— 5 2—, ₰—.——— g 3 5 7“ 2 8 K—. 1 1.. 4 —— [ 0 [Univ-E 85 Gies 4 N 1 1 4 14 ‿ — —— — DH Y T OL O:G I A: PHIÉOSOPHE AGhRICULEURE AND GARDENING-. WITH THE THEORY OF DRAINING MORASSES, AND WITH.AN IMPROVED CONSTRUCTION OF THE DRILL PLOUGH. By ERASMUS DARWIN, M.D.F.R.S. AUTHOR OF ZOONOMIA; AND OF THE BOTANIC GARDEN. © Suadent hæc CrEAToRIs leges a fimplicibus ad compoñita.- me* BIBLIOT; ee D. KON 1 C1.4( | FA'É Dr!: AUADEN [DES LA YDp 10 N D O.N:\ZU MOEGLIN PRINTED FOR J. JOHNSON, ST. PAUL'S CHURCHeYARDS. BY Te, BENSLKY;‘BOLT COURT» FLEET STREETe 1800: 2e ES 2. > La = 8 = LL æ 122 AR ED + A + Le © L 2 = o. AS r ES À EE EE ST PE RES DEDPEATION. To Sir JoHx SiNcraiR, Baronet, to whofe unre- mitted exertions, when Prefident of the Board of Agriculture, many important improvements in the cultivation of the earth were accomplifhed and re- corded; this Work, which was began by the inftiga- tion of his letters to the author, is dedicated with great refpect. Derby, Jan. 1, 1790.  2 CONTENTS, { \ CONTENT Introdu lion. PART HEHEB: FIRST. PHYSIOLOGY OF VEGETATION. Secr. I. Jndividuality of the Buds of Vegetables. IT. her Abforbent Veffels- I. Their Umbilical Veffels. IV. Their Pulmonary Arteries and Veins. V. Their Aortal Arteries and Veins. VI. Their Glands and Secretions.. VIL Their Organs of Reproduéhon. VAL. Their Mujcles, Nerves, and Brarz. BAR EE THE SECONE: ECONOMY OF VEGETATION: IX. The Growth of Seeds, Buds, and Bulbs. X. Manures, or the Food of Plants. XI. Of Draining and Watering Lands. XII Æeration and Pulverization of tbe Sori. XUE Of Light; Heat, Eleëfricity. XIV. Difeafes of Plants. ÿi XV. XVI. X VIL. R VIII. XIX. 115: 44 male nr Rene om CONTENTS. PART. THE JS HIRD. AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE:. Produëtion of Fruits. Production of Seeds. Produëtion of Roots and Barks. Production of Leaves and Wood. Produ£tion of Flowers. Plan for difpofing a Part of the Syfiem of Linneus into more Natural Claffes and Orders. APPENDPEX. Improved Confirultion of the Drill Plough. INTRO-= iii nette RS INTRODUCTION. ÂGrICULTURE and GARDENING, though of fuch great utility in: producing the nutriment of mankind, continue to be only Arts, confifing of numerous detached fa@s and vague opiñions, without a true theory to conneét them, or to appreciate their analogy; at a time when many parts of knowledge of much inferior confequence have been nicely arranged, and digefted into Sciences. Our imperfeét acquaintance with the phyfology and economy of vegetation is the principal caufe of the great immaturity of our know- ledge of Agriculture, and Gardening. I fhall therefore firft attempt a theory of vegetation, deduced principally from the experiments of Hales, Grew, Malpighi, Bonnet, Du Hamel, Buffon, Spallanzani, Prieftley, and the Philofophers of the Linnæan School, with a few obfervations and opinions of my own; fome of which have in part already appeared in Zoonomia, and in the notes to the Botanic Gar- den, but are here correéted and enlarged. To the former of which. Works[hope this may be efteemed a fupplement, as it is properly a: continuation of the fubje@. My Len rer ren ar dé se0 gusnrsiniopies) 5 HS as to \ rimes= PP 90m De mm mime 6 Re mc ispe rt ET ea) eme 7 NN UPRÉ ET à ES SES sp rame jam Er Créer> NÉE =-æ ER ee ee | INTRODUCTION. viil goefted to My inducement to commence this work, after it was fu me by the letters of Sir John Sinclair, was à belief, that the expe- riments and obfervations already made on the growth of plants, with the modern improvements in chemifiry, Were fuficiently numerous and accurate for the eftablifhment of a true theory of vegetation 3 fo much wanted to connect the various faéts in the memory, to ap- preciate their value, and to compare them with each other; and finally to direct the profecution of future experiments to ufeful purpofes. PHYTOLOGIA. PHYTOLOGI A. PART THE FIRST. PHYSIOLOGY OF VEGETATION. SON es RE THE INDIVIDUALITY OF THE BUDS OF VEGETABLES. 1. Vegetables are inferior animals. À bud torn from a tres ill grow; Vines and bawtborns fo planted. Many kinds of fruit ingrafted on one tree. 2. The bark and branches of bollow trees remain alive. Caudex of herbaceous plants. Caudex of buds. 3. Which defcending, form à new bark over the old one. bark veffels occafonally ingjculate. Upper Ep of wounds of the bark grows downwardrs. à. Flower-buds are individual beings; do not Jo certainly grow by inoculation as leaf-buds; are biennial plants like leaf-buds, but die in autumn without enlarging the fize of the tree by their progeny. 5. Ix wbat vegetables differ from animals; they bave not mufcles of locomotion; nor organs of digefion. 6. In wbat they re- Jemble animals. They have abforbent, umbilical, placental, and pulmonary veffels, arteries, glands, organs of reproduétion, with mujcles, nerves, and brain. 7. Pro- grefs of a young bud, and of a feed. The plumula, radicle, and caudex of a bud. 8. Buds and fecds are biennial beings. How they differ. The difunion of the pith diflinguifhes buds from each other, and thus evinces their individualty. 1. W/s have fo accuftomed ourfelves to confider life and irritability to be aflociated with palpable warmth and vifible motion, that we find a renitency in ourfelves to afcribe them to the comparatively cold and motionlefs fibres of plants. But to reafon rightly on many vegetable phenomena we fhall find it neceflary firft to fhew, that vesetables are in reality an inferior order of animals, If a bud be torn from the branch of a tree, or cut out and planted B in 2 INDIVIDUSAEITY SÉCT: 2 in the earth with a glafs cup inverted over it, to prevent the exhala- tion from being at firit greater than its power of abforption; orifit be inferted into the bark of another tree, it will grow, and become à plant in everÿ refpect like its parent. This evinces that every bud of a tree 15 an individual vegetable being; and that a tree therefore is a family or{warm of individual plants, like the polypus, with its young growing out of its fides, or like the branching cells of the coral-infeét.| The prefent moft approved method of propagating vines in hot- houfes confifts in cutting off a fingle eye of a vine-ftalk with about an inch of the ftem above the eye, and two or three inches below it; and fetting this aflant in the bark-bed with the eye about an inch or lefs beneath the furface, pointing upwards; and! have feen a quick- fet or hawthorn hedge, cretægus, propagated in the fame manner by planting twigs in the ground with one bud only above the foil, Mr. Barns, in a treatife on Propagating Fruit-trees(1759, Bald- win, London) afferts, that he cut a branch into as many pieces, as there were buds or leaves upon it; and wiping the two wounded ends dry, he quickly applied to each a cement previoufly warmed, which confifted chiefly of pitch, and planted them in the earth with unfailing fuccefs. The ufe of this cement I fufpeét to confift in its preventins the bud from bleeding to death, though the author afcribes it toits antifeptic quality. And laftly, in the inoculation and ingraft- ing of fruit-trees, five or fix different kinds of pears are frequently feen où the branches of one tree, which could not then properly be termed an individual being. 2. When old oaks, or willows, lofe by decay almoft all their folid internal wood, it frequentiy happens, that a part of the fhell of the ftem continues to flourifh with à few healthy branches. Whenceit appears, that no part of the tree is alive but the buds, and the bark, and the roct-fibres; that the bark is only an intertexture of the cau- dexes SCT. Le?- OR BU DS. LU) dexes of the numerous buds, as they pafs down to fhoot their radicles into the earth; and that the folid timber of a tree ceafes to be alive; and is then only of fervice to fupport the numerous family of buds in the air above the herbaceous vecetables in their vicinity. A bud of a tree therefore, like a vegetable arifing from a feed, confifts of three parts; the plumula or leaf, the radicle or root-fibres, and the part which joins thefe two together; which 1s called the caudex by Linneus when applied to intire plants; and may, therefore, be termed caudex semmæ when applied to buds. In herbaceous plants the caudex is generally a broad flat circular plate, from which the leaf-ftem afcends into the air, and the radicles or root-fibres defcend into the earth. Thus the caudex of a plant of wheat lies between the ftem and the radicles, at the bafs of the lowermoft leaf, and occafonally produces new flems and new radicles from its fides. Thus the caudex of the tulip lies beneath the prin<: cipal bulb, and generates new fmaller bulbs in the bofom of each bulb-leaf, befides one principal or central bulb; the caudex of orchis, and of fome ranunculufes, lies above their bulbous roots; whereas the caudexes of the buds of trees conftitute the longitudinal filaments of the bark, reaching from the plumula or apex of the bud on the branch to the bafe of it, or its root-fibres beneath the foil. Noris this elongation of the caudexes of the buds of trees unana- logous to what bappens to fome herbaceous plants, as in wheat; when the grain is buried two or three inches beneath the foil, an elonga- tion of the caudex occurs almoft up to the furface, where another fet of fibrous roots are protruded, and the upright ftem commences. The fame happens to tulip-roots when planted too deep in the earth, as I have witnefled, and I fuppofe to thofe of many other vege- tables.| This caudex of the buds of trees not only defcends as above de- fcribed, but alfo afcends from each bud to that above it; as on the B 2 long Dose D 0 nu Al HE la 1 EE SE à SRE ces er OR.— É a 5 Br Re RE ==— resp< NAZ 4 INDIVIDUALITY SECT. EL. 4 long fhoots of vines, willows, and briars; in this refpect refembling the wires of ftrawberries and other creeping plants. Thus the caudex of perennial herbaceous plants confifts of a broad plate, buried be- neath the foil to proteét it from the froft; while the caudex of buds of trees confifts of a long vafcular cord extending from the bud on the branch to the radicle beneath the earth, and endures the winter frofts without injury. 3. Thefe buds are properly biennial plants, as they are generated in one fummer, and in the next either produce feeds and die, or pro- duce other buds, whofe caudexes form a new bark over the former one, that of the laft year firft becoming a fofter or more porous wood, called alburnum, or fap-wood, and gradually hardeninge into folid timber, which ceafes to pofiefs vegcetable life. Thefe long caudexes of the individual buds of trees, which confti- tute their bark, are well feen in the cloth made from the mulberry- bark brought from Otaheite. On infpeéting this cloth the long fibres are feen in fome places to adhere, where it is probable they occafñon- ally inofculate, like fome of the veflels in animal bodies; becaufe when fome buds are cut off, the neighbouring ones flourifh with greater vigour, being fupplied with more of the nutritious juices. This informs us why the upper lip of an horizontal wound made in the bark of a tree /grows downwards with fo much greater expedition than the under one grows upwards to meet it; as the de- feending caudexes of the individual buds are fupplied dire&tly with nutriment from the vegetable arteries after the oxygenation of the blood in their leaves; whereas the under lip of the wound is nou- rifhed only by the lateral or inofculating veflels, which fupplies us with another argument againft the individuality of trees, and in fa- vour of that of buds. 4. The buds producing flowers are each an individual being as well as ne ne-= él a en“2e qe SŒcthxt; 6. GEL BUNDS.$ as the leaf-buds above defcribed, though they are probably not fo eañly capable of tranfplantation into the bark of other trees by inocula- tion; as, I believe, it is from the miftake of the gardeners in choofing fower-buds inftead of leaf-buds to inoculate with, that fo many buds die in this mode of propagation. Nor does the exiftence of many male and female parts in one flawer deftroy its individuality any more than the number of paps of a fow or bitch, or the number of their cotyledons, each of which during geftation belongs to à feparate fetus.: The flower-buds as well as the leaf-buds are properly bienntal plants, as they are produced in the fummer of one year, and perifh in the autumn of the next; but as the new buds generated by leaf- buds continue to adhere tothe parent, they are furnifhed with their numerous caudexes, which form a new bark over the old one, whereas the flower-buds generate feeds, which when mature fall upon the ground, and thus they die in the autumn without increafing the fize of the parent-tree by the adhefon of their progeny like the leaf-buds. 5. Thefe buds of plants, which are each an individual vegetable being, in many circumftances refemble individual animals; but as ani= mal bodies are detached from the earth, and move from place to place in fearch of food, and take that food at confiderable intervals of time, and prepare it for their nourifhment within their own bodies, after it istaken: it is evident, that they muft require many organs and powers,. which are not necefary to a flationary bud. vegetables are im- moveably fixed to the{oil, from whence they draw their aliment ready prepared, and this uniformly, and not at returning intervals; it fol- lows, that in examining their anatomy we are not to look for mufcles of locomotion, as legs and arms; nor for organs to receive and pre= pare their aliment as a mouth, throat, ftomach, and bowels, by which contrivances animals are enabled to live many hours without new fupplies of food from without. 6. The parts, which we may expect to find in the anatomy of” vegetables,. er a—— oo om 6 INDIVIDUALITY SECT. I. 6. vegetables, which correfpond to thofe in the animal economy, are firft a threefold fyflem of abforbent veffels, one branch of which is de- figned to imbibe the nutritious moifture of the earth, as the laéteals imbibe the chyle from the ftomach and inteflines of animals; another to imbibe the water of the atmofphere, opening its mouths on the cuticle of the leaves and branches, like the cutaneous lymphatic vef- fels of animals; and a third to imbibe the fecreted fluids from the in- ternal cavities of the vesetable fyftem, like the cellular lymphatics of animals.| Secondly, in the vegetable fetus, as in feeds or buds, another fyf- tem of abforbent veflels is to be expeéted, which may be termed um- bilical vefels, as defcribed in Set. III. of this work, which fupply nutriment to the new bud or feed, fimilar to that of the albumen of the egg, or the liquor amnii of the uterus: and alfo another fyftem of arterial veflels, which may be termed placental ones, correfpond- ing with thofe of the animal fetus in the egc or in the womb, which fupply the blood of the embryon with due oxygenation before its na- tivity. Thirdly, a pulmonary fyftem correfpondent to the lungs of aerial animals, or to the gills of aquatic ones, by which the fluid abforbed by the laéteals and lymphatics may be expoled to the influence of the air. This is done by the leaves of plants, or the petals of flowers: thofe in the air refembling lunes, and thofe in the water refembling gills. Fourthly, an arterial fyftem to convey the fluid thus elaborated to the various glands ofthe vegetable for the purpofes of its growth, nu- trition, and fecretions: and a fyftem of veins to bring back a part of the blood not thus expended, Fifthly, the various olands which feparate from the vegetable blood the honey, wax, Sum, refin, flarch, fugar, effential oil, and other fe- Cretionss Sixthly, the organs adapted to the lateral or viviparous generation of SECT AL 7. OF-sAUDS. 7 of plants by buds, or to their fexual or oviparous propagation by feeds. Seventhly, longitudinal mufcles to turn their leaves to the light, and to expand or clofe their petals or their calyxes; and vafcular mufcles to perform the abforption and circulation of their fluids, with their attendant nerves, and a brain, or common fenforium, be- longing to each individual feed or bud; to each of which we fhall appropriate an explauatory feétion. 7. An embryon bud, therefore, whether it be a leaf-bud or a flower- bud, is the viviparous offspring of an adult leaf-bud, and is as indivi- dual as a feed, which is its oviparous offspring. It confifts, firft, of a central organization or caudex like the corculum of a feed, which contains the rudiments of arteries, veins, abforbent veflels, and glands, with an internal pith or brain. Secondly, it is furnifhed with a fyftem of umbilical veffels, which aré inferted into the alburnum or fap-wood of the tree, or form a part of it, and defcending into the earth fupply it in the early fpring with its firft nutrition, like the feminal roots, fo called, which pañfs from the corculum of the feed, and are fpread on the cotyledons, as feen in the garden bean, reprefented in Plate I. Fig. 1. which is taken from Dr. Grew’s Anatomy of Plants. Thirdly, this umbilical fyftem probably contains alfo what may be termed a placental artery, terminating on the coats of the lateral air- veflels, which penetrate the bark of trees horizontally, for the pur- pofe of oxygenating the blood of the vegetable fetus, like thofe dif- tributed from the umbilical veflels of the chick on the air-bag at the broad end of the ege. See Set. IT. 4. and TTL. 1—4. Fourthly, it contains the rudiments of organs adapted to lateral ge- neration or the production of new buds; or to fexual propagation, and the confequent produétion of feeds. In the early fpring the umbilical vefels fupply the embryon buds of trees with fap-juice, which is then feen to exfude from wounds of I the 8 TNDIVIEDUXELITY SECT. 1: 0 the alburnum, as in the vine, vitis; the birch, betula; and the maple, acer; which I fuppofe to become oxygenated in the circulation of the vegetable fetus by the horizontal air-veffels of the bark. As the feafon advances, the leaf-bud puts forth a plumula, like a feed, which ftimulated by the oxygen of the atmofphere rifes up- wards into leaves to acauire its adapted pabulum, which leaves con- füitute its lungs; it alfo protrudes from its long caudex, which forms the new bark over the old one, a radicle, which ftimulated by moif- ture pafles downwards, aud defcends into the earth to acquire its adapted pabulum; and it thus becomes an adult vegctable being with the power of producing new buds. The flower-bud under fimilar circumftances puts forth its braétes or floral-leaves, which ferve the office of lungs to the pericarp and calyx; and expands its petals, which ferve the office of lunss to the anthers, and ftigmas, which are the fexual organs of reproduction, and which die and fall off, when the feed is impregnated; and thus, like the leaf-bud, it becomes an adult vegetable being with the power of producing feeds. 8. As the flower-bud produces many feeds during the fummer, fo the leaf-bud produces many budlets during the fummer, as may be feen in the long fhoots of the vine and willow, vitis et falix. In this climate both the buds and feeds are properly biennial vegetables; that 15, they are produced in one fummer, and perifh in the next. Butthe feed differs from the bud in this circumftance, that it drops on the earth, and is thus feparated from its dead parent in the autumn; d + ! ff (l a } | | 1 | | À i F ne. es ee fn een nl inner ns— LEP RE Sera whereas the bud continues to adhere to its dead parent, and grows over it as 1t advances. T: LL L. L3 Now as the internal pith of a bud appears to contain or produce om pen. TT ET, re the living principle, like the brain and medulla oblongata, or fpinal mn mére+ RS PEU ere marrow of animals, we have from hence a certain criterion to diftin- guifh one bud from another, or the parent bud from the numerous budlets, PILA FE L ee UT ee NS a S-. be témoin çesimmetie< sa és. pat“DAT mn Tr vs PLATE EL Fic. x. reprefents the umbilieal veffels fpread on the lobes of a bean, when it begins to vegetate, as mentioned in Seét. I. 7. but more particularly defcribed in Seët. III. 1. 3; which are believed to confift of a fyftem of abforbent veffels, and another fyftem of placental veffels, for the purpofe of acquiring nutriment, and of oxygenating the vege- table blood. The plate is copied from Grew, Tab. I. f 14. a the plumula, à the cor- culum, cc the lobes. See Se&. I. 7. and III. 1.3. en. r à$ Fic. 2. is copied from Malpighi, Tab. II. Fig. 6, and reprefents the longitudinai fibres of the bark of willow, which adhere tosether, and feparate from each other alter- vately, with horizontal apertures between them; which are believed to be air-veffels, for the purpofe of oxygenating the blood of the embryon buds, like the air-bag at the broad end of an egg. b b b are the longitudinal filaments of the bark, a a a are the ho- rizontal perforations. — nn Duhamel obferved by a microfcope fimilar apertures of different diameters in the bark of oak; the fmaller ones he believed to be the excretory duéts of the perfpirable matter, and larger ones I fuppofe to be air-veffels. The extremities of fome of thefe in the birch- tree ftood above the level of the cuticle. Phyfique des Arbres, Plate I. Fig. 7. and 15, See Seét. I. 7. and IT, 4. of this work. & CR EN dr| | Ë fi | | L 4 era Le A PR personne gps mes te PE pr Re MT D, CR dde FR geiiene È es.© PERS LE=_— ss A| RE Pre late LE. 2 4: ab a b al ion, Published Jan” 11800, by JL Johnson, StPauts iureh Yard Sat I. 7. ESS en ce ne»| Eat D pi TR Te Sd+ 2 —= ET Page 14 tirs Va ed PRE ere an Me ane nn TU Sec. L. 8. OF BUDS. 9 budlets, which are its offspring, as#bere 15 no communication of the in ternal pith between them. This obfervation was made by flitting the young branches of horfe- chefnut, æfculus hippocaftanum; of afh, fraxinus; of willow, falix; and of elder, fambucus nigra; and I plainly difcerned that there ex- ifted no communication of pith between the lateral budlets and their parent fhoots, or between the central larger budlet at the fummit of the branch, and its parent fhoot. This alfo afforded me one reafon to conclude that the different joints of wheat, triticum, of fouthiftle, fonchus, and of teafel, dypfacus, are different buds growing on each other, thofe at the fummit only producing feeds; becaufe there is a divifion which feparates the pith contained in each joint of their hol- low ftems, as is further explained in Seét. IX. 2. 4. and 3. 1. and which perfeétly evinces the individuality of buds. C SECT. | A. 10 BSORREN FE VESSELS.. Il.1. Sr C7 LT. PE THE ABSORBENT VESSELS OF VEGETABLES. 1. Roo!s, leaves, bark, Jep-wood, fhewn to abforb by not moifening them, by placing them in water. 2. Abjorbent vefels coloured by à decoftion of madder, by dilute ink. They form a ring in the fap-wood beneatb the bark, with à ring of arteries exterior to them. 3. Abforbents erroncoufly believed to be air-veffeis, are vifibly Jull of Jap-juice in a vine-Jialk.. Vegetable veffels bave rigid fides, wbich do not collapfe, and bence become full of air wben cut; not Jo in animal veffels. 4. Some horizontal veffels in trees are truly air-veflels for the embryon bud, like tbe air in the broad end of the egg. S. Abjorbent veffels confift of long cylinders; air will pafs through them either way in the dead vepetable; are not réfpiratory organs, as they exil in the roots of trees. May receive air diffolved in water. 6. Abforbent veffels alt either direff or retrograde. À forked branch in water. An inverted tree. À fufpended tree. So in tbe operation of an emetic À and in ruminaling cows. 7. They confift of a fpiral line without valves; and by” 115 vermicular contraftion forcibly carry on their contained fluids either way. 8. Thofe of the root aff occa- Jionally in winter; but vines in bot-boufes muf} bave their roots guarded from fro/t in Jpring. Accumulated ice deffroys trees in Jpring. 9. They fometimes abforb Posfonous fluids, as fpirit of wine, folution of arfenic, vitriolic acid; roots Jaid to creep afide from bad foil erroncous. 10. Abforbents of trees like the receptacle of chyle. La || ll LA | ne ve- 7 . THE exiftence of that branch of the abforbent veftels of vege- _. which refembles the lateals of animal bodies, and Habidee their nutriment from the moift earth, is evinced by their growth, fo long as moifture is applied to their roots, and their Quick y withering er it is withdrawn. ER eq De Er- Lier ru Befides 7 Ps SEcr.1l:2, ABSORPBENF VESSELS. II Beñdesthefe abforbents in the roots of plants there are others, which open their mouths on the external furfaces of the bark and leaves to abforb the moifture of the atmofphere, refembling the cutaneous lymphatics of animal bodies; the exiftence of thefe is fhewn, becaufe a leaf plucked off and laid with its under fide on water will not wither fo foon as if left in the dry air. The fame if the bark alone of à branch, which is feparated from a tree, be kept moift with water. A third branch of abforbent veflels opens its mouths on the internal furfaces of the cells and cavities of the vegetable fyftem to abforb the {ecreted fluids, after they have performed their adapted offices, fimilar to the cellular lymphatics. of animal bodies, as may be fhewn by moiftening the alburnum or fap-wood, and the internal furface of the bark of a branch detached from a tree, which will not then fo foon wither as if left in the dry air unmoiftened, Another means of demonftrating the abforbent powers of the parts of vegetables is by inferting them into glafs tubes, or into tall narrow veflels filled with water, and obferving how much more rapidly the {urface of the water fubfides than in fimilar veflels by evaporation alone. 2. By the following experiment thefe vegetable abforbent veflels were made agreeably vifible by a common magnifying glafs. I placed in the fummer of 1781 fome twigs of a fig-tree with leaves on them about an inch deep in a decoétion of madder(Rubia tiné), and others in a.-decoction of logwood(hæmatoxylum campechenfe), along with fome fpriss cut off from a plant of picris. Thefe plants were chofen becaufe their blood is white. After fome hours, and on the next day, on taking out either of thefe, and cutting off from its bottom about an eighth of an inch of the ftalk, an internal circle of red points appeared, which I believed to be the ends of abforbent veflels coloured red with the decoction, and which probably exifted in the newly formed alburnum, or fap-wood, while an external ring of arteries was C2 feen “à g- wo=”: — sf CS mt à LÉ Te à Re ee= à 12 ABSORPENF VESSERLS: SCT. 7. feen to bleed out haftily a milky juice, and at once evinced both the abforbent and artertal fyftem. Many fimilar experiments were made by M. Bonnet, by placing parts of the fterm or roots of various vegetables, as of kidney-beans, peach-tree, and elder, in dilute ink; in all thefe the vefñels of the bark were uncoloured, and thofe of the pith; but thofe beneath the bark, which he terms woody, were coloured black, which I fuppofe to have been the circlé of abforbent veflels above mentioned. Ufage de Feu- illes, Plate XXIX. 3. T'hefe abforbent vefels have been called bronchia by Malpighi and Grew, and fome other philofophers, and erroneoufly thought to e air-veflels; in the fame manner as the arteries of the human body were fuppoled to convey air by the antients, till the great Harvey by more exa€t experiments and jufter reafoning evinced, that they were blood-veffels. This opinion has been fo far credited becaufe air 1$ feen to iflue from wood, whether it be green or dry, if it be covered with water, and placed in the exhaufted receiver of an air- pump; and thefe veflels have therefore been fuppofed to conftitute a vegctable refpiratory organ; but it will be fhewn hereafter, that the leaves of plants are their genuine lungs, and that the abforbent veflels and arteries become accidentally filled with air in the dead parts of vegetables. TS mn“ nai crue à__ = sur ne r ur es TEE ne sir see Fi marne { j }: LA » É: | f | ÿ 2 & 4 #| ï f 4 1 l'E L JÈ f i E0 f fl| H 1 ‘a ; For as the veffels of vegetables are very minute, and have rigid coats, their fides do not collapfe when they are cut or broken, as their juices flow out or exhale; they muft therefore receive air into them. This may be readily feen by infpettins with a common lens tbe end of a vine-ftalk two or three years old, when cut off hori- Zontally. At firft the veffels, which are feen between the partitions radiated from the center, appear full of juice; but in a minute or lefs this juice either pañles on, orexhales; andthe vefels appear empty, that is filled with air. This experiment I have twenty times repeated with Je+ RTE À 2 em<> po 7 Fe.— L'ERE ee a T2 RE Tr PES — ns ah ds er A EL RS RE TS SECT: IL. 4 ABSORPBENT: VESSELS, 13 with uniform fuccefs, and it is fo eafily made by baftily applying a common lens after the divifion of a vine-ftalk, that I think there can be no errorinit; andit is wonderful that thefe veflels, which are found in the alburnum, and confift of a fpiral line, whether they may properly be called abforbent or umbilical veflels, or confift of both, fhould ever have been fuppofed to be air-vefels. There is neverthelefs an experiment by Dr. Hales, which would at firft view countenance the aflertion, that vesetables abforb air. He cemented the lower end of a fmall twig of a tree with leaves on it into a glafs tube about four inches long, and fet the other end of the tube an inch deep in water, and obferved in a littletime, that the water rofe an inch in the tube; but this muft happen from the vesetable veflels emptying themfelves by the afcent of their juices, and having rigid coats, and therefore not contraéting, a portion of the air was forced into them by the preflure of the atmofphere, as in the above obfervation on the vine-branch cut horizontally. This reception of air does not happen to the veflels of animal bo- dies, when they are emptied of their blood, owing to the lefs rigidity of their coats; whence the weight of the atmofpheric air prefles their fides together, and clofes the veflel, inftead of pafling into it. Tu the fame manner no air would pais into the veflels of the lungs of animals in refpiration, unlefs the preflure of the atmofphere on their fides was prevented by the aétion of the mufcles, which enlarge the cavity of the thorax by elevating the ribs. 4. There are neverthelefs certain horizontal veflels of large di- ameter, which pafs through the bark of trees to the alburnum, which probably contain air, as they. are apparently empty, I believe, in the hving vegetable; for the bark of trees confifts of longitudinal fibres, which are joined together, and appear to inofculate at certain diftances, and recede from each other between thofe diftances like the mefhes of a net, in which fpaces feveral horizontal apertures are feen to pe- netrate through the bark to the alburnum, according to Malpighi, 1 who ee Denon tne nt EN TS ABSORBENT MESSEES-Srer. Ile JS who has civen a fioure of them, which is copied in Plate I. His. of this work. Very fine horizontal perforations through the bark of trees are alfo mentioned by Duhamel, which he believes to be per- fpiratory or excretory organs, but adds, that there are others of much Jarger diameter, fome round and fome oval, and which in the birch- tree ftand prominent, and pierce the cuticle or exterior bark. Phy- fique des arbres, T, 1. T'ab. III. Fiss8and.1r:| Thefe veflels probably contain air during the living flate ofthe tree, as they pierce the external bark, which frequently confifts of many doubles, like a roll of linen cloth; as a new cuticle is annually pro- duced beneath the old one, like a new{carf-fkin beneath à blifter in animal bodies; and the old one fometimes continues, and fometimes peels off like the cuticle of a ferpent, as is feen on the trunks of many cherry-trees and birches. Thefe veflels, when contracted in dry tim- ber, appear like horizontal infertions in many planed boards, in which the fpiral abforbent veflels become by their contraction the lon- gitudinal fibres, as appears in the figure of a walking cane given by Dr. Grew, Tab. XX. Thefe horizontal vefels I fuppofe to contain air inclofed in a thin moift membrane, which may ferve the purpofe of oxygenating the fluid in the extremities of fome fine arteries of the embryon buds, in the fame manner as the air at the broad end of the egg is believed to Oxygenate the fluids in the terminations ofthe placental veffels of the embryon chick, as further noticed in Sect. LIL 2. 6. and IIL 1. 4 5. The abforbent veflels of trees in pafing down their trunks confift of long hollow cylinders, whofe fides I believe to be compofed of a fpiral line, and are of fuch large diameters in fome vecetables as to be vifible to the naked eye, when they become dry and empty, as in Cane. Air Will rapidly paf through thefe veffels in either direction, as may be feen in hgbting a cane fome inches long at either end, and drawing the fmoke through the pores of it into the mouth, as through a tobacco-pipe, Dr, Hales readily pafled both air and water through a recent SECTE. FRS ORDENTIVESSEES. 15 a recent vegetable ftick both upwards and downwards, by fetting one end of it in a cup of water in the receiver of an air-pump, and ex- haufting the air, Veg. Stat. p. 154; whence he concludes with Grew, that thefe are air-veflels or lungs for the purpofe of refpiration, and that they receive atmofpheric air in their natural flate. There is one objettion to their ufe as air-veffels, which is, that they have no communication with the horizontal air-veflels above de- fcribed; for by blowing forcibly through a piece of dry cane immerf- ed deep in water, no air 1s feen to bubble out of the fides, but only from the bottom of it.[t may indeed be fuppofed, that the lonoi- tudinal cavities in dry cane may not confift of the abforbent veffels above defcribed, but of the interftices between them, as the coats of thofe abforbent veflels, confifting of a fpiral line, may be thought to clofe up by their vermicular contra@tion; and their interftices, con- fifüng of vegetable cellular membrane, may be fuppofed, when dry, to become the tubes in cane. But in this cafe the longitudinal canals in dry cane Would not be circular cylinders, whereas they are fo re- prefented in a figure of a piece of cane much magnified by Dr.Grew, Tab. XX. who has in the fame figure given the mouths of hori- Zontal air-veflels of circular form and larger diameter, But there is another infuperable objettion to this idea of their ufe, which is, that thefe veflels equally exift in the roots of plants as in their trunks; and according to Malpighi with larger diameters; and probably terminate externally only in the roots; and, as they are there not expofed to the atmofphere, they cannot ferve the purpofe of refpiration; air neverthelefs in its combined ftate, or even as dif- folved in water, may be abforbed by thefe veflels; and may appear, when the preflure of the atmofphere is removed in the exhaufted receiver; or when expanded by heat, as is feen in the froth at one end of a green ftick, when the other end is burning in the fire. 6. Thefe vesetable abforbents differ from thofe of animals in the facility, with which they carry their Auids either way; for a forked branch re ee mr 6 ù De z Dep SE ge AE TT mi» k 16 ABSORBENT VESSELS.ll». branch of a tree, torn from its trunk, and having one of its forks with the leaves on it inverted in a veflel of water, will continue for feveral days unwithered, nearly as well as if the whole had been placed upright in the water. A willow rod on the fame account will grow almoft equally well, whether the apex or bafe of it be fet in the ground; and Dr. Bradley, I think, mentions a young goofeberry-tree having been taken up, and replanted with its branches in the earth, and its roots in the air; and that the branches put forth root-fibres, and the roots put forth leaf-buds. There is likewife a curious expe- riment by Dr. Hales, who attached the eaftern branch of a young tree to its neighbour by inarching, and its weftern branch to another of its neighbours in the fame manner; and after they were united, he cut the ftem of the middle tree from its root, and thus left it hang- ing in the air by its two inarched arms, where it fourifhed with con- fiderable vigour. This power of carrying their fluid contents in a retrograde direc- tion is alfo pofleffed in fome degree by the abforbents of animals, particularly in their difeafed ftate, and even in the operation of an emetic, as fhewn in Zoonomia, Vol. I, Se&. 29; and is vifible in the œfophagus or throat of cows, who convey their food firft down- wards, and afterward upwards by a direét and retrograde motion of the annular cartilages, which compefe the gullet, for the purpofe of rumination.; 7. The ftruture of thefe large vegetable abforbents, erroneoufly Secr. Il. 8. MBSORBENT:VESSELS. 17 and LIT. of Grew’s Anatomy of Plants(fol. edit.), and by this eafy experiment both that abforbent fyftem, st imbibes nourifhment from the earth, and brinss it to the caudex of‘each bud; and that which imbibes moifture from the air, and à part of the perfpirable matter on the- face of the leaf, and brings it to the caudex of each 1 bud, are agrc eeably demonftrated. See Plate IT. Fig. 1. And that thefe veflels of large diameter, with their fides confifting of a fpiral line, are not arteries or veins, is evinced by infpeéting a ftem of euphor- bia, fpurge; or the ftalk of a fig-leaf, ficus, immediately on dividing them, as the milky juice ooZes from a ring of veflels exterior to thote are abforbents. Secondly, that thefe veffels are not furnifhed with frequent valves is countenanced by the experiments before mentioned in No. 5 ofthis FER one of which confifted of lighting a piece of cane, and draw- no the fmoke through it, as through a tobacco-pipe, in either direc- ae: and the other in phacing a bit of recent twig with one end of 1t in a cup of water in the receiver of an air-pump,. and caufins both air and water to pafs through it in either direction. a fimilar ftruc- P £ )I If the minuter branches of vegetable a bforbents be c Qure, TE 1S ea{y to conceive how a vermicular or perutaitic motion of Li: es nn|: the veflel, beginning at the loweft part of it, each fpiral ring fuc- ceflively contraéting itfelf,#07 16 fills up the tube, muft forcibly pufh forwards its contents without the aid of valves; ne if this vermicular cs motion fhould begin at the upper eud Lof the veflel, it muft with equal facility carry its nAnEd fluid 10 a en or contrary direétion. 9 As the abforbent veffels in the roots of plants are protected from the froft in forme degree. by the earth w hich covers them; they DÉAT C: BB PAS LAN AA LME RES FA: An reg A Fe QE feem at all times to be fuicientls alive to drink up and pufñh for wards their adapted fluid, fince if a branch of a tree is brought into a warm room, it.will in general pullulate in-the winter, as the veffels of the upper part of the> branch are rendered fufficiently 1r- he abforbents of nitable by warmth to 2 in concert with t D Neverthelefs, 18 ABSORBENT VESSELS. Secr.Il. 9, 10.;| = Neverthelefs, in fevere frofts it is neceflary to guard all the parts of the ftem which is expofed to the open air, as is experienced in the t through holes into hot-houfes, otherwife after the buds are put out a fevéré froft{o affets the ftems on the outfde of the houfe as to deftroy all the fruit of that year. Kenedy on Gardening, Vol.I. p.270. Andit is obferved in Mr. A. Aikin’s Natural Hiftory ss fe { ofthe Vear, that much ice was carried from the ftreets in London in 1594, and piled round fome elm trees in Moorfields, many of which were deftroyed in the enfuing fpring by the flow melting of it. 9. The abforbent veffels of vegetables, like thofe of animal bodies, are liable to err in the felection of their proper aliment, and hence they fometimes drink up poifonous fluids, to the detriment or deftruction ofthe plant. Dr. Hales put the end of a branch of an apple-tree, part of which was previoufly cut off, into a quart of redtified fpirit of wine and camphor, which quantity the fem imbibed in three hours, which killed one half of the tree. Ves. Stat. p. 43. Some years ago I fprinkled on fome branches of a wall-tree a very flight folution of arfenic, with intent to deftroy infeéts; but it at the fame time deftroyed the branches it was thrown upon. And I was informed by Mr. Wedgewood, that the fruit-trees planted in his garden near Newcaftle in Staffordfhire, which confifted of an acid clay beneath the factitious foil, became unhealthy as foon as their roots penetrated the clay; and on infpec- tion it appeared, that the fmall fibres of the roots, which had thus penetrated the clay, were dead and decayed, probably corroded by the vitriolic acid of the clay, beneath which is a bed of coals. It is, however, afferted by M. Buffon, that the roots of many plants will creép afide to avoid bad earth, or to approach good. Hit. Nat. er.: ee_— Er Vo!.Ill. But thisis perhaps better accounted for by fuppofins, that the Î P) PP el roots put out no abforbent veflels, where they are not ftimulated by proper juices; and that an elongation of roots in confequence only fucceeds, when they find proper nutriment. 10. Lhefe long and large cylindrical abforbent veffels, which pañs from ) 14 ELA LE PE RES AL Reprefents the fpiral veffels of 2 vine-leaf confiderably magnified, copied from Grew, Tab. LI. On flowly tearing afunder almoft any tender vegetable fhoot or leaf, the fpiral ftruéture of thefe veffels becomes vifible to the naked eye. They have been er- roneoufly believed to be air-veflels; but as they exift equally in the roots of plants, as in their barks, and have no communication with the horizontal perforations of the cuticle of the bark, they cannot be air-veflels, and are therefore believed to confitute the ab- forbent veffels of the adult vegetable, and the umbilical ones of the embryon bud. A fimilar plate of the fpiral ftruéture of thefe veffels is given by Duhamel. As they are larger than the vegetable blood-veffels, and pafs along the whole caudex of each bud from its plumula to its radicle, as well as to the cutaneouf abforbents, thofe of the trunks of trees or herbaceous plants may be thought to refemble the receptaculum chyli of ani- mal bodies, See Set. II. 7. —“- tolé 5 TEE x æÆ ù EP STE 5 L= SPL See 6_—— É É É Leg LS aa ls Pac" S—— Plate II. JecC IE. 7 | Î ANAPANNUU y A pr AnnnnANnnnAnNIA I London, Published Jan? 1*1800, by Johnson, S'Pauls Church Yard. - ee mn Te re PT 2 er dort” É en A sci as d F ais» A+ LS> À nt ds RÉ re Sc. IL 10 ABSORBENT VESSELS.+ from the the foot-ftalk of the leaf, I fappofe to be analogous to the receptacle of the chyle of animals, as the fimall abforbent branches of the roots probably unite beneath the{oil into thofe large veflels, which are fo eañly vifible; hence the caudex of each bud confifts of an elon- gation of abforbent vefels, and of arteries and veins reaching from the union of the root-branches to the foot-ftalk of each leaf, and the plumula of the bud in its bofom, as defcribed in Sedt. EL 7. roots oftrees up to the fummit of the caudex of each bud at | L | ÿ C£CT:] SE Le y LL 4(à. T a. EC pe 20 IMBILICAL VESSELS,: Cr: ILE Ag: j U for 1l I S LE L'ILE dt will Li ment( THE UMBILICAL VESSELS OF. SEEDS AND BUDS. C for 1ts t y- Q sance” RE 4 pee 2 re 4 Se, 4 To 1. 1. Seeds&re_. al Of spring like eges. Some feeds and eggs contain wo kinds|| o@ nourifbment, Jeeds and fpauwm À Jfb contain but one kind of nourifh- lei Ÿ (l’ 7.. A.. e o| ment. 2. Air-bag in Ep£s, tn Jome fruits; not in feeds, ner in Jpawn. vitell 3- Veffels tmprope rly called umbilicel; tbofe pr roperly called umbilical confift of ab-| clufl Jorbents, and a placental ar{ery+. ein. Seed embryon and chick Levin their till: growib by tbe ation of their abforbents. 4. Seminal roots RG Grew, and chorion man 1 J 7. chick of Molpighi, are re, Re Ogans. 5. În wbat the chick differs from Ga ; ae tbe feed-embryon. Nothing is found in Jeeds fimiler to tbe yolk of the exg. IX. 1. Buds| and bulbs are a paternel 0 GE Pring; exaëtly refemble their parents. Have um- PE bilical veffels, in wbich tbe Jap-juice riles 1n the bring. Why the bark is then(TION eafily feparated from the aiburnum. 3- Sugar in tbe Jep-juice exiffs in tbe albur- ace! #um, and in roots. Dry rot of timber owing to fermentation. WW by lower Branches j Arft pullulate. à. Sap afcends not by capiilary attraéion, but by the irritative wh énotons, of abforbent veffels. of vegetable irritability. A0 for bent vef- fan ai fels fometines aff as capillary fyphons, and as capillary tubes.: ose vel ne: got Sels coalefce. W. by trees do not bled in Jumimer. 6. Umbilicol v els of buds ie e; RS. e| an thofe of feeds. Pofféfs air- vefleis like thofe of the chick. Buds, lite‘ess. ipar a ate from the parent; their umbilical véffels improperly called placental ones, as the,| pr x LC convey nutriment; bence Dlants become dwa: fs if the cotyledons of the feed are de- jet us Birch-trees die if fineared witb oil or Pich. 7. Refervoir of rubriment 1 n tbe alburnum of trees, and in the roots Of biennial plants. Experiment of boiling ton: : alburnum and fe menting the liquor. As buds are formed at midfummer, they d may then be tranfblanted by inoculation, but in tb, Joring muft be in: erafted, and à grow by inofcu lation Po veÿels, like inflamed parts f animals. 8. A paufe in: vege cation at midjummer. New umbilical Veffels af in autumn, and the bark fepa- 1 cafily as in fpring. Honey-der, Sap-juice riles in winter occafionelly both in EVEF= tm | (l | ' a ae SR——_—— E—— PR re: de_—— SécrR En I VESSELS. 21 ever-green trees and deciduous jones, and after the fummit of the plant is cut off. 9. Umbil cal veffels and abjorbents een 1n a vine-ffalk, the latter exterior to the former. Exiff in tbe alburnum. E vith the egos of animals, and contain, like them, not only the rudi- PA Si. 5 I. 1. THE feeds of vecctables are a fexual offspring correfponding ment of the new organization, but alfo a quantity of aliment laid up for its early nourifhment. The eggs of birds contain two kinds of albumen, or white, one lefs vifcid than the other, which is firft confumed, and the yo olk or vitellum, which is drawn up into the bowels of the chick at its ex- clufion from the fhell, and ferves it for nourifhment a day or two, till it can learn to felect and digeft grains or infects. In like manner many feeds are furnifhed with two kinds of nourifhment, the muci- laginous or oily meal of the feed-lobes, and the faccharine or acefcent pulp of the fr uit, as in pears, plums, cucumbers, which fupply nu- triment to the embryon plant, til Il it is able to ftrike into the earth fuf- ficient roots for the purpofe of abl orbing its nutritious juices. The fpawn of fifh, and of frogs, and of infects, as of fnails and bees, which are almoft as innumerable as the feeds of plants, and are in the {ame manner excited into life by the warmth of the fun, are analo- sous to thofe feeds, I believe, which are not furrounded with fruit, and which contain but one kind of nourifhment for the embryon plant, as grains of corn, and legumes; but perhaps thefe have not yet been fufcientl y attended to by philofophers. Thefe eggs of animals and feeds of vegetables are produced by the congrefs of male and female organs; the former fupplying the fpeck of animation or cicatricula in the egcgs and the corculum or heart in the feed; and the latter producing the nidus, or neft for its recep- tion, and the nutritive material for its firft fupport. Thus the ecss of fowls are formed,.long before they are impregnated, and are fome- times laid in their uni cent ftate; and the feeds of legumes are vifi ble 6 22 UMBILICNL VESSELS:'Secr. Il T2, 3; vifible many days before the flower opens, and in confequence before they are impregnated, as obferved by Spallanzani. 2. The egos of birds contain a bag of air at their broad end for the purpofe of oxygenating the blood of the chick. In this one circum- ets. os of birds, as ftance the feeds of plants feém to differ from‘the egg they contain no air-bag, though it is probable they may agree with the fpawn of ffh, which I fuppofe pofñefs no included air. When the fceds fall on the ground in their natural ftate of growth, or are buried an inch or two beneath the foil, which has recently been turned over, and thus contains much air in its interftices, their coats do not continue dry like the fhells of eggs during incubation, but immedi- ately become moift membranes, like the external membrane of the fpawn of fifh immerfed in water, and in confequence can admit the oxygenation of the air through them to an adapted fet of arteries on their internal furface, according to the curious obfervations of Dr, Prieftley on the oxygenation of the blood by the air through the moift membranes of the lungs.; It fhould be here obferved, that many feeds, before they fall on the moift earth, are included in a bag of air, as thofe of the ftaphylea, ladder-nut; of the phyfalis alhekengi, winter-cherry; of colutea, bladder-fenna; in the pods of peas and beans; in the cells furround- ing the feeds of apples and pears; and in the receptacle of ketmia, which probably ferves to oxygenate the blood of the infant feed, which in thefe plants may thus be of forwarder growth, before it is fhed upon the foil. 3. There exifts a feries of glands, and their duéts, improperly called umbilical veflels by fome writers, which fupplies the feed with nourifhment from the parent plant, fo long as it adheres to the ova- rium of its mother, as the veflels by which a pea adheres to the pod, in which it is included; in fruits and nuts, where the kernel is covered with a ftone or fhell, a long cord of veflels pafles into the bottom of the ftone or fhell, and rifing to the top bends round the lobes of the ker- L ne}, n mm ll _/ ÈS roi ecrilluls UMBILICAL: VESSELS. 2 + he UY (SR nel, and is inferted near or into the corculum or heart of the feed, where the living principle refides, and affords not only prefent nu- trition to the vece SAC t) oily materials for its future nourifhment, which conftitute the cotyle- etable embryon, but alfo fecretes the farinaceous or dons of the feed. But the veffels, which may be properly called umbilical, pafs from the heart ot corculum of the feed, which is the living embryon of “the future plant, into the feed-lobes, commonly called cotyledons, and imbibe from thence a folution of the farinaceous or oily matter there depoñted for the nutriment of the new vesetable. Thefe veñlels are delineated in their magnified appearance by Dr. Grew, Plate LXXIX. fol. edition, and are by him termed feminal roots. See Plate I. Fig. 1. Thefe umbilical vefels probably confift of a{yftem of abforbents, which fupply nutriment to the embryon plant from the cotyledons of the feed, and alfo of a fyftem of placental arteries and veins fpread on the humid membrane, which covers the cotyledons, and is moif- tened by its contact with the earth, for the purpofe of oxygenating the vegetable blood. This idea is countenanced by many plants bringing up their cotyledons, or feed-lobes, out of the ground into the air, which are then converted into leaves, and perform the office of lungs, after they have. given UP beneath the foil the nutriment, which they previoufly+ as in the young kidney-bean, pha- {colus; fo the white corol of the helleborus niger, chriftmas role, is changed into a green calyx by loofing one fyftem of arteries after the impregnation of the feeds. The feed-embryon therefore refembles the chick in the ego, firit as when vivified by the influence of external w armtb they both beoin their growth by the abforbent fyftem of veffels being ftimulated into ation by their adapted nutriment; and the fluids thus pufhed for- wards ftimulate into action the other parts of the fyftem, conf ifting at firft principally of'arteries and glands. Secondly, they feem to refemble each other in their pofleffing eacl of , — 6 sis ai me 1" 24 UMBILICAL VESSELS. Secr.lll. ER of them an abforbent fyftem of veflels, which imbibe the nutritious matters laid up for them in the ailbumen'‘or white ofthe egg, and in the cotyledons or lobes of the feed; and alfo of a placental{yftem of arteries for the purpofe ofoxygenatine their fluids, as defcribed above in the feed, and which appears in the eos to be fpread on a mem- brane, which covers the white, as is fhewnin the plates of Mal. pighi, and called by him the chorion, and expoles the blood of th vga chick to the ox gen of the air contained at the broad end of the eg throuoh a moift membrane. 4. The ufe of the large apparent artery fpread on the cotyledons of a germinatins feed of a garden-bean, called feminal roots by Grew, as fhewn in Plate I. Es, said that{pread on the chorion of the chick in the ego, fo called by Malpighi, and fhewn in Tom. Il. Fig. 54, and by Fabricius ab Aquapendente, Tab. I. Fig. 13, which muft be an artery, as it carries red blood, are behieved to be refpiratory organs, like the placental veflels of the fetus of viviparous animals, becaufe the cotyledons of fome feeds rife out of the ground, and be- come leaves, after the nutriment they contained is expended, and are then called feminal leaves, as in the kidney-bean, phafeolus; and becaufe thofe which do not rife out of the ground perifh beneath the {oil, as foon as the young plant gains its leaves, which are its acrial refpiratory organ. Secondly, the chorion of the chick confifts of à membrane includ- ing the white, or albumen, and is not only in contact with the air- bag at the broad end of the egg, which, as the chick advances, co- vers more than half of the internal furface of the fhel, but alfo with pal | the membrane which lines all the other part of the fhell, as appear in Plate HT. which is copied from Malpighi: yet this exteufive chorion; with the numerous arteries and veins which are{pread upon Î its furface, is not drawn up into the body of the chick like the volk and its including membrane, but perifhes at the nativity of the chick 4 1== ST:& n fa= æ Vorut AFNIICG A1 a Ç+ UE M a hke the placental veffels of the fetus of vis iparous animals; or fome- CIMES, Ser, ME à MUMBILICAE VESSELS, ds times, 1 fuppofe, before its nativity, as the chick perforates the air- bag, and is heard to chirp, before it is excluded from the fhell. Hence it would appear, that both the artery attending the feminal roots above mentioned, and this artery on the chorion of the chick, muft perform fome more important office than to fupply nourifhment to the coats of the abforhbent veflels, which imbibe the mucilage of the feed, or the white of the ego, and which abforbents muft them- felves poñlefs their proper vafa vaforum. And what more important office can they have than that of oxygenating the blood of the vese- table or animal embryon? And this becomes more probable as they both perifh at its nativity like the placenta and cetyledons of vivi- parous animals. $. As the incubation of the chick advances, it differs from the feed- embryon in the produétion of inteftines, with a ftomach, on the in- ternal furfaces of which the mouths of the abforbents now terminate; and laftly in the production of a mouth and throat to receive and fwallow the remainder of the albumen, in which it fwims; whereas the feed-embryon fhoots down new roots into the earth with an ab- {orbent fyftem to acquire its nutriment, as that from the cotyledons of the feed becomes exhaufted. See Set. VII. 1, 2. Nor is there any thing fimilar to the yolk of the ess found in the feeds of vegetables, which is drawn up into the inteftines of the young chick about the time of its exclufion from the fhell to ferve it with nutriment for a day or two, tillit can learn of its parent by imitation to feleét and fwallow its adapted food. Nor is the fetus of vivipar- ous animals furnifhed with any thing fimilar to the yolk of oviparous ones, as they have milk ready prepared for their firft nutriment in the breaît of the mother. As foon as the new foliage of the plant rifing out of the ground becomes expanded, and the root defcending penetrates the earth with its fibrous ramifications, the umbilical fyftems of veflels ceafe to aét, both the abforbents, which previoufly fupplied the young embryon E with Œ: 4. N } JS AU F: fl k| c 14 1 LE El: | IF | by : anse ns TE ET Rs 26 UMPBATACAL VE SSELSE: Secr. INT. 1; 2 with nutriment from the cotyledons, and alfo the placental artery, which was fpread on the exterior membrane of the cotyledons for the purpofe of oxygenation. Thefe veflels now either coalefce and decay beneath the foil, or wither and fall off, when raifed above it in the form of feed-leaves, IT. 1. The feeds of plants are thus a fexual or amatorial progeny, produced principally by the male part of the flower, and received into a proper nidus, and fupplied with nutriment by the female part ‘ofit, and which can thus claim both a father and a mother. But the buds of vegetables are a linear pogeny, produced and nourifhed by à father alone, to whom they adhere, not faling off like the feeds, as is farther treated of in Zoonomia, Vol. I, Se&. XXXIX. IL. 2. andin Set VIT I. 3. of this work. For in this moft fimple kind of ve- getable reprodu&tion, by the buds of trees, and by the bulbs of fome plants, and by the wires of others, which are their VIVIPATOUS pro= geny, the caudex of the leaf is the parent of the bud or bulb, or Wire, which rifes in its bofom, according to the obfervation of Linneus. This linear or paternal progeny of vegetables in buds or bulbs, or wires, 15 attended with a very curious circumftance, which is that they exaëtly refemble their parents, when they are arrived at their maturity, as fhewn in Se@. VII r. 3. as is obferved in grafting fruit-trees, and in propagating flower-roots, or ftrawberries, or po- tatoes, by their wires or roots; whereas the feminal Offspring of plants, as it derives its form in part from the mother as well as fa- ther, is liable to perpetual variation, both which events are employed fo great advantage by fkilful cardeners.| 2. Às the embryons in the buds are the viviparous ofispring of ve- getables, it becomes neceflary, as they have no mouths, that they fhould be furnifhed like the embryons in the feeds with umbilical veflels to fupply them with nourifhment, till they acquire roots with another fet of abforbent veffels to imbibe moifture from the earth, and iaves to aët like lungs for the purpofe of oxygenating their blood. Lhète je nl eg AR, PT RE Le: Es D ne ie= Es Dé as Ste Lab) us ct PR nas-- MERS ADEE Secr, I, T3 UMBTILICAL' VESSELS 25 { Thefe umbilical veffels, which fupply the buds of plants with nou- rifhment in the early fpring, and unfold their foliage, have been much attended to by Dr. Hales and Dr. Walker(Edinb. Phil, Tranfa®, Vol.I.) The former obferved, that the fap from the ftump of a vine, which he had cut off in the beginning of April, arofe twenty-one feet high in glafs tubes affixed to it for that purpofe, but which in a ew weeks ceafed to bleed. Dr. Walker alfo marked the progrefs of the afcending fap in various‘branches of trees, and: obferved, that in cold weather it ftopped many hours in a day, as well as in the night, and found likewife as foon as the leaves became expanded, that the wounded trees ceafed to bleed. The veflels, which conveythefap-juice with fuch amazing force, are fituated in or compofe the alburnum, or fap-wood, of the trunk or root of the tree; norisit furprizing, that fome of it when prefled by fo high a column fhould exfude into the cells between the alburnum and bark, as in thefe cells much fap-juice was obferved by Dr.Walker, and this accounts for the great eafe with which the barks of willows and of oaks are feparated in the fpring from their wood. The abforb- ent mouths of thefe fap-veflels open externally in the moift earth on the roots of trees, and alfo into the air on their trunks; and thus mix the aqueous fluids, which they thus imbibe, with the faccharine and mucilaginous materials depofited previoufly in the alburnum of thefe roots and trunks. 3. This afcending fap-juice during the fpring feafon is in fome trees{o fweet, that it is ufed in making wine, as that of the birch- tree in this country; and fugar is procured in fuch quantity from a maple in Penfylvania, that from each tree five or fix pounds of good fugar have been made annually without deftroying it, Rufh, on Sugar Maple. Philips, London. This fugar is depoñited I believe in the fap-wood of the trunk and roots of trees, as in the manna-afh, and is diflolved in the fpring by the moifture, which is drank up by the abforbents from the earth and atmofphere, and forcibly carried on to É2 expand 28 UMBILICAL VESSELS, Secr.ll IL'4. expand the buds. Its exiftence in the fap-wood as well as in the roots 1s fhewn from the pullulation of oak-trees, which have been fripped’cf their bark, and alfo from the expanfion of the eyes of a vine-fhoot, when it is cut from the tree, and planted in the earth, as defcribed in Sect. XV. 1. 3. This fuggefts to us the reafon why the wood of trees is fo much fooner fubjeét to decay, when they are felled in the vernal months; becaufe the fugar, which the fap-wood then contains, foon runs into fermentation, and produces what is called the dry rot; whence the cuftom has prevailed of debarking oaks in the fpring, and felling them in the autumn; and it is probable that the wood of all other trees would laft much longer, if it was thus managed, as the growth of the new leaves would exhauft the fugar of the fap-wood. Sweet juices for a fimilar purpofe of expanding the buds of herba- ceous plants are depofited during the autumn in their roots, as in tur- nep, beet, tragaposon; or in the knots or joints of the fem, as in graffes, and the fugar-cane; which like the farina and oil in feeds, and the dulcet mucilage of fruits, and the honey of flowers, were defigned for the food of the young progeny of plants, but become the fufte- nance of mankind! Às the faccharine matter which is thus depofted in the roots, or iñ the alburnum, or in thé joints of plants, muft be diluted by the moifture abforbed from the earth by their roots, we underftand why the leaves of the lower branches of trees are firft expanded, as is feen diftintly in the hawthorn hedges in April, as thefe muft firft receive the afcending fap-juice, as was obferved by Dr. Walker in his ac- count of the maple, 4 The force of the rifing fap from a vine-ftump in the bleeding feafon, as difcovered by Dr. Hales, is at fome times equal to the whole preffure of the atmofphere, which is about fourteen pounds on a iquare inch of furface. This great power in raifing the fap he af- crbes to capillary attraction, and to the variations of heat durin o the day Sec. Il. I. 4. UMBILICAL VESSELS. 