 48 53 55 34 25 12— 2[.... Rain, inches.....--.: 3.53 2.48 2.47 6.26 6.91 3.24 6.59 4.12 3.53 5.35 2.07 6.58 33.33 Aatitude, latest I fiost, lis — — — Thermemete ¹ Ter'r extrs Miin,inches 4 — Ietitude, of obser' autumnl M. D. — —— Thermomet Thern'r ex Riin, inch — Latitude 0l obs Abon — Thermol Therm' Rain, in led MDN — Re. llbui METEOROLOGY. 525 WEST SALEM, ILLINOIS. Latitude, 380 30 N.; longitude, 880 W. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 24; earliest frost in autumn, September 29; period without frost, 157 days. Observer HINRY A. FITZE. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oet. Nov. Dec. ſannual. 71.37 76.52 75.45 70.59 54.47 40.27 49: 9.46 53.28 54 96 94 90 78 74 Thermoemeter, mean. 21. 45.78 39. 513 41 83 820 04 Therm'r extremes. 40 11 1 5 Rain, inche 7 4. 52 1. 53 8 20 . 4. 6. 83 3.24 5.75 1.37 1.19 5.29 3234 2 WEYMOUTH, MASSACHUSETTsS. Latitude, 420 10 N.; Longitude, 710 W. Elevation above tide-water, 150 feet. Hours of observation, 7 A. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, May 1; earliest frost in autumn, September 30; period without frost, 151 days. Observer, N. Qomor TIRREII, M. D. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Thermometer, mean. 19 19 31.30 30.29 29.51] 51.75 60,68 67.68 65.60 59.28] 48.03 41.08, 32.68 45.25 Therre 13 5. ah e 70 72 75 82 74 66 65 48...... nerm'r extremes.] 13 2 7 17 40 51 55 58 41 30 16 10... Rain, inches.....ã-. 1.30 7.67 4.32 2.22 2.91 6.56 4.91 3.79 17.1 4.71 7 Jan. WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS. Latitude, 420 16/ N.; longitude, 710 48 W. Elevation above tide-water, 536 feet. Hours of observation, 7 àA. M. and 2 and 9 P. M. Latest frost in spring, April 22; earliest frost in autumn, September 7; period without frost, 137 days. Observer, Jonx S. SARGENT. June. July. Aug. Sept Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. nu- mean. 16.— 32.73 33.29 41.10 55.38 62.88 71.01 67.90 60.49 49 1 41.31 33.51 47.08 Thermometer 9 58 6, 39 65 h, h... Therm'r extremes.) 13— 4 V„ 30 51 31 55 37 29 15 5..... Rain, inchese. 27 V 2.24 2.80 8.77 2 2.53 2 2 2 2 2 6.31 2 * 22 8 1 I 2 1 44 1 2 2* 3 23— 24 4 4— EI 1— 8 r.= 2 t 61 8 95 I5 85 52 ₰ 4 2 4 41 X A1 5 41——==—r Sr 25 85 23 8 12 6 3 ,5-A1 Ar 232 28 82 d 11— 92 x 18 3 r 25 985 1——— 96 09 6 vl 91 8 61 65 l 86(8 61 4(9 86 8 5 95 8 IE* 89 1s 98 el Is 85 6 65 88 98 15 85 61 88 96 11 81 4 4 5 5 4.4 4 1..4..A.4 Al 4 4 4 4 l 4 1 4„0 9 4 090 5 1 s ,9..4 9 99 88 9 5 5 91 0 1 ls 1 bo de hl e 85 91 9 ⁵ 95 65 66 95 88 81& l 6 vl ol LII1 81 8 91 9 F 81 d. 11 51 5 5 1 g.A a 4 1 41 4 2.4 4 1.g 4„4. u S A 4 4 0 14 1 3 14 5 1 09 80 Pn F 91 6 6 81 05 88 68 88 93 0 1 8 5⁵5 G 68 0e Ir re 85 be le 6 91 41*o 35 88 ol 2 9⁰ 18 85 II 5„0 90 l. A 14 0 ,5 14 9 0 d.1. A 4 1.4 l.I 4 1 4 ,5 6 8 s 0 0 5„₰0 18s s s 9 ⁵ 18 I FI 16 91 08 85 s(85 98 66 68 88 61 85 88 90 4 00 18 65 9(. 9. 85 de 05 8 88 8 II 85 01 88 †S 01 01 9 9 ,9 1 4 0 6 5 0 5 5 ˙5 9 0.4 5 1 4 06 5 0 o s s.s 5„5 s 0 50 95 4 Iy 997 28 FlI 06 8 15 91 le Ls FI 8e e 85 95. 99 IP 15 05 68 6 LEI LI 01 61 9.5 3 cl gt 8-— 81 81„I 6 4 4.4.. 4 A...4 5 9 05 9 3 05 0 0 ,5 1..₰ 14 4 4 5 0 0 1 41 9 s 8„„. 95 gh 98 8= b kl al 9l P 05 96 8I 08 0L 15 8g 68 kr 15 18 68 8I 61 8 8 2 I el 9I 9 8 9. 91 86 96 8 . 4 AA 4 4 1 ,4 1 4.1 0 0 5 l 4 4 14 4.4 1 4 0o 0o 0 1 5 0 1 1 5 05 0 E 88 S 6 ⁵ 0 5 SI 0O 8I— 8I 03 05 81 9 8 08 88 66 85 89 gCß le ob ls 95 98 81 2 gI 51 SI 2I 01 9— 9-— I 06 91 1 14 414. I...1 14. 1 5 ,0 5- 0 9 0 9 14.4 5 0 4 0 5„5 A.4.4 9 5„9 5 2 — A 97 98 cCh 5 8 8 8I 86 l 9⁰ 68 08 08 d de 8s 1s 89 99 85 Cs 81 88 1 6 01 4„I 2l 01 7— 9 gI 91 61 vI 9 23 9 9 4 4.. 4 4 3 0 0 ,0 5 5 ‧0 9 05 0 A ,0.T..4 0 0 f.. 9 4 14 0 9 —₰ 65& 95 01 h 8 àa 95 61 18 83 65 9 85 89 88 9 ce ch Ia 8 98 18 e1 88 61 41 s 05 8 8 h 15 95 88 9 ₰ 9 9 ,0.g 4 0 5 o 4 0 o 5 9 505 50 4 0o 5d5. 14 1. 4 0 9 0 0o„0% 4 vo 4. 1 AA„9 5o 2 9 —— 9⁵ 00 95 9 9 8 81 81 01 96 96 Ll 95 6 5 Ie Fe L8 e 898 e d8 65 18 55 90 T 15 88 86 81 95 8 88 198 88 k3 A..4.A 5 05 ⸗0 05 5 0„4 9 ,9..I 4.1.4.A Lf..A 0 0„5 †+½ 9 5 1 0 s 95 9 9 —— 1 l 86 vl 9 6— ea e 6. 81 88 91 8s Eh 88 98 e 1† eer 89 99 IL 88 98 85 08 68 e de be 16 45 18 15 65 1 8 u A 0o 4 41 0 dH ⸗ 1 l 4..4.4 14 ₰A X A.„A 50 414 9 9o 8 s s 8 80 s s„0 5 5 0 8——— 8 88 6 8 ⁵5 8 08 ko gg e 86 e 9E le 48 09 49 99 89 99 I bb 18 88 05 88 68 g 86 38. 98 18 1s 18 48 08 96 6 ₰ N.A 0 0 S.S 0.0 6, ,0 9.1*₰.0.A 0 A 0 9 9 0 0 0 09 5 0 0 9 0 1 0„. 85 18 8 88 05 II 9 91 09 68 98 80 89 68 99 l9 9 68 g85 0b s e 15 s 93 8 de ee e o 16 85 88 08 45 I 9-9 5 5 4 5 5 9 0 50 5 4 5 5 50 5 5 5 5 5 9 75„0 5 5 5 5„0 50 505 95 R=d M A NV'K“A MA M:V'M:dM:A M:V K:A ·N:A ·M VeN:A N:A N:VN:A N:A MN:V·N:A ·N:A ·K·MN:A ·MN:A ·N· M“A N:dN:VN:AN.A MN:V·N:Ad N:d MN:V·MN:d N:d N:V 6 6 6 6 2 6 5 6 86 4 6 6 2 6 3 2 6 2 2 6 86 2 6 8 ek 6 8 4 6 2 6 3 2 10.SIA.or⁵ο uu. XoT.Vl H*S VA X N sSeM vpeun Elo0S nAON ‧4681 0281ouua g uus eAelg 6.010sIIIH pooMuο unsnV uorSue A es epelw og 40omur N Teenuo T eIIAJlo A uuT 2 pup pppun eS e Seod poaos 1 1981 ['Mous“s: Cuper A: aIu—: Cpnolo sed& JouoA olr un 80 40OP OöNOIIVNVISTX] S22,S porru, 4poſs anng ſo Kõ Noo 101 R—s ſo o pu unluto, 2 1½ ſOo 282602 95 88 Ig EI 6l 85 e le 48 8 7G 19 48 88 98£8 93—r 98 0l Ol[61 91 2. 18 A 4 A..A.4 4 4 4 9 5 9.9 A.4 0 ,0 56 5 8 A A 18. 5 8 A.4 45 09 99 60 81 98 06 0s 28 1 8 eg 8⁰ br e 88 l6 5 86 08 98. 1 9 61 86 93 98 ...A 5 0 5 5.5.0 0 A. 0 7 0 0 4„4.. A.A 4 4 9 09 99 be 91 88 8l 68 s 15 18 85 69 95 28 83 18 66 PS L 28 2I 4s 0I1 98 98 08 66 4.4.. 9 A ,0 4 4 4 4.-4 5 5 5„0 7 4 9 1 A 4 9o.9 18 ·s s 99 09 10 9 16 8 6&. 96 88 8 89 ob 8 88 18 88 88 98 98 01 61 91 88 68 88 8⁵ 4 4 20.T A 4 4 2 0.9.0..2 5 2 6 ,25.0 u 0 AI 0 XzvHl s's s 9s † 09 de 0 08 98 I. 6 5 99 05 28 88 96 18 98 8e 88 98 Ig8 8 68 e l 25 9 0 0 0 4.A 0 0 ,0 0 0 9. 9 A 6.0 0.1 0 9 8.s* 9 5 g& 6 5 91 08 Pl 0 ⁵ 88 FI 8 ⁵ 88 49 83 46 4 46 66 8— 61 pe S1 6 01— 8 6 93 4 0 5 50 5 0 5 5 0 9 0 0.4 0 ,0 9 5 14. 5 5 4 4 5 6 ⁵5 988 08 9— 06— ol l 8 98 18 99 48 91 15 9 5l 7 8I 88 1 9 91 I 96 61 96 5 5% 0 24 9. 30 9 ·1 1. 4% 0 9 A 4 4 904 o.. 1 19 99 0e Fl el 91 91 6 95 91 89 68 21 15 8 81 9 85 81 9 9 86 8 6 bo ⁸ ⁴.2l 44. 4.M.A 0 0„ 0 A 9 0 5 0 9 0*s%„o..A A ◻— — 85 89 lS 9 6. e 35 9 II II 9 8 ⁷ v I. 11 6 9. 5 Ie-SI Ae.. el kI 85 ₰½.4 4 4 5 4-4.4..4 0 0. 10 14 4+ 0.4.4 9 5 0 9.4 — ₰ 85 19 6 16 0le 9— I 01 9 9 IP 86 F 6 9— 6 h 8 61— v 6 be 9h d 88 A 4 A.4 4 ,80 4 9 0 29 9.4. 11 A o ο 0.I.8 1 4 ,9 0 ⁴ A 2 Lr 99 09 88 176 el I1 I.— 8 4 9 PI 69 88 85 68 II Al 85 c.8 68 81 96 6 98 ve II 15 .4.A„A..„4 4 4.5. 0. 9 9 5 5 9 0 0 M 4 s 9 8 2 1 Fe 28 be elbl ol 85 01 I8 LI 09 vS 98 5 0E 81 96 8 4 6 9 06 98 98 08 4 4.4 G 9 ,0 5 50o ,9 0 9.4.0.5 4 5.s 9.g 4 8.s s 5 9 2 19 92 91 8 81 8 6 9 01 8 05 85 vI 91 8I 351 9 98 68 6 II 6— d⅜. El 61 I.d A. o.A.4 I A. 41.4 4. 4 9 o A 9 8„ 8 0 1 22* 89 86 6 † 81* 66 6 6 2 1 0 65 91 g8 8 I1 1= e 96 91 61- ol 0. 38— 5 ol 81 14 4A..A.A..A A g H 4 ,9.,4 0 Au A 5 05 9*8) 44 1 5 41 29 09 ds lg 66 6. 91— I( e II 66 69 06 Ie 18 1 6 06[25 es PLL 81 95 88 k L1 14 2 I.1 H 5w 9„.0 5.A 8 5 0 0 7 ,0 5 H 1 5 0 4 50 90 98 96 6 0l ol 95 6 88 võ vg 18 96 18 05 LII 0 88 81 gI 2l 8 rI 81 5 91 A A. A 4 0 s o 0 0 9 0 0 9 0o 4 s 0.4 9o.A 0 5 s 1 414 4 8 16 Po§ 01 II 8 21 01 LI 81 88 FS 91 85 6 8 61 vI 98 8— 8 8 o l8 81 u a 0 0 1 4 4 4.9.A.4 4.A l.4 4 2 2 4 0 4..0 9 A. 9 922 99 d 11= ol. ſI6 ge r!l 46 25 go 5 88 28 15 95 16 95 E 91 61 61 6 g g86 l „ 9 0 1 14 9 0 5 80 ·5 0.2-1 5 5 9 0 95 55 0 90 5 2==— 6 8— Fb 2— 8 8 8 vg 89 17 s. 5Z5 5—— 6g Er ge— 1³ 8* 98 182 12 85 142 89 13 12 24 82+——„ er 22 2 e rr 2 6s er 9. or Ss 1er 2e e e e ee e ie e ee lee e e e e e le 9E 29 ro ee ry or ſ[ e e 9 Wee ie ee e ee e üe e e e e e ie ie er e ſ el e ſi de e, 5 21 0 909)9 A 4 9 0 1 ,9 90 9 0 9 9.1.4 4 44 9 9 4.4 1.A 9 9 9„ 0 5 1 1e ve 0Oe 0b 8 C d I⸗ 3 o o L 9 r9 99 ge le 99 e ee güe üe e e he e i e 8 de e el 90 0 A 1 4 9 25 29 0 5 A. 4 9 29 1 89 4 1 9 9 2 595 8 1 0 9 2 2 5 5 9 9 29 * 99 96 8 96 e 96 l5 Er oe 6 5 8 66 89 04 88 39 g9 l er a ig ir e. oe e l e, ee t ee ee t 1.A 9 2 4 39 4. 4. 