2 22 day and night. In regard to capillary attraétion, however high it may raife a fluid in very fmall tubes, it can not make it flow over them, as the fap-juice did in Dr. Hales’s vine-ftump; nor can it raife a fluid quite to a level with the upper rim of a glafs tube, as the fluid is there more attracted downwards by the glafs befides its gravity, and is left in confequence with a concave furface. The means by which vegetable abforbent veflels in their living. ftate imbibe the fluids of the earth and atmofphere, and carry them forwards with fo much force, muft be fimilar to thofe, with which animal abforbent veflels perform the fame office; that is by their mouths being excited into action by the ftimulus of the fluids, which they abforb. This circumftance is confirmed by the evident proofs of the irri- tability of plants in various other inftances, as the clofing and open- ing of the petals and calyxes of flowers by light and darknefs,warmth and cold, drynefs and moifture, and by the motions of the leaves of mimofa, or fenfitive plant, and of dionœa mufcipula, by any me- chanical fimulus. To this might be added a variety of inftances of the irritability of vegetables to the ftimulus of heat, being increafed after a previous expofure to cold, exaëtly in the fame manner as hap- pens to animal bodies, which are enumerated in a note in the Botanic Garden, Vol. I. Canto I. L 322, whence the reciprocal times of the a@ing and the ceafñng to ac of thefe vernal vegetable abforbents, which are here termed umbilical veflels, in the experiments both of Dr. Hales and Dr.Walker, may be readily explained by their having been benumbed by the cold, or excited into aétion by the warmth of the air or earth. See Sec. XII. 2. 3. From one experiment neverthelefs of Dr. Walker’s thefe vefels occafionally aét as capillary fyphons, becaufe when he bent down a branch much lower than its origin from the tree, and cut off the end of it in the bleeding feafon, the fap flowed from the extremity of this branch fo bent down, when fome wound$ two or three feet lbwer / Sec 30 MBA À L4 VE SG& SECT..IIL IS. 4 | ed lower than the origin of this branch did not bled..This may:be qhic accounted for from the afcent of the fluid in thefe veffels being at tobl this time principally owing to the action of their abforbent mouths, ter | and to their confifting of long cylinders with minute diameters and that rigid coats, like thofe which are vifible to the eyein dry cane, through finp which fmoke will paf in either direétion, and which at this early fea-, wth {on may not be excited into vegetable action; there is neverthelefs a dow! power of abforption exifüng in any part of them inthe Warmer{ea- thec fon, becaufe a branch or flower-ftaik cut from the root, and fet in a a WC glafs of water, will drink up a confiderable quantity of itt There is na alfo a fituation in their difeafed or dead ftate, where they appear to sc aét for fome years like Capillary tubes, as in the decorticated part of a| De ot as wh pear-tree, defcribed in Se&. XV. DD à 5+ During the great action of thefe umbilical abforbent vefels the| me buds become expanded, that is the Young vegetable beings put forth| Le leaves, which are their lungs, and confift of a pulmonary artery, vein, L and abforbents, and alfo acquire a new bark over that of the branches, el trunk, and roots, of the laft year, which confifts of aortal arteries, DA veins, and abforbents, and new radicles, which terminate in the foil.| IUT At this time the umbilical voflels, which exifted in the alburnum, or pol fap-wood, ceafe to act, and coalefce into more folid wood, perhaps are fimply by the contration of the{piral fibre, of which they are com- the pofed; and the fwarm of new vecetables, which conftitute à tree, are| il now nourifhed by their proper lacteal and lymphatic{yftems. bus, À curious circumftance now occurs, which is that wherever a tree j| chick is now wounded, no moifture appears. On the contrary, the wound reel from Dr. Hales’s experimentsis in a ftrongely abforbing ftate, infomuch Num, that on applying water to wounds made in the fummer feafon, it was prob found to be drank up with great force, as was ingenioufly fhewn by the€ mercurial fyphons contrived to refift its abforption, nth This evinces, that though during the bleeding feafon in the vernal ke months the fap-juice is imbibed by the umbilical abforbents, and car ried | | SECR HU HG-UMPBTFTEÉICAL: VESSELS,‘ 31 ried upwards probably by the annular contraction of the fpiral fibres, which I believe compofe thefe abforbent veflels, in fuch quantities as to bleed wherever the alburnum is expofed or wounded, yet that af- terwards the exhalation by the numerous leaves becomes fo great, that the ations of the new radical and lateral abforbents do not fupply a fluid fo fait, as it could otherwife be expended in the growth of the plant, or diffipated into the air; and as the veflels, which pafs down the trunks of trees, inofculate in variety of places, as is feen in the cloth made at Otaheite from the bark of a mulberry-tree, when. a wound ismade through fome of thefe veflels, the fluid, which might otherwife o0Ze out, is carried away laterally by thofe in their vicinity; and as the veffels of vegetables are rigid, and do not collapte when wounded like thofe of animals; and as the circulation in them is comparatively flow, but little of their contained fluids are poured out of them when wounded in the fummer months. 6. From all théfe obfervations it finally appears, that the umbilical veflels of each bud are fimilar to thofe of a feed, which are called by Dr. Grew feminal roots, and that like the umbilical cords, which form the wires of ftrawberries above ground, and of potatoes under ground, they fupply the new vegetable with nutriment, till the leaves are expanded in the air, and new roots are pufhed out and penetrate the earth. There is alfo a curious analogy between thefe umbilical veffels of buds, which exift in the alburnum oftrees, and thofe belonging to the chick in the ego, which confifts in their both poflefling certain air- veflels; thofe of trees pafs horizontally from the bark to the albur- num, and that of the ego exifts at the broad endofit. Thus it is probable, that the fluid in the fine extremities of the new veflels of the embryon bud becomes oxygenated by thefe horizontal air-vefels, in the fame manner as the fluid in the terminations of the arteries on the chorion of the chick is believed to become oxygenated by the air contained à 22 UMBIETEAE VIESSELS.«Sser MIeI.6. contained at the broad end of the egg, as alluded to in Se&, IL. 4. and Lil, 1,4, À circumftance, in which the bud may be conceived to differ from 1e the egg, confifts in the{eparation of the eco from its parent, as foon as 1 the fetus has acquired a certain maturity, along with its umbilical vef- fels, and its refervoir of nutriment. But in vegetables fomething fimilar occurs, for the parent bud is feparated by death in the autumn from its embryon offspring; the leaf falls of, which was the lungs of the parent bud, and the veflels of its caudex, which formed the bark, 4 coalefce into alburnum, or fap-wood, furrounding the umbilical vef- FE. fels of the new bud; which thus may be faid to loofe its parent like | the egg, but retains its umbilical veffels, and a refervoir of nutriment, which exifts in the fap-wood, and alfo another fyftem of vefels, which conftitute the new bark of the tree, confifting of the inter- woven caudexes of each individual new bud, But as the umbilical veflels of plants above defcribed, which con- fütute the alburnum of the trunks of trees, and the feminal roots, fo called, of the growing feed, convey nutriment to the embryon bud, or to the rifing plumula, as well as oxygenation, they are not fimilar in that refpeét to the placenta of the animal fetus, and were impro- perly called placental veffels in the notes to the Botanic Garden, as the placenta of the animal fetus is fhewn in Zoonomia, Vol. I. Set. XXXVIIL. to be an organ of refpiration only, like the gills of fifh, and not an organ for nutrition. Hence when the cotyledons of feeds are cut away from the rifing plume, the plant becomes a dwarf for want of nutriment; and the wounding or expofing the alburnum of bleeding tres, as of the birch or maple, in the vernal months to obtain the fap-juice retards the expanfon of the new buds, and the confequent growth of the tree. Hence allo it appears, why fmearing the bark of a tree with pitch, or oil, or paint, is liable to deftroy the new buds, and confequently the 5 tree, er ——'== o Se En= D oenenee 7 e Sens Secr. Ill. IL 7. UMBILICAL VESSELS. 33 tree, by ftopping up their fpiracula; and why covering an egg with greafe or varnifh is faid to prevent the production of a chicken, by preventing a change of air at the broad end ofit. 7. We may conclude that the umbilical veflels of the new bud are formed along with a refervoir of nutritious aliment about midfummer in the bark, which conftitutes the long caudex of the parent bud, in the fame manner as a refervoir of nutritious matter is formed in the root or broad caudex of the turnep or onion, for the nourifhment of the rifing ftem. And that thefe umbilical veflels of the em- bryon bud, and the refervoir of nutriment laid up for it, which is fecreted by the glands of the parent bud, and now intermixed with the prefent bark of the tree, become gradually changed into albur- num, or fap-wood, as the feafon advances, in part even before the end of fummer, and entirely during the winter months. That the alburnum of trees, which exifts beneath the bark both of the trunk and roots of them, contains the nutritious matter depofted by the mature leaves or parent buds for the ufe of the embryon buds, appears not only from the faccharine liquor, which oozes from the wounds made in the vernal months through the bark into the albur- num of the birch and maple, betula et acer; but”alfo from the fol- lowing experiment, which was conduéted in the winter before the vernal fap-juice rifes. Part of a branch of an oak-tree in January was cut off, and divided carefully into three parts, the bark, the alburnum, and the heart. Thefe were fhaved or rafped, and feparately boiled for a time in wa- ter, and then{et in a warm room to ferment; and it was feen that the decoction of the alburnum or fap-wood pafled into rapid fermen- tation, and became at length acetous, but not either of the other, which evinces the exiftence both of fugar and mucilage in the albur- num during the winter months; fince a modern French chemift has fhewn by experiments, that fugar alone will not pafs into the vinous fermentation, but that a mixture of mucilage is alfo required; and F from 34 UMBILICAL VESSELS. Secr. lil. Il. 7. from this experiment it may be concluded, that in years of fcarcity the fap-wood of thofe trees, which are not acrid to the tafte, might af. ford nutriment by the preparation of being rafped to powder, and made into bread by a mixture of flour, or by extraéting their fugar and mucilage by boiling in water, as mentioned in Zoonomia, Part IE. ArtGeT:2;206 Now as the embryon buds of deciduous trees of this climate are formed about midfummer, fecreted by the generative glands in the caudex of the parent leaf-bud, and are fupplied with due nou- rifhment from the fame fource, not having yet fhot out radicles of their own from the lower end of their long caudexes into the earth, they may be readily tranfplanted at this feafon from one tree to ano- ther by inoculation, or into different parts of the fame tree; as the new caudex of the young bud of one tree will readily unite with the new caudex of that of another tree, and as they can be removed en- tire during the early ftate of their growth along with a part of the bark only, as fcarcely any alburnum is yet formed beneath the bark of the. young twis, from whence the bud is cut or torn. But after their greater maturity, fo that many buds exift on one twig, or fcion, and are already furnifhed with radicles pafling down into the ground, as in the enfuing fpring, it becomes neceffary to ingraft them by cutting off a part of the alburnum, as well as of the bark of the new bud; and to apply thefe in contaé&t with the bark and alburnum of another tree, to which they may grow by inofcu- Jation of vefiels; whence it appears why budding or inoculation muft be performed foon after midfummer, and ingrafting in the early fpring, as in the former the buds continue to grow by the junéion of the caudex or bark veffels alone with thofe of the tree into which they are inferted, and in the latter by the inofculation of their vef- fels with thofe of the bark and alburnum of the tree, ta which they are applied and bound. s Fhe cs mm PE Re à SH TT SecrT. Ill. 11.8 UMBILICAL VESSELS. ET The inofculation of the veffels of a bud cut out of one tree and in- ferted into the bark and alburnum of another, as in the ingraftment of fcions, is exatly refembled by a fimilar operation on animal bo- dies, when a toath is taken from one perfon and inferted into the head of another, and where two inflamed parts grow together. Thusan experienced anatomift is faid to have cut the two fpurs from a young cock, and applied them to the oppofite fides of his comb, which was previoufly excoriated, where they continued to grow and appeared like horns; and Talicotius, whofe book lies by me, ferioufly afferts, that he fucceeded in making artificial nofes from a part of the fkin of the arm of his patients, and has publifhed prints of the manner of the operation, fo ridiculed by the author of Hudibras. Cheirurgia Cafparis Talicotii. The growth of an inoculated bud on the bark of another tree, where the upper part of the caudex of the inoculated bud joins with the lower part of the caudex of another bud belongins to the ftock, is ftill more nicely refembled by the union of the head and tail part of two different polypi in the experiment of Blumenbach, mention- ed in Set. VIE 3. 2. of this work. 8. As the leaves of trees become expanded, the fap-juice above de- fcribed ceafes to flow, and the bark of the tree then adheres to the alburnum. Afterwards from the middle of June to the middle of Auguft, as Dr. Bradiey has obferved, there feems to: be a paufe in ve- getation; at which time the new buds in the bofom of each leaf feem to be generated, and the bark, which during the two preceding months adhered to the wood, now eafly feparates, as in the fpring, according to the obfervation of Duhamel, Vol. II. 261; and vegeta- tion, which appeared to languifh during the heats of midfummer, acquires new vigour at the approach of autumn like that of fpring. This circumftance, which feems to have puzzled many naturalifts, is to be explained from the action of the umbilical veffels of the new F 2 buds, nn Re RE. 36 UMBILICAL VESSELS. Secr.lll. IL 8. buds, which begin to enlarge as foon as they are formed, and in this chmate have their progrefs ftopped by the cold during the winter, and the moifture which exfudes from the fides of thefe vefels, and 15 extravafated between the alburnum and the bark, caufes an eafy feparation of them from each other. From the new flow of fap in thefe veflels about midfummer, being probably in part conveyed to the leaves by the rotrograde ation of their lymphatics in very hot weather, the honey-dew feems to ori- ginate either as an exfudation from the leaf, or from the veflels be- ing punétured by the aphis, which drinks the vegetable chyle in fuch great quantity that it pafles through the infeét almoft unchanged; ee Set. XIV. 1. 7. and 3. 2; and thus caufes the fuffufion of honey on the leaves below them for a time in the heat of fummer. Add to this that M. Du Hamel, by nicely meafuring fome buds, found that they were gradually enlarged at fome times during the winter, and concludes from thence that the fap-juice, which nourifhes them, continues to flow, though flowly, in the milder parts of the winter days, Vol. IL. p. 262; and adds, that it muft rife continually during the winter months in ever-green trees, otherwife their fo- liage would wither; and alfo in deciduous trees, becaufe the branch of an ever-green tree will grow on a deciduous tree, and not lofe its leaves in the winter, as the lauro-cerafus on a cherry-tree, and an ever-green oak on a common oak. It muft neverthelefs be obferved, that as the umbilical veflels are a part of the new bud, as the laëteals and other abforbents are a part of the chick or fetus, the perpetual aétion of thefe umbilical veffels muft depend on the bud to which they belons, in the caudex of which, between the plumula and radicle, the brain or common fenforium, and the confequent vital energy, are believed to refide; and that whe- ther an ingraftment exifts between the bud and the umbilical ab- forbent vefiels or not. But as in thofe animals which have a very fmall Secr. IL IT. 9. UMBILICAL VESSELS. 2" 24 fmall portion of brain in the head compared with that in the fpine of the back, as in eels, fnakes, worms, butterflies, if the head be cut off, the other parts will continue to live with great aétivity for hours, and even days; fo it happens to thefe umbilical abforbent veflels, which in vine-ftumps, and many herbaccous plants, will continue to pour out the fap-juice in great force and great quantity for many days af- ter the exfetion of the whole upper part of the plant. The continuance of the motion of thefe umbilical veffels confifting of a fpiral line, which are believed to be air-veflels by many authors, is mentioned by Malpighi; who aflerts, that when he examined them in the winter, he could often obferve them for fome time to continue their vermicular motion{o as to aftonifh him. See Duhamel. Phyf. des arb. Vol.[. p. 43- g. The umbilical veffels of this feétion, like the abforbents of the preceding one, both which are believed to confift of a fpiral line, as hewn in Seét. IL. 7. may be readily feen in cutting à vine-ftalk ho- rizontally, as they at firft appear full of fluid; but in a very little time, às the fluid exhales or becomes effufed, a circular area of round holes appears to pafs longitudinally interior in refpeét to the bark; which E fuppofe to confift both of the umbilical veffels, which bleed during the vernal months, and of the other radical, cellular, and cutaneous ab- forbents; the latter of which I fufpect to be exterior to the former, and to refide between the bark and the umbilical vellels, though both of them are believed to conftitute the alburnum of the plant. From many ingenious obfervations on vegetables monfieur de la Baifle draws the following conclufions, which are affented to by M. Bonnet, and which I(hall here tranfcribe, as they fo accurately co- incide with the theory above delivered, and as they were deduced from different experiments, are à Confirmation of it. le fays, ée that the veflels deftined to convey nourifhment to plants are nei- ther in the pith, nor in the bark, nor between the bark and the wood; but os 1 L, sun Te nr à me e—_ ne sas Ca Re idbes" 38 UMBILICAL VESSELS. SECT. II. ÎT. o. but in the ligneous fubftance itfelf; or, to fpeak more accurately, that thofe veflels are themfelves the woody fibres included between the pith and the bark of plants, which have their origin in the roots, and -extend themfelves to every part of the plant.” Bonnet ufage des feuilles, p. 275. 4 (3 La F(è r FE Le, 4 2> À st 2 LAC_—. en res£ : a—— A— RE RER nes ee_ EEE es=—= gr ee— M= nl [| k fIL. PLATE La: plalt} dE. en PÉATE 14. Is copied fiom Malpighi Appendix de ovo Incubato, Tom. II. Fig. 54, and repre- fents the chick in the esg on the fourteenth day of incubation. The chick rolled up fwims in the amnios#4, which is kept moift by very minute veffels. Round this is placed the yolk à#, to which adjoins the thicker part of the white. The whole is fur- rounded with chorion 4 d 4, On this are fpread the blood-veffels, of which the large one e emerging from the navel of the chick, and generating the various branches f ff, terminates in a capillary network. In contact with thefe a redder fet of veflels pañfes with fimilar ramifications. Another fet of veffels# g arifes from the navel, which are fmaller ones, and are propagated amidft the ramification of ff. The lungs are white; the ftomach full of milk, or of coagulated albumen or white; and the inteftines hang out from the navel. As two fets of blood-veffels terminate on the chorion, and as one branch of the larger fet carries redder blood, and as the lungs are ftill white; it feems evident, that this larger {et of veflels refemble the placental arteries and vein of viviparous animals, and that the blood receives its red colour by acquiring oxygen from the air included between the exter- nal moift membrane and the fhell of the egg; which air at firft is feen only at the broad end, but afterwards extends from thence to the equator of the egg, and probably pañfes through the other end of the fhell to that part of the internal membrane, which adheres toit, See an analogous plate in Fabricius ab Aquapendente, Tom. I. Fig. 13: See alfo Sect. IIE, 1. 4. and IT. 2. 6. of this work, Plate HE London, f'ubdishied Jan —— “1800, bN\ Johnson, Pas Church J'uril. Spa a tr er sé sua.= or =” SeCL JET / éd on AE mit hire 2527 £ CT| TT Done Sue:; TUE RAR Ps s.= LE#: 5 mere .«-*" | ÉRNRerneRE EN'_ ÿ À Été co En Ps dit si Misonitassaneisitniseua sms À À \| } ñ "1 4 À 1} 1] \ {4 ‘4 |{ 1 4 | id A | 4 h| 9 Éd er M Secr. IV. L1. PULMONARY ARTERIES AND VEINS. 39 SE: C re I, THE PULMONARY ARTERIES AND VEINS OF VEGETABLES. 1, 1. Leaves#of perfbiratory organs, nor excretory nor nutritions organs, nor ele&ric nor lumineus ones. 2. Vital air in the atmofphere, in water. of aerial animals; gills of aquatic ones. 3. Leaves are the lungs of vegetables. Arteries and veins vifible in a leaf of fpurge and picris coloured by madder, and in bloody dock. À. Upper furface only of the leaf refbires, and repels moiflure, and dies Îf Smeared with oil, and exbales much lefs than the under one.\1. 1. Aquatic leaves are like the gills of ffbs bave larger Jurfaces, as the uncombined oxygen in water is les than in air 3 are divided like the leaves on high mountains. 2, Are furnifbed with numerous points like gills of fe. 3. Which fet at liberty oxygen from jome waters. II. 1. Root-leaves many plants differ from flem-leaves. 2. As they produce only buds. 3. They differ as common leaves from floral leaves. 4. And arife fometimes from the cotyledons. IV. x. Floral leaves or raëfes are refpi- ratory organs to the calyx and pericarp. 2. In fome plants they do not appear #11] the corol drops of. 3. Recapitulation. Leaves die in the exbaufled receiver. V. x. The corol ss& Pulmonary organ; its colours. 2. Is vafcular texture, îts glands. Some flowers bave no braftes. The corol is not for defence. The corol of belleborus niger chenges to a calyx. 3. Corol of colchicum and crocus fall of before the braltes appear. Vines bear alternate flowers and leaves. Fruit de- prived of green leaves. 4. Vegetable uterus requires the braftes. Flowers enlarged dy defiroying the green leaves. 5. Plants do not refpire in their Jeep. 6. Cor- clufion. The anthers and fligmas are feparate vegetable beings; live on boney and acquire greater 1rritability, and amatorial fenfibility. I. 1. THERE have been various opinions concerning the ufe of the leaves of plants in the vegetable economy. Some have contended, that they are perfpiratory organs, This does not appear probable from an experiment of Dr. Hales, Veg. Stat, p. 30. He found, by cutting off branches 40 PULMONARY ARTERIES.lV.Li. branches of trees with apples on them, and taking off the leaves, that an apple exhaled about as much as two leaves, the furfaces of which were nearly equal to that of the apple; whence it would appear, that apples have as good à claim to be termed perfpiratory organs as leaves. Others have believed them the excretory organs of excrementi- tious juices; but as the vapour exhaled from vegetables has no tafte, this idea is no more probable than the other. Add to this, that in moift weather they do not appear to perfpire or exhale at all, as fhewn by fome ffatical experiments of Dr. Hales, like thofe of Sanétorius on the perfpiration of the human body; which perfpiration has alfo been fuppofed to be an excrement, which is fhewn to be an erroneous opinion; and that its defign is fimply to preferve the fkin fupple, like the tears diffufed on the eye-ball to preferve its tranfparency, as explained in Zoonomia, Vol. II. Clafs I. 1, 2. 14. Others have believed that vesetables abforb much nutriment by their leaves, and quote an experiment of Dr. Prieftley’s, who found plants placed in water under glafles grew much fafter, when the air, in which they grew, was occafionally impregnated with putrid exhala- tions. But there is another experiment of Dr. Prieftley’s, which fhould be mentioned, and that is, that he agitated one part of a veffel of water beneath a glafs filled with putrid exhalation, and the whole of the water prefently became very fetid. Hence we may conclude, that in the firft cafe the water, in which the vesetable grew, abfcrbed the putrid exhalations from the air over it, and that thefe were again abforbed from the water by the roots of vegetables, which correfpond to the laéteals of the ftomach and inteftines of animals; and that they thus received nourifhment from the putrid vapours, and not by their leaves, which we fhall endeavour to fhew to be fimpiy refpiratory organs. Other philofophers have conceived, that the leaves of plants acquire eleétricity from the air. In anfwer to thefe it may be obferved, that n© 4) SECr AM l:2: AN D: V E'IEN:S. no electricity is fhewn by experiments to defcend through the flems of trees, except in thunder ftorms; and that if the final caufe of ve- getable leaves had been to conduét eleétricity from the air, they ought to have been gilded leaves with metallic ftems. Others again have fuppofed that the leaves of plants acquire a phlogiftic material from the fun’s light, whence it was believed that on this account they turn their upper furfaces to the fun. But though light is more or lefs attracted by all opake bodies, yet if the final caufe of vegetable leaves had been to abforb light, they ought to have been black and not green; as by Dr. Frankïin’s experiment, who laid fhreds of various colours on fnow in the fun-fhine, the black funk much deeper than any other colour, and confequently abforbed much more light. The ufe of light in vegetable refpiration will be treated of in Set. XIIT. 2. The air of our atmofphere has been fhewn by the experiments of Prieftley, Cavendifh, and Lavoifier, to confift of twenty-feven parts of refpirable air, called oxygene gas, with feventy-three parts of unrefpirable air, termed azotic gas, which are mixed together, not chemically combined; whereas water confifts of eighty-five hun- dreth parts of oxygen to fifteen of hydrogen, which exift in their ftate of combination, and are not therefore fit for refpiration. But in water a confiderable quantity of common air is alfo diflolved, which _efcapes on boiling; and even pure vital ar was difcovered in the water of fome fprings by fir Benj. T'homfon, when it was expofed to the fun’s light. Philofoph. Tranfa&. The former of thefe fluids is thus adapted to the refpiration of aerial animals, and the latter to that of aquatic ones; and the analogy between the aerial and aquatic leaves of vegetables and the lungs and gills of animals embraces fo many circumftances, that we can fcarcely withhold our aflent to their performing fimilar offices. The internal furface of the air-veffels of the lungs of men are faid to be equal to the external furface of the whole body, or about fif- G tcen 42 PULMONARY ARTERIES SEcT. IV. I. 3. teen fquare feet. On this furface the blood is expofed to the influ- ence of the refpired air, through the medium of a thin moïft pel- licle. By this expofure to the air it has its colour changed from deep red to bright fcarlet, and acquires fomething fo neceflary to the ex- iftence of life, that we can live fcarcely a minute without this won- derful procefs. In aquatic animals, as fifh, the blood is expofed to the air, which is diffufed in the water by the oïlls; the furface of which is probably greater in proportion to the external furface of their bodies, than that of the air-vefiels of the lungs of aerial animals to their external fur- faces. Through thefe oills, or aquatic lungs, a current of water is made perpetually to pafs by the gaping of the fifh, as it moves, like the air in refpiration; and from this water it is probable the fame material is acquired by the gills of fifh as from the air by the lungs of aerial animals. 3. The sreat furface of the leaves compared to that of the trunk and branches of trees is fuch, that it would feem to be an organ well adapted for the purpofe of expofng the vegetable juices to the influ- ence of the air. This however we fhall fee afterwards is probably performed only by their upper furfaces, which are expofed to the light as well as air, and on that account acquire greater oxygenation, as will be fhewn hereafter: yet even in this cafe the upper furfaces of the leaves muft bear a greater proportion to the furface of the bark of the tree than that of the air-cells of the lungs of animals to their ex- ternal furfaces. Aerial or aquatic animals, by their mufcular exertions, produce a current of air or water reciprocally to and from their lungs, and can occafionally change the place, where they refpire, when the air or wa- ter becomes vitiated.- But as vegetables have but little mufcular power to move their leaves, except in a few inftances; and as the air or water 1s frequently nearly ftationary, where they exift, it feems to have been neceffary to expofe their fluids to the air or water on a greater TT ES 08 A AA PE DS AND VEINS. 43 greater expanfe of furface than in the lungs or soills of animals, which well accounts for the exuberant extent of their foliage, In the lungs of animals the blood, after having been expofed to the air in the extremities of the pulmonary artery, is changed in co- Jour from deep red to bright fcarlet, and is then colle@ted and returned by the pulmonary vein. So in the leaves of plants the vegetable blood is rendered yellow in fome plants, as in celandine, chelido- num; white in others, as in fig-leaves, ficus; and in fpurge, eu- phorbia; and red in others, as in red beets, beta. And the ftructure of the leaf, as confifting of arteries and veins to expofe the vegetable blood to the influence of the air, and to return it to the caudex of the bud at the foot-ftalk of the leaf, beautifully became vifible by the following experiment. À ftalk with the leaves and feed-veffels of large fpurge(euphorbia heliofcopia) in June 1791, had been feveral days placed in a decoc- tion of madder,(rubia tinétoria) fo that the lower part of the ftem and two of the inferior leaves were immerfed in it. After having wafhed the immerfed leaves in much clean water, I could readily difcern the colour of the madder pafling along the middle rib of each leaf. This red artery was beautifully vifible both in the under and upper furface of the leaf; but on the upper fide many red branches were feen going from it to the extremities of the leaf, which on the other fide wère not vifible except by looking through it againft the light. On this under fide a fyftem of branching veflels Carrying a pale milky fluid, were feen coming from the extremities of the leaf, and covering the whole underfide of it, and joining into two large veins, one on each fide of the red artery in the middle rib of the leaf, and along with it defcendins to the foot-ftalk or petiole. On flittine one of thefe leaves with fciffars, and having a common maonifyiag lens ready, the milky blood was feen oozing out of the returning vein on each fide of the red artery in the middle rib, but none of the red fluid from the artery. G 2 Al qe re RE à gr> se)+ p”? Fur est_— ES£ 4 ue: PS oh , 4 44 PULMONARY ARTERIES SECT AN ue All thefe appearances were more eafily feen in a leaf of picris treated in the fâme manner; for in this milky plant the ftems and middle- rib of the leaves are fometimes naturally coloured reddifh, and hence the colour of the madder feemed to pafs further into the ramifications of their leaf-arteries, and was there beautifully vifible with the re- turning branches of milky veins on each fide. In a plant which was fent to me under the name of fenecio bicolor, but which I have not yet feen in flower, the upper furface of the leaf is green like moft other leaves, but during the vernal months the under furface is of a deep red, whence I conclude that the vese- table blood acquires the red colour in the terminations of the pulmo- nary artery in the upper furfaces of the leaves, which becomes vifible as it pañles in the large veins on the inferior furface. In the fame manner the red colour of the blood is moft vifible in the large veins beneath the leaf of the red veined dock, rumex fanguinea. 4. From thefe experiments the upper furface of the leaf appeared to be the immediate organ of refpiration, becaufe the coloured fluid was carried to the extremities of the leaf by veñlels moft confpicuous on the upper furface, and there changed into a milky fluid, which 1s the blood of the plant, and then returned by concomitant veins on the under furface, which were feen to ooze when divided with fcif- fars, and which in picris particularly rendered the under furface of the leaves greatly whiter than the upper one, As the upper furface of leaves confütutes the organ of refpiration, on which the vegetable blood is expofed in the terminations of arteries beneath athinmoift pellicletotheaétionof the atmofphere,thefe furfaces in many plants ftrongly repel moifture, as cabbage-leaves, whence the particles of rain lying over their furfaces without touching them, as obferved by Mr. Melville,(Effays Literary and Philof. Edinb.) have the appearance of globules of quick-filver. And hence leaves laid with their upper furfaçces on water wither as foon as in the dry air, but continue green many days if placed with their under furfaces on water, a RS ES Secr.IV. Il 1. ANDYVEINS. à water, as appears in the experiment of monfieur Bonnet,(Ufage des Fevilles); hence fome aquatic plants, as the water-lily(nymphæa) Have the lower fides of their leaves floating on the water, while the upper furfaces remain dry in the air. This repulfñon of the upper furfaces of the leaves of aerial plants to water bears fome analogy to the renitency of the larinx to the ad- miflion of water into the lungs of animals; for if a fingle drop ac- cidentally falls into the windpipe, a convulfive cough is induced till it is reguraitated. For the fame reafon feveral plants clofe together the upper furfaces of their leaves when it rains, in the fame manner as in their fleep during the night, as mimofa, the fenfitive plant, and the young fhoots of chick-weed, alfine; and of kidney-bean, pha- feolus. As thofe infed@s which have many fpiracula, or breathing apertures, as wafps and flies, are immediately fuffocated by pouring oil upon them, in the year 1783 1 carefully coveredwith oil the furfaces of {everal leaves of phlomis, of Portugal laurel, and balfams; and thouch it would not resularly adhere, I found them all die in a day or two, which fhews another fimilitude between the lungs of animals and the leaves of vegetables. There is an ingenious experiment of M. Bonnet,(Ufage des feu- iles) which fhews that the upper furfaces of leaves exhale much lefs than their under fürfaces. He put the ftalks of many leaves frefh plucked from trees or herbaceous plants into glafs tubes filled with water; of thefe he covered with oil or varnifh the upper furface of many leaves, and the under furface of many others, and umiformly| obferved by the water finking in the tubes that the upper furfaces exhaled much lefs than half the quantity exhaled by the under fur- faces, which fhews them to be organs defigned for different pur- pofes. I. 1. There exifts a ftri@t analogy between the leaves of aquatic plants, which are conftantly immerfed beneath the water, and the gills > of Ê 2$ oi a RS 46 PULMONARY ARTERIES. IV. IL», of aquatic animals, which confifts in the largenefs of their furface, owing to their hair-like fubdivifions, and to their being terminated with innumerable points,‘The gills of ffh confift of many folds of blood-veffels lying over each other, each refembling a fringe, or the downy part on one fide of a feather attached to the middle rib of it, by-which means they expofe a greater furface of blood to the water than is expofed to the air by the internal membranes of the air-cells| of the lungs of other animals: and undoubtedly for this final caufe, becaufe water contains lefs oxygen in its urcombined ftate, which is the material neceflary to life, than air, though much more ofitinits combined ftate, as water confifts of eighty-five parts of oxygen to fif- teen parts of hydrogen; but it is the uncombined oxygen only dif- folved in heat, and diffufed in water, which can ferve the purpofe of animal or vegetable refpiration. The apparatus for this purpofe, according to Duverney’s Anatomy of a Carp, is truly curious. He found 4386 bones in the gills, which had fixty-nine mufcles to give them their due motions, See Bo- mare’s Diétionaire raifoneé, Art Poiflon. And Monro obferved by the È numerous divifions and folds of the membrane dfthe gills, that their| furface in a large fkate was nearly equal to the furface of the human body. Phyfel, of Fifh, p. 15. He addsthat in the whole gills there exit 144,000 fubdivifions or folds, and that the whole extent of this membrane may be feen by a microfcope to be covered with a net- work of exceedingly minute veflels. 2. In this refpeët the sills of fifh are refembled by the fubaquatic leaves of plants, which are flit into long wires terminated in points, as in trapa, œnanthe, hottonia, the water-violet, and the water-ranun- culus.: This laft plant, and fome others, have frequently fome leaves erect in the air, and others immerfed in water, arifing from. the fame ftem; and it is curious to obferve that the aerial leaves are nearly entire, or divided only into a few lobes: whilft the aquatic leaves are flit into innumerable branches like a fringe, and have thus 5 theig sde& dem: SEcT. IV. IIL 1. AND:VEINS. 4; their furfaces wonderfully enlarged for the purpofe of acquiring un- combined oxygen from the air, which is difufed in the water, and which abounds fo much lefs there than in the atmofphere; for the fame purpofe the plants on the fummits of high mountains, where the air is fo much rarer, and confequently abounds lefs with oxygen, have their leaves much more divided than in the plains, as pimpinella, _petrofelinum, and others, that they may expofe a more extenfive fur- face of veffels to the influence of the thinner atmofphere. 3. This great enlargement of the furface by fo minute a divifion does not however feem to be the only ufe of this uniform ftru@ure of gills and aquätic leaves; but there is another very important one, which hath hitherto I believe efcaped the notice of philofophers; and that is that points and edges contribute much to the feparation of the air, which is mechanically mixed or chemically diflolved in water, as appears on immerfing a dry hairy leaf into water frefh from a pump, on which innumerable globules of air, like quick-filver, appear on almoft every point. Nor is it improbable that points immerfed in wa- ter may in a bright day contribute to decompofe it, or certainly to fet at Hberty its fuperabundant oxygene, as occurs in the perfpiration of leaves when expofed to the funfhine, and to the green matter in the experiments of Dr. Prieftley, which is probably owing to the fine points of both of them; and laftly, when points of filk are immerfed in fpring water, which is frequently hyperoxygenated, as in the ex- periments of Count Rumford,-related in the Philof. Tranfa&. See sect; XIIT I: 5: HI. 1. The rof-/eaves of many perennial plants, which do not produce flowers in the firft year from the feed, are different from thofe of future years, as in the rheum palmatum, palmated rhubarb, the leaves are fmall and nearly circular, and not divided into fingers till the fecond year; and in tulip the leaf the firft year from the feed is imall like à blade of grafs, rifing from a diminutive bulb. In other pérenntal plants the root-leaf is undivided, but at the fame time larger than 43 PULMONABRY AR TERIES:. Secr,IVI AIT 2,53;,24; than thofe on the rifing ftem, as in geum, averns; in fenecio aureus, and the campanula rotundifolia, fo named from the round form of the root-leaf, which 1s alfo much broader than thofe on the ftem, as well as undivided. The root-leaves of many biennial, and of fome annual plants, are likewife larger, as well as of a different form from thofe on the rifing flower-ftem, as in turneps and carrots. And laftly, the root-leaves of fome plants, which rife immediately from feeds, con- fift of the cotyledons of the feed, and are thus different from the leaves above them. 2. In refpe& to the root-leaves of palmated rhubarb and of tulips, when thefe plants are raifed immediately from feed, as thefe firft plants are not defigned to generate flowers and confequent feeds, but to produce fimply another plant like a leaf-bud of a tree, lefs oxygenation feems to have been neceflary, and the leaves therefore require lefs furface, and are in confequence undivided. In refpett to the root-leaves of geum, and of campanula rotundifolia, which are larger than their flem-leaves, it is probable that they lay up a refervoir of nutritious matter for the rifing ftem, like thofe of tur- neps and carrots, and thus require greater oxygenation, and in con- fequence à greater furface. 3. Another difference of root-leaves from thofe of the ftem in annual plants often confifts in the latter being properly bractes or floral- leaves, which will be fpoken of below, while the root-leaf refembles thofe belonging to the leaf-buds of trees‘T'hus in the rifing ftem of wheat the root-leaf produces the frft joint above the foil, and the fecond and third leaf produce joint above joint, which are each a fe- parate bud rifing on that below it, as is feen by the divifion of the pith or hollow part of one joint from another, and at lenoth the up- permoft leaf is a braéte or floral-leaf belonging to the ear. 4. And laftiy, the feed-leaves which rife out of the ground with the firft joint of the flower-ftem, as in kidney-bean, phafeolus, as they confit of the placental artery, which was fpread on the cotyle- dons : À | 22 | Fr: / | SECT. IV, 4, 2. AND VEINS. 49 dons of the feed, and, now rifing out of the earth, when the nu- tritive part has been diflolved in the terrein moifture and abforbed, they ferve the office of an aerial pulmonary organ, or Jungs, which before ferved that of an aquatic one, or gills; but wither and fall off as the true leaves become expanded. IV. 1. The common foliage of deciduous plants conftitutes the _organ of refpiration already fpoken of, which belongs to the leaf-buds during the fummer months, and drops off in the autumn, when thofe buds perifh by the cold, or by the natural termination of their exif- tence. But there is another kind of foliage diffimilar to the former, confifting of bradtes or floral-leaves, which fupply an organ of ref- piration to the calyx and pericarp of the flower-bud. T'hefe frequently differ in fize, form, and colour from the other leaves of the plant, and are fituated on the flower-ftalk often fo near the fruétification as to be confounded with the calyx. In fome plants there are two fets of floral- leaves, or bractes, one at the foot of the umbel, and another beneath each diftinct foret of it; and in others they appear in a tuft above the flower, as well as on the ftalk beneath it, as in fritillaria impe- rialis, crown imperial; and in others they are fo{mal as to be termed ftipulæ or props. © Allthefe kinds of bractes, or floral-leaves, ferve the office of lungs for the purpofe of expofing the vegetable blood to the influence of the air, and of preparing it for the fecretion, or produétion and nou- rifhment of the vesctable uterus, or pericarp, and of the feeds pro- duced and retained in it, frequently before their impregnation, and al- ways after it. 2. It muft be obferved that in many plants thefe floral-leaves, or bractes, do not appear till after the corol and neétaries, with the anthers and ftigmas, drop off; that 1s, not till after the feed is impregnated, as in colchicum autumnale, crocus, hamamelis, and in fome fruit- trees. The produétion of the vegetable uterus, or pericarp, With the unimpregnated feeds included in it, 1 in thefe plants accomplifhed or H evolved, Rens F| la | 50 PULMONARY ARTERIES SECT. IV, 4% evolved, like the braétes themfelves with the corol and fexual organs, by the fap-juice, forced up in the umbilical veffels from fome previ- oufly prepared refervoir, without the necefñity of any expofition to the air in leaves or lungs, which are not yet formed, though it may acquire oxygenation in the fine arteries of the embryon buds, which are fuppofed to furround the horizontal air-veflels obferved in the bark of trees. As foon as the feeds become impregnated, the corol and neétaries with the fexual organs fall off, and the pericarp and its contained feeds are then nourifhed by the blood, which is aerated or oxygen ated in the bra@tes, or floral-leaves. Thus the flower ofthe colchi- cum appears in autumn without any green leaves, and the pericarp with its impregnated feeds rifes out of the ground in the en fpring on a fem furrounded with braëtes, and with other gree below them, which produce new bulbs in their bofoms. The blood, which thus fupplies nutriment to the pericarp and its mcluded feeds, does not feem to require fuing n leaves fo much oxygenation as that which füpplies nutriment to the embryon buds; whence the floral sare in general much lefs than the root-leaves in many plants, ï han the common green leaves of almoft all vesetables. And in the plant mentioned in No. I. 3. of this{etion, under the name of fenecio bicolor, the under furfaces of the ftem-leaves near the ex- Le| pected flower ceafed to be red like thofe of the radical leaves, which feemed to fhew that the vecetable blood was in them lefs oxygenated, Whence it may be believed that lefs irritability may be neceflary for the growth of the feed than of the embryon bud, as the former does not yet perhaps poflefs fo much vecetable Hife as the latter. And aftly, that as the anthers and ftigma require greater irritability, and fome fenfibility, it was neceffary a fecond time to oxygenate the blood which fupplies them with nutriment in the corols of the flowers. Se SEL Ve. y 3. Recapitulation of the arguments tending to fhew that the leaves | of Mines. 20 died dE 5 Ne Re RE Sr:: RE ES Es Re.___ Secr. IV. 5.1. AND VEINS.“1 L s{ of vesetables are their lungs. 1. They confift of an artery, which carries the fap to the extreme furface of the upper fide of the lea and there expofes it under athin moift pellicle to the aétion of the S and of veins, which there colleét and return it to the foot-ftalk of the leaf, like the pulmonary fyftem of animals. 2. In this organ the pellucid fap is changed to a coloured blood, like the chyle in pafhing through the lungs of animals. 3. The leaves of aquatic plants arc furnifhed with a larger furface, and with points like the oills of aquatic animals. 4. The upper fides of aerial leaves repel moïfture, like the larynx of animals. 5. Leaves are killed by fmearing them with oil, which in the fame manner deftroys infeéts by ftopping their pe or the air-holes to their lungs. 6. Leaves have mufcles appropriated to turn them to the lité which is neceflary to their refpiration, as will be fhewn in the SÉéton enLaicht:- 7% orthis may be added an experiment of Mr. Papin related by M. Duhamel. He put an intire plant into the exhaufted receiver of an air-pump, and it foon perifhed; but on keeping the whole plant in this vacuum except the leaves, which were expofed to the air, it continued to live a long time, which he adds is a proof that the leaves are the organs of ete Phyfic des arbres, V. I: p. 169. V. 1. The organs of refpiration already defcribed confift of the green 1 belonging to leaf-buds, and of the braëtes belonaing to flower-buds. But there is another pulmonary fyftem totally inde- pendent of the green foliage, which belongs to the fexual or amatorial parts of the fruétification only,[ mean the corol or petals. In this there is an artery belonging to each petal, which conveys the vegeta- ble blood to its extremities, expoñfing it to the light and air under a delicate moift membrane covering the internal furface of the petal, where it often changes its colour, as is beautifully feen in fome party- probable that fome of the irridefcent its C coloured poppies, tho uchit1 be owing to the different degrees of tenuity 1 a lire pa mav COIOUFS Oi HOWwEers H 2 of se PULMONARY ARTERIES SCT AV 652, of the exterior membrane of the petal refraéting the light like foap- bubbles. The vegetable blood is then colle&ed at the extremities of the corol-arteries, and returned by correfpondent veins exa@&ly as in the green foliage, for the fuftenance of the anthers and ftigmas, and fot the important fecretions of honey, wax, effential oil, and the prolific duft of the anthers, and thus conftitutes a pulmonarÿ organ, as is fhewn by the following analogies. 2. Firft, the vafcular ftru@ture of the corol, as above defcribed, and which is vifible to the naked eye; and its expofing the vecetable juices to the air and light during the day evinces that it is a pulmonary organ. Secondly, as the glands which produce the prolific duft of the an thers, the honey, wax, and frequently fome odiriferous eflential oil, are generally attached to the corol, and always fall off and perifh with it, it is evident that the blood is elaborated or oxygenated in this pulmonary fyftem for the purpofe of thefe important fecretions. Thirdly, many flowers, as the colchicum and hamamelis, arife naked in autumn, no green leaves appearing till the enfuing fpring; and many others put forth their flowers, and complete their impreg- nation early in the fpring, before the green foliage or braétes appear, as mezereon, and fome fruit-trees, which fhews that thefe corols are the lungs belonging to thefe parts of the fru@tification. Fourthly, this organ does not feem to have been neceffary for the defence of the flamens and piftils, fince the calyx of many flowers, as tragoposon, performs this office; and in many flowers thefe petals themfelves are{o tender as to require being fhut up in the calyx dur- ing the night. For what other ufe then can fuch an apparatus of veflels be defigned? Fifthly, in the helleborus niger, Chriftmas-rofe, after the feeds are grown to a certain fize, the nectaries, and ftamens, and ftigmas, drop off, PF TAË HE LE 1 FA 23 }: PA lu Ÿ FE LA a FE 185 AA, S Î \11 48 f î JR ? L tt { rs | ä LE t 44! 4 4 Al / k {€ br 4 St P 108: i { P# 1‘2 A AIRE L 4{ at 1R'ARS DE| Væt } f 4 ,°E FR Ïh à à 28 : xt| \ ANA.! à ELT r\ DER 0) Hi| lé 4 1 L 4 FE k| re 4 eAL| Hi| ' Al y nFé/ Ï té {#7. 4 F4 4 1] À { È[4 14 F3 f 3 = Tr -> 54 A CES Le Le mit RE>>. 2 2 » Can NE pme_« 2” \ Secr.IV. 5. 3: AND VEINS. 53 off, and the beautiful large white petals change their colour to a deep green, and gradually thus become a calyx, inclofing and defending the ripeumg feeds; hence it would feem that the white veflels of the corol ferved the office of expoñng the blood to the action ofthe air, for the purpofes of feparating or producing the honey, wax, and pro- lific duft; and when thefe were no longer wanted, that thefe veflels coalefced, like the umbilical veflels of animals after their birth, and thus ceafed to perform that office, and loft at the fame time their white colour. Why fhould they lofe their white colour unlefs they at the fame time loft fome other property befdes that of defending the feed-veflel, which they ftll continue to defend? Sixthly, neither the common green leaves nor the bractes are ne- ceffary to the progrefs of the corol, and ftamens, and ftigma, or to the fecretion of honey, after the laft year’s leaves are fallen off, as is evinced by the flowers of colchicum in the autumn, and of crocus in the fpring, in both which the feeds rife out of the earth with their common leaves and bractes fo long after the difappearance of the flower. In deciduous plants the common green leaves ferve as lungs in the fummer and autumn to each individual bud, which then pro- duces the new buds in its bofom, which are either leaf-buds or flower-buds. In the enfuing fpring the new common leaves are the refpiratory organ belonging to the leaf-buds, and the braétes are the refpiratory organ to the pericarp, and its included feeds before or after impregnation; and the corols, as foon as expanded, become the Junss to the amatorial parts of the fructificafion, and require neither the green leaves nor braëtes. 3. Hence the vine bears fruit at one joint without leaves, and leaves at the other joint without fruit. the flower of the col- chicum rifes out of the ground without bractes or other green leaves, and flourifhes till the feed is impregnated; and the bractes, which rife out of the ground on the fem in the following{pring, are lungs to give maturity to the pericarp and feed; and the other green leaves are I for 54 PULMONARY ARTERIES SECT, IV. 5: 45 for the purpofe of producing new bulbs round the old one, but can have nothing to do with the coro!, anthers, ftigmas, and nectaries, which have long fince fallen off, and perifhed, And laftly, wben cur- Tant or goofeberry trees lofe their common green leaves, and their bractes, by the depredation of infe&s; the new leaf-buds become fmall and weak, but the corol, anthers, fligmas, and nectaries, continue to flourifh, and the fruit becomes impregnated, though it is lefs fweet and of lefs fize from the pericarp and included feed wanting their due nutrition by the bractes before or after impregnation. 4. It hence appears that the flower-bud, after the corol, flamens, ftiomas, and nectaries fall off, becomes fimply a vegetable uterus, for the purpofe of fupplying the growing embryons with nourifh- ment, and poñlefles a fyitem of abforbent veflels, which brings the lap-juice to the foot-ftalk ofthe fruit, and which there changes into à pulmonary artery, which conftitutes the bractes or floral-leaves, and expofes the acquired juices to the oXygenation of the air, and con- verts them into vegetable blood. This blood is colleéted again by the veins of the brates, and conveyed by an adapted or aortal artery for the, various fecretions of faccharine, farinaceous, or acefcent ma- terials, for the nourifhment of its included embryons, or the con- ftruétion of the fruit and feed-lobes. At the fame time, as perhaps all the veflels of trees inofculate, the fruit may become fweeter and larger when the green leaves as well as the braétes continue on the tree; but the corols with the ftamens, fügmas, and ne&aries,(the fucceeding fruit not confidered) fuffer, I believe, no injury, when the green leaves and even the bractes are taken off, as by the depredations of infe@s. Some florifts have ob- ferved this circumftance, and affirm that in many plants when the leaves are pulled off, the flowers become ftronger from their then producing no bulbs, as in tulips and hyacinths. The inofculation of vegetable veflels is evinced by the increafed growth of one bud, when others in its vicinity are cut away, 5. The L Dre nee SECT. LV. 8 6. AND VETNS. 55 5. Fheéep of plants has been much fpoken of by Linneus and others, but there is a wonderful circumftance occurs in it, which has not been noticed; which is, that it feems to refemble the torpor of winter-fleeping infeéts and other animals, as many plants do not ap- pear to refpire during this part of their exiftence; for fome vegeta- bles clofe together the upper furfaces of their leaves, both during their fleep and in rainy weather, as mimofa, fenfitive-plant; pha- feolus, kidney-bean; and the terminal fhoots of alfine, chickweed,. Many other plants clofe their petals and calyxes during their fleep as well as in rain, as convolvulus; and fome even in the bright day- light, as tragapogon; and yet all'thefe plants are believed by gardeners to grow, when young, fafter in the night. We muft obferve, that this fleep of plants, though it may refemble the torpor of winter-fleeping animals, is not to be confounded with the flate of deciduous plants in the winter, as that confifts in the death of the laft year”s bud, and the embryon condition of the new buds. It would hence appear, that perpetual refpiration 1s lefs ne- ceflary to the vege table than to the animal world; and that as lefs is wafñled during the ina@tive ftate of fleep, it 1s pofhble that young plants may increafe in weight, or grow after, during this ftate of inactivity, as animals are obferved to refpire lefs frequently during their fleep, and vet are believed when young to grow fafter during their hours of reft than of exercife. So both in the experiments of Dr. Hales and Dr.Walker on plants during the bleeding feafon, the afcent of the fap-juice not only ftopped-during the night, but fome- times became retrograde, which might neverthelefs be afcribed to the torpor of the al forbent fyftem induced by cold, as well as to that of fleep. 6. We may draw this general refult, that the common leaves of trees are the lungs of the individual vescetable beings, which form [e during the fummer new buds in their bofoms, wWhetheï leaf-buds ot | Ï i nn = of flower-buds, and which in refpeët to the deciduous treës 0 N N È ; À- | Ci J { ( rene 2e -= Ro | +5"8 ë M er a 66 PULMONARY ARTERLES. IV. s:6. mate perifh in autumn; while the new buds remain to expand in the enfuing fpring.: Secondly, that the bractes, or floral-leaves, are the lungs of the pericarp or uterus, and to the growing feeds which it contains, as the brates on the ftem of the crown-imperial, fritil- laria imperialis, and the tuft above its flowers, And thirdly, that the corol or petals are the lungs belonging to the anthers and ftigmas, which are the fexual or amatorial parts of the plant, and to the nec- taries for the fecretion of honey, and to the other glands which affords eflential oil and wax. Lafly, the flamina and ftigma with the petals and ne&tary, which conftitute the vegetable males, and the amatorial part of the female, as they in fome plants appear before the green leaves or bractes, asin colchicum and mezereon, and in all plants fall off when the female uterus is impregnated, would appear to be diftinét beinos, totally different both from the leaf-buds, which produce a viviparous pro- geny 3 and alfo from the braétes with the calyx and pericarp, which conftitute the vegetable uterus. They muft at firft receive nutriment from the vernal fap-juice, like the expanding foliage of the leaf-buds, or the bractes of the flower- buds. But when the corol becomes expanded, and conftitutes a new pulmonary organ, the vegetable juices are expofed to the air in the extremities of its fine arteries beneath a moift pellicle for the purpofe of greater oxygenation, and for the important fecretion of honey; and then the anthers and ftigmas are fupplied with this more nutri- tious food, which they abforb from its receptacle, the nectary, after it has there been expofed to the air, and are thus furnifhed with greater irritability, and with the neceflary amatorial fenfibility, and live like bees and butterflies on that nutritious fluid. See Seét, VII, (524: SPC vas SEcr. V. 1. AORTAL ARTERIES AND VEINS. 4 RÉ CR AN THE AORTAL ARTERIES AND VEINS OF VEGETABLES, ÿ. Æortol arteries in vegetables bave correfpondent veins. by experiment ot: PICTIS, tragopozon, and euphorbia. Seen in the calyx of flowers, Circulation = fhewn by ingrafting friped-palfion-flower, and jafmine, end hordier fcions on can- kered Jiems, from fruit-grafts on bad fiocks degenerating. 2. Vegetable cireula- tion performed without a heart, as in the acrta and liver of. fifb. 3. Force of the moutbs of abferbents greater than that of the heart in producing circulation. Wby there is no pulfation in the vena portarum. Circulation 1n the veins of animals produced by abforption. Very final refifance 1n the capillaries and glands. Wounds in trees firongly abforb fluids except in the bleeding Jeajon. 4. Vegetable veflels too minute to carry red blood, bence not eafly injetted with coloured fluids. barcoal injeëted with quickfilver, or meïted wex. 5. Recapitulation.- tion performed by irritability of the veffels, and by the great power of abforption, and the aëtion of the fides of veffels corfifting of a Jpiral line. 6. Veffels unite at tbe lower and upper caudex gemme. and umbilical veffeis confit of a foiral line. Experiment by placing euphorbium firft in a decoëlion of galls, and then in a folution of green vitriol. Funétion of great vein, abjorbent trunk, and pulmonary artery in the upper candez gemmeæ. bud Jeen in contaëf vwitb the pit. with charcoal injeited with sobite paint, Just, wax, and guickfilver. 1. THE two principal arteries in animal bodies are the pulmonary artery and the aorta. The former receives the blood from the right cavity of the heart, and difperfing it round all the air-cells which terminate the bronchia, or air-pipes of the lungs, expofes it to the 1n- fluence of the atmofphere through the thin moift membrane, which lines them. This we have fhewn in Seét IV. I. 3. to be refembled in its office by the vegetable arteries, which carry their blood up the I foot JOULe JV re RC Ë À | : ET D ES Lie ee x RE ee st fr: 58 AORTAL ARTERIES SECT. V.r. foot-ftalks of the leaves, and expofe it on the upper furface of them to the influence of the air through a thin moift pellicle, where it changes its colour, and returns by correfpondent veins like the blood of animals. The aortal arteries of the more perfeét animals receive the blood from the left cavity of the heart, after it has been expofed to the influence of the air in the lungs, and difperfe it by numerous rami- fications over the whole body for the purpofes of fecretion and nu- trition. In lefs perfeét animals the aorta itfelf has a pulfation, and carries forward the blood without the affiftance of a heart, as may be feen in the back of a full-grown filk-worm by the naked eye, and very diftin@ly by the ufe of a common lens. After the blood has pafled the various glands and capillaries, it is received by another fyf- tem of veflels, the veins, which conftitute a kind of refervoir for the quantity of blood, that remains unexpended by the fecretions, ex- cretions, nutrition, and growth of the animal; by thefe it is again carried to the right cavity of the heart, and again expofed in the lungs to the influence of the air. In à fimilar manner the branching veins, which bring the blood from the leaves of plants, after it has been expofed to the influence of the air, unite at the foot-ftalk of each leaf into more or fewer trunks, as may be feen in tearing off the foot-ftalk of à leaf of à chefnut-tree from the ftem; and there without the interpofition of a heart, like the circulation in the aorta of fifh, and that in the livers of red-blooded animals, thefe venous trunks take the office of arte- rics, and difperfe the blood downwards along the bark to the roots, and to every other part of the vegetable fvftem, performing the va- rious purpoles of fecretion, excretion, and nutrition, as was fhewu in the experiment of placing a fig-leaf in a decottion of madder, defcribed in Seét. IV. 1. 