9 5o 9 9 0 0 9 9 9 o 9 5 ₰ 5 9 4 2 9 9 5 41 4. A ee 9e gg&l Fl ol- 6I ce 1e 6e 9l ge vo 99 gg e ee e e e ee et 6 l g l 2. h 11—- 9— 5— 1—[I 050 09 29 0 4 4. l 414 I 90 1 95 5 4 1 A A 1 I 4 1 4.4 1 9 2 A 414 A 0 9 A. 5 4 4„ gg 90 cCh 51— 8- FI- ol 91 H 06 z6 He 1b 9e ie g92 re ge ie 6 le le e e l e e e iee ü e e et „ 41 4 A. 1 1. 41 4 2 1 1 A 1 4 41 1. A. 2 4 4 8 0 8 9 AI. A.4 2 A 909 1. 47 eg I5 1. 0s 8 26 96 6 oe 1e&s er e ,, ie e e e e ie e ee ee e ee eie e e i et ee ü e ee 5 1 A1.A. 9 0.4 A A A 1 4. 41 0 1 41.1**4*4 0H I A*.1 5 G 9 8 1 4 ₰ 0 S*8 1 9 6 5 er 4 81 7 61 vC 86 86 0Oe e 8 Sr 16 Ie 99 cg 89 69 cg- 60 p9 9 ce ee OoO le e ee 9 e e ee 5.41 4„ A.4. 0 0.41.A„ 1.9. 83 9 0 9 0.4 9 0 9 A ·9 0 0 s ,9 ·8.8 A1 r 19 88 86 0Woh 19 F9 rg 18 99 gg 0r 9e ee c e ee ee e e e ee e ee ie e ee ee ie e e e e e 88 4 4 0b s 8 0 4 9 1 1 2 4 4 50 9 1 9 1 5 9 9 2 5 5 ,5 9 2 29 5 9 5 4 ,9 8 ey gy l ſee ce I« r9 l1 29 69 9 9 e e ee eg g c ee ee ee e ü e e r e l e e ie ee 9 2 1 9 4 0 09 8d 4 4 09 9 9. 0 0 9 9 9» 4⁴ 1 9 0 14 9 A⁴. 5 0 85 5 0 25 59 8 9 9 2 —₰ y 18 6 † zl te&e eg i9 a 82 69 ge eo l i9 19 co 19 69 cg e e e he ee ie e ge ee e dt 61 de e E 4 1 A 9 5 4 95 9 9 9 9 9 90 n 4 4 1 4 9 4 ,9 4 90 A. 5 5 9 s s 9 9 4 4 0G ge 69 86 9E re lg le G6r 19 99 dg cg e l 9 ee ee le ee ſde ee ee ee e ee ee e ee ee e ee e e v 25 9 50 4 4 0 9 0 5 5 9 l 4 4 ,9 4* 4 4 5 5 4 4 904 o A 9 5 ⅓ 8g r E 89 91[25 er 0.. 09 19 ce eo ge Io 89 vo 9o vr g e le l e 6 Cs vo e O0o e 9 5I 9 8 ₰ 1 9 9 05 d 41 89 2 0 1 4 9 41 9 4 0 9 4 4. 4. 41 A. 2 0 4 l A a 1 9 I 44 9 6 7 9g bg 01 81 vI 61 4 g O? 86 S9 19 gg ce 59 le e 6 8, 1 86 96 el rl 6 He 0le l l 6 25 do e 6 4 ,9 9 9 9 50 4 1.4 4 4 9 0 4 9 0 A 4+ 4 9...A 0 9 90 4 1 225 1 9 9 5 9 8 99 89 60 v— 0l&l—[z1 25 0l ge e 8ses gg 92 g 6e 9 65& re 8g8&& 0r es II II ee ge de l l l O zr r 1 A 4 414„ 29 414 0 5» 5 4 1 A 41 1 A 41.1„5 4 41 4 4 9 5 5 505 909 2 25.8 5 S K’d N“A⸗M“V''R“d N A N V'':N A KN'd KV.:MNA N d.N:V MN'd MN:d N. V MN.A MN:A M:V ·MN:A N.A N:V·N. d N.AN. v M A N. dN“V-·N“dMN“d N'v'MN dNAN vſ.MNd MN“d.N V 6 6 12 6 6 4 6 6 8 4 6 86 2 6 6 2. 6 3 4 6 6 2 6 6 4 6 3 k 6 3 2 6 3 2 rO SAA r u..XO, ng 0 ·8 A X N ssuN epeuuo vpnoos vaoN cs1 O00slouna uns efllAeuld.0104SIIIH poo Muο⁵ eulsnV uOSue A suos V uilpurxelwv sodoon zoNonluuN leonuo K 1AIIOA—. 00 3. .. 3 Ponunũ—o%¶ kM*s 20;,/ pup 2.nD.Iodaον ο, ℳ,02⁊¶Xtww s20 529 METEOROLOGY. bb 4 ch A gp 9 04 0 29 9 15 4 19 0 PL .9 59 0 86 .4 2 0 11 4 5S A 49 4 19 -A 2 0 89 9 12 4 09 .4 09 9 9 *4₰ 12 4 08 bl d 61 8l. 34 81 or 69 4 L1 v 0 59 vh ·O 99 A 34 A S„ 2 9 81 ſ S ſa e I ge ee s ks ar 22 D s e e e le ſ[r 1 5 Ie I4 16 o l 98 L de 88 65 08 le 06 09 9 06 à9 Lr ¶ eb 98. 65E E 06 0 08 f. 88 d. vo 68. L0 85 6b b PI 4 9 41 1 44 0 44 A 4 1 0 9 1 9 25 1 4 09 6 0 ˙0 14 4..A4 0O 4 4 5 50 4 09 0 4 5050 050 90 1. 86 58 0 86 58 418 81 lg&ᷣ de 06 9 98 bb 85 8r 8r 0b 6 FeE 0 4 59 I5 1 95 8 8L. l8 gl el 9l&l el 1 4.0 o* 5 5 0 4 14 9.5.1 4 4 u A A m i. v ,9 4 5Fx.4 0 11 4 9 4.4 4 5 99 bL 18 Gl 86 0ol 1l8 96 01 93 ⅞ d Fſg 95(16 19 I I bb 7— Ie ve 20 81 88 81 5 I8 98 LI 91 vI 95 81 Sl A Al.4 909 4 41 1 41 ₰ 14 1.4 4 9.4 0 4 9. 0.A 1 4A4 0 e 5 4 A 4 5 14.5 4 0 4 0 16 dr 88 5— 91 5 05 66 81 98 8 le 88 85 bb 69 86 89 80 be ⁵ c9 lIr c 86 61 ge 92 18 I1 26 0— 61 61 6 I1 4 1 0 14 A.A 1 4A14 4 50 5 50 8 25 u 85 0 05 A*8 0 A..8 0 0 05 ₰ 1 414 0 4 4 86 99 08 I ko I 16 S 8 92 05 61 06 09 8r l er ke Ig& 86 41 61 01 c.. 18 18 4 01 01 c.5 88 ke 01 14 5Fv ,4 30„ 14 4.,4 5 m 4 10 5„9 o 1„5 3.1 f 1 4 4 41 5 1 14.4.4...4 9:.5 59 90 09 2 L— bI d 91 ks F. o d8 98 gr 95 r 80 01. 68 86 80 Ck. 99 e 0 o be 18 99 b 91 16 9 c5 15 6 E 1 41 20 4. 4 4 0 A 41 41.0 505 5 5 0 4 41 0 4 9 4.8S 9 85 0 8 14 5b.4 5 5 5 0 4 A 50 89 86 81 96 9 Ie e I e F 96 gg eg g8 10 80 lS 69 88 98 85. 61 61 lo II b 08 06 2 81 0 5I 91 01 8 2 1 0 ˙09 5 5 259.0 414 A.0 14 4. 0 4 4 1 4 5 1 9 A&.0.4 A1 1 0 I³ 14 4. 4 4 4 414.A. 8 18 99 6 † 9— 91 I1— 91 16 el 15 88 LI 6 6 68 v 9 Ib 8 09 828 ve 08 88 el LI l 86 88 08 9 II K 61 96 95 L 83 9.5 1 14. 4 4.4.A 0 4 41 0 0 9 0 5 ₰ 5 5 4₰„ 25 1 5.A. A 4 4 5 9 2 0 4 3 19 09 6 I pe l 91 66 06 85 98 88 Ob 6 ⁵ 94. 20 10 1s 1˙* 26 8 18 8 0 I 8r II 985 08 di de 9 A 1 4 4.4 4 5 14 5 29 4 505 4 5 0 5. A.4 A 4 1 0.5 0 25 20„ 5 9 50 9 Ss 0 5 8 19 19 80 F 86 l Pog er 88 ees 95 dr 06 89 86 99 89*9 09 99 lS 68 ðe 18 c. 98 e8 99 0 18 de 98 II 39 998 l 9 1 414 9.A.. 4 0 05 9 0 505 0 0 4 0 0 ³1 9 A 959* 5 5 5 8 8 9 9.4 5 8d 8 05 1 4 5 59 99 86 V 88 86 b 0? 05 08 gb le 08 9 dl. PG 99 99 2 ds 48 re cr 8. 415 39 8 68 19 98 re Ie 61 415 k8 SI P 59 34.4.4 3 5 50 4 ,5 u.5.A 3 5 5.1.4 5.14 5 1 ꝛ.1 4 9 9.1 4 4 o o.s 74.14 4 A—— G FC 99 18 bo(.8 b Ig be kI 88 1 15 09 89 9 5 09 89 9 ½ g9 bs I 9 l 95 88 Cr 5 LI 9I gl 2 15 18 61 8 ₰ A4 4 414 4 H 5 5 4. d5 d 0 14 0 9 0 5 9 4 K.A 90 4A4 4£ 4 1 4 58 1 4 A 8 8 99 99 8 15 88 0 PI 91 93 I8 6 1 Eh 8 db 6 ⁵5 Pg PS e 9. ve 91 9 98 6 91 01 Fe 98 88 2 II 8 81 15 81 5 . 4 1.2 4 1 4. 1 1 4 1 4 4 0 50 5 1 Al X 4. 1.. 4) 4 20 2 0** 29 41 050 8 5 91 89 8 V 5. 81 81 81 92 lS 0g 18 98 89 0 80 I12 02. 99 40 09 18 ge gg 05 E5 8 de 01 81 8 41 96 81 1 * 8..— 14 4 4 09&.... 4 1 5 ,5 4 4 9 1A... 50 4 4 5 s 5 0 5 50 ·4 5 1..5 .E-M-A N=V-K“d ⸗M:d ·MV.MI·d ·K*A MVj:IM.d-N“d.M-V.N*d-Nd-MNVſ*M:d NA N. V'·N.A ·N:d M. V'·MN·d.M:d N.v'·K.A N.A N..V.Nd ·M:d M.V'M AN.A MV.Nd M A NV 6 6 5 6 3 4 6 38 4 6 8 2 6 5 2 6 8* 6 8 4n 6 8 2 6 8 6 6 5 4 6 85 2 6 5 1 120 V sIMA.orο uua.xo. vl.9 ·8 vA X XN svNN vpuuuO vvno08 2AON ‧1981 00810ue. ues IIIAeeld.10qSIIIH PooMuoln unsnV uol3uII A Saueg IIV vIIpuexelV 19480 UOOAU JoNomue eonuoN LAIO A eM 530 ponuuO,— ο„f fiNs 2 ½[5 209/ pub ↄ1nap.5duuo, 24 o 1078 702] 531 19 ·4 L6 4 C5 I *4 METEOROLOGY. 15 61 Ps-u. L1 91 2L d 0 R 88 .A 91 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 532 dr de e 83 5——— 4 1— * o e Sa Lr an ge er 9e 6t 18 Sr. 9† 98 ur 88 09 3, Z3 3 5 5 5+ 2 5 1 5 r 09 8G 91 88 86 ¶¶ 0 8 9 5 6 98 0 dg lb 1 89 80 Lr I9 gr 8b 8 Eb 9gE fi 68. 9 06 8r 2 98 15 1 0b bI 4 5 ,0 4 5 A. c4.. 9.4.4 4.4 d 4 4.4 A 0 4 4 4d 4 5% 9 4 90 5 1 o 90 9 5 80 09 i* kö ks 0. 92 6 5 leg v 99& 99 8 99 29 006 4 ☛ 19 86 8 I er 90 L5 de 0r 6 ⁵ gr 6⁰ 85 Lr 09 48 Ll 5 5 0 4.3 4 5 5 0 5 4 4 2r 64 15 4 9 A. 0 4 4 0 5 0„ 4.d 4..4 8 39 rs 92 g 96 9E 88 86 4 ½ 0 99 be 99 89* 09 99 Pg r cCb E. L 4 80 8* 0r 9 94. 0r Ig pb 5l 7 a.4.r o A dr r 9 a r eA a.A4.4 A o 4 4.4„ 0.4 0.0 56 H 1 4 5 59 4 4.0 89 09 vS 9 e 91 86 ◻ 88 fe 08 t9 0 5 899 Pl 9 5 89 99 8* 09 89 9„b 844 0b 88. I 16 r 68 g5 e 1 ar 11 5 1.5 1 S..4%% 5.„ 0 25*G 4 2 49 14 4 I 4 5S.4 o A 0 4A4 4 9 1 0.5 5 0 ,9 86 k9 88 05 86 88 60 6 5 gR 9 ⁰b 89 ke 98 97. 08 99 89 ½ 99 99 86 09 86 9 Ob ð de 6 ðn* 48. h 98 09 99„r 01 0 9 A A 5 4 4 o O.d. d.A 4 0 41 14 4 9 0 9 9 0 2 1 1 5 u 9 9 0. 4 9 86 89 5S b de 86 8E gb de 05 9 ⁵ 98 8⁵5 04. 1 † 86 1L kS 66 99 kbb 89 Gr 68 98 Ob PF 88 69 gEf 9 85 Gc ke 6 d 4 4₰ 0 05 4 1 95 0% 4 0 4 4 4A 0 no 4 0 4.4 0o 4 A ,0% ,5 I o 0 o A 5 4 90 91 89 1 88 18 bE 9b l 82 F 58 ¶ 6 5 59 0 95 Ic 05 9 5 88 I I ½ 98 ki 68 8e Ob 68 ce eh tr. 8 14 4. 4 4 5 4 u u 5 9 u ,0 5 9.. A 4.A A 1. 4 5 2 9..A 2. 5 5 239 4 41 79 cs cdc e ee ce e de ie e ie ee e ee e e e, e le le ee es e ee ie es e 4 4..4 ,s. s.1 o 4 0 4.4 4.T.4 4. 4„l.S 4 0 5 s 14 5 5 14 5F.5 4 5 5 19?8 09 05 s 8l 85 86 05 0g&☛ 50 89 ks 89 88 Lo b 98 19 19 92 29 rö 0e 88 le 6 5 29 00 86 0 pr9 ch 9 1 I 4 4 3 4 o 0 4 14 4.4 f 4 1 1 A 14& 0 5„ A 0„1. A 0 u s 8 2 4 4 19 G. 89 81 0 95 5eg 98 80 Oe E t8 0r 80 89 89 01. 89 69 19 41 19 07. 86 19 90 66 95 09 9 ½ 6 ⁵5b g de 05 f e. 9 4 4K 4 25 50 5 39 50 0 u X 4 9 0 5 0 0 5 d 4 0 25 9 u 6 0 4 39 0 s 0 550 1 4 69 69 5S Ib bo db 0 09 gr 09 19 1e vo&⅜&l. 19 89 l. 868 416 99 6 † ve?9 ðk 8 ⁵5 88 lb 0k E 98 48 00 e. ge. 15 5 4 4 4 0 505 0 9 9 0 5 0 50 5.5 0 4 4„„ 4 A4 A 9 4. 7 5 9. 4 0 o 705 90 4. 4 Fũ 99 98 S 998 98 9 be 0e 8 9 ke 89 90 be 80 89 9 1ũ 99 98 66- 9 80 0 r ke 0E 85 85&& 0 be 15 91 g 4 4 4 1 0 0 14 1 4 59 4 4 4 A 5 6 20„ 5 4 4.A 7 0 9 1 41 5 5 A 44 4.. 8S 09 38 96 85 ks Oe ſe 8 I. 1 99 6 ½ 09 99 09 Ib gr 8 5 g 65 85 95 0 81 95 68 0 15 96 6 15 88 86 5 4 4 9 9 1.4 4 1 1 1 1 4 1..,4 0 1.I u 4 A 35 20 0 0 5 4 A 5 14 5.S 86 99 16 0g d cg 88 ðh l 09 19 8g 99 89 99 l. 88 89 19 19 25 1 8* 8 65 d I 8 ⁵ 0k gl 93 rr c Or 8. I 4..,0 2 14 l. 50 4 5 0 5 9 ,9 4 5 50 5 5 50 0 9 5 5„ 8 0 0 0 4 5 5 0„5 4 4 K:A N:A N:V ·K:d M:A ·K.V·M-d KN:A K“V-N:d M:AN=VN.:d K:A N“VN:A N:d NVſRl·d MN:d.