3. of this work. But as vecctables drink up their adapted nourifhment perpetually from the moift earth, and in confequence muft be fuppofed to take up Secr. V, 1. ND: VEPNS. 59 J up no more than their perpetual wafte may require, Î formerly be- lieved, that this refervoir, or venous fyftem, was not neceflary in vege- tables; and that therefore probably it did not exift. I was induced to adopt this idea from having obferved in cutting afunder a ftem of large fpurge, euphorbia heliofcopia; in which the rifing fap could not be miftaken for the milky blood; that much more of the vegetable blood flowed from the upper part of the plant than from the lower part of it; and I therefore fufpeéted, that there was no returning veins cor- refnondent to the defcending aortal arteries. But firft this muft ne- ceffarily occur from the veins returning from the root effufing their blood flower than the arteries of the upper part of the plant. And fecondly, if there were no returning veins from the lower part of the plant, there ought to have been no effufion of blood from it. 1È have fince obferved on cutting afunder a large plant of picris, and alfo a large plant of tragopogon fcorzonera, and inftantly infpeéting them with a common lens; that two concentric circles of veflels were vifible, which oozed a milky juice; the internal circle of the upper divifion of the two plants, and the external one of the lower divi- fon, appeared to bleed more copioufly, and in quicker ftreams, than the external circle of the upper divifion, and the internal one of the lower divifion; whence I concluded, that the veffels of the internal circles were arteries, and thofe of the external ones veins; and that the arteries of the upper part of the plant, which arife from the up- per part of the caudex of each individual bud, were thus feen to pour out more blood, and in a quicker ftream, than the veins of the lower part of the plant, as they return from the roots, Add to this, that as the pulmonary arteries in the green leaves of plants, and in their petals, have correfpondent veins vifble tothe eye; and that thefe are alfo feen in the calyxes of fome flowers, which from their other evident ufes can not be efteerned pulmonary organs: There is the ftriéteft analogy to believe, that the aortal arteries of the bark of the trunk and roots have alfo their correfpondent veins. 1 z Neverthelefs 60 AORTAL ARTERIES SACTS Vaste Neverthelefs to evince that the vefñels returning from the roots of plants, which oozed out a milky juice, were in reality not ab- forbent veflels, I cut off the ftem of a large fpurge plant, euphor- bia heliofcopia, about a foot and half from the ground, and bent it down into a cup of a deco@ion of madder, rubia tinétoria, in which it Was confined two or three minutes; and wiping the end clean, I pre- fently cut off about an eighth of an inch of it with a fharp penknife, and obferved with a common lens the larse abforbent veffels to be coloured with the madder, while the veins continued to efufe a little white blood; and thus demonftrated both the exiftence of abforbent veflels and returning veins. See Se&. IL. 2. At the fame time the upper part of the plant had alfo its fem fet in the decoétion of madder, and after two or three minutes on cuttins off about the eighth of an inch of it, or fimply by wWipins the extre- mity, the large abforbent veflels were feen by the naked eye to be coloured with the madder, and the arteries continued to effufe a large quantity of milky blood. The fame experiments were tried on a plant of tragopogon with the fame event. It fhould be here obferved, that the decoftion of madder fhould be frefh made, as otherwife the colouring matter is liable to form it- fclf into molecules, too large to be imbibed by any other veflels but the trunks of the abforbents, which may be faid to refemble the re- ceptaculam chyl of animals, as they pafs from the lower extremit y of the caudex of each bud to the upper one. À proof of the circulation of the juices of plants has been deduced fre the communication of white fpots from a grafted fcion to the whole of the tree in which it was inorafted. Mr. Fairchild budded a pafñion-tree, whofe leaves were fpotted with yellow, into one which bears long fruit. The buds did not take, neverthelef in a fortnight yellow fpots becan to fhew themfelves about three feet abovethe in- oculation; and in à fhort time afterwards yellow fpots appeared on a fhoot, SEcT. V. 2. AN Di MEINS+ a fhoot, which came out of the ground from another part of the plant. Bradley on Gardening, Vol, If. p. 129. And Mr. Lawrence obferves, that the yellow ftriped jaffamine has afforded a demonftration of the circulation of the juicesina tree; he inoculated in Auguft the buds of ftriped jaffamine-trees into the branches of plain ones; and aflerts, that he has feveral times expe- rienced, that if the bud lives but two or three months, it will com- municate its virtue or difeafe to the whole circumfluent fap, and the tree will become entirely ftriped. Art of Gardening, p.66. Thefe are both of them important faéts, as they are related from refpeétable authorities. And Ithink I have myfelf obferved in two pear-trees about twenty years old, whofe branches were much injured by canker, that on in- grafting hardier pear-fcions on their fummits, they became healthier trees, which can only be explained from a better fanguification pro- duced in the leaves of the new buds. It has alfo been obferved by an ingenious lady, that though fruit- trees ingrafted on various kinds of ftocks are fuppofed to bear fimilar fruit, yet that this is not accurately{o: as on fome ftocks fhe has known the ingrafted fcions of apple-trees to fuffer confiderable change for the worfe compared with the fruit of the parent-tree; whereas thofe fcions, which can be made to grow by ftriking roots into the earth, fhe be- lieves to fuffer no deterioration. If this really occurs, it fhould be in a very flight degree, as the fruit is formed by the aëtion of fecre- tion, and depends on the glands of the part more than on auy flight change of the vegetable blood, from which the fecretion is feleéted or produced.:F the fat be afcertained, it confirms the truth of the exiftence of a vegetable circulation. 2. The circulation of the vegetable juices in the leaves of plants, and in their trunks and roots, is performed without à heart, and 1s very fimilar to that in the aorta Efifh. Inffh the blood, after hav- ing pafled through their gills, does not return to the heart, as from the 6z AORTAL ARTERIES SECT, V, 2. the lungs of air-breathine animals: but the pulmonary vein, taking the ftruéture of an artery, after h aving received the blood from the gills, which there gains a more florid colour, diftributes it to the other parts of their bodies. A fimilar firu@ure obtains in the livers of fifh, as well as in thofe of air-breathine animals; the blood is collected from the mefentery and inteftines by the branches of their proper Veins, which unite on their entrance into the liver, branch out again, and aflume the office of an artery, Portarum, diftributing the blood through t purpofe of the fecrétion of bile; tWo circulations independent of the which begins in the mefentery and i liver; and fecondly, of the gills, and pañü under the name of vena bat large vifcus for the whence we fee in thefe animals power of the heart. Firft, that nteftines, and pañles through the that beginning at the termination of the veins ng through the other parts of the body; both which circulations are carried on by the aëtion of thofe refpective ar- teries and veins. Monro’s Phyfiology of Fifh, P+ 19. The courfe of the fluids inthe leaves, and in the trunks and roots of vegetables, is performed in a fimilar manner., the abforbent veflels of the roots, ofthe internal cells, and of the external bark, with the venous blood reéturning from thofe parts, unite at the foot-ftalk of the leaf; and'then, like the vena portarum, an artery commences without the intervention of a heart, and receiving the fap and venous blood fpreads it in numerous ramifications on the upper furface of the leaf; here it changes its colour, and becomes vegetable blood; and is agam colleéted by à pulmonary vein, and returns on the under fur- face of the leaf. This vein, like that which receives the blood from the gills of fifh, affumes the office of an artery, which correfponds with the aorta of animals, and branching again difperfes the blood upward to the plumula or fammit of the bud, from its caudex at the foot-ftalk of the leaf, and downward along the bark of the trunk to the roots; whereit is received by a vein correfponding to the vena cava of animals, after having expended what was required for the fecre- tions, Gr SECT. V3. AN Ds V'EINS 63 tions, excretions, and nutritition, and returns to the caudex of the bud, and to the foot-ftalk of the leaf. 3. The power, which produces a circulation without a heart in vegetables, aéts with an aftonifhing force. In fome of the experi- ments of Dr.Hales, who fixed glafs tubes to vine-ftumps in the fpring, the fap-juice rofe above thirty feet; and in fome trees muft proba- bly arife ftill higher in the vernal months before the leaves are ex- pended; and this either folelÿ by the a@ivity of the abforbent mouths of thefe veflels, or aflifted by the vermicular ation of their fides, which appear to confift of a fpiral line, as defcribed in Scét. IL. 7. of this work. When the fap-juice rifes thirty-five feet high, which is about the weight of the atmofphere, the column preffes about fourteen pounds on every fquare inch. Now ifthe area of the mouth of an abforbent veflel be only one ten thoufandth part of the area of a fquare inch, the ten thoufandth part of fourteen pounds is the whole that counteraëts the efforts of each abforbent mouth; and as the veffels of vegetables appear to have both very minute diameters, and very rigid fides, they are thence prevented from aneurifm or rupture by the preflure of fo high a column of fap-juice. The fame philofopher, by fixing glafs tubes to the arteries of horfes, as near the heart as was pra@ticable, found the blood in them to rife only nine or ten feet; whence it appears, that a circulation of blood may be carried on more forcibly by the aétion of the mouths of ab- forbent veflels, than by the apparently more violent exertions of the heart, the power of which was calculated by Borelli and others to be {o enormoufly great, as to equal the preflure of fome thoufand pounds, as the counter preflure of the moving blood aéts on fo large a furface as that of the whole internal fides of the heart. But as a column of blood nine feet high preffes with lefs than one third of the weight of the atmofphere, or about four pounds on every fquare inch of furface; and as the internal furface of the left cavity of en re 64 AORTAL ARTERIES. V. 3. of the heart of a horfe may not exceed thirty fquare inches, its whole power does not overcome the refiftance of more than 120 pounds. Hence it becomes intelligible, how the circulation of the blood in the vena portarum of the liver 1s performed without any apparent pulfation, or contraction of its fides like an artery, which fome have indeed fuppofed it to poflefs, but fimply by the force of abforption exerted by the mouths of the veins, which fupply it with blood. Secondly, how the circulation of the blood in the bodies of fifh, ex- cept in their gills, is carried on through their fyftem without the ac- tion of the heart. And thirdly, how the blood in the vena cava of the human body, as well as the fluids imbibed by the laéteals arid lymphatics, are carried forwards to the heart by the power alone of their abforbent mouths, which drink up their blood from the capil- laries, or their other fluids from the furfaces or cavities of the-body. And laftly, how the whole circulation in vegetables is performed in very minute veflels without valves, and without a heart, folely by the power of abforption, circumftances which have long perplexed the phyfiology both of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Another circumftance attending the circulation of the juices in ve- getables, as well as the circulation of the blood in animal bodies, has not been fufficiently attended to; and that is, that the refiftance to the paflage of thefe fluids from the terminations of the arteries, in what are termed capillaries, to the beginnings of the veins, and through the glands of various kinds, is much lefs than is generally imagined, as we fee with what great force the mouths of both the vegetable and animal abforbents imbibe their fluids; and that the beginnings of the veins, and the mouths of the laéteals and lymphatics, and proba- bly thofe belonging to every kind of gland, poflefs this great power of abforption. And that on this account, when wounds are made in trees in the fummer months, when the umbilical fap-veffels of the root have ceafed to a@, fuch wounds powerfully abforb any fluid, whether falutary or poifonous, which is applied to them, which does 5 not Cr SEGT. Vas 4, 5° AND VEINS. 6; not occur during the bleeding feafon, as the fap-juice from the dif- fevered veflels of the alburnum fupplies a greater quantity of fluid than the other parts of the wound can imbibe. 4. The red particles of blood have been faid by Lewenhook and others, who have infpeéted them in microfcopes, to be of the fame fize in all creatures. Hence nature has formed no very fmall animals with a general circulation of warm red blood; the moufe and hum- ming-bird are perhaps the leaft. When it was neceflary to form the veflels much more minute, a diluter kind of yellow or milky blood, or one nearly tranfparent, conftitutes the greateft part of the vital fluid, as in infeéts of various kinds, and in the white mufcles of fifh; whence arofe a difficulty to the anatomift of vifibly injeéting thefe {maller feries of veffels, as they are too minute to convey almoft any coloured particles. In the vegetable world the finer fyftems of their veflels have ftill greater tenuity, and hence evade our eyes and microfcopes; and as their coats poffefs at the fame time a greater rigidity, they are in ge- neral on that account alfo incapable of receiving coloured injeétions, which has rendered the anatomy of plants fo much more difficult to inveftigate than that of animals, and muft apologife for the imperfec- tions of this part of the work, but affords no argument againft the exiftence of a vegetable circulation. Itis probable that by immerfing charcoal, nicelÿ made by flow calci- nation, in quickflver, or even in melted coloured wax, as it fo greedily 2bforbs almoft all fluids, when recently taken from the fire, or cooled without the contact of air, we might produce beautiful vegetable pre- parations, and give more accurate light into the anatomy of plants, But the column of quickfilver employed to pufh forwards the injection fhould not be too high, left it fhould rupture the veflels it ought only to fill, as I fuppofe has fometimes happencd in thus injecting the glands or capillaries of animal bodies. 5. Recapitulation. We may finally conclude, that the circulation K of Em D 66 KORTAL ARTERIES SECT: Vs! of vegetables is performed like that of animals by the irritability of their veffels to the flimulus of the fluids, which they abforband pro| 1e trude; that is, that the extremities of the branching veins of:the| | leaves forcibly abforb the vegetable blood from the extremities of their| ‘D arteries, which correfpond with the pulmonary arteries of animals;|€ 115 and that it is thus pufhed on to-the foot-ftalk_ of the leaf, where| 41 the veins unite, and: branching out again take the office of an artery,| p | hke the aorta in fifh, without. perceptible pulfation. The biood in| t bi. this artery 1s pufhed forwards by that behind it, the motion of which ù was given by the power of abforption in the pulmonary vein, till it ar- Pie D rives at the extremities of thefe aortal branches, and is there again | forcibly abforbed by the terminations of the correfpondent veins, and| DA| again pufhed forwards to the caudex gemmæ, and to the foet-ftalk| À of the leaf, like the blood in the vena cava of animals.| nl À part of this blood is at the fame time forcibly fele@ted and ab| forbed by the various glands for the purpofes of the neceflary fecre-| | tions, excretions, or nutrition;. and'the fap-juice or chyle and the.| qu|: water, which is acquired by the abforbent veffels, that correfpond to the laëteal and lymphatic veflels’of animals, is carried, as well.as the remainder of the blood, to the foot-ftalk of the leaf. Here thefe ab- } forbent veffels are believed to:pufh their contents-into the veins cor- dE—— ts refpondent to the vena cava of animals, and which now uniting with. out the intervention of a heart, affume the name and office of the pul- monary arteries; and branching out upon the leaf expofe the return ing blood and new fap-juice to the influence ofthe air. And finallv, all this 1s accomplifhed by the power of abforption, as in the aortal ar- teries, and vena portarum,. of fifh, which is excited into aétion by the| irritability of the mouths of thefe veflels to the ftimulus of the fluids,. which they ab{orb. 2d. À circulation of vegetable juices,. in every refpeët fimilar to that in the common leaves above defcribed, exifts in the braëtes or flora!> leaves, except that the leaves of the leaf-bud prepare their juices for the Re 7e mn LS F ais* we r+ à Du ee, L ie ares 4“ Re- VRAI Fs | pes: a F4 ne Secr. V. 6. AND VEINS.| 6> the produétion and nourifhment of other buds in their bofoms; but thefe braîtes, which are the lungs of the fruëtification, prepare their juices for the nourifhment of the pericarp and its included feeds, but not for that of the corol with its anthers and ftigmas, as thefe in many flowers exift before the produétion of the floral-leaves, as in colchicum and hamamelis. 3d. Another circulation of vegetable juices exifts in the fexual parts of flowers, including the neétaries and corols. In the corols the vegetable blood 1s expofed to the influence of the air, and pre- pared for the fecretion of honey, which is the food or fupport of the anthers and ftigmas, as treated of in the fétion IV. V. r. and in Sec- tion VII. 4, In thefe the progreflion and circulation of the fluids muft be caufed by the power of abforption, which we have fhewn to be a greater force than that of the heart of animals. 4th. The progrefs of the fluids imbibed by vegetable laéteals from the earth, and by their lymphatics from the air, and from the{ur- faces of their internal cells, is evidently began and carried on by the power of abforption of their terminating mouths, and the annular contraction of their fpiral fibres. sth. And laftly, the wonderful force with which the fap-juice is drank up and protruded in the umbilical veflels, which expands and novrifhes the buds of trees, and which forms the wires of ftrawberries above ground, and thofe of potatoes under ground, with the great variety of bulbs and root-fcions, is to be afcribed to this fingle princi- ple of abforption. Except that fome of thefe long cylindric vefiels are evidently compofed of a fpiral line, as mentioned in Set, IT. 7. and which may by the annular contra@ion of this fpiral line carry the Auids they have abforbed with great force either in a forward or re- trograde direction. 6. Finally I conclude, that the branching abforbents of the roots unite at the lower caudex of each bud, before it rifes out of the earth, K 2 and En AS D ne te 2 68 AORFALIRTERTES: SEcT. VE and forms a large trunk, which pañles up the alburnum of the tree to the upper caudex of the bud at the foot-ftalk of the leaf, and may be compared to the receptaculum chyli of animals extended to f, great a lenoth; and that it there jôins the oreat returning vein, which alfo is compofed of the branching veins of the roots uniting at the lower caudex of the bud, and afcending terminates at the upper caudex of it, where it becomes again branched, and forms the pul- monary artery. The aorta or great artery defcends, I fuppofe, along with the great vein, Or vVena cava abovg mentioned; and branching in the roots be. low, and on all other parts of the individual leaf-bud, performs the offices of fecretion and nutrition. The pulmonary arteries and veine belong to the leaf; the former expofes the blood to the atmofphere beneath a thin moift pellicle, whence it becomes oxygenated, and pro- bably acquires fome warmth, and phofphoric acid, and the fpirit of vegetable Life. The latter colleéts the aerated blood by its branches, and conveys it to the upper caudex of the bud, at the foot-ftalk of the leaf, where it becomes the aorta or great artery above mentioned. The fides of the long abforbent trunks, or receptacles of chyle, which rife from thé lower caudex and terminate in the upper caudex of each bud, as well as the long trunks of the umbilical veflels de- fcribed in Set. ITF. evidently confift of a fpiral line, as well as thofe trunks of abforbents, which imbibe aqueous fluids from the air, and a part of their perfpirable matter on the furfaces of the leaves. But whether the pulmonary and aortal arteries or great veins confift of a fimilar ftruëture is not yet afcertained. I fhall here relate the following experiments, which were made 2 few days ago, to confirm or confute the ideas above delivered. Some ftems of large fpurge, euphorbia, were fet upright in a de- coétion of oak-oalls, and others in a folution of green vitriol. Onthe next day thefe were reciprocally removed from the one to the other, as by this management I fuppofed that the black molecules would })e hs Secr. V. 6. AND VEINS. 69 be produced in the veflels of the plants, and would thence appear higher in thofe veffels than if the black molecules had been formed by a mixture of the two fluids previous to their abforption. On cutting thefe horizontally flice after flice with a fharp knife, and infpeéting them with a common lens, the milky blood was feen to ooze, as before defcribed, from an external ring of the bark; and an interior ring of coloured points was agreeably vifible many inches up the ftem; but on flicing the ftem from below up to the infertion of the leaves and buds in their bofoms, 1 perfuaded myfelf that I could perceive the coloured abforbents of the ftem enlarged at the part where each with the attendant vein changes into a pulmonary artery, and pañles into the leaf, forming three or more of the ribs of it, and thus conftituting the upper part of the caudex gemmæ, Another circumftance was beautifully vifble, which was, that the coloured cylinder of abforbent vefels had evidently feparated to allow the new bud to apply its interior termination to the pith; which pro- bably, when it was{ecreted by the glands of the caudex of the parent bud, found in‘his fituation a proper nidus, and due nutriment for 1ts embryon ftate, as in the uterus of the female. Some other kinds of experiments I direéted with defign to fhew the part of the lower caudex of each bud, where the branching ab- forbents and veins of the root unite each into one trunk, before they afcend along the bole of the tree; and alfo to fhew, as in the above experiment, the upper caudex of each bud, where the veins are joined by the abforbents, and become the pulmonary arteries of each jeaf, but did not fucceed quite to my wifh, though what 1 could ob- ferve feemed to confirm the above theory. Î had not leifure to re- peat the experiments with fufficient attention, but fhall here in few words defcribe the manner of making them, hoping fome one may be induced to profecute them with fuccefs, and to injc& vegetable veflels, as the anatomifts do thofe of animals. A part of a leaf-ftalk, and the joint to which it adhered, with 9 about F0 AORTAL ARTERIES,&c. SECT. Ve 6 about half an inch of the ftem above and below the joint, were cut. Of from fome laft years twigs, and alfo the caudex of fome herbas ceous plants.‘Thefe were covered with fand in a crucible placed on the‘fire,‘till they were red hot, fo that the vegetable joints were become charcoal.‘They were then taken out of the fand, and fome immerfed in melted fuet, others in melted bees-wax, othérs in white paint, and one ortwo in an amalgama of quickfilver and zinc, which happened:to be prepared for the purpofes of éle&ricity. When they were cold, on flicing them, fome horizontally, and others ver- tically, 1 perfuaded myfelf that the blood-veffels above mentioned, as well as the pulmonary vein and aortal artery, were vifble in the two extremities of the long caudex of the bud, as well as the long trunks of the arteries, veins, and abforbents, which conftitute the middle part of it. Get. Ml bou a} SECT. VI GLANDS AND SECRETIONS. 71 SE CT. NE THE GLANDS AND SECRETIONS OF VEGETABLES. E. 1. Glands of vegetables. Their veffels are t00 minute for coloured injeEfions. 2. They poffefs appetency. Are fimulated by the paffing blood. I. 1. Mucilage#7 al vegetables. 2. Is a part of their nutrimeni, and convertable into Jugar. JUL. 1. Starch vof foluble in cold water. bread. 2. Starch produced from mucilage, wbence old grain better than new. Alum coagulates mucilage. Ufe of it in bread. How diffinguifhed ir bread by the eye. Is Jelutary in London bread. Is ufeéd in making bair-powder. 3. Froft converts mucilage into fiarcb; Just pancakes. 4. Starch from poifonaus plants is wbolefome, and may be ob- obtained by elutriation in times of Jearcity. AV. 1. Oùils say be feparated from bitter or narcotic materials, as the latter adhere to the mucilage. V. 1. Sugar formed by animal digeflion. 2. By vegetable digeflion. Sugar is nutritive, but may injure the teeth. 3. In many rooës if 1 found ready prepared. May be je- parated from mucilage by vinous Jpirit. 4. Exifis in fruit formed from aujiere acids by a vegetable procefs. 5. By heat; by brujfing auflere fruit; by drying malt. Sugar converted into fierch as well as ffarcb into fagar. Uje of Jugar to ve- getables and animals. VE. 1. Honey guarded from infe&s, and from rain. 2. Is of great importance. Is expofed ta the air. Is reabforbed, and is nutrr- tious. 3. Depredation of infeëts on boney is injurious to vegetation. So is the boney-dew on trees. Bees alfo colleit farina from flowers. 4. Wby the honey is expofed to tbe air. food of the antbers and fiigmas. from Jugar by greater 0Xygenation. Benevolent economy of nature. 1. Wax preferves the antber-dufi from rain. How. wet feafons injure wbeat. 2. Wax colletted from ciflus labdiniferus. Bees much injure flowers. 3. Wax from candleberry- myrile, and from croton Jebiferum. or nourifhes the inmature feeds. 4. Wax depofited on plants by infeëts in China. Gives confiffence tooil, VILL. 1. Tur- pentines and effential oils are inadmiffible with water. Moiff parts of‘vege- tables are fooneft deffroyed by froft. Evergreen trees contain mot refin. De- fends the buds of deciduous plants. 2. Origin of petroleum, jét; amber, foffil, caal. Frans es>>= 4 Di ES 7. Les GLANDS AND SECT. VIT: 4,2: coal. 3 Efféntial oils agreeable.. Preferve wood from infëts. Ujed in Africa to poifon weapons and pools of water. 4. Some effential oils burf? into Jlame with nitric acid, a Vapour round diffemnus fraxinella. 5. Elaftic refin.-lime. part of wbeat-flower. IX. 1. Bitter, narcotic, acrid juices, for the defence of Dlants. … Opium exits in the poppy-bead, but not in the Jeed. So of hyofcyamus. matter in walnut-bufks not in the feed. Où of bitter almonds tafielefs. 2. Acrid, afiringent, emetic, cathartic, and colouring matters. Many poifonous plants in all our bedge-bottoms. 3. A thefe are firongef in the bybernaculum or winter-lodge of plants. When oaks fhould be decorticated. X. 1: Acids i» fruit and leaves of various kinds. Con- vertible into fugar. For the nutriment of Jeeds and buds. For tbe defence of tbe plants. L 1. Tue ftruéture of the glands of animals has not been yet fully afcertained. They confift of veflels fo minute as to exclude all co- loured injeétions, except quickfilver; and the terminations of thefe veflels are fo tender, that the neceflary weight of the quickfilver is liable to break them, and thus mifinform the obferver, as mentioned in Seét, V. 4. Little more is therefore known of them than their cffe®, which is, that they fecrete, that is feparate or produce, fome Auid from the blood; as bile, falvia, urine, milk. The vefels of vegetables being ftill more minute, and more rigid, the ftructure of their glands is ftill further removed from our difco- Very. Their effets are however as evident as thofe of the glands of animals in the fecretion or production of various fluids, which be. come folid, astheir aqueous parts are abforbed or exhaled, as mucilage, ftarch, oil, fugar, honey, wax, turpentines, effential oiïls, aromatics, bitters, narcotics, acrids, acids, and a variety of other materials, which fill our barns and granaries, and crowd the fhops of the drug- gift. 2. There can be no doubt from what has been already faid of the circulation of vegetable juices, but that their various fecretions muft be effe@ted in a fimilar manner to that in animal bodies, which is believed SECT. VI. 2.1. 31e SECRETIONS. 73 believed to be performed by the mouth of each gland being irritated into action by the fimulus of the blood, which is brought toit, and that by a kind of appetite it drinks up a part of the blood, and con- verts it to the fluid, which it fecretes, which then becomes more of Jefs folid, as its aqueous parts are abforbed or exhaled... 11. 1. Mucilage is found in all parts of plants, as being an effential conftituent of vegetable as of animal bodies; fo when an extraët 15 made by boiling plants in Water, the mucilage makes the greateft part of this extra. The mucilage called gum arabic is obtained from mimofa nilotica, sum tragacanth exfudes from aftragalus tragacantha, as a fimilar gum exfudes from our cherry and plumb-trees; fagoe 1s the pith of the lycas circinalis; and falep is the root of the orchis dried in an oven. This mucilage feems to ferve as nourifhment to the plant: firff, becaufe it is found in all vesctable as well as animal materials, as they decompofe in dunghills; fecondly, becaufe it forwards the growth of vegetables, when fpread upon land; thirdly, becaufe thofe trees, which bleed much gum, are weakened and frequently die; and laftly, becaute it is evidently laid up in the roots and feeds of various vece- tables for the nourifhment of the young plants. But in thele it feems to undergo a change either in part chemical, or wholly by the digeftive organs of the embryon plant, and is converted into fugar, as in the tranfmutation of barley into malt; and as appears from the fweet tafte of onions and potatoes, when boiled after they have ger- minated; and as fugar abounds in the vernal fap-juice of trees in fach quantity as to be capable of fermentation. III. 1. Starch is another kind of mucilage, which differs from thofe above mentioned in its property of not diflolving in cold water, and can hence be eafily feparated from them. If eight pounds of good raw potatoes be crated by means of a bread-grater into cold water; and, after well agitating the mixture, the ftarch be fuffered to fubfde: and this ftarch be then mixed with eight other pounds of 15 borled : né fs ra pa SR 5 æ É DS en er ce Ton RS GR PET. RM Qu nn a ET mn re 74 GLANDS AND SECT. VI. 3. 2 3: boiled potatoes, as good bread may be made as from the beft wheat four; as is affirmed by Monf. Parmentier. From this it appears, that the quantity of ftarch in potatoes and in wheat produces the prin- cipal différence of their refpe&tive flours. See Zoonomia, P. III. Ar- ticle 127. 2.4| 2. There is reafon to believe that the mucilage during the growth of the plant is converted into ftarch; and that this procefs continues in grain fome time after it is carried into the barn or granary, which occafons old wheat to produce better flour for the baker; and old oats and old beans are univerfally believed to give more nourifhment to horfes. I fhall here add a conjeure, that] fuppofe the ufe of alum an making bread confifts in its coagulating the mucilage, and perhaps thus contributing to convert it into ftarch; for the bakers mix it principally with new wheat; and affirm, that it makes the flour of new Wwheat equal to old. Where much alum is mixed with bread, it may be diftincuifhed by the eye by a curious circumftance, which is, that where two loaves bave ftuck together in the oven, they break from each other with à much fmoother furface, where thev had adhered, than thofe loaves do which do not contain alum.- Add to this, that alum is alfo ufed by the London bakers for the purpofe of clearins the river water, with which they are fupplied, which is frequently muddy; and alfo for inftantaneoufly deftroying the volatile alkali, which is faid to exift in fome London wells owing to the vicinity of dungbhills. Thefe purpotes it probably fulfls by coagulating the mucilage, which may occafionaily be mixed with the water and fupport the mud init; or by uniting with the calca- reous earth, or with the volatile alkali which it May contain, and de- pofiting the new-formed gypfum, or its own argiliaceous bafe, the defcent of which may carry down other impurities along with it, in the fame manner as fome muddy wines have been rendered fine, not by filtering them throuch fand, as then the mud retained on the furface SECTANI.. 9. 3;4. SECRE TIONS. x F ? furface of the fand foon prevents the defcent of the wine through it, but by pafing clean fand in fhowers by means of a riddle through the wine. Alum is faid to be ufed by the Chinefe for the purpofe of cleaning the water of fome ftagnant refervoirs; and when ufed in fmall quantity may in all thefe refpeéts be rather falutary than in- jurious to the bread of London. Alum is faid alfo to be ufed in the manufa@tory of hair-powder, which fhould confift of ftarch without mucilage, that the hair may not be glued together by the perfpirable matter of the head, or by an accidental fhower. Whether it has the property of convertins mu- cilage into ftarch might be eafly afcertained by experiment, by wafhing in cold water alone one parcel of wheat flour, and wafhing a fimilar parcel in a folution of alum in.water. 3. Anotherconjeéture I fhail introduce here is, that it is probable that the action of froft alfo may tend to coagulate mucilage, or convert it into ftarch; for in the colder parts of Britain it is faid, that the corn never ripens till they have frofty nights; and I well remember many years ago having obferved, that fome book-binder’s pafte made by boiling wheat-flour and water, after it had been frozen, ceaféd to co- here on being preffed together, like the crumbs of fome bread; and I have been told by fome houfewives that their pancakes become much lighter if fnow be mixed with the flour inftead of water. See SECL AN, 9. 2 4. Now as ftarch is not foluble in cold water, the bitter and acrid particles of plants may be wafhed from it along with the mucilace; whence in times of fcarcity this nourifhing part of vegetables may be obtained by elutriation from poifonous plants; on this circum- ftance principally depends the wholefomenefs of the bread made from the caflava, the acrid and poifonous particles being previouflv wafhed away along with the mucilase. Monf. Parmentier found the farch from the root of the white bryony to contain no acrimony, and to be a wholefome article of food. 2 IV. 1. Many 76 GLANDS AND SECT, VRAI 1,2 JV. 1. Many feeds contain much oil mixed with their mucilage, or ftarch; as nuts, almonds, flax-feed, rape-feed. Some of thefe contain alfo a bitter or narcotic material, as bitter almonds, apricot kernels, acorns, horfe-chefnuts; which, as it adheres to the muci- Jage, may be feparated from the oil; as in exprefhng the oil from bitter almonds, which is as good as from fweet ones. And it 1S pro- bable by grating to powder, and wafhing in cold water, the kernels of acorns, and horfe-chefnuts; or fimply by preflure, that a whole- fome ftarch, or oil, might be procured. It is probable alfo that the roots of fern treated in this manner would afford good nourifhment, as thefe are faid to be eaten by the inhabitants of NÉE Zealand, and have been ufed in this country in times of great fcarcity. And that the roots of nymphæa, water-lily, might be thus made into whole- fome bread,(which are faid to have been eaten in Ecypt by Hero- dotus) and the roots of many other water-plants, which might thus become articles of fubaquatic agriculture, which is an art much wanted in this country. See Se&. XI, 2, 5. and XVIL. 2. 3. V.1. The digeftive power of animals feems to be principally ex- erted in converting their food into fugar; fince the chyle of all ani- mals refembles milk, which contains much fugar, and thence fpon- taneoufly runs into fermentation, which terminates in the produétion of acid, as in butter-milk. In Siberia the natives diftil a fpirituous and intoxicating liquor from milk thus fermented. Gmelin. Inthe diabetes there is reafon to believe, that the chyle pañles off into the bladder without being previoufly mixed with the blood: and there is a curious hiftory of a patient in the infirmary at Stafford, who la- boured under a diabetes, he eat and drank thrice as much as moft moderate men, and from fixteen to eighteen ounces, and even twenty ounces of coarfe fugar was extraéted for fome time daily from his urine. Zoonomia, Vol. I Set. XXIX. 2. In like manner the diseftive powers of the young vegetable, with the chemical agents of heat and moifture, convert the flarch or mucilage = ET me Sera VL. 8: 35 4e SECRETIONS. 5 mucilage of the root or feed into fugar for its own nourifhment; or they obtain fugar ready prepared for them from fome roots, as the beét-root; from many fruits, as grapes, pears, peaches; from the milk of cocoa-nuts, and from the fap-juice of the fugar-maple, birch, and many other trees. And thus it appears probable, that fugar 15 the principal nutriment of both animal and vegetable beings. That it is the moft nutritive part of vegetable fubftances is evinced by the well afcertained fa, that the flaves in Jamaica grow fat in the fugar-harveft, though they endure at that time much more labour. Yet there is an idle notion propagated amongft the people that fugar :s unwholefome; it is indeed probable, that the moft nourifhing ma- terials may be taken more eafily to excefs, but not that it is therefore in gencral unwholefome; at the fame time it is probable, that fome fruits preferved in fyrup, or fweet-meats, may contribute to deftroy the teeth; fince, if the fugar fhould become in a ftate of decompo- fition, and the faccharine acid fhould abound, it will difiolve calca- reous earth with greater avidity than any other acid. 3. In many plants fugar is found ready prepared, as above men- tioned; thus in the beet-root, the cryftals of it may be difcerned by a microfcope; and may be extratted from the mucilaginous matter of the root by diffolving it in rettified fpirit of wine; which will unite with fugar but not with mucilage. In the joints of grafs and of corn it may be difcovered by the tafte. In the manna-afh, fraxinus ornus, the fame faccharine matter is produced along with the eflential falt of the plant, which is purgative; and in the fugar-cane it abounds in fuch large quantity as to contribute much to the nourifhment of mankind. And,—and what?—Great God of Juftice! grant, that it may foon be cultivated only bythe hands of freedom, and may thence give happinefs to the labourer, as well as to the merchant and con- fumer. 4. Another fource of fugar in vegetables is in the fruit, which in many plants changes from an auftere acid to a faccharine acid, as in goofeberries, = S=—:—— EE—- Eh mms ur 78 GLANDS AND SAC eue goofeberries, apples, oranges. This change continues to proceed af- ter the pears and apples, or oranges, are taken from the tree into our ftorchoufes, but the fruit in this fituation continues to ripen by a ve- Setable procefs, as it can not be faid to be dead, becaufe it does not yet underoo fermentation or putrefaétion, or other chemical diflolu- tion; and thouch its progrefs in ripening may be forwarded by Warmth, yet it muft ftill be afcribed to a vegetable procefs; as the plants themfelves grow quicker when expoied to additional heat. 5- But there are other means of increafing or haftening the fac- charine procefs in auftere vegetable fruits, as by bruifing them, or by baking them, both which muft deftroy the life of the fruit; thus when apples are bruifed for the purpofe of making cyder, they be- come{weeter even in the a@ of bruifing them; and many pears change from an auftere to a fweet juice fimply by the heat of baking; and it 1s probable that malt acquires a great part, though not the whole of its faccharine matter, in the act of drying. This chemi- cal production or increafe of fugar in vegetable juices is worth bein further inquired into; fince if fugar could be made from its elements without the aflifiance of vecetation, fuch abundant food might be fupplied as might tenfold increafe the number of mankind! Ît is a curious circumftance not yet fufficiently underflood, that not only ftarch appears to be convertible into fugar by the vegetable pro- ceis of digeftion, as in the germination of farinaceous feeds: but that fugar is capable of being converted into ftarch, as appears in the ri- pening procefs of fome pears, which firft contain a fweet-juice, and afterwards become mealy. (ee) The ufe of this faccharine matter of the fruit or fap-juice in the ve- getable economy is for the purpofe of fupplying the young feed or bud with nourifhment to enable it the better to ftrike its roots into the earth, and to elevate its leaves into the air, and thus by its quicker Sprrs VINOG T2: SECRETIONS. 79 quicker growth to rival its neighbours in their contentions for air, and light, and moifture, which are neceflary for its exiftence. VI. 1. The production of honey is perhaps one of the moft im- portant vegetable fecretions, except that of the prolific farina from the anthers; and of the favilla, or new embryon, in the axilla of the leaf. The glands for this purpofe, or certainly the refervoirs, which con- tain the honey after it is fecreted, are in many flowers vifible to the naked eye; as in crown-imperial, fritillaria imperialis; in monkf- hood, aconitum napellus; hellebore, ranunculus. It is neverthelefs probable, that this refervoir of honey is frequently placed at a diftance from the gland, which fecretes it, for the purpofe of prefervins it from infe@s and from rain, which is often effeted both by a very complicated apparatus, and by an acrid or poifonous juice, as in the aconites and the hellebores above mentioned. As the neëtary, or honey-gland, always falls off along with the corol, and anthers, and ftigmas; thefe appear to be parts or appen- dages to each other. T'he vegetable blood is expofed to the air in the corol, and thus is oxygenated or prepared for the fecretion of this important fluid; which I fuppofe is again reabforbed, and fup- plies nourifhment to the anthers and ftigmas. Some acrid juices, and odorous particles, are at the fame time fecreted from the blood thus oxygenated 1n the corol; which feem defigned as one kind-of de- fence againft the depredations of infeëts on this important refervoir of honey. 2. The univerfality of the produétion of honey in the vegetable world, and the very complicated apparatus, which nature has con- ftruéted in many flowers, as well as the acrid or deleterious juices fhe bas furmifhed thofe flowers with, as in the aconite, to protect this honey from rain, and from the depredations of infets, feem to im- ply, that this fluid is of very great importance in the vegetable eco- nomy; and alo that it was neceflary to expofe it to the open air pre- vious to its reab{orption into the vegetable veflels, fa —— À } | A ï : t4 ; i| il ”| de% À Pr gg— re MS" ET sS GLANDS AND.Sser.VIL.6.3. In the animal fyftem the lacrymal gland feparates its fluid into the open air for the purpofe of moiftening the eye; of this fluid the part, which does not exhale, is abforbed by the punéta lacrymalia, and car- ried into the noftrils; but, as this is not a nutritive fluid, the analogy goes no further than its{ecrction into the open air, and its reabforp- tion into the fyftem. The perfpirable matter is another material fe- creted by animal glands into the external air, and is in part reabforbed, and in part exhaled. And every other fecreted fluid in the animal body is in part abforbed again into the fyftem, even thofe which are efteem- ed excrementitious, as the urine; and others are probably entirely reabforbed, as the bile, faliva, and gaftric juice. That the honey is a nutritious fluid, perhaps the moft fo of any vegetable produétion, appears from its great fimilarity to fugar, and from its affording fuftenance to fuch numbers of infeéts, which live upon it folely during fummer, and lay it up for their winter pro- vifion. Thefe proofs of its nutritive nature evince the neceflity of its reabforption into the vegetable fyftem for fome ufeful purpofe. 3. Its probable, that the depredations of infe&s on this nutritious fluid muft be injurious to the produëts of vegetation; and would be much more fo, but that the plants have either acquired means to défend their honey in part, or have learned to make more, than 1s ab- folutely neceflary for their own economy. Thus in filene, catch-fly, and in drofera, fun-dew, it is defended by a vifcid juice from the attack of infeëts; in hellebore, and in aconite, it is defended by the difficult pañlage to it, and by the acrid juice of the plant, if infeéts fhould endeavour to creep into the néétary, or pierce it with their probofcis; and in polygonum melampyrum, buck-wheat, and in ca- calia fuaveolens, alpine colts-foot, there feems to be a fuperabundant quantity of honey fecreted, as thofe flowers are perpetually loaded with bees and butterflies, infomuch that at Kempton-land in Ger- many, Mr.Worlidge fays, in his Myfteries of Hufbandry, Ch. IX. 3. that he faw forty great bee-hives filled with honey to the amount of Le feventy ’ MEN HR: HS D Deal ; RE pe à ae:: " L LA£: Et ehege à”# Méss É re* Ps e< 4=- ca RES — s RS Tr Secr. VI 6,4 SECRETIONS. 21 feventy pounds in each in one fortnight by their being placed near a large field of buck-wheat in flower; and I weli remember being my- {elf aftonifhed at fecing the number of bees on a field of buck-wheat in Shropfhire, as well as on a plant of cacalia fuaveolens in my gar- den; from which the fcent of honey could be perceived at many feet diftance from the flower. In the fame manner the honey-dew on trees is very injurious to them; in which difeafe the nutritive fluid, the vegetable fap-juice, feerns to be exfuded by a retrograde motion of the cutaneous lympha- tics, as in the fweating ficknefs of the laft century, or is devoured by infeéts, which pierce the lymphatic veffels of the leaves at mid- fummer, feed on the vegetable chyle, and void it almoft unchanged. See Se. II. IT. 8. and XIV. L. 7. To prevent the depredation of infeëts on honey a wealthy man in Italy is faid to have poifoned his neighbour’s bees, perhaps by mixing arfenic with, honey, againft which there is a flowery declamation in Quintillian, No. XII. This mixture of honey and arfenic may be ufed with effet to poifon flies, which fometimes abound in pernici- ous multitudes; for the flies which frequent our houfes are liable to great thirft, as is een by their dfinking any fluid, which is diffufed on a table; whence if a flight{olution of arfenic, with a little fugar, be put thinly on a plate or two, and fet on chimney-pieces or windows, the flies will eagerly drink it, and perifh almoft inftantly. It is pro- bable that wafps might be thus deftroyed in hot-houfes, if a little honey was added to attraét them by its odour. As the ufe of the wax is to preferve the duft of the anthers from moifture, which would prematurely burft them, the bees, which col- let this for the conftruétion of the combs or cells, and collect the fa- sina alfo probably for bee-bread for their larvæ or maggots, muft on both thefe accounts alfo injure the vegetation of a country, where they too much abound, 4, It is not eafy to conjeture, why it was neceffary, that this fecre M tion PP 12 l { | 1 Fu pm 82 GLANDS AND SECT, VI. 7.1, tion of honey fhould be expofed to the open air in the neétary or ho- ney-cup; for which purpofe fo great an apparatus for its defence from infeëts and from fhowers became neceflary. This difficulty increafes, when we recolle&, that the fugar in the joints of grafs, in the fugar-cane, and in the roots of beets, and in ripe fruits, is pro- duced without expofure to the air. But on fuppoñtion of its fupplyins nutriment to the anthers and ftigmas, it may thus acquire greater oxygenation for the purpofe of producing the greater powers of ama- torial fenfbility, as mentioned in Seët. IV. 5. 6. and probably in this circumftance alone differs from fugar. From this provifion of honey for the male and female parts of fowers, and from the provifions of fugar, ftarch, and mucilace, in the fruits, feeds, roots, and alburnum of plants, laid up for the nu« triment of the young progeny; not only a very numerous clafs of in- fe&s, but a great part of the larger animals, procure théir. food. Surely this muft be called a wife provilon of the Author of nature, as by thefe means innumerable animals enjoy life and pleafure without producing pain to others; for the embryons in thefe buds, feeds, or egss, as well as the nutriment laid up for them, are not yet endued with fenfitive life. There is another fource of nutriment provided for young animals, which ftll further evinces the benevolence of the Au- thor of nature; and that is the milk furnifhed by the mother to her offspring; by this beautiful contrivance the mother acquires pleafure in parting With a nutritious fluid, and the offspring in receiving it! VIL. 1. The wax is another vecetable fecretion produced with the fecundating duft on the anthers of flowers, which in wet feafons it preferves from rain, to which it is impenetrable; for the farina, or fecundating duft of plants, is lable to fwell if expofed to much moif- ture, and to burft its fhell: and it either then becomes inert and in- effectual, or is wWafhed away. Whence Mr. Wahlborn obferves, that as wWheat, rye, and many of the craffes, and plantain, lift up their anthers on long filaments, and thus expofe the enclofed fecundating & duff GECT.VÉ 7:23, SECRETIONS. 8 3 duft to be wafhed away by the rains; a fcarcity of corn is produced in wet fummers; hence the necefity of a careful choice of feed- wheat; as that, which had not received the duft of the anthers, will not grow, though it may appear well to the eye. 2. À fubftance fimilar to this is faid to be colleéted from extenfive underwoods of the ciftus labdaniferus in fome eaftern countries by this fingular contrivance; long leathern thongs are tied to poles, and drawn over the flowers of thefe fhrubs about noon, which thus col- lect the wax or refin with part of the anther duft, which adheres to the leathern thongs, and is occafonally fcraped off for ufe. Thus in fome degree the depredation of the bee is imitated, except that fhe Joads her thighs only with the anther-duft, which according to Mr. John Hunter conftitutes the bee-bread found in hives for the fupport of the larva or bee-magoot; and that fhe fwallows the wax for the conftruëtion of her combs, as well as the honey for her winter pro- vender; and thus every way injures the fecundity of flowers. 3. À waxin America 1s obtained from the myrica cerifera, candle- berry myrtle, the berries of which are boiled in water, and the wax feparates. The feeds of the croton febiferum are lodged in a kind of tallow; in both thefe plants the wax or tallow probably ferves the purpofe of preferving the immature feeds from moifture; or like the oil found in flax-feed, rape-feed, and in many kernels, they may con- ftitute in part the nourifhment of the new plant. It muft neverthelefs be obferved, that Mr. Sparman fufpeéts, that the green wax-like fubftance on the berries of the myrica cerifera is depofited by infe&s. Voyage to the Cape, V. I. p. 145. And Du Halde defcribes a white wax made by infeéts in great quantity round the branches of a tree in China, which is called Tong-tfin. Defcript. Of China, V. I. p.230. And lafly, fir G. Staunton mentions a white Wax on a plant in Cochin-China, which he believes to be ftrewed on the plant in the form of white powder, which has this fingular pro- perty, that one part of this white powder mixed with three parts of, M 2 olive 84 GLANDS AND SEC VE 8%, 2,3 5 olive oil made hot, gave it when cold the confiftence of bee’s-wax. Embañly to China, Vol. E p. 354. VIH, r. Turpentinés or balfams, refins, and eflential oils, are ana- logous to the vegetable fecretions laft mentioned, in their being inad- site with water. vegetables, which contain in their er Îs the leaft water, bear cold climates the beft; becaufe when water is frozen, it occupies more fpace than before; and hence burfts the bottles which contain it; in the fame manner when any fucculent végetable is frozen, its veflels become burft or bruifed by the expan- fion of the-ice, and the plant is deftroyed; on this account thofe parts of plants, which are the moit juicy, as the laft fhoots of vines, are {ooneft deftroyed in winter. Hence many of the evergreen trees of this climate are replete with turpentine or refin, which by occupying the place of fo much water, contributes to their hardinefs. There is alfo a partial fecretion of balfam or turpentine in many deciduous plants for the purpofe of defending their buds during the winter, both from froft and from wet, which is repelled by their balfamic varnifh, as on the buds of the populus tacamahacca. 2. The balfams and refins of the fhops are either extraëéted from the wood by fire, or exfude from wounds of the tree; thus what is called Venice turpentine is obtained from the larch by wounding the bark about two feet from the ground, and catching it as it exfudes. Sandarach is procured from common juniper, and RCE from ano- ther juniper; and there is reafon to believe that bitumen, or petro- leum, with jet, amber, and all the foffile coal in the world, owes its inflammable part to:the recrements of deftroyed forefts of terebinthi- nate vegetablés, fo important to the prefent race of mankind has been this vecetable fecretion! . The effential oils are fometimes raifed by difüllation from bal- ie or refins, as oil of turpentine; but are chiefly extracted from flowers;: where their office has been to prevent the depredations of infects;. though many of thém are fo agrecable to the human fénfe of {mell,, SEcT. VI. 8. 4,5. SECRETIONS. 86 fmell, when thefe effential oils are diflolved or mixed with water in diftillation, they have been called the fpiritus reétor of the plant, and conftitute the odour of it, whether aromätic or fetid. Some of thefe effential oïls poffefs the moft poifonous qualities, as thofe of lauro-cerafus, and of tobacco; and are ufed by Indian nations for the purpofe of poifoning their weapons, which they cover like a varnifh. And hence fome of the refinous woods are faid never to be devoured by infeéts, as the unperifhable chefts of cyprefs, in which the Egyptian mummies have been preferved for fo many ages, and the cedar in which black lead is inclofed for pencils. The acrid poifon of the large euphorbium of Africa exifts in the oil of that plant; as M.Vaillant obferves, that the natives fometimes poi- fon the waters with flicing this plant into them, and that the poifon- ous oil fwims upon the furface, and may thus be avoided by a care- ful drinker. This in a country where Water is fcarce, and generally in ftagnant pools, may be readily effected; as a few fpoonfuls of oil will cover a large fheet of water, as it becomes diffufed upon it without friction, as mentioned in Botanic Garden, Vol. I. Addition. Note XXIX. 4. Some of the effential oils are fo inflammable as to burft into à vehement flame on being mixed with nitrous acid, as oil of cloves; and even the fmall quantity diffufed in the air round the diétamnus fraxinella will take fire on a fill evening at the approach of a lichted candle.| s. Withthefe fhould be arranged the elaftic refn called Caoutchouc, which is faid toexfude from a tree in Guaiana, called latropha elaftica, by M. de la Borde, phyfician at Cayenne. A fimilar elaftic refin 1s id to be obtained from a plant im Madagafcar, called Finguere, à kind of wild fig-tree, according to Abbe Rochon; and the bird-lime eutracted from the bark of the hollies of our climate feems to be a fimilar material; as like the caoutchouc it becomes foft by heat, and is impenctrable by water, but foluble in ether. Another elaftic fub- ftance, nn ue Essen fl d n il 1L D res RS er is sa LT. ee== Re: Dr ré e< ma 1e>. PAR DEAD RE TE PORTE D= k a— BE=— ne SÉPARER TRE Las EZ F re rÉ en ne È Buse= F mere dé.. 50 E mue OR NU Po” RE. és . a Re==>. A\= EE,_— AVE È E Z à Tr., À a F/| al:, 86 GLANDS AND SECT AVI. 01,2, ftance, which is infoluble in water, 1s procured from wheat by long maftication, or by agitating the flour of it in water: which has been faid to approach to animal matter, and is believed to be the moft nu- tritious part of that aliment, and was once much talked of, or fold under the name of alimentary powder for the nourifhment of march- ing armies. IX, 1. The bitter, narcotic, and acrid juices of plants are fecreted by their glands for the defence of the vegetable from the depredation of infe@s and of larger animals. Opium is found in the leaf, talk, aud head of the poppy, but not in the feeds. A fimilar narcotic qua- ty exifts in the leaf and ftem of hyofcyamus, henbane, but not in the feeds. An acrid juice exifts in hufks of walnuts, and in the pel- licle, or fkin, of the kernel: but not inthe lobes, or nutritious part of it. T'hefe feem to have been excluded from the feed, left they might have been injurious to the tender organs of digeftion of the embryon plant. In fome feeds, however, there is a bitter quality, but which refufes to mix with the oleagenous part; as the oil exprefied from bitter almonds is as taftelefs as that from the fweet almonds. 2. Other vegetables poñefs glands adapted to the fecretion of va rious fluids more or lefs aromatic, acrid, or aftringent; as the herb of water-crefs, the root of horfe-radifh, the feeds of muftard, the flowers of rofes, the fruit of quince, and the bark of oak. To thefe fhould be added thofe which have emetic and cathartic qualities; and other vegetable preparations, which are ufed in the arts of dying, tanning, varnifhing; and which fupply the fhops-of the drugoift with medi- cines and with poifons. All which deleterious juices feem to have been produced for the protection of the plant againft its enemies, as appears by the number of poifonous vegetables, which are feen in all our hedge-bottoms and commons, as hyofcyamus, cynogloffum, jacobæa, and common nettles; which neither infets nor quadrupeds devour, and which are therefore of no known ufe but to themfelves; and poffefs —_-. æ ”” rs= Br. ARE" a S TE>== Peu ee pe Er a" we ce PNR Er pare SP RE 1 Se En—— SEcT. VE 9. 3. 10. 1. SECRETIONS. 87 pofiefs a fafer armour in this panapoly of poifon, than the thorns of hollies, briars, and goofeberries. 3. Asthe bitter, narcotic, acrid, and terebinthinate, as well as the farinaceous, oily, and faccharine matters, are fecreted in fummer from the vesetable blood, and referved for the nutrition and defence of the new buds and bulbs, they are in this climate generally found more concentrated in the hybernaculum, or winter-lodge of plants, before the new fap is raïifed by the umbilical or abforbent vefels in the fpring. Hence roots and barks, as well as fruits and feeds, are beft colleéted in autumn, or in winter, for the purpofes of medicine or of other arts. Thus the bark of oaks fhould be taken off for the ufe of the tanner in the winter, or in early fpring, before the leaves pullulate, as then a great part of its aftringent or bitter juices 1s reabforbed, and carried to the new foliage along with the faccharine fap-juice, which has been depofted in the cells of the alburnum or fap-wood, But as the barks of trees become loofer, and much more eafily detached from the wood, when the fap-juice rifes in the fpring, this 1s the beft time for debarking them; but the naked bole and branches fhould ftand till autumn, till the faccharine matter colleéted in the alburnum has been expended in unfolding the new leaves; otherwife it will foon ferment and putrefy; and the fap-wood will thus quickly decay by what is termed the dry-rot of timber, as mentioned in Seët. HIT, 2. 3. X. 1. The acids produced by vegetable fecretion have of late been much fubje@ted to chemical inquiry, and have been found to be 10 numerous, that they have been named from the vegetables, or parts of vecetables, from which they have been extraéted; as the galhic acid, malic acid, oxalic acid, Many unripe fruits contain an auftere acid, which is gradually converted into fugar by vegetable or chemical proceffes for the nutriment of their feeds, as defcribed in No. V. 4. of this feGtion. In other plants it exifts in the foot-ftalks of the leaves, a NE: £ À Lie A a Gas SE rs à i 88 GLANDS,&c. SECT, VL to. re as in rheum, rhubatb; or in the leaves themfelves, as in oxalis, forrel: in thefe fituations alfo I fuppofe it is fecreted both for the defence of thofe plants from the depredation of infeëts and of larger animals; and alfo for the purpofe of its being converted into a faccharine juice by the digeftion of the young bud in the bofom of the leaf. a -—= on. EE GS D SET Gi Se Secr. VIL OF REPRODUCTION. ie SE CR VIE, THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION OF VEGETABLES. Tbe theory of Linneus for vegetable reproduflion too mechanical, and without analogy. Every new fluid is fecreted by glands, as the liquor amnii and albumen ovi. So ol is the favilla vite, or living entity. 1.1. Lateral progeny. The zew bud is fecreted in the axilla of the leaf, and requires no femele apparatus. Li ad- beres to its parent not by inofculation of veffels, but refembles the chick in the egg. o. Difference of the chick and fetus. Their nutriment and oxygenation. The em- bryon may be feen in the buds of borfe-chefuut. It is a paternal progeny. 3. This lateral offspring refembles the parent. Not univerfally jo. More perfelf than feeds. Buds of diæcious plants bear fimilar fexes. The lateral" progeny degenerates from bereditary difeafes. Wbence curled potatoes, blighted firawberries, bears fruit at the fame time, and of the fame kind. Plants live longer 1f prevented from flower- ing. Art of producing double byacinths, ranunculus, tulips. 4. Lateral progeny of corallines and Jea-anemonies. are all males. Wires of knoë grafs like the joints of the tape-woorm, wbich are all males. 5. Aphis, viviparous and ovi- parous like vegetable generation. 6. Veffeis of the bud and leaf do not inofculate. Viviparous, oviparous, and paternal generation. 