·Nvſ'N:d MdN:V'N.AN.A KVſ.M:d N“A M. Vſ“N A N“A NV'“Nd Md M“V 6 3. V 6 8 2 6 35 2. 6 6 k 6 3 4 6 8 6 3 6 8 21 6 S 6 6 8 4. 6 5 4 6 85 2 3 20 V SIMA 01uO Ul2. XOJ. vl 0‧8 VA.X N SSEM vpuur vloo8 LAON 4981 008eduld des IIIAoneld.010skEH pooM ue cunsnv roSuLn A Sulus lV vpuuxoV 110189 10 B 40 Nonlur N Teonuo oIAIO A dV pouuο—„+%fñ cs 2 o b/ pup 5.νν ν⁴αιον ο, 00, 0,18:H031 533 —.-— „ 02 09 89 99 8 99 69 00 89 46 79 Vr. 59 8⁰ 99 gr 9 5⁵ 99 09 95 28 ðr 9. 8 5 18 . 1 5 50 1 4 4 A.9 4.4 A.A:1 A 34 4 d ·4.A.. ℳ 52 19 0g 59 95 88 09 b 86 9 ⁵ 1 8 89 46 19 5b[vy 6 88 9 5 88 86 998 9⁵5 0b . ½ 5 † 4 1 4 4 39 9 9 5 0 4 ,0 1.A 14. 4.4.A 4„4 99 66 05 59 0 5 cr 96 ly 9G 39 89 99 8⁰ 589 G 88 6 ½ PE 9 5 8 68 v 1S 85 4 9 9 5 0 4. 5 ·4.9 9 5 P04 55 4 4 1.1 4 5.9 3 4 70 94 89 95 09 8 68 r d 19 C5 8 ⁵ 6 † 89 99 L99 86 88 8 † Ig ep 98 88 † 80 0? +.,4 4 41 4 1 ,9.9.4 ·4 0 8.9.4 9 19 9 9 5 5 A 5 4 bL 19 bg 35 88. 9 ⁵ 19 6 † 6 b 89 0⁷ 872 G 26 99 9 5 d 9 p 9 88 28 0ν 0s 0O5 9.„4 9 0 9 9 55 5 ·4.9 5 ·4.4 1. 1. 50 4 4 5 1 9 12 09 b 30 8 vS 09 95 89 L5 19 08 8 5 99 59 8 5 8 19 89 9 8 Ih 86 l 4 4 2..4 4. ,0 d 5 5 59 ·4 4 5.9 6.4 4 4 ·4 9 9 A..A. 5 8₰ 89 68 9 ⁵5 PS be 65 16 I5 89 66[89 07. ðr 06 95 8b v 88 80 Lb Ch 05 8b rG 5 8 24* 5 5. 4. 4.4.4 5 99 32 0 4 4„ 2 4 4-4 9 4 4.0 19 92 86 06 2 gr 0 05 0 I 6⁰1 04 vr 9 ⁵½ 9 95 gr 05 99 gp Ir 96 92 98 Pe 4 4 9 1 4* 4 9 1 3 421.A.A.4. 4.4 A 0 4 9. 5 9 9 9 A 01. 09 Ch Pe 98 I? ch be Lb 88*e 19 8 ⁵ L2* le ge 0b 85 0b 68 0 ⁵ 0k e 8r 98 15.A 4 9.,9.4.9 5 0.4 ·4 2 A 5 3 4.4 50 4₰ 5 99 v 18 pb 8— 85 68 lr 87 09 84. 0⁰ 85 Lr ðb 88 88 68&r 88 80 ve dh eo 4 9 9 9 5 9*.4 4 9 5.4 0 9 5 4 9 A ·4 5 1.4.. 59 96 g 8 er 9 5 8 86 8e 79 6 06 9 bE k bi V L ⁵ 48 90 9s Ce 9 9 5* 1,0 14 4.2 5.4.14..2 4 4 50 A*.5.5.4 90 25.5. 3 66 Ps d 960 9. E b Sr 98 7S 69 19 85⁵ Sr kh 92 rr 05 vr Oor 18 85 98 14„9 4 59 4 4 5* 4 5 4„A A A. 1 A 18 S 5 0 0 ·4 ½ 4. 4 v9 99 18 18 5 18 18 68: 16 02 08 00 19 9 5 16 Eh 9 5 b d 66 68 1 8r 68 .4 9 1 5 5 5»b 5 9 A 4.9 0.9 1 0 5 0.5.5 ·4.5.4 A A 9 vS 0E k O9 e d 8 ⁵ 98 12 88 89 68 8⁵5 98 e 68 85 8 68 S 9 80 88 4„9 9..5- 4 5.5 4 9*.4.T 4 4. 5 0 5 9 A. A 80 88 08 ce 91 99 88 18 O5 88 69 84.„G 19 1 28 18 68 9b ðr g8 48 96 6 5 68 85 5 1 1 44 23.1 90 5 35 55 3, 4 4-4 74 I 95 v9 PG 95 88 Pl 15 68 88 09 87. g5 gh 6 ⁵5 5 5 08 4* 95 gE 9 68 18 8 † 4„9 4 5 0o 1 5.4 4 9 4.4 14.4 9 0 9 55.4 5 14„⸗ 0 — l AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 534 1 1 3 7J 711———— = 5 5 22— 2—— n e e er e e e e e e e e e e ee fe e ſ ſch ie ee ſr e ſi e e ee e e ſe e e i8 e i ſ e e e e e le de 7F o e ſur 1 f.A o l. 4 4 5 4 95 ,0 4 14 9 3 0[5 41„0 6. 9nf 9 A A 9 5 A 4 A.·d pe 19 L8e 9p 9&o cg e e üe d ceie ic e e e 89 e c9 zo. de e e e e ie e e 81 4. 4 A A A⁶.5 5 20 5 95 850 4 99 0 4 1 4 A 0 5 1 909 4 0 4 g. 4 4 414„ ℳ 05 1.4 d 80 9 oo ge ce e ee ſe e, e ee ie ie e we 19 59 19 ge de ch le ee e i e e s ie l 81 85 09 8E 93 9 e 9 eh 19 y 9. 7 a 7 l5 K r 2 A ve 89 ve e dg o d E og dg w dt I e ee ee e o e ee ee ee ee e e e ii e is ie o e e e 11 d⁴ 4 A. 14 1 0 89 0 44 0 A 4 0 1 4 4 4 4 4 0 0o 90 4 4 0 1 ₰l. 14 4 0 4 0 5 rg 99 92 eh oe de 9 1e e ie e ee e e c ie e e t ee ie ae ee ge e ee e l ee e e ee e e 01 290 4 0 4 4 80 0 1 A. 5 05 05 5..4*4 14. A. 41 4 5 95 4 I 4 41 1) ,90 1 A X₰ ge 89 8c 6e oy 99(CG9 9. a ee—t en re d eoe ig e e e ee e e e e i e 6 4 ₰ 4 A A 1+4 9 0 A 0 ,0 4 0 4 4 4 1. 4 A 4 4 41 239 9 1 1 4 9 5 1 4₰1 4 90 I2 09 ³ 9. e ſe9 de e 19 9, le i49 s g e ee 99 ee e le eo e e ie d e e e tee e e e e 00 8 9 4 44 4A4.5 14 4J 4 5 5 ˙0 4 14 0 1 41 4. 4· 4 4 4 6„ 4 4 Al 1 41 4 A 0 . rS 09 19 85 Gr. 0. ſ88 99 8 14 69 4 19 ds io ee e ee i e 69 ee ie e o eei e e ie ee e L 14 4 ₰ A.. A1 1 4 1 9 4 90 0 3 1 4 1 59 4 50& 4 9 4 4A 5 1 41 1 9 50 05 ₰4 50 gc 89 e 6e 89 8 ſ6 9 gs g 94„9 96 69 gs 09 Le Le e, 9 9 o eo e e e ee d e e r 2 99 9 82 89 8r 68 59 e h, e eie e 19 3 eg r9 99 o 19 85[19 17 vvy 99 d9 0 L99 88 09 9. 24. 99 99 Pr 9 09 14 go 9 92 e ee ee e e h 79 8 4 4 A. 14 09 0 4 0 0 0 4 0 14 4 4 4 K& 1.4 1 A⁴ u M A 0 5 ,9 1 29 A A. Fg 99 99 09, d g r9 9y 18 69 8 Er 36 81 99 99 89 1. 83 8 I h ao ae ee ee de ee e ee † 4 4 9 9 5 550„o u A 1 4. 1„ 4 0 1 ,0 A. u A 3v 1 9 2 1 5 3 80 02. 09 46 99 vy 1 67 v' 6r 98 8o g92 9. 89 89 69 89 o. de e e e e e ee ee ie e e e .4 ₰9.0 4 1(1 90 5 5 509 ü 5 0 9 5 5 99 9 5 A A A n 0 A 4 5 9 29 Fg 89 40 9p gg g 15 gg de ſee ü iee o e ie ie e 69 9e 89 29 de loe e de ee ie e e e e e e e 4 4 A 1 1 41 p/2 29 29 5 5 28 5 5 ˙5 9 50 29 5 1 5 5v 9 0 AM A 9 29 eu 11 4 4 9g 99 89 Oo Oe 9, S8e 09 gs(99 89 v9 vo vo 19 19 69 89 93 29 89 ce e ie le e e ee e e e e ie ie e e 44 21 4 50 0 50 0 0 5 5 8d 0 09 50 50 0 90 85 A 5 1 d A e 6 2⸗ X l 90 4 1 4 N“A M”A MN“V;MN:A MN“d MN“V·N A N”'dN' V':N”dN“d N'Vſ.·NdN“d MN'V'=MN' dMN”d‧M“'V N“d H“dNV] N”dN“dN'V'MNdM“:d N“'V N. A N”A MN“V.:·MN“d N“dN“VI MNA N”AN”' V 6 7 1 6 s I 6 36 4 6 1. 6 56 7, 6 3 4 6 56 6 ˙ 2 6 6! 6 6!6 3 1. 6 6 2* 180 SI A 0lUO Ull T. XS2 II ‧8 VA X N SSBMN LSpeuu LO0S LAON 481 00s1ouel ues eilläenuld 010qSIIIH pooauole eunsuV uOSuLe A Sules lV IIpuuxWV 12180OOU 1 NonuvN Leeu IILAIIOMA ArMN ponuο— pf FEAs o ſo dopf pup duννσοοαον ον ſo 4018 609,] 535⁵ 88 0 9 0 8 0½ 68 A 69 86 0 0 18 .4 86 .4 88 .4 68 A. 18 .A. 19 0 6* . g 19 0 8 .A. 2 0 8 '4 6 ½ ·0 64 .4 99 A 9 -4 METEOROLOGY. 0½ .A 99 .0 89 0 59 0 2 9 ⁵ .4 r 4 0 09 ·9 8 ⁵ 9 09 0 8 0 6 b 0 Cr 0 95 1d EI 86 99 -A-A-4 .— 2—„»—gf———-¶-—-—⸗—-ʒ-ʒ—:jõõ— B3BSc3. 99 59 98 s e e[92 2 97 02 89 29 2 4 2 3 3 22 Z. 090 64 23 2 99 87 92 2 12 98 02. 68 24 06 99 89 El 99% 8 0 41½ 18 97. 58 98 88 08 †8 18 84 98£4 89 99 bc 698 1 ½ 49 40. 89 90 86 29 9 F 54 4..4 52* 59 0 50 4 5 41 4 0.0 1 1..4 1 5 ,0 4 4 9 14 0 1.4 14 0.4 4 9 44 99 99 09 09 8 S 89 82 29 44 88 97 2 18. 18*8 18 08 88 8½ 8 τ8 84. 89 dl. 19 69 0 19 09 0½ 99 89 9 89 81 1.41 4 0 H9 0 5 29 25 9 0 4 0 9 414 4. 4 4 4 3 3 9 9 1..2 0o) ,5 49 5 410 à. 89 19 18 68 69 69 89 9⁰ 88 P9 08 06 2. 98 88 84 4ν 08 dn 91 62 99 09 69 96 416 99 09 89 99 09 09 9½Q 19 5l . A.. 4 21 9 9 4 4..5 4.0.9 4. A 1 4. 1 9 4 1 1 4 0 ₰.4 36 9 ,0 o 5 19 4. 99 99 08*9 89 19 19 69 l 9 Ff. in 94 18 08 18 18 28* 99 08 29 17 19 89 90 09 60 19 899 19 69 l 88 II 89 88 99 419 31 89 L9 41 99 El2. kl 9 89 08 06 kl. 18 88 08 I8 88 6 ½ 69 92 89 99(9 88 9 p9 88 69 92 9 0 69 88 01 77.. 3.0 4 9.9 5 9.4 0 X 4 9 0 4 1 5 05 4 5 1. ,9 4 9 29 5 0 50 84 4 4 I . 98 81. 68 49 08 899 05 6 69 96 9 04. 14. 26 08 18 88 08 18 88 82 0 11 0*¾ 6 99 89 vC 99 86 99 19 89 99 88 6 E 5 g 4 4. 4 4 9 1 1 0 4 0 0 1. 1 4.4 4.-TX A 9 5 0 9 5 4.1 0 o 4 14 T..4 8. ⏑ FC 69 98 09 3 0 14 8 0. 66 98 l◻l 4 6 84 18 S 6 ½ 8 8 ½ 02 08 0 99 99 68 0 59 88 v9 0 09 09 09 8G 8 A‿ 1 0 2.4 9 ,0 4 1 1 4 5 0 90.4.4..4 1 0 4 5v 41 4 1 1 1 4 1. A 53 4 4 —₰— A Fe 99 88 99 06 08 89 9 68 44½4 8 99 08 86 18 88 18 Ff 14 0! 31 08 P9 L19 90 90 4 68 69 8 06 09 88 4. 5 1 9 3o.4.1 8 e.2 5 19„5 0 17 r.4 11. 4 4 4 35 3* A r.O.9„ 5 3 99 99 66 99 08 99 09 01 84 89(2 99 84 836 8½ 18 8 ll 0 8 99 99 0 89 69 01 89„o 69 98 9 89 1s 9 09 1G 9 8 0 9 4 14.4.4 1 3 33 55 9 4.5. 4 4 9 0 4 4 4[9 3 2.4 4.4 0 5 9 5 9 4 E 86 19 88 9 1 88 16 r9 00 09 02. 88 44. 88 1 88 98 A4 bL. 8 bl 419 89 29 85 Z6 8 ½ 896 89 1 10 68 88 9 69 88 9 9.4 4 4 4 9 9„ 4.4 4 4 5 20 0 0 4 1 4 5 1. 4 4 A 4 9* 41.9.0 0 4 5 4 14 —— 4 —₰ 96 59 86 19 99 98 56 vS kG 59 6 59 1% 88 29 08 8 94 F? 14 19 08 69 59 Go 08 69 19 09 96 19 19 50 89 66 12 A 14 4 29 ·f..K.4 5 9 9 5 5. X 4. I.4.4.. 4 4 2 9 1.4 9 41 1 4 4 9v ℳ wꝛJo 4 2 16 F9 86 06 89 86 99 91 68 49 08 19 b2 88 99 08 88 1½ F? 14 04 92 18 69 16 69 88 48 89 99 09 99 96 46 19 99 8 9 0 5 4 9 4 4. 4 9 4 1 4 4...41 1 4 4 1 41. 4 4 4 9 4 4 4 9 5 1 41 0 86 89 16 vC 0l. 85 19 19 88 59 8. 89 01 8 99 9 EL. 4. 54. 61 kk 89 61 19 99 09 99 59 80 89 9½ 19 19 89 86 8 9 0 ,2 1 5 20 4 1. 4 4 4 5 4. 14 5 0 4 ₰ 0 14* 9 9 0 9 5 vo 0o dA 86 89 98 16 99 88 19 11 09 899 8L 89 89 08 99 92 LL. PlL. 08 ½. 88 29 89 99 89 99 80 99 G2 6 19 69 2G 1 9 9 52 1 4 5 4 9 9 5.14 9 0 1 5 90 4 1 9.„ 90 5 A. A 1 0 5 5% 4 4. 