7. Leaves on toigs like the pro- geny of volvox. But in fome twigs the pith is divided, and the buds Juccefive. Hermapbrodite generation. Buds from every part of the caudex. Tbofe from be- low the graft are like the flock. Find numerous uteri like eggs and Jpawn.- ternal generation preceded fexual generation. The laff more excellent. 11. 1. Sexual progeny. Seeds before impregnation. Eggs before impregnation.-embryon fufpended by oppofite points like the cicatricula of the egg. 2. Seed-bud and flower. Stamens and ffigmas. bend to females, and females to males. Style of fpartium bends round like a French born. Onanifin of epilobium. Male flowers of vallifneria fwim to the females. Flowers with long filaments injured by rain. Sub- marine plants projeët a liquor. 3. The petals are refpiratory organs. 4. Honey is the food of the anthers and fligma; wbich like butterflies propagate and die. N,$. Oéeds EP pars ne ee SE SR EN ER. à| we se. c CR ORGANSUOF SECT. VIL pm 5. Seeds are formed and nourifhed by the umbilical veflels previous to fecundation, or by the braëles or floral-leaves. Difperfion of Jeeds by plumes, by books, by twifted awns. Creep on the ground. Hygrometer of a geranium feed. 6. Sexual generation the chef d'œuvre of nature. variety of fpecies, Mixed breed of cab- bage. Mixed breeds of beans. An apple four on one ide. Vegetable mules. 7. Ani- snal snules. They externally refemble the male, internally tbe female. Mule from the borfe and female afs. From the mare and male af. From Spanifh rams and Swedifb ewes, and the contrary. From the goat of angora. Ram without borns. 8. How 10 improve the variefies of fruits and flowers, and produce new ones. Many plants were originally mules, and many animals. How to produce new ani- mal monfters, both quadrupeds and fifh, by the method of Spallanzani. Mules more frequent in antient times. ITf. Vegetable generation. 1. 4 friple tree by in- graftment. The caudex of each bud is triple. or paternal mules.- ferva fontinalis Jplits. 2. The lateral propagation of the polypus. The bydra Jentorea folits. Two halves of different polypi unite. So the vegetable filaments or caudexes in ingrafted trees. 3. Triple lateral mule. Each part of tbe triple caudex is produced from that in its vicinity, not from the plumula of the bud. 4. Worms multiplied by dividing them. So the caudexes of the buds of trees. s. The parts of the long caudexes of trees are fecreted from the re parts of tbe parent caudexes, and combine beneatb the cuticle of the tree. Every part of a compound caudex can produce a new bud, refembling the part of the compound flock, wbere it rifes. mules confift of parts from three or four parents. Ge there be a threefold fexual mule? 6. Power of aïtraftion. Aptitude to be ottrafted. Chemical combinations by fingle attraëtion. By double afhnity. 7. Union 7 ee bodies with inanimate matter, as in fwallowing food. In abforption by the Ken Vitality of the blood. Fibrils with nutritive appetencies.- cules witb nutritive propenfities. 8. Fibrils with formative appetencies, and mole- cules with F mative propenfities fecreted beneatb the cuticle of trees, and coalefte. Hunger and love, thirf}, fuckling children, they reciprocally flimulate and embrace each other. 9. Great fecret of nature. or nutritive particles in the blood more than neceffary. by numerous glends. under the cuticle of trees. Acquire new appetencies, and produce new parts. 10. In fexual generation they are fecreted by two glands only. Thofe of the anther and pericarp unite in the matris, 11. Without formative molecules as well as formative fibrils 8 there Secr VIL REPRODUCTION. 91 T1 there could be no mules, or any refemblance to tbe motber. The new dofirine threefold vegetable imules applied to animal generation. 12. Conclufion. Tue theory of Linneus in refpect of the reproduétion of ve bles maintains, that the internal medullary part muft be joined the external or cortical part of the plant for the purpoie of produc- ing a NEW one. If the medulla be fo visorous as to burft through its containing veflels, and thus mix with the cortical part, a bud is pro- duced either on the branches or roots of vegetables; otherwife the medulla is extended, till it terminates in the piftillum, or female part ofthe flower; and the cortical part is likewife elongated, till it termi- nates in the anthers, or male part of the flower; and then the fe- cundating duft from the latter being joined to the prolific juices of the former, produces the feeds or new plants; at the fame time the inner rind is extended into the corol or petal, and the outer bark into the calyx. After the feeds are thus produced, the parent bud dies; and in this refpect the buds bear a very great analogy to thofe annual infeëts, which change from their caterpillar or larva-forms, putting forth painted wings and organs Of reproduction, and after depofing their eggs ceafe to exift. See the account of the vegetable kingdom by Linneus, pre- fixed to the fyftem of vegetables tranflated by a botanical fociety at Lichfeld. Leigh and Sotheby, London. However fimple and ingenious the firft part of this theory may ap- pear, in which the medulla is fuppofed to extend itfeif, till it burfts the inclofing or cortical part, and joining with that produces a new bud; yet it feems too mechanical for a living organized fyftem:; and fo totally different from any thing we know of fexual produétion i cither in animals or flowers, as not readily to fatisfy a reafoning mind. À;. x AT+ Ë d. L: RES(ES 2 SRE UE= és Every new fluid or folid produced in the organic fyftem of vegeta- Re RENE SIRET res on! nl A ca PET ble or animal bodies is fecreted from their blood, as the various luids NAT 1. V VS MARINE“ Ÿe on hi 78 Le T4 sr PP 02 ORGANS 0 F SECT. NA. T7. of bile, faliva, tears, in animals; and thofe of gum, refin, fugar, in vegetables. Amongft thefe are the juices which confitute the nu- tritious fluid of the amnios in the uterus of viviparous animals, or that of the albumen of the egg in oviparous ones. And lafty, the flavilla vitæ, the new fpark of being, or living entity, is alfo fecreted from the blood of male animals by adapted glands to be received into a pro- per nidus, and nourifhed by the female, F LATERAI PROGENY. y. As the leaf with its petiole, or foot-ftalk, and its caudex down the bark of a tree, with its radicle beneath, conftitutes an individual plant; and the bud in its bofom fucceeds, and is evidently produced by it; it may be concluded from the ftrongeft analogy that this new progeny is fecreted from a gland or glands of the parent; and that, as it adheres to the parent, it requires no female apparatus for its re- ception, nourifhment, or oxygenation, I was formerly induced to believe, that there was a communication of blood, or inofculation of veflels between the parent leaf, and the new bud in its bofom, as expreffed in Zoonomia, Se&. XXXIX. 2. 2. and that this conftituted the difference between paternal geftation and maternal geftation. But that the vefiels between the new bud and the parent leaf-bud do not inofculate may be well feen by taking away the bark of the foot-ftalk of a leaf, and of the new bud in its bofom: as the remains of the arteries of the late leaf, as well as the rudiment of the new bud, are feen to terminate in the alburnum, or to penetrate the pitb, but without any apparent communication; and L therefore fufpe, that the embryon bud is not ferved with vegeta- ble blood from the vefels of the parent, but that it acquires both nu- triment and oxygenation much in the fame manner as the chick in the eos. See Sect. INT. 1. 5. 2.‘The condition of the chick in the egg differs from that of the fetus A Es À Secr. VAI. 2. REPRODUCTION. 03 2 fetus in the womb of viviparous animals in the whole of its nutriment being at firft provided for it, which confifts of the albumen, or white of the egg, which is contained in cells, and 1s of different degrees of confiftency, that which is moft fluid being firft confumed; whereas the liquor amni, or nutriment of the fetus in utero, is gradually fe- creted by adapted glands from the blood of the mother, as it is wanted. Another difference between the condition of the chick and of the fetus confifts in the manner, by which their blood acquires its necef- fary oxygenation. In the fetus this is done by means of the placental veflels, whofe extremities are inferted into the blood-veffels of the uterus, and receive oxygen through their moift membranes from the pafing currents of the mother’s blood, as defcribed in Zoonomia, Vol. I. Se&. XXXVIIT. Whereas in the egs after a few days incu- bation a membrane is feen, which includes the albumen, and fpreads the extremities of its fine blood-veffels on the moift membrane, which covers the air at the broad end of the esg; which air is occafionally renewed, as would appear by its being feen fo eafily to pafs through the fhell, when an ego is covered with water in the exhaufted re- ceiver of an air-pump. The condition of the embryon bud, when the parent leaf-bud dies, I conceive to be fimilar to that of the chick in the egs, when that is feparated from its parent. Each ofthem has at this time a refervoir of nutriment provided for it; that of the chick confifts of the albu- men, or white of the ego above mentioned; and that of the bud con- fifts of mucilage and fugar, which are depofited in the alburnum or fap-wood, or in the roots of the plant. And fecondly, I conceive that the extremities of à fine fyftem of veflels belonging to the bud may terminate on the moift membrane, which covers the horizontal air-veflels defcribed in Sec. II, 2. 6. as thofe on the chorion of the chick terminate on the air-bag of the egg, and thus acquire the ne- DD? ceffary oxygenation of their vegetable blood. This RP Le 6: AE np 07 sg or PRE ar const à> AE : Fe 3 con, \O À. OR GENS DE SECT. VIL 1. 3. This analogy between the vegetable and animal fetus in refpeét to their produ&tion, nourifhment, and oxygenation, is as forcible in fo obfcure a fubje&t, as it'is curious; and may in large buds, as of the horfe-chefnut, be almoft feen by the naked eye. If with a penknife the remaining rudiment of the laft year’s leaf, and of the new bud in its bofom, be cut away flice by flice, the feven ribs of the laft years leaf will be feen to have arifen from the pith in feven diftin& points, making a curve; and the new bud to have been produced in their center, and to have pierced the alburnum and bark, and grown with- out the afliftance of a mother. And lafly, by in part cutting, and in part tearing, the pith and alburnum from the bottom of a new leaf-ftalk of horfe-chefnut about the middle of May, an oval prominence may be feen in the internal part of the leaf-ftalk, which fills up a fpace between the veffels of the bottom of the leaf-ftalk and thofe of the new bud, and feems to conne them by its extremities, and to prefs on the pith beneath it. From this apparent gland I conjecture that the now living fibres, or animalcules, are probably fecreted, which form the new bud adher- inc to the pith, and nourifhed by the parent leaf; that thus a paternal progeny 1s produced without the affiftance of a mother. 3. This paternal offspring of vegetables in their buds and bulbs is attended with a very curious circumftance; and that is, that they exa@ly refemble their parents, as is obfervable in grafting fruit-trees, and in propagating flower-roots; whereas the feminal offspring of plants, being generated by two parents, and certainly fupplied with nutriment by the mother, is liable to perpetual variation. This alfo in the vegetable clafs diœcia, where the male flowers are produced on one tree, and the females on another, the buds of the male trees uni- formly produce either male flowers, or other buds fimilar to them- felves; and the buds of the female trees either produce female flowers, or other buds fimilar to themfelves; whereas the feeds of thefe trees produce either male or female plants. See Set. IT, 2. 1. This SEcT. VII. 1.3. REPRODUCTION. 95 This fimilarity of buds and bulbs to their parents is to be under- ftood only to exift after the maturity of the plant, that is after it has produced a fexual offépring in flowers and feeds; for a bulb, as of a tulip, and a bud of à fruit-tree, when firit raifed from their feeds, are very fmall, but produce one or more improved bulbs, or improved buds annually, for fome years; which differ from their parent bulbs or buds in the fize, form; and colour of their leaves, till it arrives at its maturity, or acquires the power of generating a fexual progeny; from whence it appears, that the leaf-buds of thofe trees, and the leaf- bulbs of thofe roots, which have acquired their puberty, 1f it may be fo called; that is, their power of generating flowers, are a more per- fe& progeny than the feeds of thofe plants, as thefe latter, when fe- parated from their parent either by tranfplantation or by ingrafting, can immediately produce feeds, or a fexual progeny; but the buds from many feeds are fome years before they can produce feeds. The fame is probably true of many annual or biennial plants, as of wheat: which produce many fucceflive buds upon each other previous to the flower-bud, as appears by the joints of the fem; all which may be confidered as individual plants growing on each other like the annual fucceffion of the buds of trees. Another curious occurrence in this lateral production of vecetables by their buds has been lately publifhed by Mr. Knight in the Phil. Tranf. for the year 1795, who obferves, that thofe apple-trees, which have been continually propagated for above a century by ingrafting, are now become fo difeafed by canker, or otherwife, that though the fruit continues of the fame flavour, the trees are not worth propagatinge; as thefe grafts, though tranfplanted into other trees, he efteems to be fill an elongation of the original tree, and muft feel the effect of age like the tree they were taken from. If this idea fhould prove true on further examination, there is reafon to fufpect the fame may oceur in the too long propagation of plants from bulbs and wires, as potatoes and firawberries, which may have occafioned the curled tops of pota- toes, RES detre 96 ORGANS OF Secr. VIL 1. 3. toes, and the black blight in the flowers of the hautbois ftrawberry, which fome have afcribed toits only bearing male flowers; the cure of which muft arife from our applying to other varieties more lately derived from a feminal Offspring. Fhis degeneracy of trees or perennial herbaceous plants propagated by buds or root-fcions is not I think to be afcribed fimply to the age of the original fcedling-tree, becaufe each fucceffive generation of buds or bulbs are as diftin from the parent, as the generation by ieeds. But as the lateral progeny of vegetables have no fource of improvement after they have arrived at their maturity, but are liable Uke other plants and animals to injuries from food and climate, which injuries produce hereditary difeafes, it is to this circumftance that their degeneracy ought rather to be afcribed; whereas the fexual pro- geny of vegetables are liable to improvement by the intermixture of the individuals of the fame, or even of different fpecies to counterac the effets of hereditary difeafes. Another curious fimilarity which buds bear to their parent tree is allo obferved by Mr. Knight, Phil. Tranf, for 1795. Part Il. p. 292. ‘ Cuttings from feedling apple-trees of two years old were inferted on ftocks of twenty years old, and in a bearing ftate; but thefe have now been grafted nine years; and, though they have been frequently tranfplanted to check their growth, they have not yet produced a fingle bloffom. I have fince grafted fome very old trees with cuttings from feedling apple-trees of five years old. Their growth has been extremely rapid, and there appears no probability that their time of producing fruit will be accelerated, or that their health will be in- jured by the great age of the ftocks. A feedling apple-tree ufually bears fruit in thirteen or fourteen years; and I therefore conclude, that I have to wait for a bloffom, till the trees, from which the grafts were taken, attain that age; though I have reafon to believe from the form of their buds that they will be extremely prolific. Every cutting therefore taken from the apple, and probably from $ EVETY tha SEcT. VIL 1. 4. REPRODUCTION. 97 every other tree, will be affeéted by the ftate of the parent flock. If that be too young to produce fruit, it will grow with vigour, but will not bloffom; and if it be too old, it will immediately produce fruit, but will never make a healthy tree, and confequently never anfwer the intention of the planter. ce The durability of the apple and pear 1 have long fufpeéted to be different in different varieties; but that none of either would vegé- tate with vigour much, if at all, beyond the life of the parent ftock, provided that died from mere old age. The oak is much more long- lived in the north of Europe than with us, though the timber is lefs durable; the climate of this country, being colder than its native one, may in the fame way add to the durability of the elm; which may poffibly be further increafed by its not producing feeds in this cli- mate; as the life of many annuals may be increafed to twice 1ts na- tural period, if not more, by preventing their feeding.” It is obferved above, that the firft bulb of a tulip raifed from feed produces a more perfeét bulb annually for five or fix years, and perhaps more than one lefs perfeét ones, before it acquires the power Of ge= nerating feeds. Now when this period arrives, if the feed-flem be pinched of, I fuppofe that the next year’s bulb or bulbs will become more vIigOrOUS Or luxuriant, and if this be continued for three or four years Î fufpet the double fowers, which are perhaps owing to a more luxuriant growth, may be formed; and that in this, with fuperfluous nourifhment by manure, warmth, and moifture, confifts the art of obtaining hyacinths, ranunculus, and fometimes tulips, with fuch wonderful multiplication of petals or neétaries. See Seét. XIX::3. l, 4. The analogy, which exifts between this jateral production of vegetables and that of fome tribes of infeéts, is worth inveftigation. 1. This paternal or lateral generation of plants, which conftitutes the buds on the ftems of trees, and the fcions on their roots, which con- tinue to adhere to them, are fo far refembled by the branching in fes, which form the corals or corallines; and by many other fea- O animals, 98 ORGANS OF Secr. VIE, 1. s. animals, as the fea anemonies, which are faid to adhere to the fhores, or fubmarine earth, by one extremity, while they pullulate, or fpread out by the other into living ramifications of unmeafurable lencths. Thofe who have attended to the habits of the polypus, which is found in the ftagnant water of our ditches in July, affirm, that the young ones branch out from the fide of the parent like the buds of trees; and after a time feparate themfelves from them. This is fo analogous to the manner in which the buds of trees appear to be pro- duced, that thefe polypi may be confidered as all male animals, pro- ducing embryons, which require no mother to fupply them with a nidus, or with nutriment and oxygenation. Secondly, this paternal or lateral vegcetable progeny is beautifully feen in the wires of knot-crafs, polygonum aviculare; and in thofe of ftrawberries, fragaria vefca; and in the roots of potatoes. The la- teral generation of thefe plants by wires, while each new plant is thus chained to its parent, and continues to put forth another and another, as the wire creeps onward on or beneath the ground, is ex- actly refembled by the tape-worm, or tænia,{o often found in the bowels, firetching itfelf in a chain quite from the ftomach to the reétum. Linneus afferts, that it grows old at one extremity, while it continues to generate young ones at the other, proceedings ad inf- nitum, like a root of grafs. The feparate joints are called gourd- Worms, and propagate new joints like the parent without end, each joint being furnifhed with its proper mouth and organs of digeftion.” Syftema Naturæ, vermes, tenia. In this animal there evidently ap- pears a power of reproduction without any maternal apparatus for the purpofe of fupplying nutriment and Oxygenation to the embryon, as it remains attached toits father till its matunity, and in this refpe@ exactly refembles the lateral generation of vegetables. 5+ This fubjcét of the lateral produdtion of vegetables from male parents without the intervention of à female is further refembled by the innumerable progeny of the aphis, which rifes from an ecg in the fpring, Sécr. VIl. 1. 6,7% REPRODUCTION. 69 fpring, as a vegetable rifes from a feed, and produces à viviparous offspring for many generations like the fucceflive buds of a feedling apple-tree, or of a fecdling tulip; and then it generates both males and females, which copulate and depofit eges, like the anthers and ftigmas of flowers, and their confequent feeds; which at length ap- pear on feedling apple-trees and on feedhing tulips; as is further {poken of in Seë. IX, 2. 7. and XIV. r. 6. 6. Whence I conclude, that in fexual viviparous generation the new entity, or embryon, is fecreted by the male, and received into à nidus prepared for it by the female, and nourifhed by fluids fecreted into the uterus, as they are required, which is probably owing to the ftimulus of the fetus againft the fides ofit; that in fexual oviparous generation a refervoir of nutriment is prepared, and inclofed in the ego, previous to the reception of the embryon, which 1s fecreted by the male, and depofited in this refervor of nutriment; becaufe the £etus in thefe animals is to be feparated from the parent before its due maturity; and the egg, in which it is inclofed, may be confidered as an uterus, or womb, feparated from the mother. And laftly, that in paternal or male generation the new entity, or embryon, 15 as cer tainly fecreted from a gland of the male, but probably remains in an adapted refervoir belonging to this gland, correfpondent to the ve- ficulæ feminales of moft viviparous animals, and that here it exifts like the cicatricula in the egg, and has a refervoir of nutriment pre- pared for it like that in the egg to fupport it; when the paternal Jeaf-bud by its death is feparated from it in the autumn, as the ego 1s feparated from its living mother. 7. The produétion of buds in the axilla of every leaf may thus be eafily conceived, as the new buds are furnifhed with their caudexes or bark-filaments over thofe of their dead parents, which fhoot out root-fibres beneath in the enfuing fpring, and that I fuppofe both in deciduous plants and in evergreens; as in the latter alfo I believe the Parent leaf-bud annually falls of, though not by the immediate.in- O 2 fluence rte pan à ==- D él 2 4 ww” Es Sr ra© re D. ue ED ur 100| ORGANS OF SEC. VII. 5.7, fluence of the cold of autumn. But how long a twig or fcion of leaves, as in the vine or willow, fucceed each other, fome producing em- bryon buds in their bofoms before others become expanded, is not eafy to underftand; but the embryons of all thefe new leaves, though not of the buds in their bofoms, probably exifted in the paternal womb, though in different degrees of maturity, which accords with the ob- fervations of fome natuüralifts on the fuccefive generations of the vol- vox globator, which Linneus aferts to be diaphanous, and that it car- ries within itfelf fons and grandfons to the fifth generation, but which are probably living fetufes produced by the father, of different degrees of maturity, and to be detruded at different periods of time like the unimpregnated eggs of various fizes, which are found in poultry. See Zoonomia, Vol. E Sec. XXXIX, 2. and Linnei Syftem. Naturæ, Vermes. Volvox. In fome trees however, as in the vine, vitis, and in many herbace- ous plants, as in wheat, fouthiftle, teafel, triticum, fonchus, dypfacus, each fucceflive joint of the plant is evidently an individual vegetable being; becaufe the pith, which conftitutes the brain or fpinal marrow of each individual, terminates at every joint by a divifion, as fpoken of in Set I. 8. whence in thefe vegsetables every fucceflive joint appears to be produced by that beneath it; whereas where there is no divifion of the pith, the twig feems to be fimply an elongation of the caudex of the leaf-bud, like the wires of ftrawberries and other creeping plants. It fhould neverthelefs be added, that there are many hermaphrodite infe@s, as fhell-fnails and dew-worms, which contain both male and female organs of generation; and as they are perpetually feen to co- pulate with each other, it is believed, that they can not impregnate themfelves. Now it may be conceived, that the buds of trees poffefs both male and female organs of generation, and that they can impreg- nate themfelves, and that thus the new buds might be termed an hermaphrodite offspring rather than a paternal one,‘This would however Sgcr. VIL 1.7. REPRODUCTION.— however produce a confufion of terms, as the eggs of fnails and of worms, as mentioned above, are properly an hermaphrodite off- fpring. Another cireumftance occurs in this paternal generation, which dif- fers from that of thofe hermaphrodite infeéts above alluded to, which. is, that though in vegetables the new embryon is generally produced: in. the bofom of the leaf-ftalk, which is believed to beits parent; yet new buds.are occafionally protruded from almoft any part of the bark,. when the fummit of a branch is taken off, or the fide branches of à tree, fo as to admit light and air, and a fupply of more nutriment; whence it would feem, that though hermaphrodite mfeëts poflefs but: one male and one female apparatus for the produétion and: reception: of the new entity or embryon, yet that in paternal generation the pro- lific fluid is occafonally fecreted in any part of the caudex of each in- dividual bud from its fummit on the branch of a tree to its termina- tion in the root; and that wherever a proper nidus can be found, wbich is fupplied with nutriment, and expofed:to light and air, that there the new embryon can adhere and grow; although this occurs moft conveniently, and.thence moft frequently, in the bofom.of the- Jeaf-ftalk, where the prolific fluid is probably firft fecreted, and the putriment moft copioufly fupplied. from the vegetable blood newly oxygenated in the leaf. In this I fuppofe to confift the great differ-- ence between paternal and fexual generation; and that this mode of: reproduction forms an exception to the general axiom of the great; Harvey,‘* all things from eggs.” The exiftence of a power of generation in every part of the caudex of a vegetable bud from the fummit to the root is not only fhewn by thenew buds, which grow on the trunks of trees, which were felled. in the fpring, but alfo from a curious circumftance which occurs in: ingrafted trees; which is, that whenever after many ÿears any new: buds or fcions.grow from the ftock beneath the graft, itiis always: fimilar to the parent ftock, and. not. to the ingrafted fcion; which fhews, 102 OKRGANS OF SET: NI. 1;> {° fhews, that this new bud was generated in the old ftock, and not that it was owing to an abforption and depofition of a prolific fluid fecreted in any part of the ingrafted head. It muft however be re- membered, that the caudex of each bud extends from the leaf-ftalk to the root, whether it be a fimple caudex as in a feedling tree, or a compound one as in a grafted tree; and that the generation of new buds in perennial'herbaceous plants exifts in every part of the broad caudex on the root, as it does here in every part of the long caudex on thetrunk. Nothing known in the animal world refembles this univerfality of the generative faculty throughout almoft the whole of an individual vegetable being, except the number of new polypi faid to arife at the fame time from different parts of the fame indi- vidual animal. Wherever the new vegetable embryons are fecreted, they alfo find à fituation or uterus, where they can adhere and be nourifhed to almoft any number; which however is not. unfupported by fome analogy even in viviparous animals; as there have been many in- ftances of extra-uterine fetufes, which have attached or inferted their veflels into the peritoneum, or on the vifcera of the mother, in the fame manner as they naturally attach or infert them into the fides of the true uterus. And in refpe& to the number of uteri produced we may recolleët the number of eggs, and of fifh-fpawn, or frog-fpawn, or of feeds, which may all be termed fo many diftinét uteri, as they contain every thing, which is found in the uteri of Viviparous ani- mals. The aphis, and probably many other infeëts, poñlefs both the fo- litary and fexual mode of propagation, as is pofiefled by moft veget- ables; but the polypus and tenia, and hydra ftentorea, and volvox, appear on]y to be reproduced by the folitary or lateral generation; and it 15 probable that the truffle amongft vegetables, and fome fub- marine plants, and others of the clafs cryptogomia, whofe feeds have not been yet difcovered, may fill be only propagated by the : lateral SEcrT. VII 2. 1. REPRODUCTION. 103 lateral mode of reproduétion, as is well obferved in an ingenious work by a lady of very accurate botanic knowledce, caïied< Botanic Dialogues, defigned for the ufe of fchools,” one volume o@avo, Johnfon, London; but which may be ftrongly recommended to the adult in.botany as containing much ufeful information agrecably imparted. This curious fubjet of lateral or folitary generation is well worthy more accurate inveftigation, as 1t is the fimpleft, and was probably the firft mode of reproduction which exifted; and if any accurate knowledge can ever be acquired of animal generation, it will poffibly occur from a more nice attention to the produétion of the buds and bulbs of vegetables! which is further fpoken of in Se&. IX. 2 and> At the fame time it muft be obferved, that the fexual reprodu@ion is the chef d’ouvre, the mafter-piece of nature, as by the paternal or lateral reproduétion the fame fpecies only are propagated ad infinitum: whereas by the fexual mode of reproduétion a countlefs variety of animals are introduced into the world, and much pleafure is aforded to thofe, which already exift in it. r. We come now to the feminal mode of the production of vege- tables, which originates from the congorefs of the male and female parts of flowers, and may be therefore termed the fexual or amatorial _progeny of vegetation. From the accurate experiments and obfervations of Spallanzani it appears, that in the Spartium Junceum, rufh-broom, the very mi- nute feeds were difcerned in the pod at leaft twenty days before the flower is in full bloom; that is, twenty days before fecundation. At this time alfo the powder of the anthers was vifible, but glued faft to their fummits. The feeds however at this time, and for ten days after the bloflom had fallen off, appeared to confift of a gelatinous 8 fubflance, | 4 FN Di L l ,, L ER€ 11 1 £ A va a 1 | FE-44 j F1 fu 1 ANR ï. 4 d ni i\ n À 21 4 1 L(] ai 3 sh BE LU 147 F RTE:| i 24, 3 DRRU E Le LS u-# { 11 Mt N'a RE RE LN! 1e| 1M£ 15.00 Î 17.40 JA 4 10 1 à À) ni [ H. j \ 1 En 154 DURE = à C®| AE RETR. La la 4 (CL DS u L | NL/ 3 te| 1 é 44: FA\'ReN 1 à | J LA#4 (ON ON nr| 14 107| F d 14} 4| NOR L(é ( L 4 VAL M 1 G, fi l Lil& w Fr, ? RS ne. 2 er, cp '€ TO4 ORGANS OF SECT,IVII D: 7: fübftance. On the eleventh day after the falling of the bloflom the feeds became heart fhaped, with the bafis attached by an appendage to the pod, and a white point at the apex; this white point was on preffure found to be a cavity including a drop of liquor. On the twenty-fifth day the cavity, which at firft appeared at the apex, was much enlarged, and ftill full of liquor; it alfo contained a very fmall femi-tranfparent body of a yellowifh colour, gelatinous, and fixed by its two oppoñte ends to the fides of the cavity. In a month the feed was much enlarged, and its fhape changed from à heart to a kidney; the little body contained in the cavity was increafed in bulk, and was lefs tranfparent, and gelatinous, but there yet appeared no organization.| On the fortieth day the cavity now grown larger was quite filled with the body, which was covered with a thin membrane; after this membrane was removed, the body appeared of a bright green, and was eafily divided by the point of a needle into two portions, which manifeftly formed the two lobes; and within thefe attached to the lower part the exceedingly fmall plantule was eafily perceived. The foregoing obfervations evince, 1. That the feeds exift in the ovarium many days before fecundation. 2. That they remain for fome time folid, and then a cavity containing a liquid is formed in them. 3. That after fecundation a body begins to appear within the cavity fixed by two points to the fides, which in procefs of time proves to be two lobes containing a plantule, 4. That the ripe feed confifts of twe lobes adherins to a plantule, and furrounded by a thin membrane, which is itfelf covered with a hufk or cuticle. Spallanzanr’s Differta- tions, Vol. IL. p. 253. The analogy between feeds and egos has long been obferved, and is confirmed by the mode of their produ&tion. The eg is known to be formed within the hen long before its impregnation. C. F. Wolf afferts, that the yolk of the ecc is nourifhed by the veflels of the mother, and that it has from thofe its arterial and venous branches; but el NC ne Sec, VIE 2 2 REPRODUCTION. 106 but that after impregnation thefe veflels gradually become imper- vious and obliterated; and that new ones are produced from the fetus, and difperfed intothe yolk. Haller’s Phyfol. Tom. VIIL p. 94. The young feed after fecundation I fuppofe is nourifhed in a fimilar man- ner from the gel:tinous liquor, which is previoufly depoñted for that purpofe; the uterus of the plant producing or fecreting it into a re- fervoir or amnios, in which the embryon 1s lodged; and that the young embryon is furnifhed with veflels to abforb a part ofit, as in the very early ftate of the embryon in the egg. Another curious analogy feems to exift between the embryon of the feed and of the ess in their mode of fufpenfion. The cicatricula of the egs refts on the yolk, which is fufpended by two points, called chalazæ, fomewhat above its center of gravity; whence, however the ess is moved, this embryon is always kept upwards, probably the better to receive the warmth of the mother during incubation. The feed-embryon feems to be fupported in the fame manner by the above relation of Spallanzani by two points, and may thus receive a greater warmth from the fummer fun. 2. The feeds are thus produced in their unimpregnated ftate in the vesetable uterus, and nourifhed by the flower-bud, which was formed in the deciduous trees of this climate during the preceding fummer, and which now puts forth the braëtes, or floral-leaves, for the oxy- genation of its blood; and protrudes its roots and abforbents into the ground from the lower part of its caudex, for the purpofe cf acquir- ing nourifhment; and on the fummit of this fexual apparatus are at the fame time produced the corol and neëtaries of the flower, with the ftamens, and ftigmas, which are evidently defigned to give fecunda- tion to the vegetable feeds, or egss, previoufly depofited in the peri- carp or uterus; becaufe, as foon as thefe are impregnated, the corol and neétaries, with the ftamens, and ftigmas, fall off and difappear. The anthers have been proved by many experiments to be necef: fary to the fecundation of the vegetable feeds by the farina, or duft, P which 106 OERAGEANSS, 2G FR SECT. VIL 2. 2, 9 which they difperfe, and which adheres to the moift ftigma on the fummit of the ftyle or pericarp.‘The amatorial attachment between thefe ftigmas and the anthers on the fummits of the ftamens has at- tracted the notice of all botanifts, In many flowers the anthers or males bend into conta& with the fligmas or females, as in kalmia, fritilaria perfica, parnaffa, ca@us, and ciftus. In the kalmia the ten Îtamens lie round the piflil, like the radii of a wheel, and each anther is concealed in a nich of the corol to protect it from cold and moif- ture; thefe anthers rife feparately from their niches, and approach the figma of the piftil for a time, and then recede to their former fituations, In the fritillaria perfica the fix ftamens are of equal lengths, and the anthers lie at a diftance from the piftil; of thefe three alternate ones approach firft, and furround the female; and vhen thefe decline, the other three approach; and in parnaflia the males alternately approach and recede from the female; and Raftly in the moft beautiful flowers of catus grandiflorus, and of ciftus lab- damferus, where the males are very numerous, fome of them are perpetually bent into conta&t with the female; and as they recede, others advance. In other flowers the females bend into contaët with the males, as in nigella, epilobium, fpartium, collinfonia. In nigella, devil in the bufh, the females are very tall compared to the males, and bending down over them in a circle, give the flower fome refemblance to a regal crown. The female of the epilobium anouftifolium, willow- herb, bends down amongft the males for feveral days, and becomes upright again when impregnated, In the fpartium fcoparium, com- mon broom, the males or ftamens are in two fets, one fet rifing a quarter of an inch above the other. The upper fet does not arrive at their maturity fo foon as the lower; and the fligma, or head of the female, 1s produced amongft the upper or immature fet. But as foon as the pifil grows tall enough to burft open the keel-leaf, or head of the flower, it bends itfelf round in an inflant like a French horn, and pe SECFAVIE 2.2, REPRODUCTION. 107 er and inferts its head, or ftigma, amoneft the lower or mature fet of males. The piftil or female then continues to grow in lensth; and in a few days the ftigma arrives again amongft the upper fet, by the time they become mature. This wonderful contrivance is readily feen by opening the keel-leaf of the flowers of broom, before they burft fpontaneoufly. And laftly, in the collinfonia the two males widely diverging from each other, the female bends herfelf into con- ta& firft with one of them; and after a day or two leaves this, and applies herfelf to the other; the anther of which was not mature fo foon as the former. See Se. VIII. 8. of this work. Dr. Pefchier of Geneva thinks, he has difcountenanced this idea of amatorial fenfibility of vegetables by two experiments, which are re- lated in Journal de Phyfique de Lametherie, T. IL. p. 343. One of thefe confifted of his tying down the ftigma of epilobium anguftifo- lium, and yet in due time the anthers burft and fhed their pollen, and thus committed a kind of vegetable Onanifin; and alfo that he caf- trated the ftamens of this flower, and yet the ftigma opened and arofe, as if the anthers had been prefent. The other experiment confifted in his confining a branch of barbery, berberis, in a glafs, and fubje&- ing the ftamina of the flowers to the vapour of nitrous acid, which by this ftimulus arofe from their petals to the ftigma, and after a few minutes again retired to their petals. Both thefe experiments rather feem to confirm than to enfeeble the analogy between plants and animals; as the amatorial motions of thefe flowers were thus pro- duced by internal or external ftimuli, as in the healthy or difeafed ftates of animals. Another mode, in which the prolific duft is difperfed, is by the burfüing of the anther, and its confequent diffufon in air, either fo as to make a cloud near the females, which exift in the fame flower, or on the fame plant, which is the moft ufual manner; or by its being carried by the winds to a greater diftance, as in the flowers of the clafs monœcia, or one houfe. So in urtica, nettle, the male P2z flowers UE CE 108 OR: G'A N:S: OF DEGTANAE 25% flowers are feparate from the female, and the anthers are feen in fair weather to burft with force, and to difcharge their duft, which ho- vers about the plant like a cloud, Jo plants of the clafs diœcia, or two houfes, the fecundating farina is carried to the diflance of many miles by the winds, as has been proved by the impregnation of fome female date trees, which were at a great diftance from the male ones. And the male flowers them- felves of vallifneria are carried many miles down the rivers, which it inhabits, to the female ones. This plant has its roots at the bottom of the Rhone; the flowers of the female plant float on the furface of the water, and are furnifhed with an elaftic fpirat ftalk, which ex- tends or contrats, as the water rifes and falls The flowers of the male plant are produced under water, and as foon as their farina, or duft, is mature, they detach themfelves from the plant, and rife to the furface, continue to flourifh, and are wafted by the air, or borne by the currents, to the female flowers. In this refembling thofe tribes of infects, where the males at certain feafons acquire wings, but not the females, as ants, coccus, lampyris, phalæna, brumata, licha- nella. See vallifneria in the Families of Plants, tranflated from Lin- neus. Johnfon, London. The plants, which grow in the air, are frequently injured in wet feafons by the moifture occafioning the cells of the anthers, which contain the fecundating farina, to burft, and to fhed it on the ground. To which a fcarcity of the quantity of wheat, or an imperfeétion of its fecundating quality, and the uftilago, or fmut, have rationally been afcribed, as its anthers are expofed on long filaments to the weather. On this account many flowers clofe their corols before rain, and the aquatic plants of rivers perform their impresnations in the air. But M. Bonnet remarks another method of the difperfion of the fecun- dating influence of fome marine plants, in which the male organ does. not project a fine powder, but a liquor, which forms a perceptible cloud in the water; and adds, that the male falamander darts his 5 femen 1” SEcrNAIL"23, 4. RE PRODUCTION. 109 {emen into the water, where it forms a whitifh cloud, which is af. terwards received by the fwollen anus of the female, and fhe be- comes impregnated. Nor is this vegetable impregnation in water unanalogous to other animal impregnations, as the fpawn of frogs and of fifh is delivered from the female before it is fecundated; and its fecundation is feen to fucceed in water; and Spallanzani found, that the feminal fluid even of dogs, as well as of frogs, retained its pro- lfc quality when diluted with much water. Bonnet’s Œuvres Phi- lof. in a letter to Spallanzani. 3. The other parts, which rife on the edge of the pericarp, and ex- pand themfelves before the impregnation of the feed, are the corol and nectaries. The former of thefe has been fhewn to be a refpiratory organ for the purpofe of oxygenating the blood to a greater degree than in the green foliage, as it is there expofed to the air beneath a finer pellicle, and acquires variety of colours. See Se&. IV. 5. 1. to which may be added, that as the corol in helleborus niger, Chrift- mas rofe, changes after the fecundation of the feed into a calyx, lof- ing its white colour, and becoming green. So in many flowers the calyx falls off along with the corol; in thefe it fhould be efteemed a part of or appendase to the corol; whereas thofe calyxes, which are permanent after the corol falls off, are properly parts of the pericarp or vegetable uterus. 4. The ne&tary, or honey-cup, is evidently an appendage to the eorol, aitd is the refervoir of the honey, which is fecreted by an ap- propriate gland from the blood after its oxygenation in the corol, as mentioned in Sect. IV. 5. 5. and is abforbed for nutriment by the fexual parts ofthe flower. This purpofe however has as yet efcaped the refearches of philofophical botanifts. M. Pontedera believes it defigned to lubricate the vegetable uterus.(Antholog. p. 49.) Others have fuppofed, that the honey, when reabforbed, might ferve the pur- pofe of the liquor amnïü, or white of an egg, as a nutriment for the young embryon, or fecundated feed, in its early ftate of exiftence, But 110 D'RGANS:OF DECTNA: 2:#8. But as the neary is found equally general in male flowers as in fe- male ones, and as the young embryon, or feed, grows before the petals and neëtary are expanded, and after they fall of; thefe feem to be infurmountable objections to both the above-mentioned Opi- nions. In many tribes of infeëts, as the filk-worm, and perhaps in all the moths and butterflies, the male and female parents die, as foon as the eggs are impregnated and excluded, the eggs remaining to be per- feéted and hatched at fome future time.‘The fame thing happens te the male and female parts of flowers; the anthers and filaments, which conftitute the male parts of the flower, and the ftigma and ftyle, which conflitute the fenfitive or amatorial organ of the female part of the flower, fall off and die, as foon as the feeds are imprecs= nated, and along with thefe the petals and ne&tary. Now the moths and butterflies above mentioned, as foon as they acquire the pañlion and the apparatus for the reproduction of their fpecies, lofe the power of feeding upôn leaves, as they did before, and become nourifhed by what?—by honey alone. Hence we acquire a ftrong analogy for the ufe of the neétary, or fecretion of honey, in the vegetable economy; which is, that the male parts of flowers, and the female parts, as foon as they leave their fetus-flate, expanding their petals,(which conftitute their lungs) be- come fenfible to the paflion, and gain the apparatus, for the repro- duétion of their fpecies; and are fed and nourifhed with honey like the infeéts above defcribed; and that hence the ne@ary begins its office of producing honey, and dies or ceafes to produce honey, at the fame time with the birth and death of the anthers and the ftig- mas; which, whether exifting in the fame or in different flowers, are feparate and diftinét animated beings. Previous to this time the anthers with their filaments, and the ‘ftigmas with their ftyles, are in their fetus-ftate fuftained in fome plants by their umbilical veflels, like the unexpanded leaf-buds, as in 2 colchicum Secr. VIL 2.4 REPRODUCTION. er colchicum autumnale, and daphne mezereon; and in other plants by the braëtes, or floral-leaves, as in rhubarb, which are expanded long before the opening of the flower; the feeds at the fame time exifüng in the vegetable womb yet unimpregnated, and the duft yet unripe in the cells of the anthers. After this period the petals become expanded, which have been fhewn to conftitute the Iungs of the flower; the umbilical veflels, which before nourifhed the anthers and the fligmas, coalefce, or ceafe to nourifh them: and they acquire blood more oxygenated by the air, obtain the paflion and power of reproduétion, are fenfible to heat, and light, and moifture, and to me- chanic ftimulus, and become in reality infeéts fed with honey; fimi- lar in every refpeét except that all of them yet known but the male flowers of vallifneria, continue attached to the plant, on which they are produced. So water infeéts, as the gnat, and amphibious animals, as the tad- pole, acquire new aerial lungs, when they leave their infant ftate for that of puberty. And the numerous tribes of caterpillars are fed upon the common juices of vegetables found in their leaves, till they ac- quire the organs of reproduction; and then they feed on honey, all I believe except the filk-worm, which in this country takes no nou- rifhment after it becomes a butterfly. And the larva or magoot of the bee, according to the obfervations of Mr. Hunter, is fed with raw vegetable matter, called bee-bread, which is collected from the an- thers of flowers, and laid up in cells for that purpofe, till the maggot becomes a winged bee, acquires greater fenfbility, and is fed with honey. Phil. Tranf. 1792. Lafly, though the filaments and ftyle, as well as the corolla and neétary, belong to the fexual organs of vecetables; yet it is the an- thers alone of the ftamina, and ftigmas alone of the piftilla, which poflefs the power, and I fuppofe the paflion of reproduétion, as appears from the mutilated filaments of many flowers, as of curcuma, of linum or flax of this country, of gratiola, and hemlock-leaved ge- ranIum, 112 OC CAMNS7 0 FE SecT. Nil 25e ranium, which have half their ftamina unterminated by anthers, and in confequence produce no prolific farina. And fecondly, from the florets, which form the rays of the flowers of the order fruftraneous polygamy of the clafs fyngenefa, as the fun-flower, which are fur- nifhed with a ftyle only, and no ftigma, and are thence barren. There is alfo a ftyle without a ftigma in the whole order of diœcia gynan- dria, the male flowers of which are thence barren, and fhews the neceflity of the exiftence of the ftigma to the fecundation of the ve- getable uterus, probably owing to its amatorial aétion in conveying the living principle to the included feeds like the fallopian tubes of the animal womb. 5. The feeds are produced in the pericarp, and at firft acquire nu- triment by the umbilical veffels previous to their fecundation, like the unexpanded leaf-buds; and then by the caudex down the bark with its radicles, which is oxygenated by the braëtes, or floral-leaves, as foon as thefe are expanded, they afterwards become in one day im- pregnated in fome flowers, as in the oenothera, caétus grandiflorus, and ciftus; and the corol or petals, with the ftamens and ftigmas, and nectaries, wither and fall off. In other flowers many days elapfe be- fore the various cells of feeds are fecundated, and thefe more ani- mated parts of fexual reproduétion perifh. But in all cafes the feeds remain in the pericarp or uterus after fecundation as before it, except in thofe plants, which are called proliferus, as the polygonum vivi- parum, and magical onions, which immediately begin to vegetate; in all other plants the feed either fleeps till the enfuing fpring, as in the colchicum and hamamelis; or they continue to grow to maturity, and to be nourifhed in the pericarp by the blood of the parent fower- bud, which is oxygenated in the braétes or floral-leaves, till they be- come perfected like eggs, and fall on the ground, or are otherwife difperfed, for the purpofe of taking root in the earth. Whence it appears, that in the fexual reproduétion of vegetables the amatorial organ is diftinét from the uterus, as is probably the cafe in SEcT. VII. 2. 6° REPRODUCTION. 112 J in animals; which in female quadrupeds would fee to fleep after impregnation during the time of geftation and laétefcence, and after- wards to revive; whereas this amatorial organ in vecetable flowers perifhes, when the uterus is impregnated, along with the male organs, neither of which are any longer of ufe in thefe annual beings. The various methods, which nature has employed for the difperfion of feeds, are worth the attention of the farmer and gardener, both for the purpofe of preventing the growth of noxious feeds, and of col- le&ting the profitable ones. The pericarp of fome plants burfts with fudden violence, when the feed is mature, and difperfes it to confider- able diftance; as that of wood-forrel, oxalis acetocalla; and of im- patiens, touch me not. The feeds of many plants of the clafs fyn- genefia are furnifhed with a plume, by which admirable mechanifin they are difleminated by the winds far from their parent ftem, and look like a fhuttlecock, as they fly. Other feeds are difleminated by animals; of thefe fome attach themfelves to their hair or feathers by a gluten, as mifletoe; others by hooks, as clivers, galium aperine; burdock, arétium lappa; hound’s-tongue, cynoglofflum. Others are fwallowed whole for the fake of the fruit, and voided uninjured, as the hawthorn, cratægus, juniper, and fome graffes. And the feeds of aquatic plants, and of thofe which grow on the banks of rivers, are carried many miles by the currents into which they fall. Other feeds are feparated from each other, and difperfed by the twifting of the awn at the fummit of them, when moiftened by rain, as a black oat, avena fatua, with hairy awns, which feems to crawl like an infeét when moiftened; geranium alfo, and barley; and as this happens in wet weather, the moift ground is then fit to receive and nourifh them.‘The awns of the geranium have been ufed as bygrometers by fticking the bafe of the feed into a cork for a pedeftal, and marking divifions on a paper circle beneath it; and the awn of barley is furnifhed with{tif points, which, like the teeth of à faw, are all turned towards oneend of it; as this long awn lies upon the ground, Q it 214 ORGANS OF SECT. VIL 2, 6, it extends itfelf in the moift air of night, and pufhes forward the barley-corn, which it adheres to; in the day it fhortens as it dries: and as thefe points prevent it from receding, it draws up its pointed end; and thus, creeping like à worm, will travel many feet from the parent flem; and may thus be ufed as a travelling hygrometer, when laid on a cloth on the floor, like the automaton of Mr. Edgeworth defcribed in Botanic Garden, article Impatiens, Vol. IL. 6.‘The formation of the organs for fexual generation, in contra- diftin@ion to thofe for lateral generation, in vegetables, and in fome animals, as the polypus, the tænia, and the volvox, feems the chef| ; d'œuvre, the mafter-piece of nature, as appears from many fying in- fets, as moths and butterflies, which feem to undergo a general change of their forms folely for the purpofe of fexual reprodu&tion; and in all other animals thefe organs are not complete till the maturity of the creature; whereas the lateral generation commences with the infancy of the germ or bud, as on the roots of young herbs, and on| the flems of infant trees.| There feems neverthelefs to be one circumftance, in which the fo- litary generation of the buds of plants, when the plants are at their maturity, is fuperior to the fexual generation by feeds. This confifts in the progeny of the former being more perfect than that of the latter, in refpect to the power of the reproduétion. of their fpecies. Thus in many plants, as in tulips and apple-trees, the young vegetable from - the feed produces other bulbs, or buds, for fome years, which feem| annually to improve, till at length they acquire a puberty, if it may be fo called, and become furnifhed with fexual organs for the purpofe of feminal reproduction; whereas the leaf-buds, or leaf-bulbs, of the apple-tree and tulip during their firft years produce other leaf-buds, or leaf-bulbs, rather more perfeét than their parents; and when thefe bulbs, and buds, arrive at their puberty, or maturity, fo as to be ca- pable of fexual generation, their new bulbs and new buds alfo, if taken from their dying parents, and tranfplanted or ingrafted, or left 8 adhering ? SECT. VII. 2. 6. REPRODUCTION. à LS adhering to them, are immediately capable of producing flowers, and a confequent feminal progeny. Às the progeny by lateral generation fo exa@ly refembles the parent ftock, it follows, that though any new variety, or improvement, may be thus continued for a century or two, as in grafted fruit-trecs, yet that no new variety or improvement can be obtained by this mode of generation; though fome hereditary difeafes, as the canker, are believed to arife in ingrafted trees, which have long been propagated by lateral generation, as explained in No. r. 3. of this Section. But from the fexual, or amatorial, generation of plants new varie- ties, or improvements, are frequently obtained; as many of the young plants from feeds are diflimilar to the parent, and fome of them fuperior to the parent in the qualities we wifh to poflefs; which is another proof that the anthers and ftigmas of plants are animated be- ings, different from the green foliage of the tree on which they grow; as they produce varieties in the form of their offépring like fexual ani- mals, which buds do not. Befides the production of different, and fometimes more excellent, varieties in the fpecies of vesetables from feeds, another advantage occurs from fexual generation, which is the produ@ion of new fpecies of plants, or mules, by fhedding the fecundating duft of fome flowers on the fligmas of others of a different fpecies, though generally of the fame genus. À mule cabbage is defcribed in the Bath Acriculture, Vol. I Art. 4, which is faid to fatten a beaft fix weeks fooner than turneps. Je is there faid,‘* that the fort of cabbage principally raifed is the tallow-loaf or drum-head cabbage; buüt it beins too tender to bear fharp froft, I planted fome of this fort and the common purple-cab- bage ufed for pickline,(it being the hardieft 1 am acquainted with) alternately; and when the feed-pods were perfeé down the purple, and left the other for feed. T effect, and produced à mixt ftock of a deep green colour with purple Q 2 veins, Ay' formed; F'cut his had the defred 116 ORGANS OF SECT, VIL 2. 6. veins, retaining the fize of the drum head, and acquiring the hardi- nefs of the purple.” {a another curious paper of the Bath Society, Vol. V. p. 38, Mr. Wimpey relates, that he planted a field with garden-beans in rows about-three feet afunder in the following order, mazagan, white- blofflom, long-podded, Sandwich-toker, and Windfor-beans. The mazagan and white-bloffom were thrafhed firft, when to his great furprife he found many new fpecies of beans; thofe from the maza- gan were mottled black and white; the white-blofloms were brown and yellow inftead of their natural black; and they were both much larger than ufual. See Se&. XVI. 4. of this work. There is an apple defcribed in Bradley’s work, which is faid to have one fide of it a fweet fruit, which boils foft, and the other fide a four fruit, which boils hard. This Mr. Bradley fo long ago as the year 1721 ingenioufly afcribes to the farina of one of thefe apples impreg- nating the other; which would feem the more probable, if we con- fider, that each divifion of an apple is a feparate womb, and may therefore have a feparate impregnation, like puppies of different kinds in one litter. The fame is faid to have occurred in oranges and lemons, and grapes of different colours. Vegetable mules are faid to be numerous, and, like the mules of the animal kingdom, not always to continue their fpecies by feed. There is an account of a curious mule from the antirrhinum linaria, toad-flax, in the Amoœænit. Academ. V.I. No. 3. and many hybrid plants are defcribed in No. 32.‘The urtica alienata is an evergreen plant, which appears to be a nettle from the, male flowers, and a pel- Htory(parietaria) from the female ones and the fruit, and is hence be- tween both. Murray, Syft. Veg. Amonft the Englifh indigenous plants, the veronica hybryda, mule fpeedwell, 15 fuppofed to have originated from the officinal one, and the fpiked one; and the Sib- thorpia Europæa to have for its parents the golden faxifrage and marfh, pennywort. Pulteney’s View of Linneus, p. 253. There TRE PRET SecrT. VIL 2. 7. REPRODUCTION. 117 There is another vegetable fa& publifhed by M. Koelruter, which he calls‘ à complete metamorphofis of one natural fpecies of plants into another;”” which fhews, that in feeds as well as in buds, the embryon proceeds from the male parent, though the form of the fabfequent mature plant is in part dependent on the female. M. Ko- elruter impregnated a ftigma of the nicotiana ruftica with the farina of the nicotiana paniculata, and obtained prohfic feeds from it. With the plants, which fprung from thefe feeds, he repeated the experiment, impregnating their piftilla with the farina of the nicotiana paniculata. Às the mule plants, which he thus produced, were prolific, he con- tinued to impregnate them for many generations with the farina of the micotiana paniculata, and they became more and more like the male parent, till he at length obtained fix plants in every refpeét per- feétly fimilar to the nicotiana paniculata, and in no refpeët refembling their female parent the nicotiana ruftica. Blumenback on Genera- tion.| Mr. Graberg, Mr. Schreber, and Mr. Ramftrom, feem of opinion, that the internal ftru@ure or parts-of fru@tification in mule plants re- femble the female parent; but that the habit or external ftruëture re- fembles the male parent. See treatifes under the above names in Vol. VI, Amænit. Academic, 7. Something fimilar to this feems to obtain in mixing the breeds of the fame fpecies of animals, and in animal mules, which may be worth the attention of the grazier. The mule produced from a horfe and a fhe afs refembles the horfe externally with his ears, mane, and tail; but with the nature, or manners of an afs. But the hinnus, or creature produced from a male afs and a mare, refembles the father externally in ftature, afh-colour, and the black crofs on his fhoulders, bat with the nature or manners of a horfe. The breed from Spanifh rams and Swedifh ewes refembled the Spanifh fheep in wool, flature, and external form; but was as hardy as the Swedifh fheep; and the contrary occurred in the breeds which were produced from Swedifh rams 118 ORGANS OF SECT. VII, 2. 8. rams and Spanifh ewes. The offspring from the male goat of An- gora and the Swedifh female goat had long foft camel’s hair; but that from the male Swedifh goat, and the female one of Angora, had no improvement of their wool. An Englifh ram without horns, and a Swedifh horned.ewe, produced fheep without horns. Amoœn, Acad. Vol. VI. p. 13. 8. From thefe circumftances it appears, that not only new varie- ties may be procured from the feminal offspring of plants; where thofe from the lateral offspring become difeafed by age, as the can- kered apple-orafts, and perhaps the curled potatoes, and barren ftrawberries; but that more curious or ufeful fruits or flowers may be obtained by fhedding the farina of fome valuable plant on the ftigma of another variety of the fame fpecies, as of two different but equally excellent apple-trees, or tulip-flowers, hyacinths, anemonies, and geraniums. And thirdly, that mules may be produced by a mix- ture of different fpecies of plants, and perhaps of different genera; as of pines and melons; grapes and goofeberries; oranges and apples; apricots and neétarines; nuts and acorns; which may be afterwards propagated by the lateral progeny, if not by the feminal one. The facility of generating vegetable mules feems forcibly to have ftruck the great Linneus; who in the preface to his natural orders of plants at the end of his Genera Plantarum thinks, that about fixty vecetables were at firft created correfponding with his natural orders. "Chat a mixture of thefe orders amongft themielves produced the ge- nera; that a mixture of the genera amongft themfelves produced the fpecies; and that a mixture of the fpecies produced the varieties, which he believes to accord with the general progrefs of nature 6 from fimpler things to the more compound.” In the fame manner it may be fuppofed, that many of the prefent fpecies of animals were originally mules produced by a mixture of animals of different genera; and that all fuch mules, as had perfect organs of reprodu@ion, continued their fpecies. But as thefe organs leem Sscr. VII. 2.4. 119 feem to be the chef d'œuvre of nature, as above remarked, they often become imperfeét im the generation of mules, and the fpecies then becomes extinét; as it could not be propagated by fexual generation, it.is poffible, that many new kinds of mules, which might be ufeful for labour, or by their milk or wool, or for food, might fill be pro- duced by the method of Spallanzani; who diluted the feminal fluid of a dog with much warm wäter, and by injeéting it fecundated 2 bitch, and produced puppies like the doc, Thus new animal combinations might poffibly be generated nume- rous as the fabled monfters of antiquity; as between the ram and the female goat; the ftag and the cow; the horfe and the doe; the bull and the mare; boar and bitch; dog and fow. And fecondly, as Spal- lanzani diluted the feminal fluid of a male frog with water, and fe. cundated fome female fpawn with it, and produced perfe&t tadpoles, there is reafon to conclude, that new combinations of fifh might thus be generated, and people our rivers with aquatic monfters. And laftly, that it is not impoffible, as fome philofopher has already fuppofed, if Spallanzani fhould continue his experiments, that fome beautiful produétions might be generated between the vegetable and animal kingdoms, like the eaftern fable of the rofe and nightingale, and which might be propagated by lateral or paternal, though not by fexual or feminal generation, The claffic reader will here be reminded of the metamorphofes of Ovid, of gods turned into bulls and fwans, men into frogs and: par- tridges, ladies into trees and flowers, of fphinxes, griffins, dragons, mermaids, centaurs, and minataurs; Pafiphae and her bull; Leda and: her fwan; Arethufa and her ffh-god Alpheus, and conclude that mules in early times were more frequent than at prefent, which oc- cafoned the poets and the priefts of antiquity to invent fo many fa- bulous monfters, and impofe them on the credulity of mankind.. III. VE- PE-: È#e ï"+ c a—= Ca: sr Dir RE ORGANS OF SEC. NH.Sx: 11I,. VEGETABLE GENERATION. 1. The intelligent reader is become, I hope, by this time fo much interefted in the further inveftigation of the circumftances attending the lateral and fexual generation of vegetables, that he will not be difpleafed with the continuance of the fubjeét for a few more pages, fo agreeable from its novelty, and fo important from its future ap- plication to animal reproduétion. If a fcion of a nonpareil apple be ingrafted on a crab-ftock, and a golden pippin be ingrafted on the nonpareil, what happens? The caudex of the bud of the golden pippin confifts of its proper abforbent veflels, arteries, and veins, till it reaches down to the nonpareil- ftock; and then the continuation of its caudex downwards confifts of veflels fimilar to thofe of the nonpareil; when its caudex defcenüs ill lower, it confifts of veffels fimilar to thofe of the crab-ftock, The truth of this is fhewn by two cireumftances; firft, becaufe the lower parts of this compound tree will occafonally put forth buds fimilar to the original ftock. And fecondly, becaufe in fome in- grafted trees, where a quick-crowing fcion has been inferted into à ftock of flower growth, as is often feen in old cherry-trees, the upper part of the trunk of the tree has become of almoft double the diameter of the lower part; both which occurrences fhew, that the lower part of the trunk of the tree continues to be of the fame kind, though it muft have been fo repeatedly covered over with new circles of wood, bark, and cuticle. Now as the caudex of each bud, which pañles the whole length of the trunk of the tree, and forms a communication from the upper part, or plumula, to the lower part, or radicle, muft confift in thefe doubly ingrafted trees of three different kinds of caudexes, refembling thofe of the different ftocks or fcions; we acquire a knowledge of what may be termed a lateral or paternal mule, in contradiftinétion fs to SecriVIT.5:2,2, REPRODUCTION. t21 to a fexual mule. For as in thefe trees thus combined by ingraftment every bud has the upper parts of its caudex that of a golden pippin, the middle part of it that of a nonpareil, of the lower part of it that of a crab; if thefe caudexes, which conftitute the filaments of the bark, could be feparated intire from the tree with their plumules and radicles, they would exhibit fo many lateral or paternal mules, con- fifting of the conneëted parts of their three parents; the plumula be- Jonging to the upper parent, and the radicle to the lower one, and the triple caudex to them all. A feparation of thefe buds from the parent plant is faid to have been obferved by Mr. Blumenback in the conferva fontinalis, a vegetable which confifts of fmall fhort flender threads, which grow in our foun- tains, and fix their roots in the mud. He obferved by magnifying glafles, that the extremities of the threads fwell, and from fmall tu- bera, or heads, which gradually feparate from the parent threads, at- tach themfelves to the ground, and become perfe& vegetables; the whole progrefs of their formation can be obferved in forty-eight hours. Obfervations on Plants, by Von Uflar, Creech, Edinb. 2. The lateral propagation of the polypus found in our ditches in July, but more particularly that of the hydra ftentorea, is wonder- fully analagous to the above idea of the lateral generation of vegeta- bles. The hydra ftentorea, according to the account of monfieur Trembley, multiplies itfelf by fplitting lengthwife; and in twenty- four hours thefe divifions, which adhere to a common pedicle, refplit, and form four diftinét animals. Thefe four in an equal time fplit again, and thus double their number daily, till they acquire a figure fomewhat refembling a nofegay. The young animals afterwards fe- parate from the parent, attach themfelves to aquatic plants, and give rife to new colonies. Another curious animal fa@ is related by Blumenback in his treatife On generation, concerning the frefh water polypus. He cut two of them in half, which were of different colours, and applying the upper R part + ss LATE 9)————————— PI De UD ME RE et DRE TE TRES TIRER TN Mo 122 ORGANS OF SecrT. VIE 2. 3. part of one to the lower part of the other, by means of a glafs-tube, and retaining them thus for fome time in conta@ with each other, the two divided extremities united, and became one animal. The attentive reader has already anticipated me in applying thefe wonderful modes of lateral animal reproduction and conjun&tion to. the lateral propagation and ingraftment of vegetables. The junétion of the head-part of one polypus to the tail-part of another is exactly reprefented by the ingraftment of a fcion on the ftock of another tree. The plumula, or apex of each bud, with the upper part ofits caudex, joins to the long caudex of the ftock, which pafing down the trunk terminates in the radicles ofit, Andifthis compound ve getable could be feparated longitudinally from the other long filaments of the bark in its vicinity, like the fibres of the bark of the mulberry- tree prepared at Otaheite, or as the bark of hemp and flax are pre- pared in this country, as the young ones of the hydra ftentorea fepa- rate from their parents, it might claim the name of à lateral or pater- nal mule, as above mentioned. 3. It hence appears, that every new bud of a tree, where two fcions have been inferted over each other on a ftock, if it could be feparated from the plume to the radicle, muft confift of three different kinds of caudex, and might therefore be called a triple lateral mule, And that hence it follows, that every part of this new triple caudex, muft have been feparated or fecreted laterally from the adjoining part of the trunk of the tree; and that it could’not be formed, as I for- DE HaPLS née 7 Ve Ju merly believed, from the roots of the plume of the bud defcendmeg| from the upper part of the caudex of it to the earth. A circum- N ftance of great importance in the inveftigation of the curious fubie& of the lateral generation of vegetables, and of infeéts. One might hence fufpe&, that if Blumenback had attended to the propagation of the polypus, which he had compofed of two half po- lypi, that the young progeny might have pofieffed two colours re- fembline € A HDeh HU) Secr. VIL. 34,5 REPRODUCTION. 2 fembling the compound parent, like the different caudexes of in ed trees; an experiment well worthy repeated obfervation. 4. Another animal faét ought alfo to be here mentioned, that many infe@s, as common earth-worms as well as the polypus, are faid to poflefs fo much life throughout a great part of their fyftem, that they may be cut into two or more piéces without deftroying them, as each piece will acquire a new head, or a new tail, or both; and 1 the infe& will thus become multiplied. How exactly this is re- fembled by the long caudex of the buds of trees, which poffefs fuch vecetable life from one extreraity to the other, that when the head or plume is lopped off, it can produce a new plume; and when the lower part 15 cut off, it can produce new radicles; and may be thus wonderfully multiplied, 5. Hence we acquire fome new and important ideas concerning the lateral generation of vegetables, and which may probably contri- bute to elucidate their{exual generation. T'hefe are, firft, that the parts of the long caudex of each new bud of an ingrafted tree, and confequently of all trees, are feparated or fecreted from tl e Corre= fpondent or adjoining parts of the long caudex of the laft year’s bud, which was its parent; and not that it confifts of the roots of each new bud fhot down from the plumula or apex of it, asl formerly fuppofed; and that thofe various molecules, or fibrils, fecreted from the caudex of the laft year’s buds, adjoin and grow together béneath the cuticle of the trunk of the tree, the upper ones forming the plu- mula of the new bud, which is its leaf or lungs, to acquire oxygen from the atmofphere; and the lower ones forming the radicles of it, which are abforbent veflels to acquire nutriment from the earth. Secondly, that EVErÿy part of the caudex of an ingrafted tree, and confequently of all trees, Can generate or produce a new| ud, when the upper part of it is ftrangulated with a wire or cut Off, or other- wife when it is fupplied more abundant]ly with nutriment, ventila- tion, and light. And that each of thefe new buds thus produced Re2 refembies 124 ORGANS. OF Secr. VII. 3. 6, refembles that part of the ftock in compound trees, where it arifes. Thus in the triple tree above mentioned a bud from the upper part of the long caudexes, which form the filaments of the bark, would become a golden pippin branch; a bud from the middle part of them would become a nonpareil branch; and a bud from the lower part a crab branch.. Thirdly, another wonderful property of this lateral mule progery of trees compounded by ingraftment confifts in this, that the new mule may confift of parts from three, or four, or many parents, when fo many different fcions are ingrafted on each other; whence a quef- tion may arife, whether a mixture of two kinds of anther-duft previ- ous to its application to the ftigma of flowers might not produce à threefold mule, partaking of the likenefs of both the males© 6. On this nice fubjet of reproduëtion fo far removed from com- mon apprehenfion the patient reader will excufe a more prolix invef- tigation. The attraétion of alt matter to the centres of the planets, or of the fun, is termed gravitation; that of particular bodies to each other is generally called chemical affinity; to which the attrations belonsing to eleétricity and magnetifm appear to be allied. In thefe latter kinds of attraétion two circumftances feem to:be required; firft, the power to attraët pofleñed by one of the bodies, and fecondly} the aptitude to be attraéted pofleffed by the other. Thus when a magnet attra@s iron, it may be faid to poftefs a fpecific tendency to unite with the iron; and the iron may be faid to poffefs a fpecific aptitude to be united with the magnet. The former appears to refide in the magnet, becaufe it can be deprived of its attractive power, which can alfo be reftored to it; and the iron appears to pof- fefs a fpecific aptitude to be united with the magnet, becaufe no other metal will approach it. In the fame manner à rubbed ftick of fealing-wax may be faid to poilefs a fpecific tendency to unite with a light ftraw, but not with a glafs bead, Here the ftraw feems to poffeff a fpecific aptitude to unite with the rubbed fealing-wax, becaufe ; many —_“ Sec. VII 37 REPRODUCTION. 125 many other bodies refufe to do fo, as glafs, filk, air; and laftly, the fpecific attraétion of the rubbed fealing-wax can be withdrawn or re- ftored; to which may be added, that fome chemical combinations may arife from the fingle attraétion of one body, and the aptitude to be attracted of another; or they may be owing to reciprocal attrac- tions of the two bodies, as in what is termed by the chemifts double affinity, which is known to be fo powerful as to feparate thofe bo- dies, which are held together by the fingle attraétion probably of one of them to the other, which other poffefes only an aptitude to be at- tracted by the former. 7. The above account of the tendencies to union by unorganized or inanimate matter is not given as a philofophical analogy, but to facilitate our conception of the adjunétions or concretions obfervable in organized or animated bodies, which conftitute their formation, their nutrition, and their growth. Thefe may be divided into two kinds; firft the junétion or union of animated bodies with inanimate matter, as when fruit or flefh is fwallowed into the ftomach, and be- comes abforbed by the lacteals; and the fecond, where living parti- cles coalefce or concrete together, as in the formation, nutrition, Of conjunion of the parts of living animals. In refpeét to the former, the animal parts, as the noftrils and palate, pofefs an appetency, when ftimulated by the fcent and flavour of agreeable food, to unite themfelves with it; and the inanimate ma- terial pofeffes an aptitude to be thus united with the animal organ. The fame occurs when the food is fwallowed into the ftomach; the mouths of the lacteal vefels being agreeably ftimulated pofñiefs an ap- petency to abforb the particles of the digefting mafs, which is in a fituation of undergoing chemical changes, and potlefles at fome pe- riod of them an aptitude to be united. with the mouths of the abfor- bent la@eals. But when thefe abforbed particles of inanimate matter have been eirculated in the blood, they feem gradually to obtain a kind of vir 8 tality> Ÿ 126 tality; whence Mr. John Hunter, and I believe fome ancient philo- fophers, and the divine Mofes, afferted, that the blood is alive; that is, that it pofeffes fome degree of organization, or other properties différent from thofe of inanimate matter, which are not producible by any chemical procefs, and which ceafe to exift along with the life of the animal, Hence for the purpofe of nutrition there is reafon ta fufpeét, that two circumftances are neceflary, both dependent upon life, and confequent activity; thefe are firft an appetency of the fibrils of the fixed organization, which wants nutrition; and fe- condly, a propenfity of the fluid molecules exifting in the blood, or fecreted from it, to unite with the organ now ftimulated into ation. So that nutrition may be faid to be affe@ed by the embrace or cohe- fon of the fibrils, which pofiefs nutritive appetencies, with the molecules, which poflefs nutritive propenfities. 8. Ifthe philofopher, who thinks on this fubjett, fhould not be inclined to believe that the whole of the blood is alive; he can not cafily deny life to that part of it which is fecreted by the organs of generation, and conveys vitality to the new embryon, which it pro- duces. Hence though in the procefs of nutrition the aétivity of two kinds of fibrils or molecules may be fufpeéted, yet in the procefs of the generation of a new vegetable or animal, there feems great reafon to believe, that both the combining and combined particles are en: dued with vitality; that is, with fome degree of organization or other properties not exiftins in inanimate matter, which we bec leave to denominate fibrils with formative appetencies, and molecules with formative propenfities, as the former may feem to poflefs a greater degree of organization than the latter. And thus it appears, that though nutrition may be conceived to be produced by the animated fibrils of an organized part being ftimt- lated into aétion by inanimate molecules, which they then embrace, and may thus be popularly compared to the fimple attraétions of chemiftry; yet that in the produétion of à new embryon, whe- ther Secr; VIL 3° 8. REPRODUCTION. 1 [à] J ther vecetable or animal, both the fibrils with formative appetencies, and the molecules with formative propenfities, recriprocally ftimulate and embrace each other, and inftantly coalefce, and may thus popu- larly be compared to the double affinities of chemiftry. But there are animal faûts, which réfemble both thefe, and are thence m philofophically analogous to them; and thefe are the two great Go. ports of animated nature, the paflions of hunger and of love. In the former the appetency refides only in the Fees or perhaps in the cardia ventriculi, but the object confifts of inanimate matter;: in the latter reciprocal appetencies and propenfities exift in the male and fe- male, which mutually excite them to embrace zach other. Two other animal fa@s are equally analogous; the thirft, which refides at the upper end of the efophagus, and though it poñtefes appetency it- felf, its objet is inanimate matter; but in lactefcent females, when they give fuck to their young, there exifts a reciprocal a; ppetency in the mother to part withher milk, and in the young offspring to re- ceive it, This then finally I conceive to be the manner of the produétion of the lateral progeny of ve egetables. The long caudex of an exilting bud of à tree, which confiitutes a fingle ne of the prefent ne 1 Re rnifhed with glands numerous as the perfpirative or mucous nds of animal bodies; and that thefe are of two kinds, the one fe- eting fromthe vecetable blood the fibrils with formative appeten- cies, correfpondent to the mafculine fecretion of animals; and the other lecreting from the vecetable blood the molecules with forma- tive propenfties, coi refpondent to the feminine fecretion of animals: and then that both thefe kinds of formative particles are depoñited be- neath the cuticle of the bark along the whole courfe ofit, and nearly at the fame time by the mp of the fecreting organs, and in- ftantly embrace and coalefce, for ming a new A done the fide of its parent with vegetable life, and with the additional powers of nu- trition, and of growth, 5 9. Fhis 128 ORGANS OF SeCT. NIE 4 070: 9. This then is the great fecret of nature; more living particles are produced by the powers of vitality in the fabrication of the vege- table blood, than are neceflary for nutrition or reftoration of decom- pofing organs. Thefe are fecreted, and detruded externally, and produce by their combination a new vital organization beneath the cuticles of trees over the old one. Thefe new combinations of vital fibrils and molecules acquire new appetencies, or fabricate molecules with new propenfities, and thus poflefs the power of forming the leaf or lungs at one extremity of the new caudex; and the radicles, ot abforbent veflels at the other end; and fome of them, as in the central buds which terminate the branches, finally form the fexual or- gans of reproduétion, which conftitute the flower. That new organizations of the growing{yftem acquire new ap- petencies appears from the production of the paflion for generation, as foon as the adapted organs are complete; and from the defire of lactefcent females to fuckle their offspring, and alfo from the variation of the palate, or defire for particular kinds of food, as we advance in life, as from milk tofflefh. Thus as a popular allufon, and not as a philofophical analogy, we may again be allowed to apply to the combinations of chemiftry; where two different kinds of particles unite, as acids and alkalies, a third fomething is produced, which pofleffes attraétions diffimilar to thofe of either of them; and that new organizations form new molecules appears from the fecretions of the feminal and uterine glands, when they have acquired their maturity; and from the breafts of laétefcent females. 10. In the lateral propagation of vegetable buds as the fuperfiuous £brils or molecules, which were fabricated in the blood, or detached from living organs, and poflefs nutritive or formative appetencies and propenfities, and which were more abundant than were required for the nutrition of the parent vegetable bud, when it had obtained its full growth, were fecreted by innumerable glands on the various parts D£ its furface beneath the general cuticle of the tree, and there em- bracing Sécr. VA. 3. Li REPRODUCTION. 129 bracing and coalefcing, form a new embryon caudex, which ora- dually produces à new plumula and radicles. And as the different parts of the new caudex of a compound tree refemble the parts of the parent caudex, to which it adheres, it was fhewn, beyond all doubt, that different fibrils or molecules were detached from different parts of the parent caudex to form the filial one. So in the fexual propagation of vegetables the fuperfluous living fibrils, or molecules, floating in the blood, appear to be fecreted from it by two kinds of glands only; thofe which conftitute the anthers, and thofe which conftitute the pericarp of flowers. By the former I fuppofe the fibrils, with formative appetencies and with nutritive ap- petencies, to be fecreted; and by the latter the molecules, with for- mative and with nutritive propenfities. Afterwards that thefe fibrils with formative and nutritive appetencies, become mixed in the peri- carp or uterus of the flower, with the correfpondent molecules with formative and nutritive propenfities; and that a new embryon is in- ftantly produced by their reciprocal embrace and coalefcence. And that parts of this new organization afterwards acquire new appe- tencies, and form molecules with new propenfities, and thus gradually produce other parts of the growing feed, which do not at firft ap- pear, as the plumula, radicles, cuticle, and the glands of reproduc- tion in the pericarp and anthers, which correfpond in the animal fetus to the lungs, inteftines, cuticle, and the organs, which diftin- guifh the fexes. 11. From this new doë&trine of a threefold vegetable mule by la- teral propagation, as the new bud on the fummit of a tree, which has had two fcions ingrafted on it one above another, in which it is inconteftibly fhewn, that different fibrils, or molecules, are detached from different parts of the parent caudex to form the filial one, which adheres to it; and that it then acquires the power of producing new radicles, or a new plumula; we may fafely conclude, as it is dedu- cible from the ftrongeft analogy, that in the produétion of fexual 5 mules, a 130 ORGANS OF CE NIF ue mules, whether vegetable or animal, fome parts of the new embryon were produced by, or detached from, fimilar parts of the parent, which they refemble. And that as thefe fibrils, or moiecules, floated in the circulating blood of their parents, they were colleéted fepa- rately by appropriated glands of the male or female; and that finally, on their mixture in the matrix the new embryon was immediately cenerated, refembling in fome parts the form of the father, and in other parts the form of the mother, according to the quantity or ac- tivity of the fibrils or molecules at the time of their conjunétion. And laftly, that various parts of the new organizations afterwards acquired new appetencies, and formed molecules with new propen- fities, and thus gradually produced other parts of the growing fetus, as the fkin, nails, hair, and the organs which diftinguifh the fexes. If the molecules fecreted by the female organ into the pericarp of flowers, or into the ovary of animals, were fuppofed to confift of only unorganized or inanimate particles; and the fibrils fecreted by the male organ only to poffefs formative appetencies to feleët and com- bine with them; the new embryon muft probably have always re- fembled the father, and no mules could have had exiftence. But by the theory above delivered it appears, that the new ofF- fpriug, both in vegetable and animal reproduction, whether it be a mule or not, muft fometimes more refemble the male parent, and, fometimes the female one, and fomerimes appear to be a combination of them both, as the epigram of Martial: Dum dubitat natura gravis puerum faceretne puellam, Faëtus es, O pulcher, pene puella, puer. 12. The certain proof above given, that fome parts of the triple caudex of the new bud of a tree, which has been com pounded by in- oraftment, are formed from fimilar parts of the triple caudex of the parent bud, carries us qne ftep further back into the myfterious pro- cefs Sect. Vis 12. REP RODUCTION. 131 eefs of reproduétion, and fomewhat countenances the ingenious con- jeœures of monfieur Buffon. And the analooy here obferved, that as in chemical union there muft be fome particles of inanimate matter with attraétions, and others with aptitudes to be attraéted; fo in the conjunétions of animated particles in the nutrition or formation of organized beings, there muft exift fibrils or molecules with forma- tive or nutritive appetencies, and others with formative or nutritive aptitudes or propenfities, one of which may be fecreted by the male, and the other by the female parent, may facilitate our reafoning upon this dark fubje&, which will be refumed and enlarged upon in the next edition of Zoonomia, in the feétion on generation, SECT: EN D Ed MUSCLES, NERVES, BRAIN.. VIIL. 1. S EC ES VIT Y. THE MUSCLES, NERVES, AND BRAIN OF VEGETABLES. 1. Vepetable mufcles evinced by their clofing their corois, and calyxes, and moving their leaves in confequence of fimulus. allo vegetable nerves both of Jenfe and imo- tion. When one part of a leaf of mimofa is touched the wbole leaf falls. alfo a vegetable brain or cominon fenforium. 2. Their irritability Jhewn by the ab- Jorption, and circulation of their fluids. By eleëfric fhocks. By the afcent of Jep- juice. 3. Their fenfibility fhewn by the collaps of mimofa. By clofing their petals from defeë of flimulus, as in darknefs and cold. By the males and females bending to each other. 4. Their volition fhewn from bedyfarum gyrans. From polymorpha marchantia. From tendrils of vines. From their Jeep.$. Their affociations of notion beton by their clofing their petals, performing abjorption and circulation of Ruids.. Their acquired habits. Grains and roots from the fouth vegetate Jooner. Apple-trees. Senfitive plant. Berberry. 6. Vegetables poffefs a fenfe of beat, of light, and of moiiure, and confequently poffe/s a brain or common Jenfortum. 7. They pofféfs a fenfe of touch and a common fenforium. 8. How do the anthers and fiigmas find each other? by a fenfe of fnell. of collinfonia. 9. From their abforptions, fecretions, fenfes, love and Jleep, they muft poffefs a brain. Does this refide in the pith of each individual bud? 1. THE various motions of peculiar parts of vegetables evince the exiftence of mufcles and nerves in thofe parts, fuch as the clofing of their petals, and calyxes, at the approach of night, or in cold or wet weather; though the fibres and nerves,which conftitute thefe mufcles, are too fine for anatomical demonftration. Some vegetables fold the older leaves over the new buds at the ex- tremity of their ftalks during the night, as alfine, chickweed; others, as the mimofa, fenfitive plant, fold the upper or polifhed fides of their SecrT. VIIL. 2. MUSCLES, NERVES, BRAIN. F3 their leaves together during their fleep. The hedyfarum gyrans whirls its leaves in various direétions, when the air is fill, by an ap- parently voluntary effort, probably for the purpofe of refpiration. The dionœa mufcipula, Venus’s fly-trap, clofes its leaves from the ftimulus of infe&s, which crawl upon them, and pierces them with its prickles. And the apocynum androfemifolium contrats its petals or neétaries round the probofcis of the flies, which ftimulate it, and holds them till they die, or till the fleep of the plant releafes them by the relaxation of its mufcular ation. From thefe circumftances it appears, that there are not only muf- cles about the moving foot-ftalks or claws of the leaves and petals above mentioned; but that thefe mufcles muft be endued with nerves of fenfe as well as of motion. Now, as when one part of a leaf of mimofa is touched, the whole leaf falls, it follows, that there muft be a common fenforium, or brain, where the nerves communicate, belonging to this one leaf-bud. T'o evince this further another leaf- let was flit with fharp fciffars, and fome feconds of time elapfed, be- fore the plant feemed fenfible of the injury; and then the whole plant collapfed as far as the principal ftem. Afterwards a fmall drop of oil of vitriol was put on the bud in the bofom of a leaf of another fen- fitive plant; and, after about half a minute, when the brain of this bud could be fuppofed to be deftroyed, the whole leaf fell, and rofe no more. If the individual buds of plants poflefs mufcles and nerves with a brain, or common fenforium; the following queftions confe- quently occur, and fhould be anfwered in the affirmative. Have ve- getable buds irritability? have they fenfation? have they volition? have they aflociations of motion? perfuaded they poñlefs them all, though in a much inferior degree even than the cold blooded animals. 2. The irritability of vegetable fibres is demonftrated by the ab- forption and circulation of their fluids in their roots, leaves, and pe- tals; which can not be explained by any mechanic law, and exa@ly correfponds 134 MUSCLES, NERVES, BRAIN.: Secr.VIL 3. correfponds with the abforption of the aliment, and the circulation of the blood in animals; which Phyfologifts have demonftrated to de- pend on the mufcular motions of the veflels themfelves, which pof- fefs irritability, and are excited into action by the ftimulus of the fluids, which they acquire or contain. The irritability of vegetable veflels is fhewn by a curious experi- ment of Von Uflar, who pafled ftrong electric fhocks through a plant of euphorbia, fo as to deftroy the life of the plant; and he then ob- ferved on cuütting off a branch, that it did not bleed; though a fimilar branch cat off before the death of the plant effufed much milky juice; whence he juftly concludes, that the eleric percuflion had deftroyed the irritability of the plant, Mr. Cavallo aflerts in his Treatife on Ele&ricity, that he found by repeated experiments, that the plant balfam(impatiens) was deftroy- ed by lefs quantities of ele@ricity than any other vesetables, which he fubjeéted to it; and that on examining the plant afterwards no injury on the external or internal parts of it could be difcovered; whence it may be concluded that the irritability fimply, and not the organization of the plant, was deftroyed by the unnatural quantity of füimulus. He adds, that not only fhocks from fo fmall a coated fur- face as fix or eight fquare inches, but even ftrong fparks from a large conduétor deftroyed thefe plants, which fometimes recovered in a day or two, but not frequently. See Se. XIII. 3. and Seét. XIV. 2. 3. of this work. ‘he afcent of the fap-juice during the vernal months in the ex- periments both of Hales and Walker, being retarded or quite ftopped during the cold parts of the day, and in the night; and on the north fide of the tree in cool days, when it continued to flow on the fouth fide, can only be afcribed to the irritability of the vegetable veffels being decreafed by the deficient ftimulus of heat. See this fubject further treated of in Set. XIV.:r. 10. of this work.+ 3. The feufibility of fibres is diftinguifhed from their irritability ue Secr. VIIL 3. MUSCLES, NERVES, BRAIN. 135 by the pain or pleafure, which precedes or attends any animal action; and therefore fuppoles the exiftence of a common fenforium; now when one divifion of a leaf of mimofa is injured by a wound or touch, in a fhort time the whole leaf clofes, which is owing to the actions of the diftant mufcles about the footftalks of the fubdivifions of the leaf. Does not this prove, that there is a brain or common fenfo- rium, where the nerves communicate in fome part of this bud or leaf, as the injury of one diftant part of it thus affeéts the whole? or in other words, that the difagreeable fenfation is propagated from a part to the whole, and caufes the actions of fome diftant mufcles, in the fame manner as I draw away my hand when my finger is hurt? There are mufcles placed about the foot-flalks of the leaves or leaflets of many plants, for the purpofe of clofing their upper furfaces together, or of bending them down fo as to fhoot off the fhowers or dew-drops, as in fenfitive plant, mimofa; kidney-bean, phafeolus; and many trees. The claws of the petals, or of the divifions of the calyx of many flowers, are furnifhed in a fimilar manner with muf- cles, which are exerted to open or clofe the corol and calyx of the flower, as in tragopogon, anemone. This ation of opening and clof- ing the leaves or flowers does not appear to be produced fimply by 1r- ritation on the mufcles themfelves, but by the connexion of thofe mufcles with a fenfitive fenforium, or brain, exifting in each individual bud or flower. 1ft. Becaufe many flowers clofe from defe& of fti- mulus, not by the excefs of it, as by darknefs, which is the abfence of the ftimulus of light; or by cold, which is the abfence of the ftimulus of heat. Now the defeét of heat, like the abfence of food, or of drink, affects our fenfes with pain, which had been pre- vioufly accuftomed to a greater quantity of them, and a cutaneous tl 9 ren he pain; but a mufcle fhivermg may be excited in confequence of; cannot be faid to be ftimulated into ation by a defe&t of ftimulus, LE es ee IMUIUS thouoh fome modern writers on medicine have called cold a ft to animal fibres, which it always renders torpid or inaétive; a theory larivyean 5 CLIIVY CRU 136 MUSCLES, NERVES, BRAIN. SECT. VIIL 4. derived from Galen, and which muft have originated in his total ig- norance of chemiftry and natural philofophy. In fome flowers the males bend into contaét with the females, as in ciftus, kalmia, fritillaria perfica, lithrum falicaria; in others the female bends to the males, as in collinfonia, gloriofa, genifta, epilo- bium; which fhews a fenfibility to the pañfion of reproduétion. In irritation the ftimulated mufcles only are brought into aétion, with- out being perceived by the other parts of the fyftem; but in /ex/atron the whole fyftem is affected by means of the brain or common fenfo- rium, and thence very diftant mufcles are brought into action to ac- quire an agreeable obje&, or to repel or withdraw from a difagreeable one. See Zoonomia, Vol. I. Se€t. XIII. 2. 4. That plants pofñfefs in fome degree the power of volition would appear firft from the hedyfarum gyrans, which moves its leaves in circular directions when the air is too fill. Secondly, from the marchantia polymorpha, in which fome yellow wool advances from the flower-bearing anthers, while it drops its duft like atoms. Mur- ray’s Syftem of Vegetables. Thirdly, from the tendrils of vines, and the ftems of other climbing vegetables, which continue to move round, till they find fomething to adhere to, or till they have rolled themfelves up in a fpiral line like a cork-fcrew. And laftly, from the efforts of almoft all plants to turn the upper furface of their leaves, or their flowers, to the hioht. But there is an indubitable proof of plants poffefling fome degree of voluntarity, and that is deduced from their fleep. In animal bodies fleep confifts in a fufpenfion or temporary abolition of voluntary power; the organs of fenfe being at the fame time clofed, or by fome other means rendered unfit for the perception of external bodies. Now the fleep of plants is proved by the hanging down or clofing of the leaves of many plants, and of fhutting the petals and calyxes of many flowers in the dark, and their again opening or expanding them in the light, or at certain hours of the day. e. In Secr. VIII. 5,6. MUSCLES, NERVES, BRAIN. 137 5- In refpe& to vegetables acquiring affociations of motion, or ha- bits of action, the former is feen in the abforptions and circulations of their fluids, and in the various movements above defcribed; which whirl their leaves or tendrils, and clofe or open their corols and ca- lyxes, which could not be performed without the fynchronous and aflociated ations of many mufcles; asinthe abforptions and circu- lations of animal bodies, and the movements of their Himbs, Other acquired habits of vegetable a@ions appear from the grains and roots brought from more fouthern latitudes, which germinate here fooner than thofe which are brought from more northern ones, owing to their acquired habits. Fordyce on Agriculture. And from the apple trees fent from hence to New York, which blofiomed for à few years too early for the climate, and bore no fruit; but after- wards learnt to accommodate themfelves to their new fituation. Tra- vels in New York by Profeflor Kalm. The divifions of the leaves of the fenfitive plant have been accuf- tomed to contrat at the fame time from the abfence of light; hence if by any other circumftance, as a flight ftroke or injury, oüe divi- fion is irritated into contraction; the neighbouring ones contract al{o, from their motions being afociated with thofe of the irritated part. So the various ffamina of the barberry have been accuftomed to con- tract together in the evening; and thence, if you ftimulate one of them with a pin, according to the experiment of Dr. Smith, they all contra“ from their acquired aflociations. 6. This leads us to a curious inquiry, whether vegetables poflefs any organs of fenfe? Certainitis, that they poffefs a fenfe of heat and cold, another of moifture and drynefs, and another of hoht and darknefs; for they clofe their petals occafionally from the prefence of cold, moifture, or darknefs. Andit has been already fhewn, that thefe aétions cannot be performed fimply from irritation, becaufe cold and darknefs are defetive quantities of our ufual flimulis and that on that account fenfation or volition are employed; and in confe- < quence (7 RÉ ne ES PS SN Sn-+ 138 MUSCLES, NERVES, BRAIN. Secr. VIIL 7, 8. quence a fenforium or union of the nerves muft exift. So when we go into the light, we contra& the iris, not from any ftimulus of the light on the fine mufcles of the iris, but from its motions being af- fociated with the fenfation of too much light on the retina, which could not take place without a fenforium or center of union of the nerves of the iris with thofe of vifion. 7. Befdes thefe organs of fenfe, which diflinguifh cold, moifture, and darknefs, the leaves of mimofa, and of dionæa, and of drofera, and the ftamens of many flowers, as of the barberry, and of the nu- merous clafs of fyngenefia, are fenfible to mechanic impaët; that 15, they poflefs a fenfe of touch; and as many of their diftant mufcles are in confequence excited into a@ion, this alfo evinces, that they pofiefs a common fenforium, by which this fenfation 1s communicated to the whole, and volition occafionally exerted. 8. Laftly, in many flowers the anthers when mature approach thé figma, in others the female organ approaches to the male. T'afk, by what means are the anthers in many flowers, and ftigmas in other flowers, directed to find their paramours? Ïs this curious kind of ftorge produced by mechanic attraétion, or by the fenfation of love? The latter opinion is fupported by the ftrongeft analogy, becaufe a reproduction of the fpecies 1s the confequence; and then another or- gan of fenfe muft be wanted to dire& thefe vegetable amourettes to find each other; one probably analagous to our fenfe of fmell, which in the animal world direëts the new-born infant to its fource of nourifhment; and in fome animals directs the male to the female; and they may thus poñfefs a faculty of perceiving as well as of pro- ducing odours. A moft curious example of the exiftence of fome kind of fenfe, which may direë& the piftils, or female parts of the flowers of col- Jinfonia, which way to bend for the purpofe of finding the mature males, is related in Botanic Garden, Vol. I. Canto IV. 1. 460, where fome ofthe pifils miftake the males, or ftamens, of the neishbouring flowers Secr. VIIT.:9. MUSCLES, NERVES, BRAIN. 13 39 flowers for their own hufbands; and bending into conta@t with them become guilty of adultery. See Se. VIL. 2. 2, of this work. 9. Thus, befides a kind of tafte or appetency at the extremities of their roots, fimilar to that of the extremities of our lacteal veffels, for the purpofe of feleéting their proper food; and befides different kinds ofirritability or appetency refding in the various glands, which{epa- rate honey, wax, refin, and other juices from their blood: vegetable life feems to poflefs an organ of fenfe to diftinguifh the variations of heat, another to diftinguifh the varying degrees of moifture, another of light, another of touch, and probably another analogous to our fenfe of fmell. To thefe muft be added the indubitable evidence of their paññon of love, and of their neceflity to fleep; and I think we may truly conclude, that they are furnifhed with a brain or common fen- forium belonging to each bud. But whether this brain, or common fenforium, refides in the me- dulla, or pith, which occupies the central parts of every bud and leaf, like the fpinal marrow of animals, has not yet been certainly deter- mined. By this medulla is meant only the pith of each individual bud, not that which is feen in the center of a tree, which, like the wood which furrounds it, has long ceafed to have vegetable life, The pith, or medulla of each bud, is fuppofed by its elafticity to pufh out the central part of the bud; as the veficular productions on the infide of young quills are fuppofed to pufh forwards their early growth, and in fome birds are faid by Mr. Hunter to receive air from the lungs. It is more probable that this pith, or medulla oblongata of plants, fupplies the fpirit of vesctation, fince it exifts in all buds in their moft early ftate, and does not communicate from one bud to another, and thus diftinguifh them from each other, and evinces their individüality. See Se&. I. 8, and IX. 2. A. PHYTO- PHMTOEOG TA: BRRTF‘EBE* SECOND. ECONOMY OF VEGETATION. SE CF: EX THE GROWTH OF SEEDS, BUDS, AND BULBS. Ï. 1. Seeps re/emble eges. 2. The embryon is of different maturity. The leaves vi/ible in fome feeds. 3. Why the plumula afcends and the root defcends. Is nou- rifbed by the feed-lobes, by the fruir. a dwarf if deprived of them. Melons and cucumbers are too luxuriant.-feed fhould be new. 4. Seeds bave bard fhells, bave acridrinds with bitter or narcotic juices, but pure ffarch may be procured from them. 5. Umbilical veffels, and roots of feeds., biennial, and perennial plants. of nutriment in their roots. AI! plants are bi- ennials.: Bulbs and buds fucceed each other many times before they flower. 6. Wbeat. Stems and roots round the firft joint, Has no neffary. Is greatly increafed by tranfplanting. I, 1. Bus are à viviparous progeny. Protefted by Jcales and'uarnifb. Grow by piping with more beat and moiflure as they exbale efs. Are individual, annual, or biennial plants. 2. Buds of herbs. bave no bleeding feafon. 3. Buds of deciduous trees are in different ffates of maturity, as in bepatica, daphne, ofnunda.. Some buds are invifidle. 4. Importance of tbe pitb like tbe fpinal marrow; it lines bollow ffalks. 5. Refervoir of nutriment for buds. Their umbilical veflels. 6. À bud contains many embryons. The frf leaf-buds often defiroyed by infeës. Tbe flower-buds only injured by them. 7. Vi- gorous branches produce leaf-buds, weak ones flower-buds. Why feedling applés are long before they bear. Why pears bear only at their extremities. 8. New buds may be made either leaf-buds by lopping a part of the ranch, or flower- buds&y bending the branch down, or cutting à ring in the bark, or flrangulating 1 A 142 SEEDS.:BUDS,-BULRS,. SECT. IX. Te it with a swire. oaks pullulate.-juice in the alburnum. GT paufe in vegetation about midfummer. Trees then fecrete nutriment in their roots and Jep-wood for the new buds. Are then bel tranfplanted without lopping their branches. 10. Caudexes of the buds form the bark, wobofe veffels inofculate. Heart- wood dies. Sap-wood als as umbilical veffels, and afierwards as capillary tubes, or as capillary Jÿphons. 11. Flower-buds perifh without increafing the bark by new caudexes. Are convertible into leaf-buds. monflers. 12. Central port of an adult bud. IL. 1. Bures. Leaf-bulbs precede flower-bulès in the tulip as leaf-buds in apple-trees, as joints in tbe fait of Wbheat. ge- neration of infeëts. 2. Bulbs of onions. Orchis. Tulip. Hyacinth.- culus.. ris. 3. Roots of potatoes. Wires of flrawberries. Seeds of orchis. Flowers of potatoes. 4. Stem-bulbs on magical onions are fimiler to ro0t-bulbs. 5. Root-grafiing. Roct-inoculation. Root-propagation. Suckers of trees. Root- Duds of berbaceous plants. Internal parts of wbich decay. 6. Tuberous roots f turnep and carrot are réfervoirs of nutriment for tbe fucceeding flower-frem. No Jlower-bud is ever produced from à feed without previous leaf-buds. Wby feedling apple-trees are ten or twelue years before tbey bear fruit. Magazines of aliment in almoft all roots. 7. Ufe of the horfe-boe to accumulate earth round the wbeat- plants. Wheat dropped on the foil fhoots up but one flem. with tbe oil 34 Jhoots up many. And tranfplanted deeper in the Joil many more. Potates, VINS, and figs, produce lateral roots from their joints. So does the bark if wounded cir- cularly. of eating down forward wbeat with fheep. I. 1. HaAvinG treated of the phyfology, we now ftep forwards to confider the economy of vegetation, as far as it may ferve the pur- pofes of agriculture and gardening. After the produétion of the feed, or vegetable ego in the pericarp of flowers, and its enfuing impregnation by the farina of the anthers fhed upon the ftigma, a coagulated point appears on the feed-lobes according to the obfervations of Spallanzani, like the cicatricula on the yolk of the ego. Fhe feed continues to grow in the pericarp fuftained by adapted fecretions from the vegetable blood, which is previoufly oxygenated in 8 the Srer- ACL, 3. SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. 143 the braëtes or floral-leaves of many plants; in others the feed is it- {elf inclofed in an air-veffel probably for that purpofe, as in ftaphylea, bladder nut, and tagetes, African marygold. At the fame time a re- fervoir of nutriment is fecreted, and depofited in the feed-lobes or co- tyledons, which are fingle ones in the feeds of palms, grafles, and lies; though twofold in thofe of moîft other herbs and trees; whence the ftriéteft analogy exifts between feeds and eggs. 2. In fome feeds, when they leave the vegetable uterus, this em bryon is much more mature than in others. In the feeds of the nymphæa nelumbo the leaves of the future plant were feen fo dif- unétly by Mr. Ferber, that he found out by them to what plant the feeds belonged. The fame in the feeds of the tulip-tree, lirioden- dron tulipiferum. Amæn. Acad. V. VI. No. 120. And Mr. Baker aflerts, that on difle&ing a feed of trembling grafs, he difcovered by the microfcope a perfect plant with roots fending forth two branches, from each of which feveral leaves or blades of grafs proceeded. Mi- crofc. Vol. I. p.252. While in other feeds the corculum, or heart only of the feed, is diftin@ly vifible, as in the kernel of the walnut, and the feed of the garden-bean, So in the animal kingdom the young of fome birds are much more mature at their birth than thofe of others. The chickens of pheafants, quails, and partridges, can ufe their eyés; run after their mothers, and peck their food, almoft as foon as they leave their fhell; but thofe of the linnet, thrufh, and blackbird, con- tinue many days totally blind, and can only open their callow mouths for the offered morfel. 3- When the feed falls naturally upon the earth, or is buried arti- ficially in fhallow trenches beneath the foil, the firft three thinos ne- ceflary to its growth are heat, water, and air. Heat is the general caufe of fluidity, without which no motion can exift; water is the menftruum, in which the nutriment of vegetable and animal bodies is conveyed to their various organs; and the oxygen of the atmo- fphere is believed to afford the principle af excitability fo perpetually neccflary 144 SEEDS; BUDS; BUESS. SECTAIK, Se necefflary to all organic life; and which renders the living fibres both of the vegetable and animal world obedient to the füimuli, which are naturally applied to them. Whence we may in fome meafure comprehend a difficult quef- tion; why the plume of a feed fowed upon, or in the earth, fhould afcend, and the root defcend, which has been afcribed to a myfterious inftin&; the plumula is ftimulated by the air into action, and elon- gates itfelf, where it is thus moft excited; and the radicle is ftimu- Jated by moifture, and elongates itfelf thus, where it is moîft excited, whence one of them grows upwards in queft of its adapted object, aud the other downiward. The firft fource of nutriment fupplied to the feminal embryon, af- ter it falls from the parent plant, exifts in the feed-lobes, or cotyle- dons, which either remain beneath the earth, and are permeated by the umbilical veflels of the embryon plant, which abforb the muci- laginous, farinaceous, or oily matter depofited in them, as in the bean, pifum; or the feed-lobes rife up into the air along with the young plant, as in the kidney-bean, phafeolus, become feed-leaves, and ferve both as a nutritive and refpiratory organ. Thefe cotyledons or feed- lobes generally contain mucilage, as in quince-feed; or ftarch, as in wheat: or oil, as in line-feed. Some of thefe nutritive materials are probably abforbed unchanged, or diflolved only by the moifture of the earth: others are converted into fugar partly by a chemical procefs, and partly by the digeftive powers of the young plant, as ap- pears in the procefs of germinating barley, and converting it into malt; thefe refervoirs of nutriment are hence perfeétly analogous to the white of the ego, a part of which is probably abforbed unchanged by the lymphatics of the young embryon, and a part of it converted into a fweet chyle for the nourifhment of the chick, when it has acquired a ftomach. 1f the feed be deprived of thefe cotyledons, foon after the root ap- _ pears, it will continue to grow, but with lefs vigour, and is faid to pro- duce LB D— SECT: IX Is 3e SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. 146 duce a dwarf plant from three to nine times Iefs than the parent. Hence the feeds of plants, which are liable to produce too vigorous roots, and thence have not time to ripen their fruits in the fhort fum- mers of this climate, or which fill our hot-beds with too luxuriant fo- liage, as melons, and cucumbers, fhould in this climate be kept three or four years; by which part of the mucilaginous, or farinaceous, or oily matter of the cotyledons becomes injured or decayed, and the new plant grows lefs luxuriantly. Another fource of nutriment for the feminal embryon of many plants exifts in the fruit, which envelopes the ftone or feed-vefel, after the growing fetus has burft its confinement, and fo far re- fembles the yolk of the ess, which becomes a nutriment tothe chick, after it has confumed the white, and eloped from its fhell. When mature fruit, as an apple or a cucumber, falls upou the ground, it fupplies, as it ripens or decays, a fecond fource of nou- rifhment, which enables the inclofed feeds to fhoot their roots into the earth, and to elevate their ftems with greater vigour. Hence fruits generally contain a faccharine matter, or juices capable of be- ing converted into fugar, either by a fpontaneous chemical procefs, as in baking four apples; or by a vegetable procefs, as in thofe four pears, which continue to ripen for many months both before and af- ter they are plucked from the tree, as long as life remains in them; that is, till they ferment or putrify; and laftly, by the digeftive power of the young embryon, as above mentioned. If the feed be deprived of the fruit, it will indeed vegetate, but with lefs vigour. Hence thofe feeds which are liable to produce too vigorous fhoots for this climate, as the feeds of melons and cucum- bers, fhould be wafhed clean from their pulp, before they are hoard- ed, and preferved three or four years before they are fown in hot beds. But thofe feeds, which are fown late in the feafon for the pur- pofe of producins winter fodder, as the feeds of turneps, fhould be colleéted and preferved with every poffible advantage; and on this U account LT OS Ep er CUT LES CS … 146 SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS..IX. 1.4, account new feed is much to be preferred to that which has been long kept. (41 4. Many feeds when mature are difperfed far from the parent tree, |! for the purpofe of their growth, by various contrivances, as men Al tioned in Se. VII. 2. 5. Some of thefe are furrounded with hard fhells, which are impenetrable by infe@s, as they lie on the earth to take root, as peaches, neétarines, nuts, cocoa-nuts. Other feeds are furnifhed with an acrid covering to prevent the depredation of infe&s, as the peel of oranges and lemons, the outward hufk and inward rind of walnuts, and of cafhew-nuts, and the fkin of muftard-feed, and rape-feed; other feeds for the fame purpofe abound with bitter or narcotic juices, as the horfe-chefnut, acorn, apricot, cherry, many of which fupply materials to the fhops of medicine, and may fupply nu- triment in times of fcarcity; as the ftarch, which they contain, may be procured by grating them into cold water, and wafhing away the mucilage, and the poifonous material, which adheres to it, or which | is foluble in water. | 5. The plumula of the feed, or embryon plant, abforbs the nutri- ment laid up for it in the feed-lobes by veffels, which permeate them | for that purpofe, and have been termed umbilical vefñels; and after- | wards fhoots its roots down into the fruit, or intothe earth, in fearch h| of other nourifhment; and expands its leaves in the air as an organ of refpiration. Thofe plants, which are ufually termed annuals, produce their flowers and die in the fame year in which their feeds are fown; as barley, oats, and a variety of garden flowers. Thefe neverthelefs in accurate language fhould be termed biennials, becaufe the feed in this climate is produced in one fummer; and the embryon plant be- comes mature in the next; as the feed is generally preferved in our granaries, or feed-boxes, and not committed to the ground till the en- {uing fprins; for many of thefe vescetables are not. natives of this climate, SET or. SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. 147 climate, and would perifh if the feeds were fown in autumn, when it 15 naturally fcattered on the earth. Thofe which are ufually termed biennial plants, differ from the former, firft in the time of fowing the feed, which is generally in the early autumn, as foon as it is Ip, AS of turneps, carrots, wheat: and thus thefe produce their flowers in the fecond year after the feed is fown, which has given them the name of biennials. Many of thefe plants, perhaps all of them, lay up a refervoir of nutritious matter during the fummer or autumn in their roots. This nutriment is fecreted from the vegetable blood, which is previoufly oxygenated for that purpofe in the large leaves, which generally furround the caudex of the plant, asin turneps and carrots. Thefe leaves furvive the winter in many plants, which the more fucculent ftems probably would not; and the nutriment depofted in the root is expended in the growth of the ftem and the production of feed in the enfuing fpring. in thefe vecetables one of our fummers is too fhort for their growth from the feed to the fru@ification; and it is for this refervoir of nutriment that thefe plants are generally cultivated. But thofe plants, which are termed perennial, when firft raifed from feed, are many of them fome years before they produce flowers. Some of them form bulbous roots, as the tulip, hyacinth, onion, which are three or four years before they flower, during which time I believe all the bulbs die annually, producing one larger than that of the preceding year, and perhaps fome fimaller ones, all which an- nually increafe in fize till they flower. The fame occurs in potatoe- roots raifed from feed, which do not flower as Lam informed till the third year, and then only thofe which feemed of ftronger or for- warder growth. Other perennial plants have palmated or branching roots; in fome of thefe, asin feedling apple-trees, the flower is faid not to appear till ten or tWelve Years after the feed is fown; the buds neverthelefs annually dying and producing other buds over them, perhaps more U 2 perfect 148 SEEDS, BUDS, BULSBS. SEcT. ITR perfeét ones, as they acquire after a few years the power of produc- ing fexual organs, and in confequence à feminal progeny. In thefe perennial herbaceous plants and trees a magazine of nutriment is pro- vided in their roots or fap-wood, to fupply the new buds, which are to grow in the enfuing fpring. Whence it appears, that all the vegetables of this climate may be termed biennial plants; as the feeds of fome, and the buds or bulbs of others, are produced in one fummer, and flourifh and die in the next; thofe which are called annuals or bienmals leaving behind them a future progeny of feeds only; thofe, which are termed perennial herbaceous plants, leaving behind them the firft year or two a pro- geny of bulbs or root-buds only, and afterwards a progeny of feeds alfo; while the perennial arborefcent vegetables leave behind them a progeny of buds only for feveral fucceflive years, and afterwards a progeny of both buds and feeds. Thus the bulb from a tulip-feed produces a more perfeét bulb an- nually, till it Aowers,[ believe, on the fifth year. It then produces a flower, and alfo one perfet bulb, which flowers the next year; and fome other Lefs perfect bulbs, which are fucceeded by more perfeét ones annually, till they alfo flower. Whence I conclude, that no tulip bulb flowers till the fourth or fifth generation. It is probable, that a fimilar circurmftance occurs in other vegeta- bles, as in apple-trees; and that the buds of thefe do not produce fexual organs, and a confequent feminal progeny, till the twelfth or. fourteenth generation of the bud from the feed; each of thofe buds neverthelefs producing one principal bud annually more perfeét than itfelf, and many lateral buds lefs perfe@ than itfelf; thatis, at a greater diftance from that ftate of maturity which enables it to form a flower. This art of diftinguifhing the greater or lefs maturity of buds is a matter of great importance in the management of fruit-trees, as in many of them the central bud becomes a fpur one year, and flowers the SEcrT AXE 1-6. SEEDS;: BUDS, BULES. 149 the next; and the lateral buds one or two years afterwards, as will be mentioned in Set. XV. on the production of fruit. 