1 .E-A-M d ⸗N=v N:d-W M-V M'd⸗MJ MV'K“A N:A WM-V'⸗M:d-KA ‧MV*RM-K:A M“v] H:& N.A NVſ.MN:d MN A N:V K:A Kd NV M d MA K-VN-dM-dM.V'.NSA M d M.V 6 6 2 6 8l 4 6 5 6 6 6 5 L 6 8 6 2 6 5 2 6 6 1 6 6 2 6 6 L 6 6 2 IeO BMOI onlO uua. xO. vld 0 ‧8S vA X N'ssSuM vpruuq Nunoos vaoN 1981 0081ouelg dug uu.010SIIIH pooAu⸗ unsnV uorSuile A suleg V lpurxolv 101sellooß 40 Nonzuex leonuo 191IAJIOA eung eO— 000 5 Donunνοο— f EXs 2 1o oonf pup 2uνιιuον Ʒο⁷/ ᷑ ⁴⁴ιαꝛ: 537 09 09 02 19. d9 02..³. 89.. 06 9 88 92 69 69 12 09 2 66 08 0 1 A 4. 1 41 4 0*4 4 1 4 50 4 0 ℳ₰ 0 0 0 99 09 11 99 92 89 19 82 12½ 88 9 98 r. at 9 89 89 99 1 68 5...5 8 42 H 3E e br kar 89 59 5 99 09 69 80 b2L 89 79 18 9 8 87 88 06 098 14 98 04 99 419 R .4.1 I 5 8 0 4.,0 ,4 5 0 4„41 6.1 0 0 02 9² 06 99 12 49 2 92 18 6 88 68. 2. 88 49 99 92 26 ·4 1 1„4 Mo ‧4 5 0.4 0.4.4 4 4 50v. 50 0 2 PL gS8 PI 28 99 89 212 PL 88 16 6 48& à.. 98 6⁶ 2 59 96 *41 1 4 4 1 ₰ 1 A*₰ 1 4 1 1 4 0 0 0 0 8 89 01 88 99 8 19[rl 18 2 18 1½ 08 98 b.(89 88 9½ 59 c9 3 ◻ 4 4).4. A 1 A*₰ 41 1 A1 1 4A 14 4*41 0 0 — 99 19 82 99 P 1 36 24 g 82 9 22 82 69 99 84 89 19 929 78 5.4.1 9 59.41 841.41 41 1„4 A A.1 4 2 0.4.0 4 / 89 99 pl 69 69 58 99 r2 1z. 82 gk 84 G bo 69 9 89 09 c9 5 A 4 9 0 0 1 4 ₰1 9 41 0 0v 41 1 ℳ 090 5 25 0 0 99 59 8 02 89 e0 19 g.2 be a 8 61 c.2 69 89 09 09 69 0½ 88 — 4 1..₰ 1 A l 4*4 0 250 ˙ 4 1 AN A 0 0 A 12 59 02. 69 89 89[r9 bl. 99 28 c2. 92. es LII 89 à³. 99 12 02 18 .41 1 4 4.4.J 41„1.4 5 0 0 0 5 0.4 0 0 p9 ve l. 839 69 88 11½ 62 99 8 2½ 872. 98 2 19&½ 19 89 19 08 .4 4 0.1 1 5.41 5.4.1 1 0 1 4 A 0 05 0 20 99 6 b 02. 98 89 99 29 8½ 89 82 9⁰ 82 65 89 19 à2. Le bg 96[61 A.9 A A 4 0 1.9 4 A 4 9 5 0 9 9 9 A 99 68 F9 880 99 89 09 P9 22 9² bL. 84 S 9½ 59 8 2G 69 79 8¹ 4 1 5 5 5 5 0 ,5.4 8 5 5 5 5 5 5.3 ½ 9 90 19 9 89 29 92 r 38 44 18 93.. 99 P9 9G 2 2½[21 .4 5 5 ,5 4 9 14 0 A 29 14 40.A 0 9 9 86(. 19 59 g8. 34. 88 02 18 08 5S 88 2 16 890 2G 60 12 91 .41 5 03 0 1 4 A 5 5.,4 1.4% 4 A 0 4 41 12 99 8 89 88 69 1l. 98 b 18 58 98 98 1E 09 99 90 60 E[81 .4 0 50 ⸗0 1 4 1 ⸗0.41 ₰.1 0 1 4 0 9 ₰ 4 0 — 5—= 5 95 99 2 29 22 8 8— 1, 1*—,.2 2* 1232 2 1 o» 2——— 1 a* 7.— 2 2 85* 8 4 3 22 2 23= 24 2 18 22 3 14, e, e e eii Lee s, l 1 85 g 29 48 8⁰ 88 0½ Sl. 88& bl. 08 04 28 86£. 08 98 88 67. 18 ½ 6¾(8£ 4 9 86 4 v9 kl 89 08 86 84 e 84. 09 bI 11 95 1 I 0 0 50 0 4.) A 1 5v 4 0 i 4 3.,5 1 4 4.5 0 4 9„ 4 5 . 9 98 P 88 84. 12 98 89 92 S 0½ 898 16 d 66 88 18 8½ I8 bl 88 88 84 8 86 899 6ʃ 89 08 906 88 09 92 e9 L.I 3 5 5 0 ,6 21.1.41.4 5 4 4 5 9 1 5 0 5o AI 1 4 4 6 4 14 1 3 I. 0 X 1 A 88 bg 98 bl.. 874. d2. 9½ 0 11. 91 8 6 8 02 08 S 18 67 18 Pf 9 88 P l 06 e 89 k 89 9 96 kl. 89 82 69 SI 4 55 5 5 1 5 ₰ 4.5 1 5.0 5 5 ,5 5 0 A.A 4 4 1 4 50 5) 5 0 4 1 5 16 19 18 08 96 12 Sl. 08 99 2. 88 0. 81 98 0½ 6 18 62. z. 22 86 98 97 9⁰ 98 8 99 92. 99 I18 88 12 419 9 99 11 9 5 0 14 41 4 A A 1 0.,1 1 ,5 0. 1 0 5„0 0 9 9 55 4 4 3 14.4 4.4 0 5 4 ,0 8 89 kbe 61. 46 874 99 92 49 b 98 99 F 98 12½ 08 88 1½ 85 64. fl 9⁰ 98 8 9² 8 12 12 4½ 89 54 88 99 89 e 19 01 0 ,5 20 14 14.4 1 5 41 5.. 4 0 5o 1 5 1 5 A 5.5 4 4 3 0 4 4 41 4 0 56„144 .¶ 49 10 08 86 08 69 18 99 sl. 88 99 9⁰ 06 91 8¾ 8 97. 64 38 9⁰ 98 1½ k9 08 19 59 18 99 0% 6 Fr c9 19 69 6 g 4 4 4.. 4 10 4 0 5 5b 21.5 1 o 0 X 1 5 5 5 5 5 4 21 4 4 4 0„0 4 5 e 99 99 08 96 Fl. 49 08 89 69 18 99 66 88 34 64 98 88 9 6 pg 41½ 98 8 89 88 89 09 9 49 69 97 99 49 89 P9 8 5 4 4.4 14.4.4 7 9).1 4 o.4 1 5 4 4.I 4 5 1 1 1 1 4 4 050 4 8 4 1.2 4 0 4 70 ve 99 98 84 86 0½ 89 44 89 69 67. 59 9v 8. 08 98 4½ 18& 8l 08 d. 19 95 99 59 69 89 89 84. 89 99 18 12 4 — 4 4„ 1.4 4 4..2 14 5 ,5.5 5) 5 1 4 5 Al.4 I I 3 0 5 3 14 5 0.505 0 50.. A 8 96 99 09 LZL. 06 99 89 99 49 19 61 60 P 88 8 64 98 97 92 87. bl 87. 99 99 4 F9 09 rl 89 0½ 18 r9 4 9 A 14 4 0 f.4 5 5o 24..A 1 5 0 1 1 1 A.4 f.. g 4 4 4 0 70 0 1 5 0 5 16 419 89 0 56 9 68 G 09 89 G2 09 8 898 0½ 18 98 6 ¼ bl. l. P59 0 64 99 50 08 09 59 8l. k9 19 G2 49 4 9 8 4 4.4.4 4 4 50 0.1 4 ,5 1 5 5b 1.4 1 4 9 5 4 0 f.4 l 1 5 98 l. 89 I 86 89 79 69 88 89 1 09 9.2. †S 69 67 bS Ar., Fl. 9½ 99 49 97 89 69 81 09 88 99 29 89 8½ 29 9 99 28„† 4 4.4 1 4 4.0.4.9 1 4.„. 1. 1 0o 14 9 0 ,0 4 o 0 0 1 4 0 4 ,0 A— ²G⅓ 19 l 88 69 88 89 09 99 6g 09 99 68 9 8 84 58 98 8 54. bl. 99 09 99 89 92 89 28 99 89 80 99 1½ 99 88 9½ 29 9 9 1 4 1 4. 34).0 14.0.4 1 0 0. 4 do.4 70 5 4 4 9 9 4 5 0 0 1.1 1 350 99 49 99 89 G 09 68 19 1G 09 99 09 Pl. p6 L4 88 18 8½ 9 6 2 09 99 60 k9 89 66 Fe 09 P 59 82 99 09 89 68 5 1.4 1 7 1 59 4 o.4).5 1 1 4 60 0 0 5 0 4 05 0 5 6 50 0 g ,5 I A 98 99 5o 89 84. 89 26 66 80 19 12 09 18 16 F2 G1. 98 08 9 08 F 89 dl 0½ 09 89 16 vg 89 90 69 419 19 99 †9 99 1 .O. 4.4.A 4 5.4.5 4 4 5 0„„ 4. 4.O 0 0 5 4 5 9 0 n0 0 5 0 55 0 5 4 Kd-N“AMN:V'·MAd ·K:d MVſ*N“d K*A ·NV’·NA N:A N:V·N:AN:d M:Vj·N:A N JA ·MV·N:d.·N:d.N:Vj·N:A N:A MN:V·N:A M:d.M:VN.d MN:dNVſ.N“d N:dN:V.N:dN:d N:V 6 8 4 6 8 4 6 8 4 6 5 2 6 8 k 6 ð 2 6 8 2. 6 5 4 6 8 4 6 ð 4 6 8 2. 6 5 2 c120 S1A orο ue. xed. vprlol.0 ·8 A A M ssSvMN vpuuuo vnoos vAoN„28I 00s1oueng uus olllaonoeld 0O10sIIIH pooAuol unsnV ueA es l puxolv J9480 0G 40 omuu. euo N eIIIAJlo A Alnt 88 ponulaᷣ— T„f h ,8 2 1½(0 200/ pup 0.nν εος ιμον ο⸗ 0 1ον⁸ανι6π —— 8 86 69 89 82. 06 84. Fl. I8 69 FlL 6 87. bS 96 4 8½% 98 6½ 2½% 18 18 4. 88. 99 8 49 39 0½ 59 69 11 8½ 99 02 09 18 A.14 ,9 T.. 6 4 5 5 9 5 05 9 5 5 ,5 1 5 5 4.,4.5 7, 0 50 50 5 9 5 5 5 59 89 19 4£ 8 86 82 04 t 89 9⁰ 8˙8 8.. bS P6 81 8 8ç8 6 18 48 18 bL 08 8 29 Ll. 99 9 0 01 69 6( 89 Pl. 6ʃ 89 0 .4.4.,5.. 0 s 9 ,0 95 5 34 9 0 5 5.5 f.5.4 1.3 e 5 5.0 9 4 5.9 5 50 4 98 99 60 8⁰½ 06 89 89 8l. 59 bL 97 84. 88 86 9 18 8 08 18 98 08 94 88 08 07 87. 99 05 97. 14 89 97. 1½ 8⁰ 84 81 65 0 4 ,5 4..0 9 5 50 A. 5 4. 5.0 1 39 5„ 5 50 4 5 9 59 4..4 5 5 86 89 be 0 88 89 0½ kl. 04 eBl² vl. 12 6 88 92 08*8 08 18 858 08 G2. 18 97 89 l2 44½ t? 982 84 899 18 8 3l. 68 04 8⁵ 9 5.0 T A..A 5 9 50 15% u 4.0 0 614 50 0 9 5 5 4 H 5 1f 5 5 9 23 ,5 88 99 98 89 81 r 5. Ge. 14. 84 I8 872 08 986 G½ 9½ 08 1½ 08 88 08 61 88 872 I18 86 9½ 9½ 08 4. 68 64 11 898 84 4⁸ 0 4A„0 4 0*G 5 1 A A 4 2 9 90 5 5 9 24 4. ,9. 2 5 5 5 4. 46 P9 88 54. 08 1½ 91 98 69 b 04 82 88 86 08 98 18 64 88 I8 95 98 84 6 ⁸8 kl 1½ 08 84. 8 ½ S 92 01% 88 l 96 4 5 9 v ,9 1 g.4 4 0 0 4 0 0 34 1 4 4 5 9 1 4. 5 5...3 3„9 14f.1 5 5 88 b9 98 09 68 P9 I12 62. 9 6 S 79 08 86 92 08 98 08 08 18 l* 8 88 97 L1 98 79 69 l. 0 8⁷ 87 8 21 8 2 85 G8 24 4 4 4..A..4..A 1 5 4 4G. 5 A 4 0„0 5 9 9. 9 5 4 1. 1 n 3 5F 35 13„ 5 — — 92 19 9 28 99 99 G1. 99 12 08 19 8„ͤ6 Ll 64 S 08 96½ S?. d* G.2 18 99 01. 99 0⁰ 87. 69 89 67. 99 0½ 11 19* ².4 4 5.4„. d 4 9 4 5 21 60 nvo ·0 1„ n A A 4 J.. 4 5 5 9 14 5b 90 8— 8 9 59 PS 05 86 59 89 84. 19 04 1½ 69 411. IS 14 08 88 08 I8 s 44½ 0 I2. 89 49 99 89 lI? 89 19 79 19 59 69 89 8⁵ A 4 41 59 4 4 4 4 4 ·9 4 5 4 5 5 0 14 0 0 1. 5 35 3 5 5 5„ 5 5. 155 3 ſ 3 5 99 62 86 8½ 88 89 89 59 68 89 9½ 99 68 96 62 08 88 88 1½ 98 8 8 88 92 0 ½ 8½ 99 0²½ 08 69 19 31 69 9 99 80. S5 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 9 2„9 13 9 X 9 0 ℳ f I A 1 9 5 f 5 5 5F 9 9 9 10 15 5 5 te 19 8 Pl 38 99 59 85 9 05 8. k 98 k6 L1½ 08 88 18 88 18 8(8 4½ 99 69 99 69 44 079 84. b. 81 98 1 18 .1 41 4 5 05 A. 4 5 1 1 9 ,0 4 5 4 14 9 0.. 4 9 5 4„5 0 5 9 4 5o 5 4 90 9 15 h 5 4 9 89 91 98 89 46 54. 18 69 2 98 14 . 0, 4 4 f H9=5.1.4 1 5 5 1 w 4 A A 4 4 5 A 45 2 5 5- 5 5 5 ———— * 1 ·= 2* 22*— ꝗ 22 e. S 4 ν=—— 3u2AOAO— —. 8 2—,5 5——— ⸗ 2 8* 82.———O—ꝛ— 3 *2·—,,——,——— 5 89ũ* eS 6E. 89 092 06 4- 2+— AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 540 .——* 8 18 284 2 43 e. 2 24 IEAA an([m u e e., e t e ds s n ee le 99 69 90 89 9 04 44 98 67. 18 24 18 06 08 98 18 18 88 6 ½ 48 16 18. r6 68 84 e 94 l. 98 Fg 0 l. 89 PI 14 4 5 5.T.2 6.7 4 0 5 81 T 4& Sn Dr 185 l2 92 4 4 v ſ5 3 33 d 85. 5C 99 96 84 66 88 4 r. 8. 98 87. 08 88 94 08(8 88 08 98 4 58 98 08 84 88 87. I2 9 69 b c9 3. d9 9 dl 99 81 -4.1 ,0„0*2.41.1.A.1.41 0.1 ·7 0 0.1.1 A ·4 A A 1 5 1.A.1.0 5 05 A 5 0.1 1 90 69 90 88 96 97. 91. 88 89 62 S8 kt 18 F6 92. 08 N 88 08 88 97 9 98 4l½ 0E. 87. 07 99% 04 99. 899 9 †9 68 81 4 4.4 4..,4 A 4 4 4 9 4 4.5 0 4. 4 4. 4 14 1 4..₰ 4 4 5...5 4 4 A.†.9 5C 99 89 6⁰ 68 kt* 8 671. 99 9 P8 d. 08 86 84 6 98 08 18 08 872 PI s 92. 