6. In wheat there exifts about the caudex a refervoir of nutritious juices depofñited in the autumn for the purpofe of rafing the ftem in the enfuing fpring like that of turneps and carrots; but which is attended with other circumftances peculiar I fuppofe to the grafles, and other plants, which poflefs only one cotyledon or feed-lobe, The early leaf, which furrounds the firft joint of the fem, withers, as the fpring advances; in which joint it had previoufly depofited a faccha- rine juice, and probably fome new embryon buds were at the fame time generated in the caudex; for through this withered leaf, which furrounds the firft joint of the ftem within the earth, a circular fet of new ftems iflue adherimg to 1t, and a circle of roots below them ad- hering to the caudex or bafe of it. Thefe new buüds rife into air, and fhoot their roots into the earth; and in this manner many ftems are produced in the fpring from one feed fowed in the autumn preced- ing; though in fome kinds of wheat the whole procefs of the feed rifing from earth, and producing other ftems round the principal one, and of ripening its feeds, may be performed in one fummer even in this northern climate. Another peculiarity attends the growth of wheat and other graffes; the leaf, which furrounds and ftrengthens the ftem by its foot-ftalk, depofits at every lower joint a faccharine matter for the purpofe of nourifhing the afcending part of the young fem; and in the upper- moft joint, I fuppofe, to ferve inftead of honey for the ftamens and figmas, as their Aowers have no vifble neëtary; and as the fcales of the flower may with good reafon be efteemed a calyx rather than a corol, according to the opinion of Mr. Milne; as thefe fcales attend the feed-vefel to its maturity, which the corol does not. Milne’s Bo- tanical Di. Art. Gramina. Owing to this fecretion of faccharine matter at the foot-ftalk of every leaf, and its colle&tion round the joints of grafles, it happens that 150 SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. SECT.IXe 3,413 that when thefe joints are furrounded with moift earth, and are plac- ed but a certain depth from the air, that new buds will put forth round thefe joints, and ftrike their roots into the foil. Whence the agrarian hufbandman may derive great advantage from tranfplanting his wheat, after it has produced a circle of new ftems from the firft joint.of the ftraw; for if he then parts and replants them an inch or two deeper in the ground, fo as to cover the firft joint of each of thefe additional ftems, he may multiply every one of them four or fix times, and thus obtain twenty or thirty ftems from one original feed. See No. III. 1. and 7. of this feëtion. II. r. Other vegetable embryons are produced in the buds on the ftems or branches of trees, which may be termed the viviparous pro- geny of plants, in contradiftinétion to thofe from feeds, which may be termed their oviparous progeny. Thefe buds are either leaf-buds or flower-buds, or both in one covering; the bud is termed hyber- naculum, or winter-cradle, of the embryon fhoot, and is covered with fcales, and often with a refinous varnifh, as in tacamahacca, to pro- te it from the cold and moifture of the enfuing winter, and from the depredation of infeéts. Thefe by inoculation or ingrafting on other ftems of trees, or by being planted in the earth, become plants exaétly fimilar to their pa- rents. À fmall glafs inverted over thefe buds, when fet in the garth, contributes to infure their growth by preventing too great an exhalation; otherwife they are liable to perfpire more than they can abforb, before they have acquired roots; this the gardeners call pip- ing à flip, or a cutting, of a plant. In this fituation a greater heat may be given them, as in hothoufes, without increafing their quan- tity of perfpiration, which ceafes as foon as the air in the glafs is fa- turated with moifture; and the increafe of heat much contributes to the protrufon of their roots and new buds, as they can at the fame time bear to be fupplied with a greater quantity of moifture. Every bud of moft of the deciduous trees of this climate may there- 8 fore SECT. IX: 2, 2: SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. EcI fore be confidered as an individual biennial plant, as diftin&ly fo as a feed; that is, the bud like a feed is formed in one fummer, grows to maturity in the next, and then dies. In fome trees neverthelefs of this climate, as the mock orange, philadelphus, acacia, viburnum; and in the evergreen fhrubs or trees, as holly, laurel, vinca, heath, and rue; and in all thofe herbs commonly called annuals: and in moft of the trees of warmer climates; the buds appear to be formed in the vernal months, and to arrive at their maturity during the fame year; and may therefore properly be called annual plants, 2. The bud of thefe herbs, which are commonly called annuals, rifes in the bofom of a leaf; and, as it adheres to its parent, requires no female apparatus to nourifh it, but gradually ftrikes down roots from its caudex into the ground, which caudex forms a part of the bark of the increafñng plant. This occurs in thofe herbaceous vege- tables, which have juft rifen from feeds; the buds of which are pro- perly individual annual plants, which grow to maturity adhering to the parent, and do not therefore refemble a feed or egg, as there is no refervoir of nutriment laïd up for thern. This circumftance alfo happens, I fuppofe, to the evercreen fhrubs and trees of this climate, as to heath, rue, box, pine, laurel: for in thefe vegetables, as the leaf does not die in the autumn, it continues to oxygenate the blood, and to fupply nourifhment to the bud in its bofom during the fine days of winter, andin the fpring, and furvives till near midfummer; that is, till the new bud has expanded à leaf of its own. Whence I fuppofe thefe evergreens lay up in fummer no ftore of nutriment in their roots or alburnum for the fuftenance of their enfuing vernal buds; and have thence probably no bleeding fea- fon like deciduous trees. But the embryon in a bud of a deciduous plant leaves in the fpring of the year its winter cradle, or hybernaculum, like the embryon in a feed, or a chick in the esc; and like thefe the young plants of different vegetables have previoufly arrived at different ftates of matu- rit y, an rond pile a “d ù nas Pt Spip_— PÉCRSC SE": Sn ee on: jt deg se: 152 SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. SECTAX 252 rity. Thus Mr. Ferber aflerts, that he was delighted in obferving in the buds of hepatica, and pedicularis hirfuta, yet lying in the eartb, and in the gems of the fhrub daphne mezereon, and at the bafe of ofmunda lunaria, a perfeét plant of the future year difcernible in all its parts; thus alfo in horfe-chefnut the leaves, and in cornel-tree the flowers, are each diftin@ly vifible during the winter in their refpec- tive buds. Amœn. Acad, Vol. VI. No. CXX. Milne’s Di. Art. Gemma. While in buds of many other trees, and probably in all the more backward buds, which are formed late in the fummer on the lower parts of branches, and much deprived of light and air, the embryon is not fo forward as to be eañily difcernible; and in thofe fhrubs or trees, which are deciduous in this climate, and yet have no apparent buds in winter, as the philadelphus, mock orange, viburnum, and many fhrubs. I fufpeét there is neverthelefs an embryon fecreted from the blood at the foot-ftalk of each leaf, though it is not{o forward as to protrude through the bark, and produce a prominent bud, or hybernaculum. The fame 1 fufpeét to occur in refpeét to trees, which lofe their leaves in winter, in warmer climates, in which they are faid not to produce autumnal buds; as Î can not conceive by what means frefh leaf-buds can be generated in the fpring, when the leaves, which conftitute the lungs of the mature living part of the tree, are dead; and the whole of that mature living part, or laft year's bud, confequently dead along with them. But if the caudex of the new bud be generated without the plumula, or vifible bud, it can cer- tainly produce a plumula for itfelf in the enfuing fpring, as is féen rodudion of new buds, when a branch is cut off, round the ne frequently to the ftems of willows. iviparous offspring of different animals arrive as calves and by the p remaining trunk, as is do In fimilar manner the v at différent ftates of perfection before they are born, foals can ftand ereét in an hour, and quickly learn to ufe their eyes, and to run after their mothers; while the blind puppy, and kitten, 7 and re SECTE À. SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. 153 and the downlef rabbit, are long before they can leave the neft which the parent has provided for them. 4. The prefence of the pith or medulla is of great importance to the growth of the new bud, as may be obferved by gradually flicing a fhoot of a horfe-chefnut in autumn, or in the early fpring. The rudiments of the feven feparate ribs of the late parent-leaf, and the central pith of the bud in its bofom, are feen to arife or terminate near the pith of the parent fhoot, where the embryon plumula is probably fecreted by a gland at the bottom of the parent leaf-ftalk, finds there its firft reception and nourifhment, and is gradually pro- truded and elongated by the pith, which exifts in its center, as the bud proceeds, and thus conftitutes the afcending caudex or uterus of the new bud; which is refermbled by the wires of ftrawberries, and other creeping vegetables; whereas the defcending caudexes of the new buds, which form the filaments of the bark of trees, are fecreted. from the various parts of the old bark in their vicnity; all which probably occur at the fame time by fympathy, as fhewn in Se&. VII. The pith thus appears to be the firft or moft eflential rudiment of the new plant, like the brain or fpinal marrow, medulla oblongata, which is the firft vifible part of the figure, I believe, of every animal fetus, from the tadpole to mankind, In thofe plants which have hollow ftems, this central cavity,though not filled with the pith or medulla, appears to be lined with it; asin picris and tragopogon; in the former the ftem is not only lined with the pith, but wherever a new bud is generated on the fummit of the afcending ftem, or in the bofom of à leaf, a membranous diaphragm divides the cavity, and is covered with this medullary fubftance, which divifon thus diftinguifhes one bud from another; andin flicing away the part of the fem of tragoposon, where the new lateral bud adheres, the medulla or pith in the center of the bud is feen to com mence near that membrane which lines the ftem, and to pafs through the circle of arterial, venal, and abforbent veflels, which conftitute X the =, SERRE TRE—. TES TORRENT 154 SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. SECT. EX:"2, 6: the afcending caudex, or uterus, of the new bud, while the defcend-. ing caudex of it is fecreted froin the various parts of the older bark in 1tS VICiNITY. Something fimilar to this mode of the produétion of the buds of trees had not efcaped the ingenious Mr. Bradley, who aflerts,“that buds have their firft rife in the pith; they are there framed, and furnifhed with every part of vegetation, and forced forwards to meet the air through the tender bark, and would drop on the ground, if they were not reftrained by veflels, which ferve as roots to nourifh them; and thus as a feed takes root in the earth, a bud takes root in the tree; but with this difference, that the feed has lobes to fupply it with nourifhment, till it can feleét juices from the earth; but the bud has no occafon for lobes, becaufe it takes root immediately in the body of the tree, where the proper juices are already prepared for it.” Difcourfes on Growth of Plants, 1727, p. 56. 5. As the feed was nourifhed in the pericarp by an adapted fecre- tion from the vegetable blood oxygenated in the braëtes or floral- leaves; and as a refervoir of nutriment was alfo prepared for it after- wards in the feed-lobes and fruit: fo the bud is at firft nourifhed in the bofom of its parent-leaf by an adapted fecretion from the vege- table blood; and continues to be fo nourifhed in annual herbs and evergreen trees, till it protrudes and expands its own leaf; but ifit be a bud of a deciduous plant, which muft lofe its parent-leaf in winter, a refervoir of nutriment is prepared for it in the roots of fome plants, as in carrots, tnrneps, liquorice, fern; and probably both in the roots and alburnum, or fap-wood, of trees. Thus in the fpring the umbilical veffels belonging to each indivi- dual biennial plant, or bud of a tree, abforb moifture from the earth, and propel it upwards through the roots and alburnum, where it 1s mixed with a nutritious material, and carried upwards in fome trees with a power equal to the preflure of the atmofphere, as in the vine, vitis; Secr. IX. 2.6., BUDS, BULBS. 15s vitis; the birch, betula; and the maple, acer; which at that fcafon bleed at every wound, as treated of in Sect. III. 6. At this time the buds becin to fwell, and to fhoot roots down- wards from their caudexes into the earth; the intertexture of thefe caudexes conftitutes a new bark over the old one, confifting of arte- ries, veins, and abforbents, as defcribed in Set. I. 3. Each bud then alfo puts forth a leaf, which is a refpiratory organ, and refembles in many refpeéts the lungs of animals, as defcribed in Set. IV. but dif fers from them in this circumftance, that the leaf requires light as Well as air for the purpofe of perfe& refpiration, as will be treated of in the Section on Licht. Each embryon of à leaf-bud is thus furnifhed with its proper ref- piratory organ; and as many new embryons were generated during the fummer in each leaf-bud, they now pullulate in fucceflion; each of which has like the firft its appropriate leaf, which, as they fuc- ceflively advance, compofe the annual fhoots or fprigs of trees; which in fome plants become of great length, as in vines, and willows, con- fifting of twenty or thirty new leaves. Hence if the firft fet of leaves be deftroyed by vernal frofts, as frequently happens to afh- trees, fraxinus, and to the Weeping Willow, falix babylonica; or by the depredation of infe@s, which often injures our fruit-trees; and perpetually occurs in this climate to the fpindle-tree, Euonymus; and in Îtaly to the white muilberry-tree, which has its firft leaves plucked Off for the food of flk-worms, and to the tea-treein China; a fecond fet of leaves fucceeds, which belong to the fecond embryons of the fame bud, But when the braëtes or floral-leaves are deftroyed by infe@s, as fometimes happens to Currant-trees, and apple-trees; the fruit in the pericap does not perifh, like the firft embryon of the leaf-bud above mentioned; becaufe it is ftill fupplied by the abforbent fyftem of the caudex and roots ofthe flower-bud, which compofe a part of the bark, and pafs into the ground; but the fruit becomes four and lefs per- X 2 fec® SRG“ue ne mors or es 2 > re_—_ RE— re ART 156 SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS, SECT: EX; 2, 7e fe& from the want of a due oxygenation of the juices, from which it is fecreted; though its olands may probably alfo receive fome oxygenated blood by the inofculation of the veflels of different buds, whether flower-buds or leaf-buds, with each other in the bark, on -fuppoñition that they are not all of them totally deftroyed. 7. In the axilla of each leaf is generally produced about midfum- mer either a new leaf-bud or a flower-bud; if it be a leaf-bud, it becomes a branch the next year, producing many other leaves, and many other buds; if it be a flower-bud, the growth ceafes, termi- nating in the feed. During the greater vigour of the plant the leaf- buds are folely or principally produced, as in young healthy trees; but when the veffels of the bark become further elongated, as the plant grows taller, the nutritive juices are lefs copioufly fupplied, or the buds are become more mature, and the produétion of flower-buds fucceeds as in Mr.Walker’s experiments the fap of the birch-tree in the fpring was two or three wecks later in afcending to the top of a high tree, than to the lower branches. Edinb. Franfa&. Vol. I. Hence it happens, that the grafts from ftrong feedling apple-trees do not bear fruit, till they are twelve or twenty years old; while the grafts from old weak trees will bear copioufly in two or three years, and hence very vigorous trees, as pears, produce fruit only at their extremities; but if you decorticate about an inch of a branch of a vi- gorous pear-tree, and thus weaken it; that branch will flower, and bear fruit at every bud like trees of lefs vigour. It fhoûld be here obferved, that the words ftrength and weaknefs, when applied to the growth of vegetables, are in reality metaphorical terms; or exprefs the efle& or confequence of their producing leaf- buds or flower-buds, rather than the caufe of it, whereas it is the fa- cility with which the long caudexes of the new buds, which form the new filaments of bark, can be generated, which increafes the number of leaf-buds, and gives the tree a juxuriant of vigorous ap- pearance; and the difiiculty of generating thefe new caudexes which increafes SecT. IX. 2.8., BUDS, BULBS. 159 increafes the flower-buds, and thus gives a lefs visorous appearance to the tree. The generation of buds feems to require a lefs perfeét apparatus than the generation of feeds; as that of buds always precedes that of feeds, both in trees and herbs; and becaufe the caterpillar is convert- ed into a butterfiy folely for the purpofe of feminal propagation; whereas the polypus can only propagate laterally, or by buds. Hence the age of the plant is another neceflary circumftance to the produc- tion of flowers, fruit, and feeds, as appears in tulips, and hyacinths, as well as in apple-trees and pear-trees. 8. About midfummer the new buds are formed; but it is believed by fome of the Linnean fchool, that thefe buds may in their early ftate be either converted into fower-buds or leaf-buds, according to the vigour of the vegetating branch. Thus if the upper part of a branch be cut away, the buds near the extremity of the remaining tem, having a greater proportional fupply of nutriment, and pofief- ing a greater facility of producing their new caudexes along the bark, will become leaf-buds; which might otherwife have been flower- buds; and on the contrary, if a vigorous branch of a wall-tree, which was expected to bear only leaf-buds, be bent down to the ho- rizon or lower, it will bear flower-buds with weaker leaf-buds, as is much exemplified by Mr. Hitt in his Treatife on Fruit Trees. The theory of this curious vegetable fa@t has been efteemed diff- cult, but receives great light from the foregoing account of the indi- viduality of buds. Both the flower-buds and leaf-buds die in the au- tumn; but the leaf-buds, as they advance, produce during the fum- mer other leaf-buds or flower-buds in the axilla of every leaf; which new buds require new caudexes extending down the bark, and thus thicken as well as elongate the branch; whereas the flower-buds fhed their feed, when they perifh in the autumn, and thus require no place on the bark for new caudexes. Hence when the fummit of a branch is lopped off, the buds near the extremity of the remaining I fem 158 SEEDS, BUDS, BULEBS. SECTUEX.. 258, fiem produce new leaf-buds with greater facility, as there is more room for their new caudexes to be generated along the defcending bark. But if a vigorous branch be bent down to the horizon, or be-| low it, the bark is compreffed beneath the curve, and extended above it, and thus the produ@tion of new caudexes along the bark is im- peded, and in confequence lefs leaf-buds and more flower-buds will| be generated, or the former converted into the latter; which require no new caudexes. And on this circumftance principally depends the management of wall-fruit trees, and of efpalliers. À For the purpofe of thus converting leaf-buds into flower-buds Mr. Li Whitmill advifed to bind fome of the moft vigorous fhoots with ftrons Ù wire, and even fome of the large roots; and Mr. Warner cuts, what :| he calls, a wild-worm about the body of the tree; or fcores the bark | quite to the wood like a fcrew with a fharp knife. Bradley on Gar- dening, Vol. IL. p.:55. Mr. Fitzgerald produced flowers and fruit (4| on ftandards and wall-trees by cutting off a cylinder of the bark, three è or four inches long, and replacing it with proper bandage,(Philof. Tranf. Ann. 1761) as defcribed in Se&t. XV. 1. 3. of this work.| M. Buffon produced the fame effe& by a ftraight bandage put round a branch, A@ Paris, Ann. 1738; and concludes that an ingrafted va branch bears better from its veflels being comprefed by the callus pro- | duced, where the crafted fcion joins the ftock. (56 It is cuftomary to debark oak-trees in the fpring, which are in-| fe tended to be felled in the enfuing autumn; becaufe the bark comes| off eafier at this feafon, and the fap-wood, or alburnum, is believed to become more durable, 1f the trees remain till the end of fummer| from their expending their faccharine fap-juice in the enfuing fo- liage, and thus being lefs liable to ferment and putrify. The trees thus ftripped of their bark put forth fhoots as ufual with acorns on, the fixth, feventh, and eighth joint, like vines; but in the branches Ï examined the joints of the debarked trees were much fhorter than thofe of other oak-trees; the acorns were more numerous; and no REVF + Secr.IX. 2.9., BUDS, BULBS. 0 new buds were produced above the joints which bore acorns. From hence it appears that the branches of debarked oak-trees produce fewer leaf-buds, and more flower-buds; which muft be owing to the impoñüibility of their producing new caudexes down the naked branches and ftem for the embryon progenvy of leaf-buds: The pullulation of leaves on debarked oaks demonftrates, that the refervoirs of nutriment depofited in the preceding fummer for the ufe of the vernal buds muft be in this alburnum: and that it îs this fac- charine matter which induces the alburnum to ferment and rot fooner than the internal wood.: Thus Dr.Walker found on nice infpeétion the fap-juice to flow from the lhigneous circles of the alburnum as well as between them, when a frefh piece was cut off from a cica- trized part, and alfo between the wood and the bark.. Tranfaét. Vol. I. He alfo obferved that oak, afh, elm, afpen, hazel, and hawthorn, do not bleed; and that the birch, plane, and maple bleed the moft, and that the grey willow, falix caprea, does not bleed, but the fap-juice rifes vifibly between the wood and the bark, fo as to make the bark feparate eafly from the wood. From all thefe faêts it may be inferred, that the faccharine matter, which is diflolved in the fap-juice, is depofited in the autumn in the roots of {ome trees, and in the alburnum of others, or in both; as manna is found in the wood of the manna-afh; and fugar in the joints of many grafles and of the fugar-cane, and in the roots of liquorice, beets, and many other herbaceous vegetables. 9. About Midfummer, after the new buds appear in the bofom of every leaf, many authors have remarked that there feems to be à kind of paufe in vegetation for about a fortnisht, which they have afcrib- ed to different caufes. At this time I fufpeét the refervoir of nou- rifhment for the new buds is forming about the roots or in the albur- num of the tree; and that the caudexes and umbilical veffels of the new buds are alfo at this time forming down the bark, and terminate in thofe nutritious refervoirs in the roots or new alburnum like the umbilical 160 SEEDS, BUDS, BULEBS. Secr. IX. 2. 9. umbilical vefñels called feminal roots, which are vifñble in many feeds. That this fyftem of umbilical veflels is pofñeffed of a great power of abforption in the roots of trees is certain from the force, with which the fap-juice was propelled upward from a vine-ftump in Dr. Hales” experiment.‘That the fap-juice thus propelled upwards nourifhes or expands the leaf of each new bud appears from the experiments of Dr.Walker; as the leaves began to unfold at the fame height, as the wounded wood began to bleed, and that thefe veffels pafs through or conftitute the fap-wood is evinced by the growth of the buds on oak- trees, after the bark is almoft totally taken off. The roots of trees are at this time protruded with greater vigour, 5 obferved by the ingenious Mr. Bradley, who on that account prefers the midfummer feafon for tranfplanting trees, if they are not to be removed to any great diftance; and adds, that the new fhoots in the following fpring will put forth with much greater force, and the tree will thence be almoft a year forwarder in its growth, than 1f it re- mains untranfplanted till the winter. Difcourfes on Earth and Wa- ter. This feems to be owing to the deftruction of much of the nu- tritious matter depofited in the roots for the ufe of the new buds, which is torn off in tranfplanting, and which can only be replaced about Midfummer or foon after. Mr. Bradley further adds, that when trees are thus tranfplanted at Midfummer, no part of the top or branches, or foliage, fhould at that time be cut of; which well accords with the theory above de- livered; asitis from the vegetable blood, which is oxygenated by its expofure to the air through the thin moift pellicle on the upper fmooth furfaces of thefe leaves, that the nutriment for the expan- fion of the buds in the fucceeding fpring is fecreted or produced; and hence if thefe leaves are prematurely deftroyed, the vernal growth of the buds muft receive injury.; as the refervoir of future nutriment for them will be lefs in quantity; but if fome of the branches are lopped lopped during the winter, the. will protrude more visorous rved nutriment will es fhoots, as their fhare of the eflels| 10. The umbähcal x 1 which are analogsous to thofe which permeate the lobes ofthe feed, are extended downward in the bark about midfummer, and terminate in certain refervoirs of nutriment, which are at this time fecreted from fifts of an intertexture of the cau raATE] Â\s e- noi m en and= a{IZ© Se 2 were buds in the laft fummer, and are now adult vegetable beings; ind of the embryon caudexes of the new buds; and of the umbilical Leflels of the new buds; it will become alburnum or fa 1p-wood dur- inc the autumn er enfuing ipring, and will be cradually covered over — Ce with a new bark confifting of the mature caudexes of the new buds, while that, which was the alburnum in the preceding fpring, will become a circle of lifelefs timber, interior to the circle of alburnum. The vefiels of this new bark, though they res$ the caudexes of the individual adult leaves, and the umbilical veflels of the indi- vidual young buds, evidently mofculate; becaufe, when fome buds are rubbed off or deftroyed, thofe in their vicinity grow with greater VIgOUT; as the daily experience of prunine all kinds of trees evinces, The facility with which the ruptured veffels of vegetables inofcul: into each ether, or grow together, correfponds with that of animal vellels in theirinflamed ftate. Thus a bud taken from onetree, and inferted into any part of the bark of another tree of the{ame genus, or ingrafted on it, pre efently receives nutriment, and grows to it by the reciprocal inofculation of the wounded vefels, in the fame man- ner as a tranfplanted tooth; or as the fingers are liable to grow to- gether after having been excor=. by a burn; or as the infiame lungs and pleura are liable to adhere, and.intermix their blood-veffels. See Set, III. 2. 7. .=+. En== 1& et During the winter, when the leaves die and fall off,‘the arterial and venous fyflems, which belonged to them, and which compofed the Y oreateit LL 162 SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. pcr:iX.. 2.10 greateft part of the bark, feem to lofe their vegetable life at the fame time, and to coalefce, and form the alburnum, or fap-wood; but the umbilical veflels belonging to the new buüs, which are intermixed with this alburnum, remain alive; and at the returning fpring act with aftomifhing vigour; as defcribed in Se&. IL. As the. sd. ances, the umbilical veflels,&. Fee ng drank up the refervoirs of nutriment, which were depofited about the roots, and having thus nourifhed and expanded the new leaves, ceafe to act; aud the alburnum gradually changes into hard wood, called the heart ofthetree; which no longer poflefles vegetative life; and is now only_ to elevate and fa fi aloft tes fwarm of biennial plants, which cover it; and was probably originally produced for this pur- pofe in the conteft of aïl vegetables for Jeht and air. This inert or lfelefs ftate of the__— parts of trees, called t heart-wood, is evident from thofe old oaks and willows, which ha loft their internal hard wood, and are become quite hollow, confift- ing only of their bark anc alburnum, and yet are furnifhed wiib many healthy branches. But the umbilical veflels of the alburnum pofleis the propert ies of capillary tubes, or of a fponge, after they are extinét, and ceafe to a as umbilical veflels; and thus may oc- LE 1 9 cafonally attrat moifture, or fuffer it to pafs through them mecha- nically; whilft the new bark, w hich confifis of an intertexture of the caudexes of each bud'with their radicles, may occañonally abforb this moifture from the capillary veflels of the alburnum, which may be compared to the upper ftratum of the foil attrating by capillary power the moifture from the foil. immediately beneath 1, which may exhale into the atmofphere, or be imbibed by the roots of ve- getables by the fuperior living power of their abforbent mouths. l sp Pot PEN PET That the veflels of the alburnumvin eg living ftate poflels the 1 1e pion serty of conveying the fap-juice, which is propelled upwards- in 2! EL SRE he early fpring by the abfor be nt terminations of the roots, 1s vifñble in 331 dec OF ticated oaks; the branches of which expand their buds, like =«r T+ se SEC T, TA LEO SE EEDS, BUDS D'9 BU 140 2De 105 fe of the birch and vine in the bleeding feafon. That the vefléls ce. alburnum in their living flate occafionally act as capillary{y- hons, through which the FR is firft pufhed upwards by the abforbent extremities of fthe roots, and afterwards returns downwards partly by its gravitation in b ns bent below the horizon, ap>pears from an experiment of D mentioned in Sect. III. 2. 4. Laftly, that the veffels of the alburnum after their esetable life is extin@, poflefs a power of capillary attra@ion of the fap-juice, or of permitting it to pafs through them occafionally, appears from the following experiments, Firft, a branch of a young apple=treé wa {o cankered, that the bark for about an inch quite nil it was to- tally deftroyed. To prevent the alburnum from becoming too dry by exhalation, this decayed part was covered with thick white paint; in à few days the painting was repeated, and this three or four times, {0 as to produce a thick coat of paint over the decayed part, or naked alburnum, extending to the afcending and defcending lips of the wound; this was in fprins, and the branch Bb! Maeal ne ripened feveral apples. In a garden in Lächfeld about four years ago a complete cylinder of bark about an inch long was cut from a branch of a pear:tree nailed againft a wall; the circumcifed part is now not more than half the diameter of the fame branch above and below it; yet this branch has been full of fruit every year fince, wheu the other branches of the tree have borne only fparingly. I lately obferved, that the leaves of this wounded branch were fmaller and paler, and the fruit lefs in fize, and ripened a fortnight fooner, than on the other parts of the tree. Another branch of ie fame tree has a part of the bark taken off about an inch long, but not quite all round it, with much the fame effet. The exiftence of capillary tubes in-dead fap-wood is vifil piece of dry cane, which permit water or fmoke to pafs through them; and in the exhaufted receiver of an air-pump both water and Y 2 quickfilver ble in a Re à ns è ” 3 a ra"+ he Z w A ue. x rs -==. RE Eee Minna OS Ÿ? 164. SEP, BUDS, BUEPS. SECTE STE quickfilver may be made readily to pafs through pieces of the dry ai- burnum of wood by the preflure of the atmofphere. 11. The flower-buds of many trees arife immediately from the laft year’s terminal fhoots, or fpurs, either accompanied with leaf-buds, or feparately, as in apple and pear-trees. Other flower-buds arife from the fhoots of the prefent year alternately with leaf-buds, as thofe of vines, and form the third or fourth buds of the new fhoots. They differ from leaf-buds in this circumftance, that they perifh when their feeds are ripe, without producing any addition or increafe to the tree: whereas when the leaf-buds perifh in the autumn, their caudexes, the intertexture of which conftitutes the bark of the tree, gradually be- come converted into alburaum, or fap-wood; over which the new leaf-buds fhoot forth their caudexes and radicles, or infert them into it, and gradually fabricate the new bark and root-fibres. It was before mentioned, that it is believed by fome difciples of the Linnean fchool, that about Midfummer leaf-buds may be changed into flower-buds,. or flower-buds into leaf-buds; and that even after the vegetable embryons are generated. And that this may be efe@- ed by weakening or ftrengthenine the growth of the laft year’s buds, which fecrete thefe new ones from the vegetable blood, and nourifà them in their infant ftate. Thusif fome inches of the extremity of a branch be lopped off at Midfummer, as is fometimes done by unfkil- ful gardeners, the remaiing few buds will become more vigorous, and confequently produce leaf-buds inftead of flower-buds; or per- haps the embryons already formed may be converted from one kind to the other. The Contrary may occur, if a visorous branch of à wall-tree be bent down beneath the horizon, or fo much as to im- pede the generation of new caudexes: or if the leaf of the parent-bud be taken off, foon after the plumula or apex of the new bud is ge- nerated; and thus the new caudex along the b ed by deficiency of nutriment: ark may be prevent The probabilty of this idea of tranfmuting flower-buds and leaf- buds SECT IX 2, 12, SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. 166 buds into each other is confirmed by the curious converfion of the parts of the flowers of fome vegetable monfters into green leaves; if they be too well nourifhed, after they are fo far advanced as to be unchangeable into leaf-buds. T'hus in the plantago rofea, rofe-plan- tain, the divifions of the fpike become wonderfully enlarged, and are converted into leaves; the chaffy fcales of the calyx in xeranthe- mum, everlafting, and in a fpecies of dianthus, pink, and the glume of fome alpine grafles, and the fcales in the ament of the falix rofea, rofe-willow, grow into leaves, and produce other kinds of vegetable monfters. Add to this, that the petals of the helleborus niger, or chriftmas- rofe, are beautifully white till the feed is impreguated; and then they change into green leaves, forming a calyx. And laftly, in other flowers a bud or bulb fucceeds the impregnation inftead of a feed, as in polygonum viviparum, viviparous biftort; and in allium maci- cum, magical onion; the fame occurs in many of the alpine craffes, and in the feftuca dumetorum, fefcue grafs; all which are in fome degree analosous to the fuppofed converfion of early flower-buds into leaf-buds; for in thefe magical onions, and other bulbiferous flowers, the bractes or floral-leaves, which at firft fecrete nourifhment for the pericarp and feeds of the plant, affume a new office, and fecrete a magazine of nourifhment for the new bulb, as appears in the concen- tric flefhy membranes, which furround the new fummit-bulbs of the allium magicum, and the cloves of garlic. 12, The central part of an adult bud therefore confifts firft of a conjunétion of the blood-veffels from above and below, which exifts in the caudex of the bud between the beginning of the leaf- veflels and the becinning of the root-veflels; the circulation refem- bling that of many infeëts, of fifh, and in the livers of quadruped as fhewn in Se&.V. 2. Secondly, there is probably at the fame pl a conjunétion of the abforbent vefels correfpondent to the recepta- culum chyli of animals. Thirdly, there exifts in each bud an orga °9 | ar ace Te Qi 166 SÉEDS, BUDS, BULBS; SECT. IX. U9 L fil of reproduétion, which in a leaf-bud produces the lateral or paternal 4 offspring, and in a flower-bud the feminal or amatorial one. Fourth- $ ly, a center of nervous influence, as a D r fpinal marrow, or common fenforium, exifts in each bud; anc ai y refides near this junétion of the blood-veflels of the leaf pps GE and of the abforbent fyftem, along with the organ of reprodudtion in the caudex gemmæ. iiitiicn LÉ:r: he BULBOUS ROOTS of fome perennial herbaceous he root-fcions of other perenuial herbaceous plants, are Re mn.. 11S relpeét, which diftinguifhes them from buds; that they are 1erated on the broad caudex of the plant within the sround, or in ai| contact with it, and immediately fhoot down their new roots into QE{| the earth. Whereas buds are formed above the foil on the long Î Âl caudexes, which conftitute the filaments of the bark of trees, and fhoot down new roots into the earth from the lower end of thefe elongated caudexes. Bulbs have not improperly been called fubterraneous buds; and like them they may be divided into leaf-bulbs and flower-bulbs. When a tulip-feed is fown, it produces a fmall plant the firft fummer, which in the autumn dies, and leaves in its place one or more bulbs. (a dieser ue À Thefe are leaf-bulbs, which in the enfuing fpring rife into ftronger plants than thofe of the firft year, but no flowers are yet gencrated; in the autumn thefe perifh like the former, and leave in their places other leaf-bulbs fironger, or more perfe&, than their.preceding pa- rents. This fucceflion of leaf-bulbs continues for four or five years, till at length the bulb acquires a greater perfection or maturity, necef- fary for al generation, and produces in its place a large flower- bulb in the centre with feveral fmall leaf-bulbs around it. This fucceflive formation of leaf-bulbs in bulbous rooted plants previous to the formation of a flower-bulb is curioufly-analosous to| the produétion of leaf-buds on many trees for feveral years before the production of flower-buds; thus the apple-trees, pyrus malus, which are raifed from feeds, generate only leaf-buds for ten or twelve years, and SECT. IN gui and afterwards annually generate both flower-buds and leaf-buc From whénce it would feem, that the adherent lateral or nt progeny 1s the moft fimple, and eafieft, and confequently the firft mode of reproduétion; and that the amatorial or feminal progeny 18 on this account not generated till the maturer age or more perfect ftate of the parent-bud, À ftll more curious analogy to this circumftance of a fucceflion of leaf-buds and feaf-bulbs preceding the formation of flower-buds and flower-bulbs exifts in the growth of wheat, triticum, and other grafles; but with this difference, that a fucceffion of leaf! buds, as of two, or three, or four, are produced in the fame year previous to the flower-bud. At the firft joint of the ftem of wheat, on or within the furface of the earth, a leaf is produced; from which rifes the principal or central bud, and around it many new buds, which ftrik their roots into the foil. After this central bud, and thofe around ie, bave arifen fix or eight inches, a new leaf and a new leaf-bud rifes on each of them, producing a fecond joint of the ftem; and laftly, a flower-bud is generated at the fummit, which are all evi dently dif- tint ve ds ses beings, as there is a divifion acrofs the ftem at each joint, which fhews there is no connexion of the É OF-Braiñ;: of fpinal mMmafrowW 9 betv WEEe Set. I. That a new bud thus conftitutes each: the lower and upper joints, as mentioned in Lee int of the fem of wheat, 1( JC and other_ affes, 1s further evinced; firft, by the exiftence of a leaf in 1 la, as occurs in other ve- = Secondly, becaufe for the Lesifi nment of this new leaf- Bud a refervoir of fweet- juice e 15 os in the new joint;* as in the 1 bulbs of many plants. Andthirdly, becaufe the lower leaf dies, and the fweet juice is abforbed, as ie à upper leaf becomes vegete. Hence we acquire the know ee” of the ufé of this rélerRoir“< of fu thie v ERP Le OL PES en" ë v rec UT aus RE 5 mr # 168 SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. SecT.IX. 3.1. tary hourifhment to mankind from the cultivation of the fugar-cane. See No. 1. 6. and No. 3. 7. of this Section. The analogy between the buds of plants and the adherent lateral progeny of fome infeéts, as of the polypus, and tenia, or tape-worm, and volvox, was mentioned in Se&. VII. 1.4. But the circumftance of the fucceflive produétion of leaf-buds and leaf-bulbs previous to the prodution of flower-buds or flower-bulbs is wonderfully analogous| qi to the generation of the aphis, which rifing from an egg in the fpring| dl after cafting its fkin once or twice de a living progeny without| ; amatorial copulation; and this offspring produces CHE by this foli- tary propagation till the tenth generation; then a fexual progeny of males and females is produced, and eggs are laid in the autumn from their amatorial intercourfe. Encycloped. Britan. Amœnitat. Academ. Vol. VII by A.T. Bladh. See Se. XIV. 3. 2. Thus this infect from the egg requires to be reproduced many times by folitary pro- pagation ne it becomes fufficiently perfeét to generate a fexual offspring like the buds and bulbs from feeds above ee And it is probable, that the polypus of our ftagnant waters, which pro- duces a lateral offspring in the fummer, I fuppofe by folitary propa- gation, may produce males and females, and generate eggs in confe- quence in the autumn for their reproduétion in the ae fprinc. To this may be added the great change, which many infeéts and even larger animals undergo si. in ftrength or form, before they acquire fe power of os reproduétion. Às the filk-worm changes into a butterfly apparently for the purpofe of generation only, as it then performs this office and dies. Other caterpillars change their form likewife into butterflies, and at the fame time change their kind of food, which was the green foliage of vegetables before this tranf- formation; but now confifts folely of honey. And laftly, the gnat and mufqueto change at the fame time both their forms, their food, and their element; and thus acquire higher animation apparently for. the purpofe of fexual reproduétion. 2. The SECTE 2. SÉEDS, BUDS, BULBS: 106 2. The manner of the produ&tion of herbaceous plants from their various perenunial roots wants further inveftication, as their analocy is not yet clearly afcertained. I this autumn diffe@ted two large roots of the onion or leek kind, which were in full flower; the ftem of each of them was embraced by the cylindrical pedicles of fix or feven concentric leaves; but the ftem itfelf arofe from the center between three large new bulbs in one of them, and between two in the other. AI of which grew from the fame caudex, but the central flower- fem was wrapped at its bottom in one membrane onlv, which fe- parated it from the new bulbs in its vicinity. À large root of a young onion, which grew from feed fown in the fpring, was at the fame time difleéted by ftripping off the leaves, and their flefhy bafes, one after another, till two buds were vifible in the center of the flefhy bafes of the concentric leaves, which formed the bulb. Thefe two bulbs were evidently formed and nourifhed on the caudex by the flem, and its fix or feven concentric cylindrical leaves: and will, 1 fuppofe, feparate in the{pring, as they rife up, and pro- duce each of them a flower with two or three new bulbs at the baf ofit, as defcribed in the above paragraph. Or from the different fize and apparent greater maturity of the central bulb, and the fecondary bulb being between the innermoft and the fecond circular flefhy membrane, 1 fuppofe in thefe roots of onion, like the tulip-roots before fpoken of, that the central bulb alone may produce a flower in the next fummer; and that the la- teral bulb or bulbs will produce only ftronger and more mature leaf- bulbs, which will in the fucceeding fummer bear a flower or fexual progeny. The caudex, or central part of the bulb, from which the root- fibres defcend, and the leaves afcend, lies above the knot in the orchis morio; and the parent-root fhrivels up and dies, as the young one 1n- creafes. The flower of this plant does not ripen its feeds in this climate; it might be otherwife worth cultivation for the ufe of the 5 new a e a = 170 SÉEDS, BUDS,;. BULBS, SECT.IX, 3: new roots; which when fcalded and peeled, are faid to be the falep of the fhops. It is afflerted by one of the Linnean fchool. in the Amœn. Academ. that if the new root be pinched off, the feeds on.the old one will ripen, and become prolific. the fibrous roots and the new bulbs; the root after it has flowered dies like the orchis root;. for the ftem of the laft year’s tulip lies on. the outfide, and not in the center of the new bulb. In the tulip- root, difleéted in the early fpring, juft before it begins to fhoot, a per- fe& flower is feen in its center; and between the firft and fecond coat the large next year’s bulb is, I believe, produced; between the fe- cond and third coat, and between this and the fourth coat,. and per- haps further, other lefs and lefs bulbs are vifible, all adjoining to the caudex at the bottom of the mother bulb; and which IL am told, re- quire as many years, before they will flower, as the number of the coats with which they are covered;.and that the fame different ftates of maturity probably obtain in the buds round the fhoots of many fruit-trees, the central one of which will produce flowers the next year as on the fpurs of apple-trees; while thofe beneath it require more or fewer years, before they become fufficiently mature to pro- duce organs of fexual generation; animportant fecret in the manage- ment of fruit-trees. The hyacinth-root differs fromthe tulip-root; for, as I'am inform- ed, the ftem of the lait year’s flower is always found in the center of the root, as in the onions above defcribed; and that the new off- fets arife from the caudex below this bulb, and not between any of the concentric coats of it, except the two external.ones, On this ac- count the central part is liable by its decay to deflroy the flower-bud, if not taken out of the earth, when the leaves die; and. hence fome florifts believe, that thefe roots perifh naturally in five or feven years, after they have flowered, but that the tulp-root never dies from age. En. In the tulip the caudex lies below the bulb, from whence proceed: ttes SecT. IX. 3. 2. SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. à / In a few roots of hyacinths, which I this däy examined, Septem- ber 1, the ftem of one, which had apparently flowered in the fum- mer, was perfeétly decayed in the center of m: ny new bulbs, In another bulb of lefs fize and compaët, which T fuppofed had not born a flower,[I found a central flower-bud inclofed in Many Concentric flefhy bafes of former leaves, like an onion in the autumn, which had been fown in the preceding fpring. And concluded from he ence, that the hyacinth-root dies annually or biennially Hke the onion, leavino behind it a fucceffion of leaf-bulbs or of flower-bulbs. The caudex and claw-like roots of the ranunculus cultivated by forifts dies I believe annual ly, after having put forth a circle of new claws from the upper part of it round the bottom of the perifhing flower-ftem. Hence the claws of the old root, which became fhrivel- led, as the flower advanced, in the autumn difappear; and the de- cayed part of the old caudex is feen beneath the new claw-like roots, which I fuppofe has given occafion to fome inaccurate.obfervers to believe, that the old ftem in this and fome other perennial herbaceous plants was drawn downwards by the new root fibres; while the bulbs of the iris have been fuppofed to have been pufhed upwards, like the lamb-like barometz, by the refiftance of the foil to the pret of the root-fibres; which laft feems to be a much more probable idea than the former. From thefe obfervations it appears, that the concentric leaves, which incircle the ftems of bulb-rooted plants, are the lungs to the caudex, as one or more leaves are to the bud of a tree; and that the caudex with thefe leaves, and the root-fibres, conftitute a vegetable being; which produces a viviparous progeny of new Jeaf-bulbs, or a feminiferous progeny in flower-bulbs, with a magazine of nutriment in the flefhy bafe of each leaf; and that the tulip produces only leaf- bulbs for four or five years from the feed, and then but one flower- bulb with many leaf. bulbs annually. But that the onion-kind, al- Hum, generates two or three flower-bulbs in the firft fummer from 22 the . | | | || l 4 { fl 122 SEPDS PÜDS PUESS. DECT IX. Se the feed; which produce flowers and other leaf-bulbs in the fecond fummer from the feed. And laftiy, that it is probable, that all bul- bous roots, like the buds of deciduous trees, and perhaps of evergreen ones alfo, are properly fpeaking biennial plants, as they rife in one fummer and perifh in the next. 3. In tulip-roots, which have been planted too deep in the earth, and in onion-roots, a vesetable cord, or procefs, is fometimes feen about an inch long to arife from the caudex beneath the bafes of the cylindrical leaves, and to form'a new bulb. Similar to this appears the natural growth of the roots of potatoes; a fpermatic cord arifes from the old root, after the leaves are expanded in the air, to oxy- genate the vegetable blood, and a new tuberous or bulbous root is thus generated. This mode of producing diftant roots is exa@ly refembled above ground by the wires of ftrawberries; which may be called fpermatic cords, which depofit a new vegetable being on the earth, and fupport it like a bud on a tree, till it can ftrike roots into the foil, and elevate leaves into the air. The final caufe of the length of thefe fubterra- neous and aertal fpermatic cords 1s evidentlÿ the defign of placing their roots at a convenient diftance from their parent plants; that they may not incommode each other, but may both of them more rea- dily acquire nutritious juices from the earth, and the ventilation and funfhine of the atmofphere. Thefe embryon vegetabies in the various bulbous and tuberous roots are in very different ftates of maturity, as in the buds of different trees; thus in the potatoe the corculum or plumula of the new plant only is vifñible, furrounded with a farinaceous nutriment, as in many feeds; whereas in the tulip and hyacinth the flower of the fucceed- ing year is difcernible, as in the bud ofthe horfe-chefnut. As the ripening of the feed of fome bulbous-rooted plants is for- warded by deftroying the new bulbs, as in orchis; and the flowering bulbs of other plants are made ftronger by raifing them out of the earth, SECTE SEEDS;-:BUPS;::BULBS. 173 earth, and taking away the leaf-bulbs, which furround them on the fame caudex; as in the cuftomary management of tulip-roots, and hyacinth-roots by the florifts; I was led to fufpeét, that pinching off the flowers of potatoes two or three times might increafe the fize or quantity of the roots; as the nourifhment derived from the vegetable blood to the flowers and feeds might thus be direéted to enlarge the roots, and thus lay up more nutriment for the future plants. This idea Ï mentioned to an ingenious Lady, who acquainted me a few months afterwards, that on a few roots fhe had made this experiment with apparent advantage. 4. The bulbous and tuberous roots of plants are a lateral or pater- nal progeny like the buds of trees, and therefore exa@ly refemble the parent plant, as mentioned in Sect. III. 2. 1. and on this account may be liable to be affeted by hereditary difeafes, and thus to become un- healthy; whence the canker is fuppofed to arife in thofe af ple-trees, which have for a century or two been propagated by oraftins; and the curled leaf in potatoes, which have been too long propagated by their bulbs; and the barrennefs of hautbois ftrawberries, which have too long been propagated by wires; ail which difeafes are believed not to happen in thefe plants, if they have recently been raifed from feed, but want further obfervations to authenticate the fadts. But there exifts a fet of bulbs, which feem to be formed by amato- rial or feminal generation, and not by the lateral or paternal gene- ration, and would therefore feem to be a viviparous fexual progeny. Thefe are produced on the flower-ftem in the place of feeds; and in procefs of time fall off, and take root in the earth, as is agreeably feen in the polygonum viviparum, viviparous biftort, and the magical onion, allium masicum, and the leek, allium fativum. A curious queftion here occurs, whether the plants from thefe bulbs are liable exa@ly to refemble their parents? and whether they would be liable to heredi- tary difeafes from a long cultivation of them in fucceflion, as is fup- pofed to happen to thofe mentioned above? Thoueh DS; BÜEES; SECT, IX. LE Though a perfeët flower preccdes the produ& of fome fummit- bulbs, as I believe in the lower part of the fpike of the polygonum vi- viparum; yet I fufpe®, that the fummit-bulbs of allium magicum, are exa@ly fimilar to the bulbs, which are produced at their roots; becaufe on cutting one of them horizontaily into two hemifpheres this morning, September 10, I obferved three young bulbs inclofed in the concentric flefhy membranes of the fummit-bulb in the following manver; five thick flefhy concentric coats of the general fummnit- buib being taken away, there appeared one fingle naked fmall bulb; and on the fixth coat being removed, two other bulbs became vifible, which were included in it. Whenceit feems, that thefe ffem-bulbs are as forward as thofe of the root, and probably are in every refpect fimilar; and that the braûes or floral-leaves, which in feed-bear- ing plants fecrete or prepare a nourifhment for the feed, and peri- carp of the flower, acquire in thefe bulbiferous onions and leeks a new oflice, and prepare a magazine of nourifhment in the concentric membranes, which furround their fummit-bulbs; and thefe may be cfteemed therefore a fexual viviparous progeny of vecetables, as buds are a läteral viviparous progeny. 5. The roots of trees fo refemble their branches, that fubterrane- ous buds are frequently produced upon them, which refemble the parent-tree. The bark of the root likewife fo refembles the bark of the branches, that it is not uncommon to ingraft with fuccefs on roots taken out of the earth and replanted; as the robinia on the root of the acacia, and any other apples on the roots or the fuckers of bur- apples or of codlings; which may be done earlier in the vernal months, as being lefs liable to injury from frofty nights; and it is probable, that budding or inoculating may be performed in the fame manner on the roots at midfummer, as on the branches. The roots of thofe plants, which are otherwife not eafily propa- gated, will fhoot up buds, if a part of them next to the plant be half cut through, or raifed out of the ground, and expofed to the air; as I un SECTE, 32.6. SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. F7$ in pyramidal campanula, and geranium lobatum; and after atimethe root may be feparated from the ftock, and many new plants may be this way produced.! Thefe root-buds, or fackers, are generally produced near the trunk of the tree, before the root defcends much beneath the{oil; but in fome trees, as the eim, ulmus, and acer, maple, whofe roots fpread far hcrizontally, and near the furface of the earth, they are cenerated at a great diftance from the parent tree; becaufe the new fcion can thus foon acquire the influence of the atmofphere on its expanding foliage. Thefe root-fcions from apple-trees are frequently ufed in ve- cetable nurferies for the purpole of ingraftins upon, and are termed paradice-ftocks by fome gardeners; but are not liable to the canker like the crafts from thofe old apple-trees, which have been in fafhion above à century; as thefe root-fcions refemble the trunk of the tree, which produces them, not the ingrafted head of it; and thus may not have been many years from the ftate of a feedling vegetable. Similar to thefe root-fcions of trees it is probable, that the root- buds of perennial herbaceous plants are produced; which have diva- ricated, or fibrous-roots, and whofe fummits perifh in the winter. For many years the root thickens by an annual new bark being in duced over the old one, exa@ly as in the trunks and roots of trees. As thefe roots increafe in fize, the central part, 1 fuppofe, changes like the internal wood of a tree, and ceafes to poflefs vecetable life; and in procefs of time is liable to decay.‘On this account thefe pe- rennial roots are not fo valuable for the purpofes of medicine or diet, or mechanic arts, either before or after they have paffed a determinate age; as the bark of the root changes annually into a kind of albur- num, and then into a kind of wood, and laftly, is liable to decay, as occurs in the roots of rheum palmatum, when they are feven or more years old. See Se&. XVIL. 2. 1. This decay of the central part of the root, which happens annually to fome plants, and is furrounded with new buds and their root-fibres, exhibits the appearance of the lower. 176 SEEDS, BUDS, BULES. Sec. IX. 3.6. lower end of the root having been chopped, or bitten off, to fome fan- ciful botanifts; as in plantago major, and valerian; and has hence given to fcabiofa fuccifa the name of devil’s-bit, morfus diaboli. 6.‘L'he bulbs already mentioned, as thofe of tulips, hyacinths, and onions, are properly the winter-cradles, or hybernacula, of the young plants, whether in their leaf-bulb or flower-bulb ffate; and are fur- nifhed with a magazine or refervoir of nourifhment for the srowing embryons, as appears in the fquil, fcilla maritima, which vegetates from this fource of nutriment in the druggifts fhops. But there are other roots termed tuberous roots, as of turnep and carrot, which counfift folely of a large refervoir of nutriment for the growth and nourifhment of the rifing ftem and future feeds;: whether thefe are produced in the fame year, as occurs, when the feeds are fown early in the fpring; or when their vegetation is ftopped by the cold of le) e) to our turneps, the roots of which I am well informed may be much winter, and proceeds again in the enfuing fpring; as generally occurs enlarged by tranfplantation. See Sect. XII. 6. In thefe plants the leaves, by expoñng the vegetable blood to the influence of the air, prepare it for the fecretion of nutriment in their knobby roots; in the fame manner as nourifhment is produced and referved in the concentric flefhy bafes of the leaves of onions; and in thefe plants, as in the onion kind, the leaves, which furround the bafe of the new ftems, wither and die; as the new buds, or bulbs, put forth leaves of their own for the purpofe of oxygenating their blood. Thus it appears, that the ftem and flower of the omion, or carrot, or turnep, isa new plant, not arifing immediately from the feed which was fown, but from the leaf-root or leaf-knob, 1f it may be fo called, which preceded the produétion of the flower-bud, or flower-ftem, exaly as the flower or ear of wheat, which was fhewn in Se. IX. 3. 1. to have three or four fucceflive leaf-buds preceding the flower-bud. From thefe obfervations may we conclude, that no flower-bud or flower- Secr. IX. 3 6. SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. iv { fower-bulb is ever produced from a feed, without the previous in- terpoftion of one or more leaf-buds or leaf-bulbs? and that thofe flower-buds or flower-bulbs are either produced in one generation af- ter fowing the feed, as the flower-bulbs of onions, which ar rated and nourifhed at the bafes of the concentric cylindrical leaves of the preceding leaf-plant, which arofe from the feed; or as the ftems and flower-buds of the carrot and turnep, which are generated and nourifhed at the bafe of the concentric leaves of the preceding leaf- plant. Or fecondly, that they are produced in one fummer, though after feveral generations from the feed; as the three or four joints of the ftem of wheat, and other graffes, which are generated and nou- rifhed in fucceffion in the bofoms of four or five cylindrical leaves, one at each joint; which alfo probably obtains in all other vegeta- bles, which are fupported by hollow ftems divided by joints, and furnifhed with leaves at thefe ftem-joints with or without branches, as tragopogon or picris. In thefe plants, where there are no branches, there is fimply a new central bud; and two or more lateral new buds befide the central one, where there are branches. Or laftly, where the leaf-buds or leaf-bulbs, which are produced from feeds, fucceed each other for fome years, before they arrive at fufficient maturity to produce fexual organs, or generate a flower, as in the bulbs of tulips, and hyacinths, and the buds of trees. Whence we at lensth acquire à diftin& idea, why feedling apple-trees are ten or twelve years before they bear fruit; though the buds or fhoots taken from a tree, which already has born fruit, and ingraft- ed even on a young feedling-tree, fhall produce flowers in the firft or fecond year; as thefe buds have already acquired that ftate of per- fe&ion or maturity, which is neceffary to the produétion of fexual or feminal generation: and as it therefore pofleffes the age of puberty, or the maturity of the tree; we may fufpect, that it will fooner acquire the hereditary difeafes confequent to too long unmixed fuc- A a ceflive Fa 178 SEEDS, BUDS, BULSBS. SECT EX: 7 ceflive generations, a piece of very important knowledge to the planters of orchards; which they owe to the obfervation of Mr. Knight, as mentioned in Se&, VII. 1. 3. Hence in many plants produced from feeds, perhaps in all, one or more leaf-buds precede the flower-bud; and I fuppofe generally, if not always, a magazine of aliment is formed at the bafes of the leaves, or in the roots, for the nutriment of the fucceeding leaf-bud or flower-bud, of which it is the parent. Thus in the carrot and turnep the firft leaves conftitute the lungs of the new vegetable being, which generates the fucceeding flower- ftem, and fecretes or depofits for it a magazine of aliment, which forms the tuberous root: and then this firft plant from the feed and its leaves or lungs perifh; and the root gradually fhrivels up, as it is abforbed by the new flower-ftem. In many plants thefe firft or root- leaves differ in form from thofe of the fucceeding flem, as in palmated rhubarb, and in campanula rotundifolia, which 1s fo called from the round form of the leaves of this firft leaf-bud, or root-plant, which precedes the flower-ftem. | 7, One great advantage of Mr. Tulls horfe-hoeing hufbandry, in MA which the earth near the rows of wheat 1s alternately turned from A and to them during the vernal months, has been fuppofed to arife from fome fibres of the roots being thus cut off, and new ftems fhoot- ing up at the ends of thofe which remain; but the real caufe of the produétion of the new ftems is from the accumulation of earth above the firft joint of the young wheat-plant; from which the new buds fpring out, generated and nourifhed by the caudex of the leaf, which furrounds that joint, aud which afterwards withers; this important svheat-plant. The plant of wheat was taken from a corn-field in the fpring, aad then confifted firft of the root immediately proceeding from the feed circumftance is fhewn by the annexed delineation of a tranfplanted ra ne BEC IN. SEEDS, BUDS, BULEBSs. 170 feed a, which has been called the feminal root; and fecondiy, of the root, which was then near the furface of the ground#, which has been called the coronal root, was furnifhed with a ftem and le | and with a fecondary ftem, or root-fcion, e, f. This wheat-plant | confifting of only two ftems was replanted in my garden, and pur-,- pofely buried fo deep as to cover the two or three firft joints of both the ftems beneath the{oil; that is as high as the letter /, where the fecondary flem was purpofely cut off. On taking up this plant with fome others on September 24, it had affumed the form here delineated, The primary ftem, c,£, had fhot‘à Out no new roots from the joint&g» which I fuppofe to have hap- k pened from its being too far advanced when replanted: other ftems of other wheat-plants, which had not be had neverthelefs put forth one or more| the fecond or third joints, which on tr with the foil. But the obtruncated Îtem, e, f, had generated a new root-fcion at b, like the firft fhoot from the feed at a3 which had produced other new ftems, as it approached nearer the furface of the earth at 23 and as thefe advanced into thei dir, new root-fcions were generated at£ a NS us 07 af,€, d, as many en obtruncated, ateral ftems or root-fcions at anfplantation had been covered and formed their leaves, other nd Z Whence it appears, that by decapitation, and a deeper immerfon in the ground, a fecondary ftem in this plant became multiplied into five: all which produced | perfect ears of corn; and in other roots, which I had planted in a fimilar manner, the increafe Was much greater: and efpecially where one or more of the primary or fecondary ftems had been decapi- tated. Ifa grain of wheat be dropped on the furface of the earth, and fuf- fered to fhoot down its roots, and to raife its fem, which is the procefs of nature, T fuppofe but one ftem would be produced; as the frit knot or joint of it would not be covered with earth, and could Aa 2 not Pr Re ge 180__ SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. SEcT. IX. 3. 7. not therefore fhoot down new roots; which are neceflary in thefe plants to.the produëtion of new ftems, which are not branches but fuckers or root-fcions. But if the grain be buried an inch deep in the earth, a fhoot rifes from the roots, which iffue from the feed, which is an elongation of the caudex, and puts forth a leaf in contact with the furface of the earth; this leaf and ftem conftitute the primary plant, and generate new buds, which put forth new roots defcending into the earth; and thus three or four or more fuckers, or new plants, arife round the original one, which was contained in the feed: hence the appearance of two roots, which fome authors have named the feminal and co- ronal roots.