89 84. 69 89 61 69 p9 89 99 89 99 89 I1 4 4 ,0 v I 33 4 4. 4 1 9 0 1 9 0 1. 9.0 14 0 0 l 1 5 4 4 5 14 9 50 A 4 5 n 0 82 0 12 8 88 98 01. 04 69 84 9? 874 9² 6 18 6½ 8 67 61 18 84 2½ 18 94 99 8 02 99 84 69 b 89 9½ 99 69&l. 97 01 9 5 r— 24 5 0 5 5 4 ð 13 E..7 5 9 2 4 15. 5 05 75. r 32 85 15.. 5 59 16 99 92. 06 0. 06 18 2. 52. l8 G24 98 P6 88 08 88 6ʃ 44. 44. 94 9 88 4 99 84 k 59 8l4. El. V 89 12 99 99% 99 6 f4 4 4 0 4 0 ꝛĩ„v9 9 1 9.A 4.5 4 41 ,0 o 14 4 0 ,5 4 4 4 1 4 5 1 1.4 4 1 4 99 88 68 vL 06 lE Fr 08 4 4³ 18 g2 FS d6 874. 62 14 97 84 67. bl b2 I8 4 9 68 49 0 19 V 12 88. 99 8 89 8 4 4 4 4.4 5 n 4 0 nℛ% 4 4.4 o 0 9 4 d 4 0 4 5 0 A A 50 5 5„l 1 9 4 1 ,5 86&. 89 84 98. 81. I18 99 24. 18 dl 5S r6 97. 61 88 08 24 87 e 8½. 88 Pl. 02 98 kl. 19&. 99 V 9½ 18 99 99 08 09 2 4 4. 4 5 5F 9 4.4..4 5 4 4 v.0 1 5 9 14 5.5 4„ 4₰ 14 A A 0 4 A.4 1...4.4 60 89 18 56 92 99 14 62 89 bl 88 99 88 96 44 8⁰ 88 97 4 64 4. Ve 88 LL. 89 18 0 59 94 69 V 89 14 29 09 89 9 4 4 4 09 5„0 14 4 4 A..A 4 5F 4 9*9 0 o A.5 9 9 4 4 34 90.4 J I.4.9 FeC 89 16 02 88?9 69 9 49 I2. I8 6 58 k6 bl 44½ 08 972. 64 08 92. I2 l2. 94. 08 bl 99 89 02. 01. 62. 99 69 08 P9 9 4 4.4 4 n ,9 4 4 9 4 0.9 4..A 19) 0.9 25 5 5 0 5.,5 4 4.9 I 5 99 4 90 ,5.5 5 0 99 19 49 9(8 0½ 0½ 08 69 P? 2 87. 08 86 Hl 08 98 18 6 84. 24 9 6½ be 6 86 87 69 64 0. 9½ 88 92 659. 89 F 4 4.0 14.9 3.). 4 A t 4 0 ,5 5 5 5 50 5 0 0 5 5.T A A. A.. 0 5b 5 5 o 5 96 99 89 I2 97 928 69 08 F9 bl 97 81. Pl. 83 ½ 8½ Pl 94 8 l. 4. 91. 98 94 08(8 87 59 97 84 69 Pl. 99 89 0 k9 8 4 4..A„ 4+⁸ A..J o u 5 0 9 5 5 0 25 5 5[.g 1 4 A 0 1 4 0 5 55 1 5 5 e 5g 99 6 86 4. 12 08 99 9 81 1 6 d 62 898 94 Ff. I8 94 14 S8 ½ 9 08 02 k9 9 5l. 19 I2 99 59 9 5 0 1.0 T A 4 4 d. 0 05 ⸗⸗9 0 0 9 56 0 9 A.5 A..4 1 4 4 4.I 4 f Ho 9 09 5 505 96 9 88 vL 88 d. 02 08 89 9² 8 1-4. 58 96 97 84 88 6 9 8 ¶£ F? 88 84, P9 94 11 F9 04. 19 59 4 99 99 8½ 89 I 5 4 9 A. 1„ 4 4 5 ,0 0 5 9 5 0.3 o 5 50 0% 4 ,1.„A 0o 5.5 44 5v.0 0 5 0 K’A M”A M“V:d N“A-MV'K“d MA M: VſM:d KAN:V'N:AN:AN“Vſ.N:A M:A N.Vj.M:A ·MA ·MV·K:A ·KA ·N:V·MNd ·K:A N:Vj·Kd N:Ad MNV·N:A ·N:A N:V ·N“d M A N:V 6 3 2æ 6 86 4 6 8 1 6 35 2 6 36 4 6 3 4 6 8 2 6 8 2 6 6 4 6 3 4 6 5 2 6 8 4 120 SIA or UuI, XO VI 0 ‧8 A XN SSEIU vpuuno vIO0 UAON 281 00sIouulg ung olflAonelg ,010sIIIII pooMuοlo unsnV uorueA sue w epuxoV 49182 OOd oe Taonuo M IIAIIo A[nV ponuluo,—"f hN, 2 o d0;/ pu.n. 1Tιοννα οͥῦw ſo 4018 60† — s 99 0 14 98 89 19 8l 99 99 92. 98 61 88 Pl 6 ½¾ 88 84. 84 08 09 El. 89 69 9ʃ 99 416 99 89 09 r9 09 19 5 0 Al.A..4 1 4 4 1.»0 9 5 41..A.4 T.. X 4 I. 1. 4 f. 0. 99 99 90 89 98 PG 89 89 89 89 l. 80 18 06 04. 84 88 92 6 18 84 46 69£ v9 84 89 89 99 89 t4 bl e 08 4.9 1.. A. M 14 0.A. I.A 1..r„1.. e 4 A 4.A. 50 5 4 9 0 9 99 0L. 990 86. 98 89 29 98 59 LL. 19 238 86 9 08 98 84 88 98 92. 4 68 PL 89 99 p? 89 19 49 19 bl 08 P9 66 4.,0 4 A· A. 6 7 A 4 d„A 0 9 50.4 4 4 14 4 0.9 5 0 ,9 0 15 90 0 99 99 99 09 19 49 kl 89 0½ 87. 04. 08 46 6½ 6 S 88[ 88 84. 82 88 bl. 89 6 09 49 99 89 69 G4 99 Ek 64 69 80 14 4 0 14»„4 214 A A nv+4 0. ℳ 4.4 9 AI.A 5 9 90 H 6 5 5 4.0 o 4 99 89 90 99 411 01 02 14 419 LEL 2 98 96 9 08 98 08 08 †8 18 12 1 I4. 89 9 04 99 G2. 89 I. 6ʃ 29 bl 88 89 48 50 9 50 4 19% 0 0 0 14.4 14 14. A. A A4 0 A.A„ M 4 1.4 0 A.4 14 4 9 99 90 4. e 69 99 dl. 99 I12 84. 89 98 k6 82 08 8 18 08 88 64 56 66 49 99 08 01. 99 bl 69 49 8½ 99 be 81 rS 95 5 4.0.0 5. 5 6( 0 0 0 νð 59 1 0 0 A. 4. 9 0 ,0 50 5 09 4 A. A 14 4 4 1...4 21l..A Co 9 419 0E 18 19 99 Al. 2 419 99 99 18 86 08 6 ⅔[8 08 62 18 64 89 09 89 8 99 59 9*. V9 69 l. 68 16(l 99 98 2 50 5 7,0 14.„A. 4.414 5 0 9 4 5 3 4. 4 4 4 g.A 5. A. 4. A 4.4 1 9 8 9 99 98 99 84 09 09 89 92 99 l. b9 98 96 97 6 8 18 2 08&.. 99 kl 89 09 89 90 59 El. 99 80 89 990 99 01. 99 bẽ S 9v 4 99 4 A.4A 4 0 0 5 1.,0 1 0 5 4.4. 1..A 4„ AI 4 4 4 4 0 9 50 9 0 g 98 99 99 99 909 59 69 1 19 kl 89 88 06 LI 08 8 64 44. 18 69 61 69 68 Il 99—9 G1. 99 99 99 19 69 29 99 g A 0 4 0 4 A A 6 4 ₰ 9 o* 4 0 4 4„A ₰ 4.4...4 0 5 25 9 50 5 5 0 0.9 6 E 89 99 98 19 8 9 99 2 89 19 8 19 08 16 92 82 18 flι 9⁰v 08 89 89. 99 S9 89 d9 79 89 09 89 04. 19 89 891. 99 8 SZ 5 4 0.4 0 0„4 4 4 0 0 4 o., A A. A 4..A 4 1 1 0o X m).5 505 75 9 1 1.4 8s 99 99 69 8⁰ 99 89 L 89 69 8 9 6½ 06 6 8 88 874 9e l. 419 IL 1½ 89 09 b². 19 19 04. 89 29 99 19 19 02 19 18 14 4.4 2 6 86 99 99 59 89 39 69 0½ 89 19 8 9 8 k6 94 8 90 82 dl., b 19 44 89 88 El. 39 80 ⁴⁴l. 09 19 89 09 99 99 09 06 4 4 5- 9 0 3 4 4 1 4 4 9.9 4 5 H A A ‧0 4 4,9 18.4 14 9„A 9 0 9 0 9 4 ds 99 90 F9 Ve. 80 59 892 19 69 kl 99 v8 6 18 88 S 8⁰½ 28 67 9² 67. 17 68 8⁰ 09 09 I 9 19 82 89 89 Ll 86 61 99 99 90 c9 92 68 gg 69 99 49 d. 2.'S8 86 ½ 88 68 88 18 8 6 ½ 0ʃ 92 64 re 0 88 19 07 49 89 89 49 89 6 63 81 3. A 4 90 4 50 0 4 5.4 0 0 0 LE 81 kb FL 18(28 16 92 08 98 08 0a gs Is 6 1s8 92 99 69—9 89 69 1ℳ 66 89 99 19 19 20 LI 4.4 14 5 5 4 5 4 A 4 4 A.,1 4 A 4.4 4 4A4 0 9 4. 5 95 55 4 0 5 8909 4˙ 4 8s g es 09 89 P9 4 88. 84 98 4½ 58 G 9. d8 28 18 88 8 18 I 8 97 569 Fl k9 9 Cl. 0! 89 02 89 99 99 89 91 14 4 ⸗ 4-5 9.4 5 9.4. 4.4..4 2.0 9.4.4 4.4 4 4 4.4 4 4 89 99 99 99 9. 99 54 88 84 2? LS 42 8½ 06 G. 08 88 88 ẽ8 S 8 08 88 58 39 92 pe 12 18 97 89 3. 79 89 69 99 91 = =— 9 8 88 2 9 — 8 57 2 45 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 5⁴² U 9 Ie e 8 99 352 e e e e e 52 88 43 94 24 892 12 85. 23 2 5 5 2————— o 9 2, 82 9 ee 98 In 6 ½ 6 18 8 22 As 2 2&% 65 99 v 94 25 49 19 22 8 292 23*—— 4 S—*——QQQ—Q—Q—Q—·····Q··········· 09 69 69 09 97 09 04 l 89 d4. 08 19 L96 14. 94 84 8 84 2 88 9 1L 18&½ l. l. 69 0½ 97. 89 89 99 19 59 89 68 PI 4 4.4 4 ₰ 4 9 A 4 9 ₰ 5 9 0.d 4.4 1.A 4 4 ₰ 0 0 4 9 0 1 9 0 5„ 9 3 99 08 99 89 85 49 IZz 18 29 86 88 99 9⁰ 98 I2 08 FS 94 08 18 PI P. I4. 14 1% 88 69 99 69 99 89 dl 9 vo 89 4 gI .4 4.4 1 29 ,0.4.A 4 0 4 9„ 5 4..4 g 0 5 0 6.5o 2 0.5 ,5 4 4 H0o 0 0 90 99 98 89 0½(8 11 0½ 18 99 69 08 89 9⁰ 88 9 84 8 4 br 1 4 69 18 99 89 8 99 09 19 99 vg 99 18 96 69 06 3l 4 4 2 2 33 1 4 4 1 0 ₰ 4 0 ,5 14 41 4 5 5 ,0 5 5 55 6 4 05 14 4 5 90 5 0 ˙ A.4 86 69 68.l. 88 bl 17. 82 49 69 18 89 9⁰ 98£ ½ 8 18 4 kl. 88 9½ 49 81 89 11 88& 49 b? 89 19 09 68 02. 69 II 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 4 4 4..4 4 4 ,5 4.A.4 1 0 1 4 9 4 4 4.4 4..d 21 0 4 4 9 4 86 99 66 l. 68 dl l. 6½ 29 II 18 69 88 d4. 8½ 18 64 84 18 99 99 1E 19 be 88 99 99 à2 99 l 08 89 89 59 6 5 01 4 4 9 4 41 6 5 e. 1 4 5 9 50 24 4.. 4 A 29 4 4 6 4 4-4 4 4 4 0 ,5% 4 96(9 68 8 06 69 69 L4. 89 82 84 0l bL 08&4 94 28 64 44 84 99 59 IL dS 99 4 98 29 0 9 89 89 9 28 89 99 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 4 4 0 90 4 0 2 A. 4.4 4 4 4 14 A& A 64 4 7 1 4 4 6 v 1 4.59 A 86 5g 16 1. 08 68 99 2 e 84 82. 99.1 08 18 8 8 Fl. 9½ p9 09 69 bg 60 FI 06 99 0 09 09 99 09 09 19 4 α 8 4 4 9 4 1 ,0 1 1.4 ,95 0 14 9 0 4 4..4 5 4 4 1 4 4 4 4. 4 14 90 0 ,5.4 41 4 96 99 68 v9. 09 89 89 88 89 69 Pt Al. P 08 98 64 8½ 18 8 ½ 09 69 09 99 99 86 86 89 09 56 60 Pe 99 12 09 E ½3 4 20 5 4 9.4.4 4 9 9 0* 0 4.4 4 Z 0.4 4 6 4 4 4A 4 1 A.4 A.T 1 96 49 18 86 9 S 59 99 99 01 08 89.1. 08 874 66 58 674 08 18 k* 69 8 68 09 44 59 89 69 bg 89 68 89 49 I 9 4 4 9 4 4 4 14 0 5 4 9 0 5 9 5 1. 4 4 A 4 4 9 J A I u 4 35 50 4 o 4 4* 0 F 89 5s 86(2 89 64. 61 49 5l. 88 69 06 4ι½ 18 s L. 6 88 bl. El. 87 0½ 69 08 49 89 0 69 18 8½ 89 9 P9 9 4 4 9 05 0 5 5 4 5 4 0.4 T 1 4. 4 4 4.4 A A 4 41 ,0 5 9 7 4. 5 0 1 4 4 4 0 4 96 k9 80 86 06 kk 69 8 l. 08 89 b6 96 08 6½ 94 66 IS F, t 8 12 06. 08 99 89 18 89 I12 18 89 Fl 88 99 12 2 5 25.3 74 9. 5 8.5„ 12 2 56 A.4 5.5„1 15 5 d. a 5ν 4 2 1 A 5 d9 88 Pl. 88 69 99 6½ 19 Ie. Pl. 99 98 r6 9½ 9 A2. 972 6 18 I. G.1. 18 69 I1Z2 28 99 59 08 99 9 08 8 b9 e8 99 8 4 4 5 9 0 4 4 0 0 5 0 50 414 50 9 οo 0 4 0 4 4 4 0 66 56 3 14 4A A 4 4 n 4 4 4 96 69 86.l 68 59 99 9½ 19 0½ 08 49 6½ 86 81 9⁰ 9 6 ½ 6 08 02½ 0½ 14 89 69 88 99 09 2 99 pt. 18 99 19 8½ 86 5 15 1 50 4... 1 4 14 o 4 5 9 0 ıπ.0 55 5 4 4 4 0 4 4 4 4.A.A 1 A. 4 A.41 18 49 88 l. 98 89 69 9 ½ 60 12 08 89 08 16 kl* Ll 18 87 9 08 b 89 08 89 09 12 89 gI 84 68 6 89 99 1 5 4 90 24 4 1 1 4 0. 2 90 9 14 4 4 1.4. 4 6 6 6 6 1. 4 A. 1 4*4.l A A. .E-A.N A-K-VN“A-Md M-=V ·M.A M:A M=VI M:d M-A M“V-M:A IMIA M“V.M:A IA M.V M:AN:A M:V'.N:Ad M A MVv M:A MA M.V ·MA.M:A IWV'·M.AM“AM“V.MA Md M“V 6 5 L. 6 6 5 L. 6 56 4 6 5 L 6 k 6. 