‘The ingenious Mr.Tull feems himfelf to have been aware of this circumftance, as he fays in his Hufbandry,* Late planted wheat fends out no root above the grain before fpring, but 15 nourifhed all winter by a fingle thread proceeding from the grain up to the furface.”? This explains the prodigious multiplication of the ftems of wheat, which may be produced by tranfplanting it three or four times in the fummer, autumn, and enfuing fpring; for if it be fo managed, that a fecond joint of each young ftem be buried in the foil, or brought even into contaét with it, fo that new roots may ftrike down into the earth; the caudex of the leaf, which furrounds this joint, will gene- rate many new buds, which will thus become fuckérs, or root-fcions, and rival their parent; and may be again tranfplanted or earthed up three or four times with wonderful increafe. Mr. Charles Miller of Cambridge fowed fome wheat on the fecond of June 1766, and on the eighth of Auguft one plant was taken up and feparated into eighteen parts and replanted; thefe plants were again taken up and divided between the middle of September and the middle of Octo- ber, and again planted feparately to ffand the winter, and this fecond divifion produced fixty-feven plants. They were again taken up, and divided between the middle of March and the middle of April, and 8 produced CEE ÉTÉ& SecT. IX. 3. 7. SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. 181 produced five hundred plants. The number of ears thus produced from one grain of wheat was 21109, which meafured three pecks and three quarters of corn, weighed forty-feven pounds feven ounces, and were eftimated at 576840 grains! Philof. Tranf. Vol. LVIIT. D, 202 See sed, XH6. Nor is this unfupported by the analogy of other vegetables, in which.new roots are liable to fhoot in great abundance from their foints either alone or along with new buds, if a proper degree of moifture is prefented to them. Thus if the ftem of a potatoe be laid down upon the earth, and covered with foil over the firft joint, a new {eries of roots will be protruded from that joint; and afterwards ano- ther feries of roots from the fecond joint, if managed in the fame manner; and it is aflerted that this will occur even if the potatoe flems are taken out of the ground, when they are fix or eight inches high, and deprived of all their young roots, and tranfplanted, fo as to cover one or two joints, and that a great crop has been thus pro- duced. The rapid growth of fome graffes, and of fome fpecies of the con- volvulus, and of colt’s-foot, is well known, and very troublefome in many fituations. Of thefe very minute parts of the jointed root, when cut from the parent, elongate themfelves, and fhoot up new plants. From the very numerous divifions of the wheat-root de- fcribed by Mr. Miller, it may be fufpeéted that fomething fimilar to this muft have happened, which further obfervations muft deter- mine. Vines alfo are thus hable to fhoot out roots at their joints, and fig-trees, when covered only with a fhred of cloth in nailing them to a wall, 1f it be accidentally kept moift. And there is an apple- tree, which 1s called a burr-apple, becaufe it puts out roundifh pro- tuberances or excrefcences of the bark like a burr, which if the branch be bent down, or even torn off, and fet in the moift earth, 182 PÉeDS, BÜDS, BUIRS: SECT AX 7e will immediately ftrike out roots, as I am told, and become 2 tree fimilar to the parent. In the fame manner I have been informed that if a circular ring of the bark be cut off from many trees and fhrubs, which are other- wife difiicult to propagate, and earth be put round the branch thus decorticated a few inches above and below the wounded part, by means of a garden-pot previoufly broken longitudinally, and bound together round-the branch, that roots will fhoot from the upper lip of the wound; and in a little time the branch may be fafely cut off below the garden-pot, and planted with fuccefs. When a few inches of the end of a branch are cut off in the fpring, as 1$ Common in pruning wall-trees, new buds are produced near the extremity, which remains; or thofe, which did exift, grow with greater vigour; as they obtain fome of that nourifhment, which fhould have fupported the buds, which were cut off. The fame oc- curs in refpect to the fuckers or root-fcions of thofe trees, which produce them, as of elm-trees, and of fome apple-trees; if many of the branches be cut away, the fuckers or root-fcions become more numerous, or more vigorous. This explains the ufe of a praétice among many farmers of eating down a forward crop of wheat in the fpring with fheep. In this cafe the central or upright ftem of the wheat is decapitated, and many lateral ones, or root-fcions, as above deicribed, become gene- rated, or grow with greater vigour; acquiring additional nourifh- ment from the joint, which was to have been expended in the growth of the central ftem; and which appears fo diftin®ly in the preceding figure of a tranfplanted wheat-plant, which neverthelefs in crops, which are not too forward, may be very injurious, as fpoken of in Sete AV 2: 2: Thus the figure above alluded to explains four important circum- ftances in the cultivation of grains, that of earthing up the rows in 7 fpring 222 prrtys rpg‘1 / opuo JSIJQUI| s s > TYLER ES ES 114) PLATE. 1e Reprefents a tranfplanted root of wheat defcribed in Seét. IX. 3.7.« the feminal root, b the coronal root, æ à the elongated caudex, cg the Grft ftem, c d the firft leaf, ef a fecondary ftem. All thefe exited before tranfplantation. The fecondary ftem was then cut off at /, and the plant was buried in the foil as deep as the letter /, where it was cut off. Afterwards the ftem, which was lopped, had put forth a new caudex or root-fcion at h; which had produced three new ftems atz; and other new anes, as it approached nearer the furface, at£ and Z. Às thefe leaves advanced into the air, the latter new ftems were produced by the caudexes of them. SeCre LX 3.?. SEEDS, BUDS, BULBS. 183 fpring by Mr. Tulls horfe-hoe; that of eating down the firft ftems of forward crops by fheep; that of tranfplanting the roots deeper in the foil; and that of fowing the feed an inch or two beneath the furface. For an account of the drill hufbandry now practifed by Mr. Coke of Holkham in Norfolk, fee Se. XVI 2, 2. e)* SECT | 4© SPORE en> éme Er. Re se =——= D RE 87e RÉ RS arenes RE— ve D= 3 3 Fe ÉARErES a— 84 54 MANURES. SECE. Xe RON, 26 MANURES, OR THE FOOD OF PLANTS. 1. The CHYLE of all animals is fimilar. If confifis of water, fuger, mucilage, oil, witb carbon, phofphorus, and calcareous earth. The sAP-JuIcE of vege- tables confifis of water, fugar, mucilage, with carbon, phofpborus, and calcare- ous earth. 2. Food of young animals, of adult animals. Power of digeftion. Produfiion of Jugar by digeftion. 3. Food of young vegetables. of J'ugar by germination. 4. Food of adult plants un the fpontaneuus decompofition of vegetable and animal bodies, or from water and air alone. They poffefs low beat and cold blood like winter-fleeping animals. Diflinétion between animals and VELE- tables. Il 1. Arr. Oxygen in air, in water, united with beat, and ligbt. Forms all acids. 3. Metallic oxydes. 4. The bajes of all acids are infoluble in water. 5. Carbonic acid gas from fermentation. In its fluid ffate. 6. Aque- ous acid. 7. Oxygen in vegetable perfpiration. 8," Plants fprinkled with oxy- genated water. Oxygen gas applied néar their roots. 9 A:ote or nitrogen 15 found in vegetables. Produces nitre and ammoniac. WII. 1. WATER. Js large quantity in plants. 2. Uje of their great perfpiration. 3. Watér'becomes decom- pofed in plants, and is hyper-oxygenatéd. 4. Gives lubricity, fluldity, and Jolu- tion. S. Trrigalion.of the Joil brings other manures. 6. Penetrability of the Juil from irrigation. Sow and reap early in wet Joils. 7. Hafty fhowers are injuri- ous. Hills Jhould be ploughed borizontally of ridges and furrows Surface of air greater. 8. Evaporatiou produces cold: Ufes of coping-fiones on fruit-wwalls. 9. Produéfion of foliage reg@ires more moiffüre than that of feeds. Froft in Scot- land ripens the corn. 10. Lima and dung-bills@ttraë water. Steam ufed in bot-boufes. Much water in tbe atmofphere. TV. 1. CaRrBoN is an univer/al material in the atmofphere, 2. In linefloné. 2. În black earth, moraffes, loam. Carbon combines with putrid exbalations. 4. United with oxygen 15 foluble in water. Lime combines with water. Emits beat. Is broken into powder by fleam. Should be flaked before it is ufed in agriculture. Better flaked with bot water. Attraëts nr SECTN: MAN-UR. ES. 18: à) Ærtraës the carbonic acid, and in confequence tbe water,@ the atmofpbere. 5. Car- bonic acid Jubfides on tbe earth in the air. 6. United with calcareous eerth is Joluble in water, and abjorbed by végetables."7. An experiment in wbich carbor and lime form an bepar, and thus become Joluble in water. 8. Vegetable roots ab- Jorb carbonic acid from limeftone in its fluid, not its gaffeous flate. 9. Carbon exifs in fugar and mucilage, wbich are abjorbed undecompounded. N. Pnosrno- RUS 25 a fimple Jubflance. Appears in rotten wood.]n Dutrefcent flefh and ff. 2. ÆExiffs in all vegetable and animal matter, as Jeen in Homberg’s pyrophorus, and 2n Kunkel’s phofphorus. 3. And in all calcareous earth, as in oyfler-fhells, lime- Jione, gypfum, fluor. 4. Hence tbe ue of calcareous earth in agriculture. 5. Shells become limeffone by ottraiting carbonic acid from tbe air. Mountains of calcareous Phobhorus. fhould be burnt in clofe veffels. 6. The bardnefs of bones Owing to phofphoric acid, end perbaps of ligneous fibres. VI. 1. Lime wish carbon may make an bepar carbonis Joluble in water. 2. Unites with carbonic acid, and renders it foluble in its fluid not its gaffeous flate. Water from Jprings 15 preferable to that from rivers for flooding lands. 3. Lime unites with phof- Phorus, and renders it foluble in water. Unites allo with phofphoric acid. Whence crab-ffb renew their fhells, and Jhaïls repair and enlarge theirs. 4. Lime unites with oil and mucilage, and may thence become nutritious. If decompofes Joap, and conflitutes à part.of animals and-wegetables. 5= Lime defiroys the cobefion of dead - Vegetables. Of recent ones by combuftion. moiflure from tbe air and earth. Makes clay lefs adbefive. Unites with acids of vitriol and of nitre. Kills infets.. 6. One limeftone twenty miles long and ten broad, Lime not of ufe on wet land, sor always on all calcareous Sois. 7. Lime both forwards the ripening and meliorates and increafes wbeat and grafs by Japplying nutriment. 8. G ypfum, fluor, bone afhes. lime is balf magngfa. NII 1. CLaAvy is 400 adbe- Jive. more folid by froft. 2. Effervelces in tbe air. Æcquires oxygen. So iron, mangant/e, zinc. Raddle ufed as manure. 3- Granite acquires OXY£e. Granites and dry clay bave a fmell when breathed on. Marl crumbles in tbe air. Burnt clay acquires oxygen aud burnt lead. à. Burnt clay Promotes the genera- tion of nitre. Ufe of paring and burning. 5. Burnt clay decompofes marine fait. Or of fea-falt in manure. 6. Would phofphat of lime combine with clay, or bone- afhes? 7. Cobefion of clay overcome by air. By roots of flrong plants. By car- bonic acid from leaves in tbe Jhade. By dungbill water. By lime. 8. Aluminous clays bow to correct. By wood-afhes, Jonp-fuds, lime, magnefa. VIIL 1. Sron- Bb TANEOUS 186 MANURES. SECT 2.10 TANEOUS MANURES. Saccharine fermentation is a chemical procefs. beneath the foil, 2. Vinous fermentation. Carbon and oxygen in a fluid fiate.. Heat of bark-beds.-fiacks take fire. 3. Putrefaëfion decompofes water. 4. Produces nitre, wbofe loofe oxygen promotes vegetation. 5. Sow foon after the ploush. VX. CuEmicAL MANURES. 1. Sugar and mucilage abforbed unde- compofed. 2. Heat défiroys life in feeds, fruits, roots. Potaices dried'on a malt- kiln. in fleam botter than boiling water. Papin’s disefler… 4. Tritura-- tion of wood, firaw, bay, for food in times of Jcarcity 3 of bones, chalk, bricks,, cchres, calamy for manures. X. Insecr-MaAnure. Cullivated countries in- creafe in fertility. Some bave decreafed. firata from fhells…: above them from vegetables and animals. The former can live on air and'water,, not the latter. 2. Crops ploughed in for manure… 3. Infeéis increafe manure. Water from dunghills. 4. Fifh. X1. PRESERVATION OF MANURES. Rains wafb manure into the fea. Snow floods lefs injurious…. Hills Jhould be ploughed: borixontally. 2. Common fhores. 3. Burial grounds. 4. Wood-fuel.. 5. Fer- entation requires air, water, heat. fhould be turned over and mixed’ with lime. 6. Pis-troughs, foap-fuds. 7. Weeds, leaves, water-plants. 8. Peat. XII. APPLICATION OF MANURES. 1. Jn powder for top-dreffing.. In firaw . for clay-felds. 2. In fields wben the corn is Jowed.. On grafi-lands in the Jpring, ! 814) PTIB£ not in the autumn. 3. Cover dung-beaps with foil. cow-dung from tbe grafs. 4. What manures are moff nutritive. Elefh, horn, woollen rags, meal,, Jugar, oil, I. 1. The various fubftances, which conftitute animal bodies, or which are found in the cavities of them, are compofed from fimpler elements by the procefles of digeftion, and angulfication, and fecre- tion; forit is well known, that even milk, which fo much refembles the chyle of animals, is not abforbed by the laéteals without its being previoufly coagulated, and again diflolved in the flomach by the: power of digeftion. Hence it happens, that the chyle of all animals,. and from every kind of food which they take into their ftomachs, is very fimilar; and: Jike milk confifts of water, fugar, mucilage,. and oil; the lait of which SECTIX 41.2, MANURES. AE which not being foluble in water, but only mifcible with it, gives it its opaque white colour. But though the chyle from different kinds of aliment is fo fimilar, and all the various conftituent parts of animal bodies are ulti- mately produced from the chyle by fanguification and fecretion, yet it happens, that fome kinds of aliment poflefs a greater quantity of thefe particles, which make chyle, than other kinds of aliment. Such materials for inftance as already contain much fugar, mucilage, and oil, as the flefh of dead animals, or the fruits and feeds of veoc= tables.:; Befdes the water, fugar, mucilage, and oil, which exiff in chyle, there may be other materials, which are invifible from their perfe& folution in water, either alone or when converted into acids by the addition of oxygen; as carbon, phofphorus, calcareous earth, marine and ammoniacal fa ÿs; though it is more probable, that the two laft are formed and fecreted by animal procefles, as well as fele&ed by their abforbent roots, as they are more compounded bodies than the former.| Similar to this chyle of animals the fap-juice, which is abforbed from the earth by the roots of plants, conftitutes their nourifhment, and confifts of water, fugar, and mucilage, with other tranfparent folutions, as of carbon, phofphorus, and calcareous earth. And though ‘it has been proved by the experiments of fome philofophers, that ve- getables can extraét or compofe all thefe fubftances from air and water alone; yet fome materials contribute more tothe produétion of this vegetable chyle or fap-juice than others, fuch as the recrements of dead vegetable and animal fubftances. 2. If any one fhould afk, what is the food of animals? I fhould anfwer, that in the moîft early ftate of animal life the embryon lives on a mucilaginous fluid, with which it is furrounded, whether in the egs or womb: that in its infant flate the young animal is fuftained by milk, which its flomach converts into chyle. B b 2 In 138 MANURES. SECT. X. 82 In their adult ftate animals are fuftained by other vegetable or ani- mal fubftances taken into their ftomachs, which are there converted into chyle partly by a chemical, and partly by an animal procefs; as by a mixture of gaftric juice with water and heat, fome of thefe recre- ments of organic nature are decompoñfed, either into their fimpler component parts, or fometimes even into their elements; while other pats of them are only rendered foluble or mifcible with water; and are then drank up by the abforbents of the ftomach and inteftines. In this procefs of digeftion much fugar is produced, which is pro- bably immediately feleéted and drank up by the numerous mouths of the ladteals, or lymphatics; to which it is prefented by the vermi- cular or periftaltic motions of the ftomach and inteftines. And as this ready feleétion and abforption of the fugar, as foon as it is formed, prevents it from pafhing into the vinous or acetous fermentation; it is probable that from the want of fuch a means of feparating fac- charine matter, as foon as it is formed, chemiftry has not yet been able to produce fugar from its elements without the affiftance of ani- mal digeftion, or vegetable germination; as further fpoken of in No.$S. 1. of this feétion. In this procefs of digeftion, I believe, a great part of the water, fugar, mucilage, and oil, which exift in vegetable änd animal re- crements, are not decompofed into their elements, but abforbed by being foluble or mifcible with water; the carbon, and&he phof- phorus, and the hydrogen, are alfo I fuppofe diflolved in the other fluids by means of oxygem and form a part of the chyle, without their being converted into gafles; for when&his happens to any ex- cefs in refpect to carbon, it efcapes from the flomach in eruêétations; and the fame occurs to the inflammable air or hydrogen, if a part of the water becomes decompofed in te inteftines; which, 1fit be not abforbed by its folution in other fluids, but acquires a gafleous ftate, is liable to efeape below; though both thefe gaffes feem occafñonally to “see SECT. X, 1e 3 4 MANURES. 189 to revert to a fluid ftate from their aerial one in the ftomach or in- teftines, and to be then abforbable by the lacteals or lymphatics, 3: What then is the food of vegetables? the embryon plant in the feed or fruit is furrounded with faccharine, mucilaginous, and oily materials, like the animal fetus in the egz or uterus, which it ab- forbs, and converts into nutriment; while the embryon buds of de- ciduous trees, which is another infantine ftate of vegetables, are fup- plied with à faccharine and mucilaginous juice prepared for them at the time of their production, and depofted in the roots or fap-wood of their parent-trees; as in the vine, maple, and birch; which fac- charine matter is foluble and mifcible with the water of the furround- ing earth in the fubfequent fpring,. and is forcibly abforbed by their root-veflels, and expands their nafcent foliage.. In their infantine ftate therefore there is a wonderful analogy be- tween plants and animals; and it is particularly curious to obferve ._in the procefs of converting barley into malt by the germination of the feed, that the meal of the barley is in part converted into fugar by the digeftion of the young plant exactly as in the animal ftomach. 7 ë Pet EE The wonderful effe& of vegetable digeftion in producing fugar may be deduced from the great produ&t of the fugar-cane, and of the maple-tree in America, mentioned in Seét. III. 2. 3. and the won- derful effect of animal digeftion in producing fugar appears in patients, who labour under diabetes. A man in the Infirmary of Stafford, who drank daily an immoderate quantity of beer, and who eat above twice the quantity of food that thofe in health confume, voided fixteen or- cighteen pounds of watér daily, from each pound of which above an. ounce of coarfe fugar was extracted by evaporation. Zoonomia, Vol. I: Set. XXIX. 4. 9. 4. We now come to confider the food’ of adult plants; and in this confifts the great and effential différence between the nutritive pro- ceffes of animals and vegetables.‘The former are poñefled of a fto- mach, by which they can in a few hours decompofe the tender parts. Of MANURES of vegetable and animal fubftances bÿ a chemical procefs within them- re © pe << ® an … Q © [or | 7 éted in the heat of ninety-eight degrees, with a due quantity of water,«id a perpetual agitation of the ingredients; which both mixes them, and applies them to:the mouths of the abforbent veflels, which furround them. Whereas a vegetable being havins no ftomach is neceflitated to wait for the fpontaneous decomipofition of animal or vegetable recrements; which is indeed continually go- ing on in thofe foils, and climates, and in thofe feafons of the year, which are moft friendly to vegctation; but is in other fituations, and in other feafons, a flow procefs in a degree of heat often as low as -forty of Farenheit,(in which the reindeer mofs, mofchus rangiferinus, vegetates beneath the fnow in Siberia,) and often without an adapted quantity of water to give a due fluidity, or any mechanical locomo- tion to prefent them to the abforbent mouths of their roots; or in ftill worfe fituations adult vesetables are neceffitated ftill more flowly to acquire or produce their nutritive juices from the fimpler elements of air and water, with perhaps the folutions of carbonic acid and cal- careous earth, and perhaps of fome other matters, with which one or more of them abound. But M. Haffenfratz found, that the vegetation of thofe plants was imperfeët, which had not been fuffered to grow in conta& with the earth; as they never arrived at fuch maturity as to produce fruit; and were found on analyfis to contain a lefs portion of carbon, than other plants of the fame kind.‘The experiments were tried on hya- cinths, kidney-beans, and crefñles, Hence the other great difference, which exifts between thefe two extenfive kingdoms of nature, is, that the larger and warmer blooded animals certainly, and I fuppofe all the tribes of infects, and of colder blooded creatures alfo, can not exift long on air and water alone, ex- cept in their ftate of hibernal torpor. The neareft approach to this is however feen in fome fevers, where water alone has been taken for a week or two, and yet the patient has recovered; and there is a well attefted SÉCR. À. Lr4 TUE SECcT: X, 24 1. MANURES. 191 attefted account of a numerous caravan, which having loft their rout or their provifions, are affirmed to have lived fome weeks on gum 2 arabic and water alone, Vegetables on the contrary, as above mentioned, can exift, thouch in a feebler ftate, on water and air alone, with the carbonic acid, and perhaps other invifible folvends, which thofe elements unavoid- ably contain."This 1 fuppofe to be owing to the low degree of heat, which they. produce internally, and to the flow circulation of their blood; from both which circumftances lefs nutriment is expended, as by animals which fleep in winter. For the purpofe of fupplying adult vegctables with nourifhment, we fhould firft confider what kinds of matter are moft prevalent or moit neceflary in their compoñition. Secondly, what of thefe fub- ftances they can abforb without previous decompoñtion. Laftly, how to expedite the decompofition of vegetable and animal fubftances on or in the foil, likethe digeftive proceffes in the flomachs of animals° we may thüs become acquainted with the fources and the manage ent of manures.. FI: Æ I K, 1. Oxygen combined with heat conftitutes that part of the atmo- fphére, which is perpetually neceffary to animal and vegetable refpi- ration; and a creatér part of that water, which forms à principal 2 D à F 2 1 È portion of their organization; a few words may be therefore premif- ed on thefe moft important difcoveries of modern chemiftry. This vital air, called oxygen gas, confüututes twenty-feven hun- dredth parts of the atmofphere; it is indifpenfably necef ary to the exiftence of life, and of gombuftion, and forms the principal part of all acids; whence its name. lhe other feventy-three hundredth parts of the atmofphere confift of azote, which takes its name from its inutility to life in animal refpiration; it is alfo called nitrogen, becaufe it conftitutes the bafs of nitre. x Oxygen .. += LS mi RE Me r92 MANURES. SECTAX 2:22 > 3° Oxygen gas confifts of oxygen and heat; and when it unites with fuch bodies, as are capable of uniting with it, the heat is fet at liberty, as in refpiration and in combuftion; in both which procefles an acid 15 produced by the combination of oxygen with fome inflammable bafe. Hence vital air confifts of oxygen difolved in the fluid matter of heat; but there is alfo another fluid, which feems to be combined with this folution of oxygen in heat, and that is light. For when oxygen becomes combined with charcoal, or with fulphur, or with phofphorus, both heat or light are fet at liberty from thefe new com- binations of oxygen; which thus produce the carbonic, fulphuric, and phofphoric acids. When thefe new combinations of oxygen are performed very flowly, the light is fometimes not vifible, as in the heating of a dung- hill; in which procefs the oxygen in the cells or cavities of the hot- -bed unites flowly with the carbon and phofphorus of the decompof- ing vegetable and animal matters; but though much heat is given out, no light is feen. While on the contrary from rotten wood alone, or putrefcent fifh, when expofed to the atmofphere, much light is emitted, but not much fenfible heat, owing perhaps fimply to the combuftion of the phofphorus, which they contain. 2. The produéts of thefe combinations of oxygen with other bodies may all of them be termed acids; though in fome the heat or light fet at liberty converts thefe acid produétions into gañles, as oxygen and charcoal form carbonic acid gas; and in others it converts the new produét into fteam, which is condenfible by cold, as the ful- phuric acid from the combination of oxygen and fulphur; and the phofphoric acid from oxygen and phofphorus. 3. Other combinations of oxygen with heavier fubftances are pro- duced in the atmofphere without the feparation of either fenfble heat, or vifble light; as the union of oxygen with metallic bodies, as with that of manganefe, with zinc, lead, iron, as in common ore of manganefe, in lapis calaminaris, white calciform lead-ore, and the 8 red nee SECT./X.:2, À: MANURES. 193 red ochre of iron; which have not obtained the name of acids, but are termed oxydes of thofe minerals. 4. Now it happens, that none of thefe bafes, which can combine with oxygen alone, are foluble in Water, and therefore can not be imbibed by the abforbent veffels of vegetable roots, until they become acids; and are perhaps then all of them in greater or lefs quantities ab {orbent vefels of vegetable roots, and conftitute a part of the food of plants. {oluble in water; and are thence capable of being drank up by the ab- 5. When vecetable fubftances are decompofed by fermentation, there is a quick union of oxygen and carbon: and this carbonic acid gas, called formerly fixed air, rifes up In vapour, and flies away. But where this procefs goes on more flowly, as in a dung-hill lately turned over, or in black garden mould ltely turned over, and thus expofed to the air; much of which remains in the cells or cavities of the hotbed, or border; this carbonic acid is flowly produced, and is abforbed by vegetable roots, I fuppofe in its fluid flate, or diflolved in water, before it acquires fo much heat as to rife in the atmofpher in the form of gas. This carbonic gas in its fluid late, or diffolved in water, not in its; aerial or gaffeous ftate, is the principal food of plants; as appears, becaufe their folid fibres confift principally of carbon, and their fluids of water. 6. Next to carbonic acid the aqueous acid, if it may be fo called, or water, feems to afford the principal food of vegetables; as water con- fifts of oxygen and hydrogen, it is properly an acid, like all other com- binations of oxygen; and when abforbed by vecetable roots becomes in part decompofed in the circulation or fecretion of their juices: the oxygen difappears, or contributes to form the vegetable acids; and the hydrogen produces ammonia by its union with azote; wbich may contribute to vecetable nutriment by its mixture with oils, and thus producins foaps, which become diffufble in water; and alfo by Ce decompofne 8 rs Re ste. us” a dits Se Er “ a À RE SR) RE mire PR To SE er ARS nca mme durs -- EC RRRRRE—| 19% MANURES. Secr. X. 2,7, | decompofing infoluble faline earths, as gypfum, or metailic falts, as 1| vitriol of iron, and thus producing more foluble or innocuous falts. | And which laftly forms a part of the various vegetable produétions of | fugar, honey, wax, refin, and other fecretions. | 7. There is a curious evolution of oxygen attends the perfpiration of the leaves of plants, which is not known to attend that of animal 1 lungs; and that is, that when vegctable leaves are expofed to the fun’s light, they feem to give up oxygen gas; but in the dark they give up carbonic acid gas, like the breath of animals. Itis probable that animal lungs might do the fame, if they were expofed to the light; as pérhaps might be fubjeted to experiment in the gills of ffh, or by breathing through a tube into water in the funfhine, In refpiration as well as in combuftion fome light may poflibly be given out as well as fome heat from the combination of oxygen with fome phlogiftic bafe, as carbon or phofphorus; whence the produc- tion of carbonic and phofphoric acids in both animal and vegetable refpiration. In moîft animals this quantity of light is probably too fmall to be perceived, if their bodies were tranfparent; but in the glow-worm of this country, and in the more luminous fire-flies of the tropical climates, I fufpe the light to be emitted from their lungs in the a& of refpiration, which is a flow combuftion. 8. Befides the ufe of oxygen in the refpiration of vegetables, when applied to their leaves, as it is mixed in the atmofphere; it is believed by many to contribute much to their growth and nourifh- ment in its combined ftate, when abforbed by their roots; and that by the decompofition of water in the vegetable fyftem, when the hy- drogen unites with carbon and produces oil, the oxygen becomes fu- perfluous, and is in part exhaled, as further fpoken of in Seét. XIIL, 1. 2. Hence alfo fome calciform ores, or metallic oxydes, as raddle, and calamine, and burnt clay, are fuppofed to be ufeful as manures, becaufe they contain much oxygen, as mentioned in No. 7. 1, of this Section. Mr, Lo DÉCT. Às2 Où NMANURES. 195 Mr. Humboldt afferts, that on putting crefles, lepidium fativum, into oxygenated muriatic acid gas mixed with water, they produced germs in fix hours; while thofe in common water were thirty-fix hours before they produced germs. Jacquin at Vienna put many old feeds, which had been in vain tried if they would vecetate, into fuch a folution of oxygenated muriatic acid, and found great numbers of them quickly to vegetate. Journal de Phyfique, 1798. See Set. XIV, pas, In the experiments of fir Francis Ford many plants, which were fprinkled with water previoufly impregnated with oxygen gas, are faid to have grown more vigoroufly, and to have difplayed more beautiful tints, than thofe nourifhed with common water. Other ex- periments are faid to have been made by inverting bottles filled with Oxygen gas, and burying their open mouths beneath the foil near the roots of vegetables, which are faid to have grown more healthy and beautiful, as the oxygen became abforbed, and was fucceeded by air like the common atmofphere, Philof. Magaz. 1708, p.224. Fur- ther experiments are required on this fubje&, fince the fluids of ve- getables would in general appear to be hyperoxygenated from the oxygen emitted from the perfpiration of their leaves in the funfhine, and which is believed to arife from the decompoftion of water in their arteries or glands. 9. We now come to the other ingredient, which conftitutes a much greater part of the atmofphere than the oxygen, and this is the azote, or nitrogen; which alfo feems much to contribute to the food or fuftenance of vegetables; for though azote, or nitrogen, en- ters into animal bodies in much greater quantities perbaps than into vegetables, fo as to conftitute according to fome chemical philofo- phers the principal difference between thefe two great claffes of or- ganized nature; yet it enters alfo into the vegetable fyftem, and is given out by their putrefaétion; and alfo when lime is applied to moift vegetables.it difengages from them both hydrogen and azote forming Ccz volatile a de—- ra ü» er—— ÿ F a—_— La=— D DENSSS un ne 4 À. 2% Es_ D—- L d ee 7. fs——= LA— Es Ds.= D._ ss.; sais a Pl EE i s 3 ES nn% œe CE 106 MANURES. SECT:X 3" 1 volatile alkali, as aflerted in the ingenious work of Lord Dundonald on the Connection of Agriculture with Chemiftry. The azote of the atmofphere, when air is confined in the inter- ftices of the foil newly turned over by the plough or fpade, contributes to the produétion of the nitrous acid byits union with the oxygen of the atmofphere, with which it was before only difufed, or with the ji? J;) much greater fource of oxygen from the decompofing water of the foil, At the fame time another part of the abundant azote combines with the hydrogen of the decompofing water of the foil, and produces ammonia or volatile alkalh; which contributes to the growth of.ve- getables many ways, as already defcribed in No. 2. 6. of this Sec- tion. PI, W A TT E R: 1. The neceflity of much water in the progrefs of vecetation ap- pears from the great quantity, which exifts naturally in all parts of plants; infomuch that many roots, as fquill and rhubarb, are known to lofe about fix parts out of feven of their original weight fimply by drying them before the fire; which quantity of moifture neverthelefs does not exhale in the common heat of the atmofphere during the life of the root; as is feen in the growth of fquills in the fhops of the drugoifts, and of onions on the floors of our ftore-rooms. 2. À fecond neceflity of much water in the economy of vesetation may be deduced from the great perfpiration of plants, which appears from the experiments of Hales and others; who like San@orius have eftimated the quantity of their perfpiration. from their daily lofs of weight; which however is not an accurate conclufion either in re- fpe to plants or animals, as they both abforb moifture from the at- mofphere, as well as perfpire it. This great perfpiration of vegetables, like that from the fkin and Jungs of animals, does not appear to confift of excrementitious mat- ter, becaufe it has in general no putrefcent fmell or tafte; but feems to SECT. DE 3° 3° MANURES. 197 to be fecreted frft for the purpofe of keeping the external furface of the leaves from becoming dry, which would prevent the oxygen of the atmofphere from entering into the vegetable blood through them; fince according to the experiments of Dr. Prieftley on animal mem- branes the oxygen will only pafs through them, when they are moift. A fecond ufe of this great perfpiration 1s to keep the bark fupple by its moifture, and thus to prevent its being cracked by the motion of the branches in the wind. And though a great part of this perfpi- rable matter is probably abforbed, as on the fkins of animals; yet as it exifts on fo large a furface of leaves and twigs, much of it muft neceflarily evaporate on dry and windy days. 3. Oneofthe great difcoveries of modern chemiftry is the decom- pofition of water, which is fhewn both by analyfis and fynthefis to confift of eichty-five hundredth parts of oxygen, and fifteen of hy- drogen. Hence a third great ufe of water in the vegetable economy js probably owing to its ready decompofition by their organs of di- geftion, fanguification, and fecretion.‘This is evinced firit by the great quantity of hydrogen, which exifts in the compofition of many of their inflammable parts. And fecondly, from the curious circum- ftance, which was firft difcovered by the ingenious Dr. Prieftley, that the water, which they perfpire, is hyperoxygenated; and in confe- quence always ready to part with its fuperabundance of oxygen,when expofed to the fun’s light; from whence it may be concluded, that part of the hydrogen, which was previoufly an ingredient of this wa- ter, had been feparated from it, and ufed in the vegetable economy, as is further treated of in Seétion XHIL. 1. 2. Add to this, that from the decompofition of water, when confined in contact with air beneath the foil, the nitrous acid feems to be pro- duced and ammonia, both which are believed ufeful to vegetation, as mentioned in No, 2. 6. of this Settion. 4. Befdes the peculiar ufes of a great« ! à L quantity of water, as above defcribed, the more common ufes of it bot à to vesetable and animal es ltfe, 198 NWANURES, DECT. A eidose life, along with the matter of heat, are to produce or preferve a due fupplenefs or lubricity of the folids, and a due degree of fluidity of the liquids, which they contain or circulate. And laftly, for the pur- pofe of diflolving or diffufing in it other folid or fluid fubftances, and thus rendering them capable of abforption, circulation, and fecre- tion. 5. The due irrigation of the foil is much attended to in drier and warmer countries, as in Italy, Egypt, and fome parts of China; where numerous canals, and aqueduéts, have been dug through hills, and carried over vallies, for the purpofe of watering the foil; and even in this colder and moifter climate the praétice of flooding land 1s coming daily into greater repute. For this occafional fuffufion of water over land not only fupplies fimple moifture for the purpofes above mentioned in the drier parts of the feafons, but brings along with it calcareous earth and azotic air from the neighbouring fprings, or other manures from the rivers. Calcareous earth may be deteëted in the water of all thofe fprings which pafs under or over ftrata of marle.or Hmeftone, by dropping into them a folution of falt of tartar; or of fugar of lead in water, or of foap in fpirits of wine; and a por- tion of azotic gas was difcovered in Bath-water by Dr. Prieftley, and in Buxton-water by Dr. Pierfon. See Se&ion XI. 3. 1. Dr. Home thinks he difcovered nitrat of lime in hard water, and found by his experiments that it promoted the growth of plants in a much greater degree than foft water. 6. Another demand for water in agriculture is to give a due pene- trability to the foil, which otherwife in moft fituations becomes fo hard asito ftop the elongation of the tender roots of plants; but the cohefion of the foil may neverthelefs be too much diminifhed by great and perpetual moifture, fo as not to give fufficient firmnefs to the roots of trees. And befdes this too much as well as too little water may be fupplied to the generality of vegetables, which grow upon the land; though there are aquatic and amphibious plants as well as : aquatic a SECT. X. 3 7° MANURES. 199 aquatic and amphibious animals, and which differ from each other as fifh and feals from quadrupeds. Where land abounds too much with moifture, the art of making fubterraneous or fuperficial drains defcribed im Scét. XI. 1. muft be had recourfe to. But where thefe are not executed, in lands not very moift it is thought advantageous to fow the crops early before the wet feafon, fince corn will bear much more moifture after it has fhot from the feed, than the feed will bear; as the feed is lefs tenacious of life, and in confequence more liable to putrify. The crops fhould like- wife be fown or planted thinner, and be reaped early in the feafon, as the exclufion of the air by thick foliage, and the greater dampnefs of the autumn, are liable to generate mildew in moift fituations. Per- haps it fhould be added, that fowing early, and the confequent reap- ing early, has fo many advantages in all feafons on all lands, that it may in general be univerfally recommended; and that in wet lands it might be very advantageous to cultivate crops by tranfplantation in the vernal. months, having previoufly fowed the feed in drier or warmer fituations. See Seét. XVI. 8. 1. 7. Another injury in this climate occafioned by too great a quan- tity of water arifes from hafty fhowers; which wafh off much of the decompofing animal and vegetable recrements, which are foluble or diffufible in water, and carry them down the rivers into the fea. From the fides of hills this damage 1s accomplifhed by fmall fhowers, on which account all floping grounds when applied to agriculture fhould be ploughed horizontally, as by the ridges and furrows thus produced the fmaller fhowers of rain will not pafs{o haftily off, as when they are ploughed vertically. A queftion here occurs, whether it be advantageous to plough level plains into ridges and furrows? the Chinefe are faid never to divide their fields into ridges and furrows, but to plant their grain on an even furface. Embañy to China by fir G. Staunton, Vol. IL p. 197, 8vo. edit, Some think it an error to fuppofe, that any increafe of Crop 200 MANURES. Sec. X. 3. 8. crop can be thus obtained, as no more plants can rife perpendicularly from the ground; but in the ripening of grain the furface of air to which the ears are expofed is alfo to be confidered; which corref- ponds with the furface of the ground, and is increafed by its being laid in bill and dale. But there is a ferious objeétion to this mode of ploughing in moift fituations without fufficient declivity, as the corn in the furrows appears weak and backward owing to the rain lying on it too long; and alfo to the beft part of fhallow foils being fre- quently taken from them to conftruét the ridges. See Sect. XVI. 2,2: 8. Add to this, that the evaporation of moifture from the furface of the earth produces fo much cold as to injure thofe terreftrial plants, which are too long covered with it. On this account thofe parts of wall-trees, which are fheltered from the defcending dews by a coping {tone on the wall, are not fo liable to be injured by frofty nights on two accounts; both as they are not made colder by the evaporation of the dew, and alfo have lefs water to be congealed in their veffels, and by its expanfon to burft them. 9. Laftly, the foliage on buds of plants, which conflitute one part of their progenv, requires more moifture for its vigorous growth, than their flowers or organs of fexual generation. Hence in warm coun- tries the rice-grounds are flooded only till the feafon of flowering commences, and are laid dry again for the purpofe of maturating the feed; and in our climate continued rains are liable not only to wafh off the farina from the burfting anthers, and thus prevent the im- presgnation of the piftllum, but alfo to delay the ripening of the fruit or feeds from the want of a due evaporation of their perfpirable mat- ter, as well as from the lefs folar light in cloudy feafons; whence in the north of Scotland the oats are faid feldom to ripen till the froft commences with the dry feafon, which accompanies it. 10. There are methods of procuring or preferving the falutary moifture of. the foil befides thofe of canals and aqueduéts, which fhouid SECTE, MANURES. 201 fhould be here mentioned. Thefe are by ufing as manures fuch fub- ftances as perpetually attra@ moifture from the lower part of the foil, or from the atmofphere; as quick-lime, and vecetable and animal recrements in the ac of putrefaëtion. In hot-houfes fome have already employed fteam as a means both of giving warmth and moifture to the included plants, or to the foil in which they grow; and a great variety of forcing pumps have been conftructed for the purpote of motftening the foliage of wall-trees: but there is a hope from the prefent great progrefs of chemical re- fearch, that a means may fometime be difovered of precipitating the water of the atmofphere, which the ingenious bifhop Watfon thinks always exifts in it in fuch quantity as, if it was tuddenly precipitated, might again deluze the world. ES: CARBON. 1. When animal and vegetable bodies are burnt without the accefs of air, that is, when their volatile parts are fublimed; there remains a great quantity of charcoal, a much greater in vegetable bodies than in animal ones; this is termed carbon by the French fchool, when it is quite pure; and is now known to be one of the moft uuiverfal materials of nature. And as vegetable bodies contain fo much ofit in their compofition, they may be fuppofed to abforb it intire, where they grow vigoroufly; efpecially as it is a fimple material; but they may pofhbly form it alfo occafionally from water and air within their own wveffels, when they are fecluded from accefs to it exter- nally. The whole atmofphere contains always a quantity of it in the form of carbonic acid, or fixed air: as is known by the fcum, which pre- fently becomes vifible on lime-water, when expofed to the air; and which confifts of à reunion of the lime with carbonic acid; which may therefore be fad to encompafs the earth. BY The en TD 202 MA NURES. SECr xs 4 2 The fimplicity of carbon, as an elementary fubftance, was difputed by Dr, Auftin, who believed he had decompounded it. But Mr. Henry, by accurately repeating his experiments, has fhewn the fal- lacy or inconciufivenefs of them. Philof. Tranfaët. 1797. 2. Another great refervoir of carbon exifts in limeftone in the form of carbonic acid; which when a ffronger acid is poured on the cal- careous earth becomes a gas, acquiring its neceflary addition of heat from that, which is given out in the combination of the ftronger acid with the lime. It alfo acquires its neceffary heat, when limeftone is burnt, from the confuming fuel, rifes in the form of gas, and is dif- fipated in the air; and probably foon fettles on the earth, as it cools, as it 1s ten times heavier than the common atmofphere. 3. But the great fource of carbon exifts in the black earth, which bas lately been left by the decompofition of vegetable and animal bo- d1ss; and is then in a flate fit to combine with azote or nitrogen, and with oxygen, when expofed to thofe two gafles, as they exift in the atmofphere; and is thus adapted either to promote the gene- ration of nitrous acid, or to form carbonic acid, and thus to affift vegetation. Moraffes confift principally of the carbonic recrements of vegeta- ble matters, which are gradually decompofed in great length of time into clay, with argillaceous fand, fuch as is found over coal-beds, and fome calcareous earth, as in marl; and laftly, with fome iron, and fofhile coal. Thefe by elutriation are feparated from each other, and form the ftrata of coal countries. In other places they remain in- termixed, as they were probably produced from the decompofition of vegetables and terreftrial animals; and form what in books of prac- tical agriculture is called a /amy foil, confifting of carbonic matter, fand, and clay, with a portion of iron. It has always been obferved, that this black garden mould, or earth produced from the recrements of vegetables, is capable of abforbing a much greater quantity of putrid effuvia than either air or water, and 6 probably SECT IN Med, MANURES. 203 probably of combining with its ammonia, and producing a kind of he- par carbonis, and thus facilitating vegetation.‘The praice of bu- rying dead bodies fo few feet below the furface is a proof of this; as the putrid exhalations from the carcafs are retained, and do not pene- trate to the furface. On the fame account the air over new plough- ed fields has long been efteemed falutary to invalids, or convalef- cents, as it probably purifies the fupernatent atmofphere. But it was not till lately known that carbon, or charcoal, abforbs with fuch great avidity all putrid exhalations; if it has been recently burnt, and has not been already faturated with them, infomuch that putrid flefh is faid to be much fweetened by being covered a few inches with the powder of charcoal; or even by being buried for a time in black garden mould; as putrid exhalations confit chiefly of ammonia, hy- drogen, and carbonic acid, and are the immediate produ@s of the diflolution of animal or vegetable bodies, they are believed much to contribute to vesetation; as whatever materials have conftituted an organic body, may again after a certain degree of diflolution form a part of another organic body. The hydrogen and azote produce am- monia, which combining with carbon may form an hepar carbonis, and by thus rendering carbon foluble in water may much contri- bute to the growth of vegetables. It has been faid, that fome moraffes have prevented the animal bo- dies, which have been buried in them, from putrefaétion; which may in part have been owing to the great attraction of the carbon of the morafs to putrid eluvia, and in part perhaps to the vitriolic acid, which fome moraffes are faid to contain. 4. Here occurs an important queftion, by what other means is this folid carbon rendered fluid, fo as to be capable of entering the fine mouths of vecetable abforbents? The carbon, which exifts in the atmofphere, and in limeftone, is united with oxygen, and thence becomes foluble or diffufble in water; and may thus be abforbed by the living aétion of vegetable veflels; or may be again combined by D d 2 chemical EL æe j D A PE 204 MANURES. SEETUN, 404 chemical attra@ion with the lime, which has been deprived of it by calcination. When mild calcareous earth, as limeftone, chalk, marble, has been deprived of its water and of its carbonic acid by calcination, it be- comes lime. Afterwards when it is cold, if water be fprinkled on it, a confiderable heat is inftantly perceived; which is prefled out by the combination of a part of the water with the lime; as all bo- dies, when they change from a fluid ftate to a folid one, give out the heat, which before kept them fluid. At the fame time another part of the water, which was added, is raifed into fteam by the great heat given out as above mentioned; and the expanfon of this fleam breaks the lime into fine powder, which otherwife retains the form of the lumps of limeftone before calcination. But if too great a quan- tity of cold water be fuddenly added, no fteam is raifed; and the lump of lime retains its form; whence it happens, that fome kinds of lime fall into finer powder, and are faid to make better mortar, 1f flaked with boiling water than with cold. On this account the lime, which is defigned to be fpread on land, fhould previoufly be laid on a heap, and either fuffered to become moift by the water of the atmofphere, or flaked by a proper quantity of water; otherwife if it be fpread on wet ground, or when fo fpread is expofed to much rain, the heat generated will be diffipated with- out breaking the lumps of lime into powder; which willthen gra- dually harden again into limeftone, difappoint the expeétation of the agricultor, and affli& him with the lofs of much labour and ex- pence. When the powder of flaked lime mixed with fand and water is fpread on a wall, that part of the water which is not neceflary for its imperfect cryftallization, evaporates into the air; and the lime then gradually attraëts the carbonic acid, which is diffufed in the atmo- fphere; but as I fuppofe this carbonic acid is diflolved in the water, which is alfo diffufed in the atmofphere; the lime is perpetually | moiftened SECTE X: 4975 MANURES., 208 moiftened by this new acquifitien of water from the air; as that, which before adhered to it, and had parted with its carbonic acid, eva- porates. On which account new built walls are months, and even years, in drying, as they continue to attraët water along with the carbonic acid from the air, which ftands upon them in drops, till the lime regains its original quantity of carbonic acid, and again hardens into ftone, or forms a fpar by its more perfect or lefs difturbed cryf- tallization. 5. The earth I fuppofe acquires carbon, both in a manner fimilar to the above by its attrating either the carbonic acid, or the water in wbich it is diffufed, from the atmofphere; and alfo by the fpecific gravity of carbonic acid gas being ten times greater than that of common air; whence there muft be conftantly a great fediment of it on the furface of the earth: which in its ftate of{olution in oxygen and water may be readily drank up by the roots of vegetables. 6. Another means by which vegetables acquire carbon in great quantity may be from limeftone difflolved in water; which though a flow procefs occurs in innumerable fprings of water, which pafs through the calcareous or marly ftrata of the earth; as thofe of Mat- lock and Bniftol in pafling through limeftone; and thofe about Derby in pañhng through marl; and 1s brought to the roots of vegetables by the fhowers, which fall on foils, where marl, chalk, limeftone, mar- ble, alabafter, fluor, exift; which includes almoft the whole of this ifland. Bythis folution of mild calcareous earth in water not only the carbon in the form of carbonic acid not yet made into gas, but the lime alfo, with which it is united, becomes abforbed into the ve- getable fyftem, and thus contributes to the nutriment of plants both as fo much calcareous earth, and as fo much carbon. 7. Another mode by which vegetables acquire carbon, may be by the union of this fimple fubftance, with which all garden-mould abounds, with pure calcareous earth into a kind of hepar, analogous to the hepar of fulphur made with lime, which abounds in fome mi- neral 206 MANURES. Secr. X. 4. 8. neral waters. And this I fuppofe to be the great ufe of lime in agri- - culture. For the purpofe of afcertaining the probability of this mode of fo- lution of carbon I made the following experiment. About two ounces of lime in powder were mixed with about as much charcoal in powder, put into a crucible, and covered with an inch or two of filiceous fand.‘The crucible was kept red hot for an hour or longer, and then fuffered to cool. On the next day water was poured on the lime and charcoal, which then ftood a day or two in an open cup, and acquired a calcareous fcum on its furface, And though it had not much tafte, except of the caufticity of the lime, yet on dropping _one drop of marine acid into a tea-fpoonful of the clear folution a ftrong fmell like that of hepar fulphuris was perceived, or like that of Harrogate water; which evinced, that the carbon was thus ren- dered foluble in water. Perhaps the fulphureous fmell of Harrogate and Kedlefton waters, and other fimilar fprings, may be owing to the union of the alkali of decompofing marine falt with the carbon of the earth, they run through? and this kind of water might thus pofhbly be ufed as a profitable manure?; 8. Another mode by which vegetable roots acquire carbon, I fuf- pet to be by their difuniting carbonic acid from limeftone in its fluid not its gaffeous ftate; which the limeftone again attracts from the atmofphere and confolidates, or from other matters included in the foil. Firft, becaufe lime is believed by fome agricultors, who much employ it, to do more fervice in the fecond year than in the firft; that is in its mild ftate, when it abounds with carbonic acid, than in its cauftic ftate, when it is deprived of it. Secondly, that the ufe of burning lime feems hence to be fimply to reduce it to an impalpable powder, almoft approaching to fluidity; which muft facilitate the application of the innumerable extremities of vegetable fibres to this uncalculable increafe of its furface; which may pe. 6 re L it tree te DRE gemmes Te PATENTS L Re T ms SECT.€ Ga) M À N[el R E S, 207 J fa may thence acquire by their abforbent power the carbonic acid from thefe minute particles of lime, as faft as they can recover it by che- mical attraion from the air, or water, or from other inanimate fubflances in their vicinity. Thirdly, the hyper-oxygenation of the perfpirable matter of plants, which thence gives up oxygen gas in the funfhine, would induce us to believe, that a great part of the carbon, which furnifhes fo prin- cipal a part of vegetable nutriment, was received by their roots in the form of carbonic acid; and that it becomes in part decompofed in their circulation, giving up its oxygen; which thus abounds in the fecreted fluids of vegetables from this fource, as well as from decom- pofed water. 9. Another way by which carbon is received into the vegetable fyftem is by its exiftence in fugar and in mucilage; both which are taken up undecompounded, as appears by their prefence in the vernal fap-juice, which is obtained from the maple and the birch; which like the chyle of animals, 1s abforbed in its undecompounded ffate. V. PH'O'S'P/T O/RUTES, 1. Another material which exifts, I believe, univerfally in vegeta- bles, and has not yet been fufficiently attended to, is phofphorus. This like the carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and fulphur, is probably a fimple fubftance; as our prefent chemuiftry has not yet certainly analyfed any of them; and therefore[ fuppofe it is taken up intire by the abforbent veflels of vegetables, when it can be met with in a ftate of folution; though it may allo be occafonally formed and fe- creted by them; and may hence be regiftered among the articles of their food or fuftenance. When wood is decompofed by putrefattion in a certain degree of warmth and moifture, it is often feen to emit much light in dark evenings, When recently broken and expofed to the oxygen of the atmofphere, a oi D is —> NE hé EE 3* 4 v s 4| Lee MANURES. Secr. X. 5.2. atmofphere, fo as to alarm benichted paffengers; which is undoubt- edly owing to the phofphorus, which it contains, and which is at this| time converted into phofphoric acid. Such a light frequently is feen | on putrefcent veal, when kept in a certain degree of warmth and À moifture; and on the fea-weed placed on the oyfters packed in bar- rels, and fent into the country; and in the ftreets of Edinburoh, 4 where the heads ofthe fifh called whitings or haddies are frequently "|. thrown out by the people, I have on a dark night eañly feen the hour 1 bi by holding one of them to my watch. | 2. The exiftence of phofphorus in vegetables was detefted by k Margraaf; who found, that many vegetable matters, particularly fa- rinaceous grains, contain enough of the phofphoric acid to produce phofphorus, when they are expofed to great heat in clofe veflels. Macquer’s Chemical Diétionary tranflated by Mr. Kerr, Voi. Il,| p- 535, Art. Phofphorus. Phofphorus has been detected in gum| arabic, fugar, honey, flour, and in every kind of vegetable or ani- mal fubftance by the procefs of making the phofphorus of Homberg. And the exiftence of phofphorus in greater quantity in all the parts | and recrements of animals, as in their flefh, dung, urine, and bone- E| afhes, and moît copioufly in the two latter, 1s evinced in the fabrica- t hi] tion of Kunkel’s phofphorus. Whence its univerfal exiftence is dif- | covered in thefe two great kingdoms of nature. See the above Dit. Art. Pyrophorus. f: The moft eafy procefs for producing Homberg”’s phofphorus con- fifts in mixing three parts of alum with one of fugar, w h,ch are to be expofed to a great heat in a covered crucible, till a bluifh flame has TS appeared for fome time. It muft then be fuffered to cool a little, and be put into a dry hot bottle, and clofely ftopped from the air. A drachm of this powder will afterwards, when poured from the bottle into the open air on paper, quickly kindle, become red like burning coals, and burn the paper, which it lies upon.| Hence we may conclude, that vegetable bodies, as well as animal Ones, SEcr..X. 5: 3 MANURES. 209 ones, contain acid of phofphorus; and that in this experiment the acid of the alum takes the fixed alkaline falt from the vegetable afhes, and the calcareous earth, if fuch there be, and that the car- bon unites with the oxygen of the phofphoric acid; and the vece- table phofphorus is left mingled with the earth of alum; exa@tly in the fame manner as the animal phofphorus is obtained from the afhes of bones, or the falt of urine, by Calcining them in clofe vefels with charcoal. 3- An important queftion now occurs; if this fimple material of phofphorus be not generally made in the veñels of vegetables, whence do they acquire it? They may probably obtain it in confiderable quantity from the recrements of decaying vegetable and animal bo- dies; as it appears in rotten wood, and in putrefying fifh, and exifts in fuch large quantities in bone-afhes, and in the falt of urine. But I fuppofe there is another great fource of phofphorus, I mean in cal- careous earth, which alfo has been of animal origin in the early ages of the world. If an oyfter-fhell be calcined for about half an hour in a common fire, and is then kept from the air in a cold place; when it is after wards expofed for a while to the funfhine, and brought into a dark room, it willappearluminous like the calcined Bolognian ftone; which is owing to the phofphoric acid thus deprived of its oxygen by the carbon of the fire-coals, and intermingled with the pure calcareous earth or lime of the fhell; and which again combining with the oxy- gen of the air, both light and heat are emitted in the reproduétion of phofphoric acid. See Wilfon on.Phofphori, Dodfley, London, 1795. The Bolognian ftone is a felenite or gypfum, which confifts of vitriolic acid and calcareous earth, and I fuppole of acid of phofpho- rus; fince on mixing the powder of this ftone with gum arabic, and calcining it fome time, a kind of phofphorus is produced fimilar to the above, owing I fuppofe to the carbon of the fire coals, or of the gum arabic, carrying offthe oxygen from the phofphoric acid; which pre- E:e vioufl ; 7 r. QAOR SE ape nes 210 MANURES, Secr,, À. 554 vioufly exifted both in the calcareous earth of the felenite, and in the afhes of the gum arabic. Mr. Canton, in the Philof. Tranfa&. Vol. LVIIT. p. 337, pub- lifhed his making a pyrophorus by calcining oyfter-fhells, and then mixing them reduced to powder with fulphur, and recalcining them in clofe veflels. This powder after being expofed to light, or heated by other means, became luminous in the dark for many minutes. By this procefs the acid of phofphorus exifing in the animal fhell had been decompofed by the red hot fulphur having robbed it of its oxy- gen; and thus the phofphorus remained united with the calcareous earth. M. Du Fay, in a memoir publifhed in the year 1730, afieits from experiments, that all calcareous ftones, whether they contain vitri- olic acid or not, are capable of becoming Iuminous by calcination; with this difference only, that the pure calcareotis ftones require a ftronger or repeated calcination; whereas thofe, u ich contain an acid, as felenites, or gypfum, become phofphoric by flishter calcination, M. Margraaf alfo afferts, that all kinds of calcareous ftones may by calcination be rendered phoifphoric; but thinks, that the pure ones fhould be previoufly faturated with an acid. Keir’s Di. Art. Phof- phorus, And laftly, fome kinds of fluor, which is known to confift of calcareous earth and the fluor-acid, emit phofphoric light on being heated flowly, but loofe it, when much ignited.(Kirwan’s Minera- logy.) This material might probably as well as gypfum become ufe- ful in agriculture. 4. Thefe experiments, which fhew that all common calcareous ftones, which contain only carbonic acid, were rendered phofphoric by calcination; but that thofe which did contain a fixed acid, as gyp- {um, and fluor, were rendered phofphoric with lefs difficulty, acquaint us firft with perhaps one very important ufe of lime in agriculture. Secondly, with that alfo of gyplum, or alabafter, which has lately been ufed in America and in Germany without previous caicination; but SECT MTSEE, MANURES. 