6 2 6 6 6 5 4 6 6 E 6 8 k 1²0. a.2r.onO uu. xXO. Blg 9 ‧8 A„X N sSvM puun noos vAaoN ‧1981 0581Ournlg uug olllAnuld οε%sllIH pooAu unsnV cuorSuLin Ax ug HV epurxolv 1018llood 40Nomu N leonuo N lIlAJlo A 108 ponuu— ꝓf̃ͥ h—s 2½ 0 205/ pup 4‿. 1ο⁵e⁴ιον ο⁷⁴ο ονεκνμνοεν ——4——QC—õ— ℳℳõʒ—————————ʒꝛÿÿð—-õůůʒ— 80 . 0 e l9 40 99 99 88 99 89 IP g 89 44½ 88 69 5L I8 49 69 89 5 8 ⁵ 09 8 ⁵ 99 05 06 10 00 5b IS Ib I 08 90 9 9 9 1 1 l.A A A A 5nv ₰4 0 1 A.4 4 1. ₰ A.A.AI 9 5 9»„ A.4 05 5n ,5 A 4 4 18&. 89 S(& 5 05 s Ih 85 99 f◻ι◻. 89 89 5 06 92 01. 9 89 vg I9 90 bb Ie g5 99 79 86 6 ⁵ L I 9⁵ 09 88 6 A A 09. A 9 4 4 4 1 5 5 5 1 4.4.14 1..A 0 90 A 5 90o 4 f.A.A 1.4 1 ₰4 4 19 08 80. 98 8 5† 9 99 80 96 92 90 6. 8 0½ 64 1I8 97 9 e. I4 99 4 96 89 99( 59 1L 9 1 S 09 99 Pl bS 8⁰ 4 A 4 4 0 A 4 4 4.4.. 1 14 4 50 4 4. 4 14 9 59 1 A d 5 5 5 5 4 41 5 5 0 l.4..4 14ν 86 59 59 04 89 419 0l 88 59 8½ 86 9½ 38 59 9½ 08 84 L IL I 99 c* 69 49 8 19 19 E 99 99 12 60 99 04 84 4⁸ 24 4 A. 50 9 9 4 1 4 1 1..4 A.A. ℳ 1 41 0 1 9.50 1..4 6 0.f...A A1.4..A. 4..A. 89 972. 09 02 88 09 419 02. be 19 92 10 0½ 88 59 87. 18 94 52. 92 89 99 84 99 59 8. 60 19 1 69 89 69 19 86 9½ 18 98 4 4 4.l+ 4. 4 1.1.4 1 I A 14 ſ.4 v 9.₰ 4 1.4 7 2 1 4 0 4 4 4...4 69 69 09 59 8½ 89 89 02. Pe 09 2 090 1. 88 09 2 I8 04 89 L. 99 45 0 18 899 El.. 09 94. 80 19 94 2 99 8 15 98 4 4 0 A A ‧4 1 K.4.1 1 4 4 l. 4 l4 l.4 o 0 50 4 4A4 9. 46 0 9 0 1.4 4.4 4 4 3 — 46 3. 19 08 83 99§9 h 89 dl. 9 5 0⁰ 08 09 0% 6½ 89 69 kL 89 99 19 8 ½ 89 8 6 5 46 99 90 92 89 80 80 88 8† pS 4.4.4 4 4 4 4 14 A 4.I..4 f A.1 A..A.1 90 4A.1.A.A 6 6 2 1 1 1.A..A 1 4 4 ☛ ⏑ 18 99 68 09 0 85 16 09 95 g 89 1 5 99 97 809 69 08?9 49 8 99 926 19 89 6 ⁵5 99 Ch 46 99 09 4 5$ 98 9 65 14 19 8⁸ 3 4 2.4 414 ℳ 1... 1 A.4 4 1 4 1 4 1A 1 0 A A. 4 0 0 1 5 0 5 5 5-A A 35 E 16 dg 18 8⁵5 99 0 80 68 80 8 89 92 99 8 59 0E 16 ½ b? 62 F9 84. 89 bg 60 80 89 09 98 16 96 18 80 19 00 8 — 4 4 9 4 4 0 4 0 ,9 4 5Fbv.4 l.A A 4 41 0 0 4₰ 0„A.A v 0.0 2 5 55 1 5 9 5 5 41 8* 99 60 5g 89 00 bg 19 80 416 99(0 9⁰ 98 89 8⁰ 1I8 4½ 9⁰ 08 83. 59 92. 09 vg o9 8 99 lg e 0 88 Gr ggs 19 10 15 09.1 9.4 9 05.1 9 209.41 0 A 0 0. 41*. 1 09 09 59 84 0*I 5 0* 8.9 144 4 5 6„ 0 0 98 19 60 56 19 08 96 88 96 09 59 09 dl 88 04. 6 8 674 8⁰ 98 87 59 9 09 86 80 IeG 46 9 88 8 ⁵5 09 8 6 ⁵ 09 9 † 0⁶ 4 4.4 9 4..4 9 0 9.0 05 0 4 9 1 14 1 4 0 50 5 5 5 0 5 0 5 3 55 0 5 0 66 5g 69 86 69 80 c.9 92 89 89 08 04 34. d! FPl. 08(8 88 6 ½8 fl 09 89 99 I IS 6 † 88 19 80 09 pbe b 9 ⁵5 bg 9 5 61 . A..4 4 8 4₰4 22 9.5.0 14 5 50.-1 4.A 4 4 9 9 2 o I i 5 0n 4 4 0O A A* 4 86 89 60 be 89 90 0½ 08 89 Pl 68 84. 9⁰ 08 97. 18 98 88 08 8 97 5 98 14 56 90 90 89 l. 49 8 ⁵ 99 6 89 60 98 81 4 4 4 u A 4+ 4 5 5 4 14 5 9 1..K... 4 4 AA 0 v 4 9( 5 0.4 r X 4 5 4 4 4 0. 89 89 09 89 97. 8l. 0½ 38 0½ E4 98 12 08 06££½ I8 18 298 4 88 84. l S 8. b9 9 ½ 60 419 49 89 9 98 0*S 89 6 † LI 14 4 9„A A A.4..4 14 4 5.14 4 9 A.M,.A 1 414 ₰ 4 A 4 0 9 9 y 90 4 0 I 90 nv 4. 68(9 66 9 97 89 I 84 98 8 898 69 FI 18 97. 08 98 88 08 08 18 l. G4. 09 66 89 G 89 99 19 92 19 1G 16 80 6g 91 -.„ 0 u A à 4.9 4.4 A.. 0o 4 9 1 4 4 0 5 4 0 5. 0 0 ˙5 14 l 4 3 59 4 4 4 4 66 9 66 19 9² 99 899 Fz 09 Fr. I8 02 82 98 P 6½ 8 62 18 88 4 e I8 64. 09 92 68 99 bf. 0½ 48 29 19 r9 G4. 89 81 29 2 15 5 4 4 ℳ 1 5 4 4 9-0 1 A 4 A..A A...A 4 2 K4 4 ,9 4 9 90 4 4 A 5⸗. ⸗ 58= 55 32— 5 2 99 08 29 89 2 29 1 19 29 8*ε — 5 5 7 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 54⁴4 69(8 09 99 l FC 89 06 19 89 78 99 8& 68 92 18 k 27. GI 8 ½ 89 kl. 69 90 68 16 99 r9 99 19 99 9r* 82 19 66 FI 4 5 41 4 9 5 0.4 0o d 4.4 4 1 4.0 9 1 5 5 9 o 0 5 A I A 4 9o 5 5 9 49 08 09 6 60 05 89 99 68 89 69 99 69 6 ½ 9 9 67. 84. V 9⁰ 9 99 8 59 keo 89 19 19 kl 89 88 99 19 79 l. 98 81 l...4 4 4 4 5 0 1 A A. 14 9.4.9 5 5.5 50 1 A 5 4 05 9 4 4.4 9 5. 9 19 2 28 9 g9 6 5 89 99 19 419 12 r9 49 08 19 Sl. 69 V 9 Gr. 1½ b9 04 09 899. 88 19 l 2 86 99 9 ½ 9. 99&e*r 51 4 4.4.4 1 0 5 9 05 5o„9.. 4 1 5 0 0 ₰ ,9 1 4 0 0 5 1 1 5 0 0 0014 A. A4 4 86 IL. 19 19 09 29 09 49. 4 49(¶2 99 0 ½ 8. 69 0½ 89 19 89 99 99 F9 89 45 88 89 98 6 ⁰ 89 ᷑ 09 09 98 II 1 A1 4 6 5 0 7 5 0 4 0 0 1 1 A 14. 4„5 Ad d 0oü ⸗0 0 6.A. 4.4 4 4 4 A 4 09 8 8 8 IL 86 19 99* 09? 8 Sl. 8. 0 I? 67. 04 69 0 99 16 19 84 8 09 br 16 88 2 5 99 0r 80 9 01 „4...4 14 4 4.4 A.4.4.4 u A 1A...4 0 A ,9 4 5 0 7 14„o 4 J1.4 44 4 4 99 19 90 68 0l 8 5 60 99 16 09 04 88 Sl. 67. 89 82. 08 99 99 49 49( 49 8 5⁵ 50 09 8 80 l9 60 9p bo 9 9 ⁵ 09 9 6 4 4..4 4 o.4 4 o.A.1 9 4 9 1. 1 ,4 5. 1 4 5 6 9 H0a. 4 41 4 f4 A.4 74 D 4 1 09 28 89 89 00 90 99* 68 01. 80 0k 62. 19 89 l. 19 II 14. 89 80 0l 6 g 29 bb 86 99 88 k 89 6 † go l9 215 8 74 9 90. f 4 O04 1 4.4 1 9„ 0.4 5.4 5„o 9 5o 5 50 f A.0 2 4.4 0 1 4.4 0 ₰ 0 09 99 68 88 19 80 19 01 00 89 19 19 69 9 99 0E 0l 99 89 89 98 86 89 06 65 68 ¶—†. 89 60 19 89 05 I 88 9 4 9 4 ⸗n0.4 4 04 4% 5% 0 0.† 4.0 9 ð 0 0 0.0 14..4 4 1.I.4 4 4 1 9 A 88 09 98 02 de 9 99 06 19 01 09 02. 8½ 89 69 L. 84 79 IL 98 5C 89 80 Fg 89 19 FC 09 99 8s 19 6 † 8 ⁵ 90 68 9 0 5 4 4 901 4 4 4 9 5Fo ,9 4 4 0 0o 9.9.4 50 4.4 7„ 904 4..4.4 9 4 4.4 09 99 09 86 69 90 99 99 6 89 19 86.1 18 69 Pl. 81 97 99 65 14 68 0 80 66 88 19 g 99 08 6 19 9 ¶ 68 db 9 5 n9 0 4 0 0 14 o.4 A 5.0 9 4 9 1†.4....5).4 14 5 ,5 1 I.4 1 A.4.4 4 4 19 89 09 6 p9 89 09 9 08 19 l PS 01 69 L 9 6 be F9 8½ 9 99 99 7( 96 89 86 Le 4 Io cc 68 6⁵5 86 00 T » 1 0 5 0 50...A 5 1 ,9 o A 4.f.4.4 9 4 1 90 5.0.9 4 5„9 4 41.4 4 5 4 09 99 10 90 00 FS 88 88 99 99 dS 08 68 97 g?² 6 I2 k9 1 89 89 89 88 9 00 86 0 66 9 ⁵5 68 6 09 08 3 v 4 0 9„0 9 4 o 0 5.5.9 4 5 9 1.4 14 0 0 9.0 0 3.0 0 9 4 4 4.4 0 5 9 99 68 90 65 90 88 50 9( 6 19 99 7 87. 98 971 0E 8½ 99 dl. 9⁰ 9 89 69 66 8 r 66 69 89 gr ki 98 90 19 19 A 5 5o 4 9 0.9 5 n.0 0 A AM 9 9 50 4 4.4 0+₰ 1 5 1 A 5 9 5 n„59 4 4 4 0 0 5 FG 89 99 19 69 68 68 99 s 9 84 6 8L. i18 xl 0. 9 02 I4. 86 1 69 Ib 06 Ig kr 99 19 80 r 68 1r c s r 1 4 4 9 A A 5» 1l 0.1... 5 9 0 5 5 0. 41 ℳ₰ 9.1.. 1 A 0 50 1. 4 5 505 0 4 A 4 .NA Nd MVſ*KA K-d M=V.K.AN-·dM. V.K-A M-d K. V''N:d M-d M-=V.T-A IM=d N“ V M A N“dN:V'N:A N“dN:VſKN:d N:A N:V'N:d N d MN:Vj·N.d.N:A MVſ·KN:d M:A M.V 6 5 2 6 35 2 6 5 4 6 ð 4 6 S 24 6 56 4 6 8 2 6 L 6 5 2. 6 5 2 6 8 4 6 58 4 -1uO SIA.orO uuaJ..xT vlg 0 ·S VA X ‧N'sSuN vpruuo non8 nAON Ze81 cooslouul ueg olllAeneld.4O0dSIIIH pooMu unsnV uorSu A sues UV IIpuuxoV 12180 0oOU 40MonlunN enuOMN oIAJlo A[00 ponuguo—"„f hrs 2 ½[o Pu 5. 10Tuον ον ℳMο 1ονεν ονν 46 .A 86 .4 Pp 8* 9 88 35 80 36 METEOROLOGVY. er 69 89 ..A. . I8 lb 5 6 b 86 4 9 68 9 66 .9 89 g 98 5 5 0 F 5 L⁵ 2 ½ ·4 94 . 69 0 88 G. 5 1 5 2 A2 1 41 5 2——.—— 1——— 4 1 ——— g9 2. 99 E gs Ir. e er oe oe vr 18 8 98. 928 8u ⸗, L. ler 3 r e e. e 2 98 5 2 2 89 1* 08 08 8l 25 ke 08 e r 8 9 8b rr. 59 rI 09 99 gI: 95 8*½ 86 0b 66 e er 8u 95 68 48 65 88 br vI 4 1.4 52.r 0 o h 9 9.9 12 41 24. 7 0 35. 4 4 195 9 9 99% A 92 09 95 91 88 06 cg dr I 8 85 br 9 ⁵b 1 ½ 59 01 98 69 89 66 19( ½ be 8r 05 0 16 Ig ee eb 98 4 5 06 8 5½ 81 1 1.2 1 9 4 4 0 o 4 5 4 n A A 4 Al A 4..1 4 5 4 4ℳ 5 9 2 4 9 ,59 9 0 1 5 8o 16 1 ½.5 8 e o 8f 18 19 L 18 0 99 09 89 bg 29(9 19 85 18 68 8b 10 0 b 86 bi 15 0r 98 0b ⅜— 88 SI .4 JI 55.4 9 0 9 5.4 5 0.41 A A 1 A. 4 90.1.. o 0 2 4 4 A A 904 4 4 4* 18 00 95 pS 965 85 95 88 r 0 88 99 49 68 19 89 66 80 88 Ch 1e e 8 Or 8 9„ 80 vy 0 IW 88* Ir II 21 2 95, e e e e e i e e 7 16 59 99 85 90 88 c.. dr 8. 68 19 08 1 19 s gr de gr 90 89 09 Ir 9 85 Or I 98 6 5 99 89 88 r g 99 69 99 01 1 4. 4..9 4 J. 1 4.A 5 90 4 4.4 4 1 4 ,9 34 5 d ,6 5 4 4 9 0 5..4. 09 89 83 96 †S 68 T 88 lſ e 8r 2 68 8 00 09 88 E2 6½ 12. 14 62 12* 9 ⁰ 1G 89 09 99 19 40 59 88 eg 89 88 6 S 14 0.9 0 90 35 2.0.9 4 9 5 4 4.4.f 4.4 0 41 9 9 5.9 0 n5 9 4 0 ,3 5 5 5 19 9 99 le 92 9 5 19 r 9 19 9 5 88 89 do r 0½ 0½ 8 ½ 9½ 08* 12 8 04 r9 99 88 8 89 PS gr 9b I) 92 0 68 8 5..9.4 5 9nh 0 5 9 2 9 5 9 4 5.14 9 vo 4.4 5 9 50 u l 9 5 1 u 90 1.5 9 59 r9 b b 9 5 d 19 69 89 69 94 1. 25 69 89 9 ½ 88 84 eI 14 99 69 97 40 8g de gr 80 89 99 95 6 ν ðr 95 989 6* 2 A 9 E lo h. i 4 4. 5 d C,„„ 4 4 4 ,9 Se er.4.5 o 1 Dr 9 5 e †9 88 b 85 88 99 29 89 I14 9I. 69 22. 98 87 8l. 64 d4. 69 21 19 99 82. 89 1 88 86 69 19 98 19 416 6 5 49 99 l 9 — 1. 4 0 0 1 5b5 0 ,9 4 9 d 5 9 5„.4„„ 8.,0 0 9.4 5-9 0 ,9 4 5 5 A u —₰— 7 E 86 P9 68 06 80 06 09 69 90 89 I 89 br IS 6*. d. 59 4 66 59 r9 Cr c„ 69 05 89 ks Cr egb b kes 18 3f 68 9 4. 5 4 5 80 5 5 0. 4 9 5 4 1 9 o 1 0.0 5o 2 5 5 4 5.5 1 9.9 4 ₰ 4 5 09 g9 89 419 09 db de 96 90 lb=l. Ia.⁴ 11 9½ 89 19 r9 8 l9 28 ve 8 b 88 8 85 c 0b 88 88 r Or r 8 0 5.5 0.A 7..4 4 A 90.4.5 4.A 0 5 0 4..4 3 9..1.. A 4. 5o 4 J.3 —— 69 19 89 98 00 66 0O 6 ⁵5 98 I 99 ls 04 91. 19 89 9⁰ 19 65 89 G oy 1e r I uh 88 95 86 0Ob b 68 0 65 8 ₰ 5 0 0 A.T... A 4 4s4 A. A.0 3 50 4 1 9 1 f..1 4 4 5 5 ,5 24 f 4 1.A 5 4 4 1 96 89 86 88 6 68 I C 8 9 8 9 89 8. 09 8 89 15 6 99 v 0 0b Ir 50 86 08 2 8 C 9 ⁵5 85 0k 8 — 4I 9„1 H 4.1 J 41 A d 1 ο% 0 d...A 1 4 4 5o A 4 9 A 1 4 50 A 0 9 A 4 4 9 09 20 ch- ke 88 95 85 97 6 09 88 59 08 80 20 19 90 85 L 1 b L6 Or 0* pe S&r l dr g 85 1 9 9 55.4..A 4 95 4 J. 4 90.4 l.1.4 1.0.... 4 5 69 9 2 2 5 d 2 5 9 2 .K. A M-d ‧MN-V.N. d N. dM-V·N.d N.A·N·V·K·d M.A ·RN.·v·M.A„M:d N. vN.A N A M V It A M 4.IM-v.MdK-AK-VI N-A K.dN.V.N:A ⸗M-d K.V N= A M d M. N A I A K V 6 85 1 6 s, 6 5 4 6 1 A*rl k 6 86 2 6 6 2O 8 2 6 6 1 6 1 6 5 1 5 8 4 10 SMA.01u uuo XO. Vld. 9‧8 A XN SSvM vpuurO vo08 LAON ‧„181 0081Ouul dus elllAeneld.040SIIIH pooM uο⁵ eunsnvV uo⸗ure saufes IIV llpunxeiv 1218910 1eMNonluu N 1B1uON 1IAIIOAM A0N ponu*νμα— ⁴"„fñ Hs 2 71 o 20] pup 9.1n,D. 1DT2ον½v M"Iονεν, 547 METEOROLOGX. S. by Or 09 9 Ib 88 0. 89 5G 892 80 9 5 95 bb 82 FL 88 B. 5.9.4.4.4„o„5o ,4 5 50%% 0 9 ·0 1 0 9 96 80 88 89 9 49 99 99 69 46 0 er 85 8 F 98 79 88 „⁹ 0 0 0.1 4A 9 9 ,9 0 0 A. 0 4 A. 0 0 0 88 8* 8⁰ 827 89 80 F9 49 99 L 8* c8 gr 6 18½ 89 18 68 68 4 4 0 A d A„ 9 25 5*4 2₰ I 1 4 0 0 9 0 08 8 06 F.2. 9 86 09 8 5 82 88 66 28 rh be FL c 98. 18 0 · 0. 2 3 0 ,0 5.. 1 1.5.4 9 d 9 66 09 8 99 19 06 59 95 98 88 96 08 c ke 4 81 81 05 1 4 4 A 0 1.H. 63.4 2 29 4 0 4 Al 4 01 91 08 83 49 98 06 09 8† 28 12 00 85 98 8 EI 9 61 68 4 A 4 0 0 9 4 4 4 74-A.A.. 4 4 0 1 9 SI 18 80 05 89 99 95 88 88 28 48 88 98 68 0†⁵ 88 18 Ie lr 0 0 A A 1 xl 4 41.A A 0.9 A 9 0 0 0 9 01— 01 18 8 89 6 99 64 9 96 86 88 g 46 99 Sr 88 18 96 18 A„4.ℳ 0 4 A A A.A. 0 ·.A 4 0 5 4 0 90 5 ˙80 v 15 gr 18 69 85 59 89 89 0⁸ 0 g5 4 16 dr 86 18 0 88 5 ,5 0.1 4 9 l 4 0 5 4 Ho 0 5 5 1 H 05 83 IP 86 99 88 Le r 92 09 68 r 0 8 I 88 c.8 Lk. .41 5.9.1 I 1 1.4 5% 5„0.9 5 1 gI 91 80 85 g cb. 88 Igs 0b 88 18 92 S 8r 9 5 98 08 8 ⁵ 89 0.1 9.A.1.41 A 1.. 0.0.09 A 09 0 0 01 05 98 F 09 9 89 89 r 8* bg 88 68 06 9† 88 e 6 4 9 0 0.. 414 4 41 4 4 1 0 9 0 87 0 90 8 5 8 Er 69 kr 06 89 kh 19* 6 ⁵ 85 Sh 88 98 6 9 † 0 ·0 0 A 1.A 4 A A 0 9 A 0 4 90 8⁰⁵ 98 95 88 89 88 9 ⁵5 99 80 86 59 r 9 ⁵ 98 80 68 48 19 96 0 A-9.0 A AM 1 4.. 6.4 1 1 A4 A. 0 25 050 5 08 88 Sp 9r 89 ðr 9 19 89 99 96 c† 9 F C8. 98 18 68 ,5 0 ·9 A 0 9.49 A A A.1 A 0 0.J A 0 ₰ A S c8 I 08 ¶† 0r 69 09 27 Ih 8 0? kr 18 2*. 95—8 88 14 2 2 5 u.„ 0 0:.4.4 1 4 A.9.4..4 8. 2 1 — 5 12 3„ 8 1.* 5 1.2—— 85 61 688 98. 21 * 3 5 1ꝝ Ir Ir 85 8 6 6 3 *3 33 E. 93 1 18 3 81 99 92 99 95.* 29 92 9 Sr L5 1 8 81 85 95 19 99 9 5 0 b 0 ½ bi 19 88. v 99[29 99 E v Gl. kbr 80 99 8 ½ 1eE de 16 6E 8V Lr h 06/ 8e 1! 68 b 2b 98 1 .4.4 4 0o 9.4.4..4 4 9 4 g.. J..4.4.4:.4 4 4 4 2 5 2 65 7 g s 0G r9 de ev r9 lr l1 68 IE 86 85 11 86 0b IV ie 96 15 63 Ce 98 98 Ll 4 1 4 4.4 4 4.4 1 4 d 4 A.d.4.4.4.4 4 5o 0 50 4.4 6.1 A.A 1 H 9 4 5o 0 lIg ko do 88 lr I 66 80 86 0 99 l. 09 99 88 4 ν 89 9 6 8 6⁰ 88 85 16 le do 5. 98 2 96 8 8I gl kl 8 El 1 9 9 1.4 4 1 4.4 4 5 0.4. 4 A dA.4.4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 o.0 A o 4 1e ko 8 81 96 91 68 1 66 62 19 le Dd 9 8. 8 ⁵ d9 er 99 16 99 19 1s 16 85 6 88 88 18 11 91 91 81 23 88 II 41 d 4 4 1 4 4 1.Al A. 14 l.4 4 4 9 1 A. 8 88 6 5 92 8 88 1 85 68 cg cCh 9 18 8g l—g Cl. 89 02 1½ 0 69 t 89 bo de Lr 50 gr er 66. Ie 65 te 98. 0 6 K 0 o 0 o A 0 0 o o 4 0o A 4 4 4 0 0 0 d.d 4A 5 0.0 5 d³ 0 1o.5 3 5 9 5 n.4 A 67 g g5 de e 08 1 1 96 19 69 19 99 39 09 89 4. 69 49 0 69 96 89 09 05 09 er 8 e i e er 8. 0? 8r 68 8 2 4 4 0 0 9 0 0 o 0.9 A 1 1.0 0o 05 9 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 A o 5 4- 4 9 4.1 — 6 5à5 Pg Lb e b 88 9 6 e 09 89 r d9 bl S 89 PFl. P9 99 p9 19 r Le 84. 9r 1˙ 68 Lr a dr 18 85 68 0b 1 18 L .A.. 4 0 5 4 4.4 4 50.. 4 A 4 9 5 9 9 A..4 14.g A.A A 1 1l.5 4. A 4 0o ,0 2 1 ν 88 6 5 IgE 88 98 02 16 8r* 87 19 09 8o 0 ve 99 Pbl p9 99 l. 09 85 95 l o ch e(Cr 18 0g II 4 8I1 085 1 9 8.4 9 0 1. 1 0o 0.1.O ir 4.4.A 14 do A 0 9 0 u A 1 9 50 u o.9 s o. A 4 4 5 66 89 6 5 Ig cn. 86 9r 68 Lo 8e g † 09 19 99 99 0 89 68 89 99 ch e er le g 68 9ga Fs iIe Sl 8I 6 91 05 61 9 8 9 4 4 u.0 0 09 9 n en 5 5 70 A 3„.A o 9 9 5 o 0 s ,0 A 4.4.4.o.5 5 89 68 80 85 18 85 68 1½ l8 vr 95 ce 88 89 989 99 0k 8 1S 09 686 v Ir 08 le be 85 66 68 98 9l 16 88 13 98 16 v — 1 o 9 0 09 0 5 0 ,A A u A 5% 0 0 A.4 0 41.A 5% 4 9 do 1 A H.J.⸗ 0 H9.7 A.— 80 89 18 95 88 86 9g Ln(8 96 06 66*9 63 09 08 0½ 89 89 db 0b 88 r le e is 88 85 L/ v 08 98 1E 8r 28 8 ₰ 4 4 ,9 4.5 4 41..4 4 1 01 4 o.5 1.4..4. 4 4 0 4 4 0 05 9 4.l.4 0 0 9 5 9 5 6 90 09 43 de 08 85 G" L. 66 8 ⁸ ð5 49 8½ lg 86 89 99 0/ 46 19 r 0Oe le er i ks 0b 9 8 ½ 88 I 18 68 gr 0l 5 A 4 U A A.A 0 5 4 0 A 0 0 20 50 909* 89(0 6 5 0? 88 18 àd5 98 68 59 86 98 69 80 99 89 86 69 b9 80 0k 99 00 88 O r r d 8e er lr 8 87 88 1 4 5 A.1.4 0 1 1 A..l 4 0 A Al 4A 14 0.4 14 4 5 0 5 ,9 4.90 4 0 9 0 AI H .M-A ⸗-d W-V*:d ⸗MN“A M-VM:A ·MA ·KV ·IM:d ·N.A ·K=V ·M:d ·M.A ·KV.N:d ·M:A ·KV:WA MN: d M:Vſ d M:d M. V'·N-AN“d MV.K:d.MA K. V'·MN-·dK:d M. V'·N d„IE A IL v 3 6 2 2 6 6 4 6 2 6 86! 6 g. t 6 35 4 6 35 2 6 8 4 6 3 1 6 3 7 6 6 ½4 6 8 2 Iu.81 M 01u0 uu XON. nA 0 8 VA X N SSvMN upuuuo vnoo8 uAON ‧181 cuoruan A g pkeVv seod 40 NmuuN uonuo. oIIIAIIOM 00 . 548 pouu⁴d—%ᷣqolõ0s 2½ fo b’ pu m1uuο, d JO 1S H021 1 549 METEOROLOGV. Pg A 08 25 88 5 9 5 .A A. 05 .A 0p 0 88 0 0 80 86 0 9 † Sf. ðh S9 86 88 Sb 0 P .41 8„ 9 09 A er 86 550 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. LUNAR INFLUEN CES. According to popular belief, the moon not only presides over human maladies, but, like comets, is made responsible for a vast variety of interferences upon the weather, as well as upon organized. naturé. The circulation of the juices of vegetables, the qualities of grain, the fate of the vintage, are all attributed to its influence; timber must be felled, the harvest reaped and gathered in, and the juice of the grape expressed at times and under circumstances regulated by the aspects of our satellite, if excellence be hoped for in these pro- ducts of the soil. If these opinions were limited to particular coun- tries, they would be less entitled to serious consideration; but it is a curious fact that many of them prevail, and have prevailed, in sections of the globe so distant and unconnected, that it is difficult to imagine the error to have proceeded from a single source. At all events, the extent of its prevalence alone rendered it a fit subject for investigation by M. Arago, who demonstrated that, so far as actual observation has hitherto afforded grounds for reasoning, there is no discoverable correspondence between the lunar changes and the vicissitudes of rain and drought, which can justify, or in any degree countenance, the popular belief so generally entertained. The opinion that timber should only be felled during the decline of the moon, is acted upon with undoubting confidence in various countries, and is even made the ground of legislation in France, with the belief that its increase causes the sap to ascend, and, if cut during the latter period, it will contain more sap, and will, therefore, be more spongy, more likely to be attacked by worms, more difficult to season, and more readily split and warped by changes of tempera- ture. Hence, it would follow that the proper time for felling timber would be at new moon. With a view of ascertaining whether this supposed correspondence between the movement of the sap and the phases of the moon actually exists, the accompanying table has been prepared. It will also be serviceable in making comparisons in the weather in times past, as well as in the verification of dates, and testing the recollection of witnesses in court. EXPLANATION. Directly under the years will be found the moon's age, change, and full, corresponding with the days of each month on the left. N, indicates new moon; F, full moon. To find the state of the moon at the period Washington crossed the Delaware, on the 25th, 26th of December, 1776, it will be perceived that it was near its full. Again, it will be observed that, at the time of the great gale in North Carolina, on the 3d of September, 1815, the moon was one day old. D. J. B. mge, fron 1776 10 1889, clustve. teloy, at sighet, Tli moorrs ge, Frꝛlll, and cha — 289 8⁸ 41 9 95 FI 8 28 II N 81 4 9⁰ M P 85 Sl I 05 6 08 86 bo 98 9⁰ 4⁶ 606 80 08 4 g1 9 18 81 8 18 01 68 Ll 9 95 PI 8 85 11 N 61ʃ 8 61 18 8⁶ vo 80 98 80 1 60 9⁰ M 12 86 81 1 06 6 8 91 8 IS 8¹ S 16 01 68 81¹ 4 81 06 S5 8⁰ bõ 98 4 96 8 88 PI 8 20 11 N 61 8 45 Adüä.r 88 ðl 1 05 6 88 41 9 L1 61 15 S5 8⁸ v 9⁰ 18 P 81 S 15 01 68 81 L 90 vI 8 S8 11 N 61 8 46 9 g 91 81 06 18 86 86 c ko 96 8⁸ Sl I 08 6 8⁰ 41 9 98 8l 8 15 01 68 81 L 9 5 91 LI 61 0⁸ 1S S 5e 86 8 So I1 N 61 8 48 91 8 b SI I 08 6 86 L1 9 86 1 8 FI 91 81 61 06 18 g 8o is 16 01 68 81 4 9⁰ A P 86 11 N 61 8 1⁸ 9¹ 8 1 81 S 8l 91 L1 81 61 08 5 1 88 0³ 6 8⁰ 41 9 98 bl 8 S5 01 68 81 2 96 A F 86 8l I 81 bl 91 L1 81 61 168 0 86 61 8 28 91 9 S 81 8 16 6 8⁰ L1 9 88 L 8 85 II X 11 81 91 91 L1 81 05 61 158 81 4 98 MA b 86 Sl I 05 8 48 91 9 Fo 81 5 18 01 66 01 Sl PI g1 91 LI 61 8I 96 L1 9 98 bI 8 So 11 N 61 4 96 A F 86 Sl I 0⁸ 6 8 6 II 81 bI 91 91 811 4l 6 91 9 bS 81 8 16 01 68 81 9 98 vI 8 S0 II N 61 8 48 8 01 SI 81 PI 81 21 9 81 A F 8⁵ 81 I 06 6 8⁸ LI 9 be 8l 8 18 01 66 81 4 9 4 6 I1 SI 81 PI 91 giI 2I bI 8 88 II N 61 8 18 91 F 98 81 1 0⁵ 6 8 21 9 98 9 8 01 11 8I 81 L rI 91 , 81 5 15 01 68 81 6 95 M 9 88 II N 61 8 16 91 9 b 9 L 6 01 II 81 Fl el 91 A 81 1 06 6 8⁰ 41 9 98 PI 8 16 01 68 81 4 95 A P 86 b 9 8 6 01 II 8l l il ◻ II N 61 8 48 91 9 FS 81 1 06 6 85 1 9 9 vI 8 80 8 9 2 8 6 01 A II 8 01 66 81 L 93 2 86 5I N 61 8 48 91 2 ps 81 S I 5 F 9 4 8 6 I1 ol H 6 80 LI 9 98 PI 8 S5 11 66 81 1 9⁰ 12 86 S1 I 05[[18 1 8 8 9 2 8 91 6 1I 8 L 91 93 võ 81 8 18 01 85 41 9 90 PI 8 S 11 N 61(08 S v 9 9 6 6 8 01 2 93 H F 86 S1 1 06 6 48 91 g 1 81 8 18 01 68 81 68 18 1 8 p 6 9 8 4 6 9 96 bl 8 88 11 X 61 8 9⁰ H P 86 S1 1 0⁶ 6 88 21 88 08 8 8 2 6 4 9 8 — 9 PS 81 8 18 01 65 81 4 98 PI 8. 86 II N 61 8 28 91 5 68 18 1 S 8 b 9 8 4 cs v 88 Sl 1 06 6 88 L1 9 Vã 81 S 15 01 66 81 k. 96 ⁴ 96 80 08 18 1 S 8 8 p 9 4 8 S3 II N 61 8 48 91 G 85 1 I 0⁸ 6 8⁵ 21 9 96 bPI ſeë 46 60 08 I 8 P 8 9 8 15 01 66 81 1 9⁰ A b c8 II N 61 8 4 9¹ 8 t8 8I ſro 95 80 68 08 18 1 8 5 12 E I 08 6 86 21 9 96 PI 8 16 01 66 81 1 9 A 12 8⁸ 51 88 G0 4 8⁰ 6 08 8 I 8 N 61 8 4 9¹ 8 bõ 81 8 0⁰ 6 86 41 9 96 bI 8 88 I1I ſ bõ 96 18 8⁰ 68 18 1 08 8 8 66 81 2 9⁵ 12 88 Sl 1 61 8 46 91 g 1 81 8 18 01 18 86 08 96 L6 86 06 66 18 1 ADNVHO dNV Mad„dDV ScNOON„HA.NON AHAT 40 SXVG 6881 8881 4881 9881 9881 1SSI g88I 2881 1881 0881 6281 8181 2481 9181 9.181 rlsl 9281 3281 1281 0781 6981 8981 4981 9981 c9SI b9sl 9981 8981 1981 0981 6e81 881 1681 9681 cesl resl gesl ec8l ndod 400 adV 1681(0e8I 6 ⁵81 SrS8I rSI9rSI crsl virsl erst srsl Irsl Orsl 6881 8881 ze8I 9e8I casl tesl 8881 nv Alnf eunf eld„eM uuf esl lesl 0?S8I 6581 868I lWol 9281 ccel tesl 8E81 5sl lesl 0281 6181 8181 Z181 9181 9lIst rist AoN ados d LlsI 518I I181I 018I 6081 8081 1081 9081 9081 vostl 89081 3081 1081 0081 6621 8021 1671 9621 6621 r6el 8621 S641 162I e 682I 8821 1821 9821 9821 1SeI 88EI 882I 1821 0821 V 6441I S4El LLLl 9241 1 SdVNX SHLNOM 2κεςν ᷣmĩꝑ1⁶88 02 911 Llο᷑‿ ς‿μνmο‿ pun nh b S. uO⁹ ⁹ι‧1s ☚ N„ uoddo H2201 ²να E ES= S= heee==S 2=53S=WSS=SS=A333===S——==—ͤ 3 — — INDEX. Page. Agriculture, progress and encouragement of, in- Prusseod... 7 Russia........ ÿol.... 2 United Statteoe.. 13 Alpaca and Llama, adapted to United States.. 66 Appropriatious, agricultural, by Congress...... 25 Asparagus, culture of, in Spatn. 279 Bees, nature and habits of....... 1907 Bread-crops of various countries.... 155 hufa, chemical analysis of.............. 165 Corn, Indian, chemical analyses ooa. 160 Cranberfy, culture 9oo.......... 237 Cotton, consumption and manufacture of, in— Purope....................... 319 Austrian Empire...„„„... 396 Belgiun...................... 406 FErannunoeo............ 323 German Zollverein................. 369 Hamburg.............. 336 Hanse 10OWIIS............... 3353 Russia......................... 3472 Sardinia........................ 402 Switzerland................... 342 Zollverein Statos K..................... 388 Cotton, manufactures of, in United States..... 305 Cotton-plant, analyses of ashes of. 297, 301, 303, 304 Diseases Of..................... 123 Insects affectin............. 125 Cotton soils, analyses oo.. 296, 298, 299, 300 Cotton trade of United States, abstract of. 415 Dioscorea batatas, analysis oo.. 165 Exports, agricultural, from United States... 30 Farms and other grounds, experimental, in— Prussia......................... 10 Russia...................... ⁊........ 6 United States....................... 25 Goats, Asiatic, report on...... 56 Grape-vines, American, of Atlantic States... 227 ͤ.. ⸗ Missouri. 2933 Great Plains of America, agrichtural Gahabi. ties Of.................................. 294 Hedge-plants, American, proposel... 239 Hops, chemical analyses Of............... 261 Cultivation of, in England... 280 Horse, English draught, adapted for city or tow n WOTK.................................. 51 Horticulture, principles of......... b. 244 fllinois, early agricultural history o.... 143⁰ Imports, agricultural, into United States..... 30 Insects, injurious to vegetatton.... 121 Insect powder, Persian..................... 129 Lands granted for agricultural purposes in— Prussia............................... Russi............................ 6 United States............. Page. Eunar influnenee.... 550 Meteorology in its connection with agriculture. 419 Mean and Extreme Temperatures, and amount of rain, for 1857, at different peoiiiintB êC_v 507 Meteorological Register for 1857, at— Alexandria, Virginititii...... 523 All Saints, South Carolin. 523 Austin, Texas..................... 530 Glenwood, Tennesseee 352 Hillsborough, Ohio... Montreal, Canada....... 520 Nantucket, Massachusetts.. w 520 Platreville, Wisconsdipintnn 526 Rochester, New Vorrkkͤ. 526 San Francisco, Californinituüäaua. 5926 Warrington, Floricgͤ. c. 526 Wolfville, Nova Scotititiaa.. 526 Moon, Age, Full, and Change of, from 1776 to 1889................................. 551 Patent Office, Reports of, number printed... 25 Population of United States, summary of.... 48 botato, Mercer, analysis Of....... 165 Products, agricultural, statistics of, in United States..................... 30 Publications, agricultural, in Prussia. 13 Russid........ 3 United States.... 25 Pyrethrum carneum, roseum, K&de. 120 Quadrupeds of IIlinois, injurious and beneficial to the farmer...../.... 72 Salt, commerce, production, and consumpeion of, in United Statteteheheh.138 Modes of manufacture of.... 134, 138, 142, 143 Schools, agricultural, in Prussiia 7 Russia..... 5 United States.. 25 Secds, vitality and germinationn o. 2256 Experiments with, in England. 259 Packing of, for transportatin 278 Sheep-husbandry of the South......... 53 Societies, agricultural, in Prussia. 10 Russio... 7 United States. 21 Sorghum canes, reportson. 181, 197 Sugar-canes, Chinese and African— Chemical analyses d 14185, 192 Identity and hybridity of...... 189 Sugar and syrup frion:. 185, 192 Tea, culture of, proposed in United States... 166 Wheat, characteristics 0f................ 153 Experiments with................. 158 Mummy, vitality of, questoned. 256 Wineeulture in United State.. 227, 232 Nam, Chinese. analysis of.. = =— = — .—————— Nᷣ̃— N—— ———————— v“ — 6 8 L 9 9 1 Der aLasLsLALeNANLeL aA AAAlN LrrrAN TeprlApLeh Le9e- cwannaaroraxamranmmnrmrnnmmmnmnmnnrnnlänn Oem 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 ö“ Mnhiiiſ 12 13 14 15 Soiour& Grey Control Chart ☛ Blue Cyan Green Vellow HNod Magenta White„Sreyi Grey 2 Greys SGrey4a Blackh C†