21 but which might probably be more fuccefsful after calcination. And thirdly, with the probable ufe of fluor fpar in its recent or calcined ftate. As there is reafon to believe, that the vegetable fyftem may abforb phofphorus from any of thefe materials: which phofphorus may originally have been of animal origin, as well as that which ex- ifts in feces and urine. And laftly, the ufe of recent fhells or bones Sround-into powder, or of bone-afhes, fpread on land may be deduc- ed; as they confift almoft entirely of phofphorus and calcareous earth, 5- In the converfion of fhells into limeftone there feems to have been either fimply an additional quantity of carbonic acid attrated from the air or from water during the proceffion of ages, and added to the calcareous earth, or alfo a diminution of the phofphoric acid, But an union of phofphoric acid only with lime has lately been found tocompole whole mountains in Spain,which is mentioned by Fourcroy, and is now termed phofpbate of lime, refembling bone-afhes. And M. Brumaire lately received from Spain à yellowifh tranflucent ftone. called chryfolite by the jewellers, which he found to contain nearly equal parts of phofphoric acid and calcareous earth, and to be a{par or cryftallization of the phofphate of lime. And as the limeftone at Breedon has latelÿ been difcovered to contain equal parts of mao nefia and lime, we may hope by greater attention to difcover a moun- tain of phofphate of lime in our own country. See Nicholfon’s Jour- nal 1798, p. 414. From hence it would appear, that the immenfe quantities of lime ftone in the world, which was originally formed. from the fhells of fubmarine animals, has during the long lapfe of time loft more or lefs of its original phofphoric acid, and acquired more or lefs carbonic acid, The carbon diflolved in the atmofphere or in the ocean having, thus flowly decompofed the phofphoric acid in the elaboratory of na- ture without great heat, as it does in our crucibles in a fhort time by the afliflance of great heat, Eez2 t 212 MANURES. SECT X. 545. D. It is probable that much phofphorus may be confumed in our inar-| 1() tificial mode of burning lime, which might be preferved by calcining limeftone in clofe veflels, and thus detaching the carbonic acid with- !'| out admitting the aerial oxygen to the phofphorus; but the advan- tage to agriculture of fuch a procefs can only be determined by expe- riment. 2| There are many inftances given by Mr. Anderfon, and by Lord ; Kaims, of foils which are faid to have been for ages uncommonly fertile without addition of manures or culture, T'hefe are plains near | the fhore in the county of Caithnefs, and in the Hebrides, and are | faid to confift almoft entirely of fhells broken into very fmall parti- | cles, without almoft any mixture of other foil. See Encyclop. Britan. à Art. Agricult. Now the foil of an extenfive country called Lincoln Heath I obferved fome years ago to confift in a great degree of pow- dered limeftone, which like the Ketton limeftone appeared in fmall rounded particles, which I fuppofe had in remote times been difiolv- ed in water, and again precipitated; which fhews a probable differ- ence between this lime and recent fhells in refpe& to their antiquity, and confequently that the former muft contain much of the original phofphoric acid, and the latter only carbonic acid. And as Lincoln Heath was then efteemed a very unproduëtive foil, there is reafon to à infer that the phofphoric acid in recent fhells is of greatiy more fer- } f vice to agriculture than the carbonic acid of alluvial limeftone, or i than calcined lime alone. Hence it is probable, that a greater quantity of phofphoric acid may exift in fome marles than in others, as well as in fome limeftones; thus the appearance of recent fhells exifts in the lime near Loughbo- rough in Leicefterfhire, in the road to Nottingham, and in fome marles called fhell-marle; which muft therefore probably contain much more phofphoric acid, fo as almoft to refemble the bones of animals; and may thus be more friendly to vegetation. À piece of land is mentioned by Mr. Anderfon, that, after a thick coat af marle 8 laid SECT. X. 6. 1. MANURES. 213 laid on it, bore crops for thirty years without additional improve. ment, and I think it was called fhell-marle. See Encyclop. Britan. Agricult. 6. A medical philofopher, M. Bonhomme, has endeavoured to fhew, that the hardnefs of animal bones depends on the quantity of phofphoric acid united to calcareous earth, which they contain; and that the rickets, a difeafe in which the bones become too foft, is folelÿ owing to the want of ït, or to the exiftence of the vegetable acid inftead of it. Annales de Chemie, Vol. XVII. May we not con- clude, that the prefence of phofphoric acid in the vegetable fyftem muft be of importance; becaufe it fo univerfally exifts in them, and may probably give firmnefs to liqueous as well as to offeous fibres? To which may be added, that M. Fourcroy believes, that the afhes of burnt vegetables, which have been fuppofed to confift of earth or clay, when the fixed alkali is wafhed from them, are principally cal- careous phofphorus, like thofe of animal bones. The fame is aflérted by Lord Dundonald in his Connection of A criculture and Chemiftry, p. 25, who calls the infoluble part of vegetable afhes à phofphat of lime. This fubject is worthy further inveftication. VI x ETME, Many of the principal ufes of calcareous earth in promotine the growth of vegetables have been already mentioned in this fection, which we fhall recapitulate with additions. 1. One great ufe of calcareous earth I fufpeét to confift in its unit- ing with the carbon of the foil in its pure or cauftic flate, or with that of vegctable or animal récrements during fome part of the procefs of putrefaétion; and thus rendering it foluble in water by forming an hepar carbonis, fomew hat like an hepar fulphuris produced by lime and fulphur, as mentioned in No. 4. 7. of this Se@,; by which pro- cefs mme€ Ca à ri FU", 214 MANURES. SECT. X. 6. 2. cefs I fuppofe the carbon is rendered capable of being abforbed by the lacteal veflels of vecetable roots. The black Tiquor, which flows from dunghilis, is probably a fluid of this kind; but 1 mean to fpeak hypothetically, as 1 have not veri- fied it by experiment; and the carbon may be fimply fupported in the water by mucilace, like.the coffce drank at our tea-tables; or may be converted into an hepar carbonis by its union with the fixed alkali of decaying vegetable matter, or by the volatile alkali, which accompanies fome ftages of putrefaétion. See No. 10. 3. of this Sec- tion. 2. À fecond mode of its ferving the purpofes of vegetation I believe to be by its union with carbonic acid, and rendering it thus foluble in water in its fluid ftate inflead of its being expanded into a gas; and that thus a great quantity of carbon may be drank up by vegeta- ble abforbent vefels. In the praëtice newly introduced of watering lands by deriving fireams over them for many weeks together, I am informed that wa- ter from fprings is generally more effectual in promoting vegetation than that from rivers; which though it may in part be owing to the azotic gas, or nitrogen, contained in fome fprings, as thofe of Buxton and of Bath, according to the analyfis of Dr. Prieftley, and of Dr. Pearfon; yet I fuppofe it to be principally owing to the cal- careous earth, which abounds in all fprings, which pafs over marly foils, or through calcareous ftrata; and which does not exift in rivers, as the falts wwafhed into rivers from the foil all feem to decompofe each other, except the marine falt, and fome magnefian falt, which are carried down into the ocean. The calcareous earth likewife, which is wafhed into rivers, enters into new combinations, as into gyplum, or perhaps into filiceous fand, and fubfides. Thefe folutions. of calcareous earth in thofe waters, which are termed hard waters, and which incruft the fides of our tea-kettles, may pofhbly alfo con- tribute ne EEE" ee D mm DE D SECT. X: 6. 3, MANURES. 216 tribute to the nutriment of animals, as mentioned in Zoonomia, Part III. Article I. 2. 4. 2. 3+ À third mode, by which lime promotes vegetation, I fuppofe may be afcribed to its containing phofphorus; which by its union with it may be converted into an hepar, and thus rendered foluble in water, without its becoming an acid by the addition of oxygen. Phofphorus is probably as neceflary an ingredient in vegetable as in animal bodies; which appears by the phofphoric light vifible on rot- ten wood during fome ftages of putrefaétion; in which I fuppofe the phofphorus is fet at liberty from the calcareous earth, or from the fixed alkali, or from the carbon of the decompofns wood, and ac- quires oxygen from the atmofphere; and both warmth and light are emitted during their union. But phofphorus may perhaps more fre- quently exift in the form of phofphoric acid in vegetables, and may thus be readily united with their calcareous earth, as mentioned in No. 5. 6. of this Seion, and may be feparated from its acid by the carbon of the vegetable during calcination, and alfo during putrefac- tion, which may be confidered as a flow combuftion. The exiftence of a folution of phofphoric acid and calcareous earth in the veflels of animals is proved by the annual renovation of the fhells of crab-fifh, and by the fabrication of the egs-fhells in female birds; and is occafionally fecreted, where it cements the wounds made on fnail-fhells; or where it joins the prefent year’s growth of a fnail- fhell to the part, where a membranous cover had been attached for the protection of the animal during its ffate of hibernation. And laftly, it is evident from the growth of the bones of quadrupeds, and from the depofition of callus to join them where they have been broken. 4. Limein its pure ftate is foluble in about 6co times its weight of water; and by a oreater quantity of carbonic acid than is neceffary for:its Cryflallization, it js foluble in water in much greater quan- tities, as appears by the Calcareous depofition of the water at Mat- lock. ? Le E à { F Ê ë L 1? Le 216 MANURES. SECT. X. 6. 5. lock; and may I fuppofe fupply a nutritious fubftance by uniting with mucilage or oil, either in the earth at the roots of vegetables, or on the furface of the foil, which may be gradually wafhed down to them. If a folution of foap be poured into lime-water, the oil of the foap combines with the calcareous earth, and the cauftic alkali is fet at li- berty, according to the experiments of Mr. Bertholet;(fee Nichot- fon’s Journal, Vol. I. p. 170,) who concludes, that oil has a ftronger affinity to calcareous earth than it has to fixed alkali. At the fame time it appeared, that a folution of the mild or effervefcent fixed al- kali poured on this calcareous foap would decompofe it by twofold eletive attration; as the carbonic acid of the mild fixed alkali unites with the calcareous earth of the calcareous foap, and the oil unites with the pure or cauftic alkali. Many arguments may be adduced to fhew, that calcareous earth either alone, or in fome of the ftates of combination above mention- ed, may contribute to the nourifhment both of animals and vegeta- bles. Firft, becaufe calcareous earth conftitutes a confiderable part of them, and muft therefore either be received from without, or formed by them, or both. Secondly, becaufe from the analogy of all organic life, whatever has compofed a part of a vesetable or animal, may again after its chemical folution become a part of another vege- table or animal; fuch is the general tranfmigration of matter! 5. There are other ufes of lime in agriculture, which may not be afcribed to it as a nutritive food for vegetables, but from its produc- ing fome chemical or mechanical effeéts upon the foil, or upon other manures, with which it is mixed; as firft, from its deftroying in a fhort time the cohefion of dead vegetable fibres, and thus reducing them to.earth; which otherwife is effeéted by a flow procefs, either by the confumption of infeëéts, or by a gradual putrefa&tion. This is faid to be performed both by mild and by cauftic calcareous earth, as in the experiments both of Pringle and Macbride, It is faid that unburnt SECT. XX, 6.5 MANURES. 217 uuburnt calcareous earth forwards the putrefaétion of a mixture of animal and vegetable matter. But that pure lime, thoueh it feemed to prevent putrefaétion, deftroyed or diflolved the texture of the fiefh. Thus I am informed, that a mixture of lime with oak-bark, after the tanner has extraéted from it whatever is foluble in Water, Will in two or three months reduce it to a fine black earth 5 which if only laid in heaps, would require as many years to ef by its own fpon- taneous fermentation or putrefation. This effect of lime muft be particularly advantageous to new!y enclof:d commons when fr broken up. Mr. Davis, in the papers of the Society of Arts, Vol. XVI. p.122; afferts, that on a common, which had been previoufly covered with heath, but was otherwife very barren, the effe& of lime was very advantageous for about ten years, during which time the vecetable roots might be fuppofed to have been diflolved and expended; but that a fecond liming he obferved produced no good effect. Itis pro- bable the good effe& might not be fo great, but I fhould doubt the circumftance of its producing no good effet at all. Mr. Browne of Derby has alfo an ingenious paper in the tranfac- tions of the Society of Arts, in which he afferts, that recent vegeta- bles, as clover, laid on heaps and ftratified with frefh lime, are quickly decompofed, even in a few days. The heat occafoned by the moif- ture of the vegetables uniting with the lime I fuppofe quickens the fermentation of the vegetable juices, and produces charcoal in con- fequence of combuftion, fimilar to that frequently produced in new hayftacks, which if air be admitted burft into flame. Secondly, lime for many months continues to attra moifture from the air or earth; which it deprives I fuppofe of carbonic acid, and then fuffers it to exhale again, as is feen on the plaftered walls of new houfes. On this account it muft be advantaceous when mixed with dry or fandy foils, as it attrats moifture from the air above,.o1 F f the f 218 MANURES. ro. =” ee }| the earth beneath; and this moifture is then abforbed by the lym- phatics of the roots of vegetables. Thirdly, by mixing lime with clays it is believed to make them Jefs cohefve; and thus to admit of their being more eafily penetrated by vegetable fibres. Fourthly, a mixture of lime with clay deftroys its fuperabundancy 1 of acid, if fuch exifts; and by uniting with it converts it into gypfum, ui or alabafter. Fifthly, when lime is mixed with a compoft of foil and manure,| | which is in the flate of generating nitrous acid, it arrefts the acid as À F it forms, and produces a calcareous nitre, and thus prevents both its exhalation and its eafy elutriation. And laftly, frefh lime deftroys worms, fnails, and other infe&s, with which it happens to come in contaét, and with which almoft n' every foil abounds. Li 6. The various properties of lime above defcribed account for the n' great ufes of it on almoft all lands; except perhaps fome of thofe ‘il which already abound with calcareous earth. On riding from Beckingham to Sleaford, and from thence to Lin- coln, I was informed by three or four farmers, that lime had been tried, but was believed to be of no fervice in that country. Nor was Ï furprifed at this obfervation, as I had feen fragments of allu- vial limeftone thrown out of every ditch on the road, which was of a 1 loofe texture, confifting of calcareous fand, like the Ketton limeftone, L rounded by friétion, before it was confolidated into a mafs, the up- \J il per furface of which was broken into fragments, when it was raifed from the fea by fubterraneous fires, or by its cooling from a hot ftate or its drying from a moift one. Thus, as I had ridden over one fingle alluvial limeftone above ten | miles broad and above twenty long, the broken furface of which fl appeared in the bottom of almoft every ditch, I concluded, that the FI foil muft be calcareous earth mixed only with fome animal and ve- getable Seerr Nan. MAN URES. 219 getable recrements, and that an addition of pure lime could probably not be of much advantage to the vegetables it fupported. And the fame I fuppofe muft occur in thofe fituations, where the furface of the foil confifts almoft totally of chalk, which is another kind of alluvial limeftone; that is, which has been diflolved in water in the early ages of the world, and again depofited. Yet even in fome foils, which abound in calcareous earth, lime is efteemed to be of fervice; which may be owing both to its cauftic quality, and to its being fo finely pulverized. For a part of the wa- ter, which combines with it after calcination, gives out fo much heat as to convert another part of it into fteam; which breaks the cal- cined lime-lumps into a moîft fubtile and impalpable powder, ap- proaching even to fluidity, as mentioned in No. 4. 4. of this Section. In the parifh of Hartington in Derbyfhire there is a ftratum of hard limeftone, or marble, as I am informed, immediately beneath a fhallow foil, and which in many places peeps through it; yet on fome of this land an ingenious a@tive agricultor has laid lime on the grafs in great quantity with prodigious advantage; and that he con- tinues annually to improve by this means a confiderable extent of land. The difference between the hard limeftone of this part of Derby- fhire, and the foft fand-formed limeftone about Lincoln Heath and Sleaford, may render the incumbent foil to be more or lefs mixed with calcareous earth; or they may abound more or lefs with phof- phoric acid, as mentioned in No. 5. 5. of this Section. But it may have happened, that fome prejudices of the farmers, who gave me the information, might have led them to condemn the ufe of lime about leaford and Lincoln; and I fhould again recommend it to their fe- rious attention. Another improper fituation for the ufe of lime is faid to be on thofe lands, which are too wet, and which therefore fhould be previoufly drained; otherwife the lime is{aid to coalefce into a kind of mortar, 3 Fr(2 and 220 MANURES. SECTE ON and become fo hard, that the tender plumula of growing feeds, or the fine extremities of their roots, can not eafily penetrate it. This may occur more certainly in that kind of lime, which contains man- ganefe, and is therefore capable of fetting under water, as, L fuppofe, the barrow lime of Leiceflerfhire, and agnes lime near Afhbourn in Derbyfhire. 7. The great and general advantage of lime in all foils and all fituations, except fome of thofe which are already replete with cal careous earth, or are too moift, can only be underftood. from the ide already mentioned of its fupplying aétual nutrition to vegetables; and this feems more probable, as it contributes fo much to the meliora- tion of the crops, as well as to their increafe in quantity. Wheat from land well liimed is believed by farmers, millers, and bakers, to be, as they fuppofe, thinner fkinned; that is, it turns out more and better four; which I fuppofe is owing to its containing more ftarch and lefs mucilage. Hence we perceive another very important ufe of lime in cultiva- tion of land may be owing to its forwarding the converfion of mu cilage into ftarch, that is to its forwarding the ripening of the feet; which is a matter of great confequence in this climate of fhort and. cold fummers. See Se&. VI. 3. and XVI. 3. In refpet to grafs-ground Fam informed, that if a fpadeful of lime be throwu on a tuflock, which horfes or cattle have refufed to eat for years, they will for many fucceeding feafons eat it quite clofe to the ground; which is owing, I fufpett, to the grafs containing more fugar in its joints; or to the lefs acidity of all its juices. 8. There are not only fome other bodies, which poifefs a calca reous bafe, befdes the common limeftone, as gypfum, fluor, bone- afhes, and perhaps vegetable afhes; but there are others which are occafonally united with carbonic acid, and may be detached from it by calcination, as the aerated barytes and magnefa. The laft imits calcined ftate may poffibly be as ufeful'in agriculture as the lime of calcareous SECTE, MANURES. 227 calcareous earth, with which I believe it is frequently mixed. For Mr. Tennant affured me a few days ago, that he had analyfed the fimeftone of Breedon in Leicefterfhire, and found it to contain nearly as much magnefia as calcareous earth, befides fome manganefe; which is neverthelefs a lime much efleemed in this country both for archi- teŒure and agriculture. As magnefa exifts in fea-water, and in falt fprings, it may render thefe waters ufeful as a manure as well as the marine falt, which they contain. As fteatites or foap-ftone confifts. principally of magnefa, perhaps this Lmeftone of Breedon may be worth the attention of the poicelain manufaétory. This magnefian lime of Breedon 1s further worthy attention in the cultivation of land, and particularly where a foil abounds with vitriol of iron, or where it abounds with gypfum, as about Chelaflon on the banks of the Derwent, and from Nottingham to Newark on the banks of the Trent, as the magnefian earth would unite with the vi- triolic acid, and leave an ochre of iron in one cafe, and lime in the other; at the fame time a foluble falt, called Epfom falt, would be formed, which, according to the experiments of Dr. Home, promotes rapid vegetation. To fow a few pecks of gypfum reduced to powder on grafs land, as is done in America; and then to fow upon this twice or thrice as much Breedon lime, might be an experiment which. might be advantageous in the part of Derbyfhire next to Leicefter- fhire, where both of them are to be obtained at no great expence. VII CELAY, METALLIC OXYDES; NITRE, SEA-SALT,: 1. The too great adhefion of the particles of argillaceous earth or clay renders it in its pure ftate unfit for vegetation; as the tender fibrils of roots can with difficulty penetrate it, whence it becomes much improved for the purpofes of agriculture, when it is mixed with calcareous earth and with filiceous fand, as in marle. It 15 commonly believed that lumps of clay become meliorated by bein g Dame— di"TRY ET ne CS 2 ee ee 7 E 227 MANURES: DEC TX 17.2, being expofed to froft in its moift ftate, which by expanding the wa- ter, which it contains, by converting it into ice is fuppofed to leave the particles of the clay further from each other. This however feems in general to be a miftaken idea, fince if the a@ of freezing be not very fuddenly performed, a contrary effect feems to occur, as noticed by Mr. Kirwan; who obferves, that clay in its ufual ftate of drynefs can abforb two and a half times its weight of water with- out fuffering any to drop out, and retains it in the open air more per- tinacioufly than other earths; but that in a freezing cold clay con- trats more than other earths fqueezing out its water, and thus part- ing with more of it than other earths.” Mineralogy, Vol, I. p. 9. This curious circumftance, that water, as it cryftallizes, detrudes the clay, which is diffufed in it, correfponds with other faëts of con- gelation. Thus when wine, or vinegar, or common falt and water, or a folution of blue vitriol in water, are expofed to frofty air; the al- cohol, the acetous acid, the marine falt, and the calx of copper, are all of them detruded from the aqueous cryftals, and retreat to the central part of the fluid, or to that laft frozen, or into numerous cells furrounded with partitions of ice, as I have frequently obferved; whence it appears, that wet clay is in general rendered more folid and tenacious by being frozen, as well as when it is dried, and its moifture exhaled by too warm a fun; and by both thofe circum- cumftances becomes lefs adapted to the purpoñes of agriculture. 2. In moîft clays a kind of effervefcence occurs, after they are turned over, and thrown on heaps, and thus acquire air into their in- teftines, which renders them much fitter for the purpofes of vitrifica- tion; and thus forwards the procefles of the brick-kiln and pottery. This greater facility to vitrify is probably effe@ted by the union of oxygen with the iron, which moft clays contain; as oxydes of lead and manganefe are ufed.in the more perfeét vitrifications. The calciform ores, or oxydes, of iron, manganefe, and zinc, are frequently found near the furface of the earth, where they have been I united D NNERUS. g SEcr: XX: 7e 2e MANURE D: 223 united with oxygen by the pafling currents of the atmofphere; and have been fuppofed to have originated from the decompofition of ve- getables and animal bodies, as mentioned in Botanic Garden, Vol. I. additional note 18. Iron has been deteéted in all vegsetable and animal matters, manganefe in fome ofthem; and, if we pofléfled a teft for difcovering fuch minute particles of zinc, as the magnet difcovers of iron, it is probable, that zinc alfo would be detedted in the which grow over its beds. As fome philofophers have lately contended for the great utility of oxygen in vecetation, as Humboldt and Von Üflar; who affirm from their experiments, that hyper-oxygenated muriatic acid ufed in finall quantities promotes both the growth and irritability of plants; there is reafon to fufpe@, that the calciform ores of iron, manganefe, and Zinc, as well as minium, and other calces or oxydes of metals made by fire, and even burnt clays, when ftrewed on the ground, may contribute to vegetation by their parting with their abund vegetables, ant oxygen in à fluid, not in a gafleous form; which uniting with carbon, or phofphorus, or nitrogen, without emitting perceptible heat or light, might fupply nutritious fluids to the roots of vegetables; further ex- periments are wanted on this fubjeét. But Iam well informed, that a red ocher of iron, called raddle, has been ufed on fome lands with ad- vantage in the north of Staffordfhire; and fhould recommend a trial of manganefe in thofe countries, where it abounds, as near Kingfbury, and near Atherftone in Warwickfhire; and a trial of lapis calaminaris, where it abounds, as near Matlock in Derbyfhire; and even of the calciform ore of lead, which is found in Anglefey, and on the top of fome other lead mines. M. Humbold afferts, that he mixed many feeds into a kind of pafte with the black oxyde of manganefe, and poured over it the muriatic acid diluted with water, in the proportion of about fix of water to one of acid; and that much oxygen Was thus difengaged, and occafion- ed 224 MANURES. SECT. X. 7. 3. ed quick vegetation. Journal de Phyfique, 1598. See No. 2. 8, of os | this Section.| ae L 1h 3. When clays are turned up with the fpade, as is ufual in prepar- aan | ing them for the brick kiln, a kind of effervefcence occurs, as men- crl tioned above; which is probably owing to the efcape of the azote of flan the air imprifoned in the interftices, as the oxygen unites with fome the: metallie particles in the clay; or to fleam raifed from the water in gli the clay by the heat fet at liberty from the combination of the oxy- ki gen and the iron. This union of oxygen with iron is curioufly al- dl moft vifible in many granates or porphyries; which I have feen s thinly fcattered in large nodules near Cannock in Staffordfhire, in the road from Lichfield to Shrewfbury; and on breaking them have ob-| ferved no appearance of iron on the newly divided furfaces; but which| in a few days acquired an ochery appearance on them, which pene- trated neaily half an inch. This can not but be afcribed to the oxygen| || of the atmofphere having united with the iron in thefe ftones, which | by their fmell, when breathed upon, contain indurated clay, and hav-|| ing converted into an oxyde either the clay itfelf, or fome metallic| particles included in it. There is neverthelefs an exhalation from clay, and perhaps from moît foils, when they have been previoufly dried, and then fprinkled with water, as after a fhower in fummer, which has been fuppofed to be falubrious to invalids and convalefcents, This remarkably oc- curs, when dry clay is breathed upon even in its moft indurated ftate, as in granites and porphyries, by which criterion thefe ftones are im- mediately diftinguifhed from the filiceous and calcareous ones. This I imagine 1s produced by the heat fet at liberty by the combination of dry clay and water, like that produced in fo much greater degree by the combination of lime and water; and that this heat raifes a part of the acquired moifture into fteam, in which are diflolved the odor- ous particles; both which probably caufe the quick vegetation on clayey foils after the fhowers in fummer. When nes né usa Dé em el SECTUX: 74 MANURES. 2 Gy ? <4 When marl, which confifts of clay, calcareous earth, and fand, which are frequently coloured red by iron, or blue probably by man- ganefe, is expofed in fmall lumps to the atmofphere; it is liable to crumble into powder, which I fuppofe to arife from a fimilar circum ftance; that the oxygeu of the atmofphere uniting with the clay, of the metallic particles it poffefles, lets at liberty the fame gas, or fteam, which is feen to rife from clay, when thrown on heaps for the brick kiln or pottery; which breaks the lumps into powder, as the Jumps of lime are broken into powder by the fféeam, which is generated when water is thrown on them, by the heat fet at hberty by the combination of the lime and water. This union of oxygen with the clay, or with the metallic particles mingled with it, 1 fuppofe to be much facilitated by expofing it to a red heat, as in burning bricks; while a greater heat may unite fo much oxygen with it as to turn it into glafs. Exa@ly fuch à pro- cefs occurs in the production of minium; a certain quantity of heat with the contact of air combines fo much oxygen with the melted lead, as to form an oxyde; a greater quantity of heat converts it into glafs. 4. When clay is united with fo much oxygen by fire as to form a foft or imperfe@ brick, it pofleffes the power cf promoting the ge- neration of the nitrous acid in certain fituations; whichis frequently {een like an efflorefcence on mouldering walls, having become by the addition of lime a calcareous nitre.‘The ufe of thefe foft bricks in the produ&tion of nitre is well known in Paris, where the rubbifh of old houfes is regularly purchafed for that purpofe; which before the revolution was a royal manufacture. Às thefe{oft effiorefcent bricks from old houfes are known power- fully to promote vecctation, when pulverized and mixed with the {oil; at the fame time that they are capable of producing the nitrous acid 3; Î imagine, that the ufe of paring and burning the turf of fome newly‘enclofed commons dépends on this circumftance. That is, G g that nm rt à EE at sg 5 = S 276 MANURES Secr. X.1736 that the heat emitted from the burning vegetable fibres unites oxygen with the clay; which latter forms more than half of the flices of turf, as they are dus from the ground. In other refpe&s the paring and burning of grais srounds would certainly be a wafteful proce- dure; as much carbon is converted into carbonic acid, and difperfed along with the uninflamed fmoke or foot, and nothing left but the vegetable afhes. From thefe confiderations it would probably be worthy experiment in farms, where coal and clay abound, to burn the latter to a certain degree; which might fupply an exhauftiefs fource of profitable manure. 5. I bave fufpe&ted alfo, that this calcined clay, as it exifts in foft bricks, has a power of decompoling marine falt, as I once obferved in a cellar, where beef had been long falted on one fide of a nine-inch wall, the wooden falting-tub for which was attached to it; that a great efforefcence appeared on the other fide of the wall, which I believed to be foffile alkali or natron. If this idea be juft, the foft bricks from old buildings, or clays fo far purpofely burnt, may in this manner be ferviceable to vegetation, by feparating the foffle al- Lkali from the fea-falt, which is wafhed from decompofing animal and vegetable fubftances; which by converting carbon into an hepar car- bonis, as lime is fuppofed to do in No. 6.1. of this Section, might render it foluble in water, and capable of being abforbed by the lymphatic vefiels of the roots of plants. If clay calcined to a certain degree, and thus united with oxygen, poffefles the power of decompofing marine falt, there is reafon to believe, when it is more flowly united with oxygen by its expofure to the atmofphere by the fpade or plough, that it may poflefs the fame property; and that this may have given rife to the very con- traditory reports concerning the ufe of fea-falt in agriculture; as it may probably be of great advantage to clayey foils, but perhaps. not to other foils. See Seét. XIV. 2. 5. 6. Another faline body, which. readily unites with araillaceous earth ÉrY me dm ere Line"4 ——| D TT em M A N'UR'ES. 2n% l, SECT: Xi 7e earth inthe fire, is falt of urine, commonly called microcofimic falt, which aéts as a flux diflolving clay with confiderable effervefcence. Kirwan’s Mineralogy, Vol. L. p. 9. This microcofmic falt confifts of phofphoric acid united with an ammonical, or with a calcareous bafe; and muft in the latter cafe refemble the phofphat of lime, of which there are whole mountains difcovered in Spain, as mentioned in No. 5. 5. of this Seétion; and of which many may probably be difcovered in our own country. Now as the fame combinations of matter, which are quickly formed by the heat of the chemift’s furnaces, are often performed, though more flowly, in the elaboratory of nature; it 18 probable, that if this calcareous phofphorus could be procured in this country, reduced to powder, and fpread on our clay lands, that it might more than any other calcareous matter render them friendly to vegetation, like the afhes of burnt bones; which experiment alone can determine. 7. Às clay is lefs adapted to the growth of the roots of plants by the too great cohefon of its particles, this may be in fome degree correéted by frequentiy expofng it to air imprifoned in its inter- ftices, as by turning it over by the plough or fpade. Another me- thod is by planting on it fuch vegetables firft as are known to grow well in clay, as beans, and as their roots are afterwards left in the clay, they not only thus form tubes in it, fo as to render the mafs lefs cohefive; but add to it fo much carbon, and thus rather enrich than impoverifh it. Add to this that the lower leaves ofthe denfe fo- hage of thefe vigorous vegetables are believed to give out much car- bonic acid by their refpiration in the fhade fimilar to the refpiration of animals; which perpetually finking down upon the furface of the {oil is believed to fupply it with carbon; and thus alfo to render it more nutritive to other vegetables, which may afterwards grow upon it. Lord Kaimes, who allows that clay, if it be moiftened after it has been pulverized, becomes on drying as indurated and cohefive as Gg2 before, eo TT. n 228 MANURES. SECT. X 5, before, aflerts, that this does not happen, if it be moiïftened with the fluid, which efcapes from dunghills; which may be owing both to the carbon, and to the fixed vecetable alkali, which that fluid con- taius. And alfo adds, that lime will prevent the cohefen or indura- tion of clay, and therefore greatly improves argillaceous foils for ail the purpofes of agriculture, 3. When clay abounds with vitriolic acid fo as to be converted into alum, it becomes very unfriendly to vegetation, In this ftate it 3$ believed much to counteraét the procefs of putrefaction in animal bodies, as 15 faid to have happened in fome burying grounds. This it may efleét by uniting with the ammonia generated by putrefaction the moment it is formed, or by preventing its produétion; as when the falt of Neville Holt water in Leicefterfhire, which I fuppofe is alum, is mixed with very putrid blood, as I once witneffed, the pu- trid{cent was inftantly deftroyed, as I fuppofe the argillaceous earth was precipitated.| Where this acid or aluminous elay abounds, it is believed to check the vegetation of trees as well as of herbaceous plants by eroding the fine extremities of their roots, as mentioned in Sec. IE, 9. which is perhaps beft to be remedied in gardens by wood-afhes or foap-fuds, and in larger fields by mixing lime, or chalk in powder, or the fweepings from roads, which are repaired by limeftone, with thefe aluminous clays. Or laftly, where it can be procured, by mixing with them fuch lime as that of Breedon in Leicefterfhire, which con fifts of equal parts of magnefa and calcareous earth, which would thus fabricate what has been termed Epfom fait, which is faid to be friendly to vegetation. VIII, MANURES BY SPONTANEOUS DECOMPOSITION. We fhall now confider more generally the decompofition of organ. 1zed matter, which vegetable and animal bodies fpontaneoufly un- dergo, om ae en__… mal SEEN MAT. MANURES. 229 dergo, when they ceafe to live. The proceffes of this decompoñition have commonly been divided into the vinous, acetous, and putrefac- tive fermentations; which have been fuppofed uniformly to fucceed each other. But it is more probable, that different kinds or parts of dead organized matter may be fubjeét to many different kinds of chemical changes, and that thefe may varÿ with the degrees of heat, and the quantity of water, and of air, with which they are fur- rounded. 1. In the ftomachs of animals a faccharine procefs precedes the vinous fermentation; which laft only occurs, when the animal power of digeftion or abforption is for a time fufpended. A fimilar procefs occurs in the germination of vegetable roots, whereby meal is con- verted into fugar, as in the malt-houfe; and in the gradual ripening of apples and pears, after they are plucked from the tree; but all thefe may be faid to be ftill alive; and this change of meal or of mucilage into fugar may thus be efteemed a vegetable rather than a éhemical procefs. The art of cookery, by expofing vegetable and animal fubftances to heat, has contributed to increafe the quantity of the food of man- kind by converting the acerb juices of fome fruits into fugar, as in the baking of unripe pears, and the bruifing of unripe apples; in both which fituations the life of the vegetable is deftroyed, and the con- verfion of the harfh juice into a fweet one muft be performed by a chemical procefs; and not by a vegetable one only, as the germina- tion of barley in making malt has generally been fuppofed. Some large round auftere pears.were yefterday, November 20, fhewn me after having been nine hours in the oven behind a kitchen fire covered: fome inches with water in a fteam-pot. On taiting them they were fweet, and foft, and appeared to have had at leaf the heat of boiling water. They were replaced in the oven, and kept in it twelve hours longer; and then became nearly as fweet as fyrup or treacle; which might in part have been occafoned by the L evaporation | ÿ| | Ÿ rt EU: ee 2 ciemmersnen =“ 230 MANURES. SEGT IX ar, evaporation of half the water. From this curious circumftance there feems reafon to conclude, that in a degree of heat about that of boil- ing water the faccharine procefs may fucceed; and at the fame time that the procefs of fermentation may be prevented from exifting; which I hope may induce fome chemical philofopher to inveftigate by experiments this curious and important fubjett. Some circumftances, which feem to injure the life of feveral fruits, feem to forward the faccharine procefs of their juices. Thus 1f fome kinds of pears are gathered a week before they would ripen on the tree, and are laid on a heap and covered, their juice becomes fweet many days fooner. The taking off a circular piece of the bark from a branch of a pear-tree caufes thé fruit of that branch to ripen fooner by a fortnight, as I have more than once obferved.‘The wounds made in apples by infeûts occafion thofe apples to ripen fooner; ca- prification, or the piercing of figs, in the ifland of Malta, is faid to ripen them fooner; and I am well informed, that when bunches of grapes 1n this country have acquired their expected fize, that if the ftalk of each bunch be cut half through, they will fooner ripen. The germinating barley in the malt-houfe I believe acquires not half its-fweetnefs, till the life of the feed is deftroyed; and the fac- charine procefs then continued or advanced by the heat in drying it; though I have lately been informed that fome grains of malt will ve- getate after having been dried in the ufual manner, which however may have been owing to their not having been previoufly fuffered perfeétly to germinate. T'hus in animal digeftion the fugar produc- ed in the ftomach is abforbed by the lacteals, as faft as it is made; otherwife it ferments and produces flatulency; fo in the germination of barley in the malt-houfe fo long as the new plant lives, the fugar I fuppofe is abforbed, as faft as it is made; but that which we ufe in making beer is the fugar produced by a chemical procefs after the death of the young plant, or which is made more expeditioufly than the plant can ab{orb it. D mr 4 En nn SEGr AXE. MANURES. 231 Itis probably this faccharine procefs, which obtains in new hay- ftacks too haftily; and which by immediately running into fermen- tation produces fo much heat as to fet them on fire. The greateft part of the grain, or feeds, or roots, ufed in the diftilleries, as wheat, Canary feed, potatoes, are not I believe previoufly fubjeted to ger- mination; but are in part by a chemical procefs converted into fugar, and immediately fubjeéted to vinous fermentation. And it is proba- ble, a procefs may fometime be difcovered of producing fugar from ftarch or meal; and of feparating it from them for domeftic pur- pofes by alcohol; which diflolves fugar but not mucilage; or by other means. This then may be termed the faccharine fermentation, and may exift I fuppofe beneath or upon the earth in the beginning of fome fpontaneous vegetable decompoftions, previous to the vinous fer- mentation; and may fupply thus a very nutritive material to vege- tation; fimilar to that which the embryon plants in the feeds of many fruit-trees acquire from their fruits; and to that, which the em- bryons in many farinaceous feeds acquire from the fpontaneous change of the meal in their cotyledons; though perhaps in lefs quan- tity and purity. 2. À fecondary procefs to this I fuppofe to be the vinous fermen- tation, in which much carbon becomes united to oxygen; and pro- bably at the very inftant of their combination, while they are yet in: the form of a liquid,: and not of a gas, they become abforbed by the roots of plants.‘The heat, which is perceived in the hotbeds, which: are ufed for the growth of cucumbers and melons, is produced by this union of oxygen and carbon, or by the generation of fome other acids, as of phofphorus, or nitre. That this heat is owing to the atmofpheric air combiming with: fome inflammable bafe, and producing acidity of fome kind, appears from the following experiment. A few years ago. a. gardener told me that a hot-bed, which he had made of tanner’s bark. with fome horie » id Dr= RE prime à a a——_— L. ae ee== nan Se 4 De- 232 MANURES: SERE XX 1074: horfe dung and ftraw, was become too cold for the growth of his pots of cucumbers. He was defired fimply to turn over the bed, and fhake every part of it in the air with his fork, as he lightly re- placed it. This was complied with, and in a few days I obferved by touching a ftick, which had for fome hours been inferted into it, that it had acquired the ufual heat of a hot-bed. This addition of heat was doubtlefs acquired from the air, which was recently included in the interftices of the bed by its being turned over, broken into fmall pieces, and expofed to the atmofphere; whence new acids feem to have been generated, and carbon, and per- baps phofphorus and nitrogen, rendered foluble in water. Great heat is produced from the union of oxygen with thofe bafes of acidity, which in large ftacks of new hay is often known to excite real combuftion; the violent fermentation of which may be partly owing to the fugar, which is depofited in the joints of grafs before the feeds are ripe for their nourifhment, and partly to a chemical production of fugar, as above defcribed. 3. In the putrefa@tive procefs carbon is not only converted into carbonic acid, as above related; but there appears to be à decom- pofition of water, as is known by the fmell of hydrogen; and it is probable, this inflammable body may unite with carbon, as in hy- drocarbonate gas, and thus render them both foluble in water, and abforbable by the veflels of vegetable roots, without their pañing into an acid or gafleous form, and may much contribute to the nutriment of vegetables, 4. There alfo appears at the end of the putrefattivé procefs to be a Junction of azote with oxygen producing the acid of nitre, which probably may contribute much to promote vegetation. This appears from the mode of procuring that acid in France and Pruffa, and which might be fuccefsfully praétifed under every fhed in our own farm-yards; as it confifts in a due mixture of vegetable and animal recrements with foil, frequently turned over to expofe it to the air, while ne——== LS Em I T0,= pr TS ScriXsoar. NA NEUR'ES, 233 while it is defended by a fhed from the funfhine and rain; which is thus at the fame time adapted to produce the quickeft vegetation, and to generate the nitrous acid. The oxygen, which compofes nitrous acid, is believed to adhere more weakly to its bafe the azote, than in the compofition of other acids. On this account it fo readily explodes by its janétion with carbon in a given degree of heat. This loofe adherence of the oxygen in nitrous acid, like that of hyper-oxygenated marine acid, and of the oxygen in the ore of manganefe, and of fome other metallic oxydes, may adapt them to promote vegetation by their more readily parting with this material fo effential in the compoñition of plants. 5. From the above obfervations it appears, that when the foil is turned over by the fpade or plough, and thus acquires atmofpheric air in its interftices, and in confequence becomes warm by the pro- duétion of new acids, that the feeds or plants fhould be inferted as foon as convenient, for the purpofe of their receiving the moîft fa- lutary effe€ of thofe operations. Nor fhould this be obferved only in black garden mould, or well manured glebes, where carbon or phofphorus may be fuppofed to abound, and a proper difpoñtion for the produétion of the nitrous acid, but in thofe clays alfo which are pure enough for the brick-kiln or the pottery. IX. MANURES BY CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION. The ufe of fire and water contributes to increafe the nourifhment of mankind by rendering many vegetable materials innocuous, and others digeftable in the animal ftomach; and feems particularly eff- cacious in promoting the faccharine procefs, and in producing muci- lage from griftles, horn, hair, and perhaps even from bones by means of Papin’s digefter. Whether this art could be advantageoufly ufed for the purpofe of rendering manures capable of being abforbed by H h vegetable 234 MANURES. SEer.PX 192) vegetable roots in a ffate of lefs decompofition, than by the flow pro- cefs of putrefation, is a queftion of curiofity and utility. Sugar and mucilage are certainly abforbed by vegetables without their being refolved into the elements, from which they were com- pofed; as appears in the fap-juice which flows from the wounds of birch and maple trees in the vernal months; which I am informed will pafs into fermentation and produce wine; a proc{fs which fome modern chemift affirms cannot be effeted by fugar alone without the addition of mucilage. The abforption of mucilage feems to oc- cur in the germination of many feeds, as of barley; a part of the meal of the cotyledon is evidently converted into fugar, but another part of it is probably abforbed in the form of mucilage;{ome of which 00Zes on breaking the plumula; and in the growth of thofe feeds, which contain oil, as in almond, hemp, rape, and line-feed, it is probable, a part of the undecompofed oil may be abforbed by the um- bilical veffels of the embryons in thofe feeds. It hence feems credible, that by the ufe of heat and water the art of cookery might furnifh mucilage, fugar, and oil, from vecetable or animal materials; which might be converted into fap-juice or chyle, without their being previoufly reduced into their elements; and might thus facilitate the more luxuriant growth of plants, as they contribute more to fatten animals, than materials of lefs combina- tion, 2. Tothis might be added, that the putrefaétive procefs may be forwarded by heat in fome materials by deftroying the life of the ma- terial; as in roafting apples and pears, and in killing the roots of po- , à friend of mine, tatoes, or the feeds of corn. Thus Mr. D had twenty ftrikes of potatoes, which he wifhed to dry on a malt- kiln, hoping to render them more like the meal of wheat, and better to preferve them during the fummer-months. Whether they were fufficiently dried he did not attend to; but they were carried into a granary, and laid on heaps; and in a weck or two became fo putrid, that SEer, X:9. 2 M ANURES. 234 that the fmell was infufferable, his fwine refufed to eat them, and he was obliged to add them to the manure ofthe dunghill, That potatoes, which have undergone a certain degree of heat, contribute more to fatten all kinds of animals, arifes from the acri- mony of their rinds being deftroyed, and from their auftere juices be- ing converted into mucilage, and perhaps a part of their mucilage into ftarch, and are hence ready for the faccharine and oily procefies of animal digeftion, À very convenient method of expofing them to fieam is defcribed in a late ingenious publication of the Agricul- tural Society. A fmall boiler is fet in brick work under à fhed, fo that the flame of wood or coal may pafs fpirally round it, It fhould be covered with a double lid of tin or wood to prevent much heat from efcaping; and may have a fand-joint to keep the fteam IN, Or a little moift clay, or even a wet flannel put circularly round the cover may anfwer this purpofe. Near this furnace is to be fixed a large barrel on one ofits ends, with a cover on the other end; which may be occafonally opened to admit potatoes, and clofed again fo as to confine the fteam, which is to be derived into it from the boiler by a double pipe one within the other, of tin or wood, about two inches in diameter. By thefe means a large quantity of potatoes may be rendered much more nu tritive to animals, and I fuppofe to vegetables(if they were ufed as manure), as they may thus probably be abforbed by their laéteals or lymphatics without being fo much decompofed as by the putrefa@ive procefs; and thus produce nutriment in lef time, and by lefÿ labour of digeftion. If the fteam could be made hotter than boiling water, which it pof- fbly may in the veffel above defcribed, ifthe water in it rifes but a few inches, and the fteam after it is produced, 1s heated above 212 degrees by the fides of the boiler above the water, round which the flame plays fpirally, the fteam thus made hotter might probably render the potatoes more mucilaginous or more ftarch y. H h 2 3. À 236 MANURES. SECT. X, 9, 4. . A ftill more effe@tual method of diffolving hard vegetable and animal fubftances, and rendering them nutritive, might by digeft- ing them for fome time in water raifed to a much greater heat than that of boilins. This is to be done in a clofe Ch called Papin’s digefter; in en it is faid, that the confined water may be made red hot; and will then diffolve hair, horns, hoofs, bones, tortoife- fhell, and all animal, and perhaps many vegetable matters; w hich might thus facilitate their decompofition for ke purpofes of manures, or foe the nutriment of many animals; and might even contribute to the food of mankind in times of fcarcity. Le veffel fhould be made of iron, and fhould have an oval opening at top, with an oval lid of iron larger than the aperture. This lid fhould be flipped in endways, when the veffel is filled, and then turned, and raifed by a fcrew above it into contact with the under edges of the aperture.‘There fhould alfo be a fmall tube or hole covered with a weighted valve to pre- vent the danger of burfting the digefter. 4. Other materials might be rendered more eafly digeftible, and thence more nutritive to animals, and perhaps to plants, by mechanic trituration as well as by cookery; if the labour and expence were not too great; as the grinding of grafles, ftraws, and farinaceous feeäs into powder between mill-ftones; which have been called the arti- ficial teeth of fociety. It is probable, that fome foft kinds of wood ground into powder, and efpecially when they have undergone a kind of fermentation, and become of loofer texture, or boiled to deftroy their acrimony, might be rendered ufeful food for fwine or horfes, and even for mankind in times of famine. Nor is it improbable, that hay, which has been kept in flacks, fo as to undergo the faccharine procefs, may be fo managed by grinding and by fermentation with yeaft like bread, as to fées in part for the fuftenance of mankind in times of great fcarcity. Dr. Priefiley gave to a cow for fome time a ftrong infufion of hay in large quantity for her drink, and found, that fhe produced during this treatment above SEcr. X; 94: NA NU RES: 227 above double the quantity of milk. Hence if bread cannot be made from ground hay, there is great reafon to fufpe@, that a nutritive be- verage may be thus prepared either in its faccharine ftate, or fer- mented into a kind of beer. It may be here obferved, that it is believed by fome, that feeding horfes with ground corn, as with the flour of beans or oats, does not ftrengthen them nearly fo much as by giving them the fame quantity of oats or beans whole. Parkinfon, Exper. Farmer, Vol. I. p. 22. Itis afferted alfo that foup, with the flefh-meat boiled down intoa fluid mafs, will give much lefs ftrength to a man, than he would acquire by eating the folid meat, of which the foup was made, The reafon of both thefe feems to arife from the faliva being well mixed with the mafticated food, and in greater quantity; which therefore becomes more animalized aliment, than that diflolved in water alone, and is more eañly converted into nutriment. In times of great fcarcity there are other vegetables, which though not in common ufe, would moft probably afford wholefome nourifh- ment, either by boiling them, or drying and grinding them, or by both thofe proceffes in fucceflion. Of thefe are perhaps the tops and the bark of all thofe vegetables which are armed with thorns or prickles, as goofeberry-trees, holly, gorfe, and perhaps hawthorn. The inner bark of the elm-tree makes a kind of gruel. And the roots of fern, and probably very many other roots, as of grafs and of clover, taken up in winter, might yield nourifhment either by boiling or baking, and feparating the fibres from the pulp by beating them; or by getting only the ftarch from thofe which poflefs an acrid muci- lace, as the white briony. The grinding of bones to powder has already been applied to agri- culture, and the chopping of woollen rags; and I fuppofe the tritu- ration of alabafter, and of chalk, and of foft bricks, and probably cf iron ochres, manganefe, and calamy, might well repay the labour; after 238 MANURES, SEcr.X. 10.114 after a few experiments had been inftituted to determine the quan tity, which fhould be ftrewed on different foils. Xe MANURES BY INSECT PROPAGATION, 1. That the continual growth and decay of animal and vegetable nature increafes the quantity of fuch matter, as is fit for the repro duétion of organized bodies, is evinced by the increafing fertility of cultivated countries; fince even in thefe a great quautity of the an- nual recreiments of decompofed animals and vegetables are wafhcd by sains from the foil, and carried down the rivers into the ocean; and in many fituations of foil in Africa and America, which have been but lately cultivated, there exifts a wonderful fertility from the agore- gate remains of vegetable and animal bodies; which have for un- counted ages arifen and perifhed there; and which have either left morafles, where they could not part with their fuperabundant wa- ter; or a fertile earth, fuch as in our gardens amd church-yards, where the declination of the ground was more favourable, Some countries on the contrary once highly cultivated and very populous are in procefs of time become deferts of fand; as many parts of Syria, and the diftriéts about Palmira, and Balbec, This has probably been owing to the want of the neceflary moifture in thofe warm and fandy regions; which was formerly fupplied by artificial derivations of water; but which ceafed, after their inhabitants were deftroyed by war and tyranny; and fecondlv to the rapid ftreams oc- cafonally poured over them by the monfoon floods; fimilar to thofe which impoverifh Abyflinia and Nubia, while they fertilize the flat and fhowerlefs provinces of Ecypt. We might add, that all calcareous ftrata are now believed to have been produced by fhells depofited by aquatic animals in the early ages of the world; and that the materials, which conftitute the ftrata above 4. them, SEcr, X, 10. 2. MANURES. 239 them, have afterwards been formed by the recrements of terreftrial animal and vegetable bodies, Whence it may be concluded, that ve- getables and animals during their growth increafe the quantity of matter fit for the more nutritive food of organized bodies, or of that which is lefs decompounded; while they muft at the fame time occa- fionally form or elaborate a part of the materials, of which theyconfiff, from the fimple elements of hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, phofphorus, fulphur, and oxygen; into which modern chemiftry has refolved them by analyfis. And laftly, that vegetables can acquire nutrition from water and air alone with the carbonic acid, which floats in them, appears by the experiments of thofe philofophers, who have nicely enclofed the roots of fome plants in pots, and moiftened them with diftilled wWa- ter; and from hence we learn an effential diftintion between vege= table and animal nature; the former can elaborate the two univerfal elements of water and air into nutritive juices, whereas the latter is neceflitated to feek more compound nutriment, and to live upon the vegetables, which have produced it. 2. One method therefore of increafing manures may be by repeat- edly propagating and deftroying vegetable Crops; as by raifing thofe of quick growth, and ploughing them again into the{oil during their oO faccharine and mucilaginous flate, before they ripen their feeds; as of vetches, and buck-wheat; vicia and polysonum; and thus produc- ing a fucceflion of crops by the partial decompofition of the preced- ing ones. And it is probable that this procefs might be much im- proved by ftrewing lime over the recent vescetables, at the time of plougbing them in, as is fhewn in No. 6, 5. of this Section. 3- Another mode by which vegetablé matter may be decompofed in the fummer months, and at the fame time the quantity of manure increaled, is by the depredation of infeéts, as is feen in wocd, which is{o far decompoñng as to become tender, and is then confumed by various kinds of infeéts, whether it be buried beneath the foil, orex- pofed G£c' 240 MANURES. SEcr: Xe 10540| Drou pofed to the air. And I fufpe@, that the excrement and the bodies food of fuch mfe&s would fupply more nutriment to vegetable roots, than eo if the vegetable recrements were left to their fpontaneous or chemi-{er cal diflolution; as I fuppofe the bitter excrementitious powder in a| of filbert, and the well fed magoot, before it erodes its way out, would|| fertilize more barren{oil than an emulfion of the kernel. An ingenious obferver of nature conveyed water on a dunghill in| the fummer months in fuch quantity, as to make a kind of femi-| fluid chaos, for the purpofe of animating the whole mafs. It be- came full of infe&s, and was ufed in the autumn as manure, and he believed with much greater powers, than it would have otherwife EL pofleffed.|; Hence in the fummer months a manure-heap may be advantage- oufly fupplied with water for the purpofe of encouraging the propa- gation and nourifhment of myriads of infeëts; but in the winter fea- P fon it fhould not be expofed to much moifture; or that which drains 1 from it fhould be derived fpontaneoufly on lower grounds, or con- t veyed to higher ones by pumps or water carts; as it probably con- ï fifts of a folution of carbon by means of vegetable alkali; or of a mix- ture of it in water by mucilage; and is thought to fertilize the ground more than the other parts of the manure heap. In the tran- factions of fome provincial Society there is an account of much fixed vegetable alkali having been obtained from the evaporation of the wa- ter, which oozed from dunghills; and M. Rouelle has obferved, that fixed alkali diflolves à confiderable quantity of charcoal by fufon. Fourcroy’s Elem. of Chemift. Vol. IV. p. 125. 4. Another great fource of infe&-manure may be obtained from the myriads of fmall fifh, by thofe who live near the ocean; which by mixing them with{oil fo as to make what is termed a compoit, will much add to the fertility of the land, on which it is afterwards fpread, more fo perhaps than any other material except the flefh of land-ani- mals. In China it is faid that the fpawn of fifh in the proper feafon 15 SECE, X° M5: MANURES. 241 brought to market, and purchafed for the purpofe of peoplins the floods on their rice grounds with fifh, part of which becomes large enough to be fried and eaten by the land cultivator; and the reft ferves the purpofe of fertiizing the foil, when the floods are drawn of, by their death and confequent decompofition. XI. PRESERVATION OF MANURES. 1. The fertility of all countries depends on the faving and ufing thofe kinds of matter, which are fit for the reproduction of organiz- ed bodies, There is a proverb in China, that for this purpole a wife man faves even the parings of his naïls, and the clippings of his hair. One great wafte of manure in this country, and in moft others, is from the frequent rains wafhing down the diffufible and foluble parts of the foil into the muddy rivers; fo that every flood from fudden fhowers carries into the fea many thoufand pounds worth of the matter of fertility; and thus diminifhes fo much the food of ter- reftrial animals, however it may add to the fuftenance of marine ones. The Delta of Egypt, and a diftri@& in South America near the foot of the Andes mentioned by Ulloa, are faid by the fituation of the furrounding country to be free from rain, though they have frequent dews; and to this circumftance they may in part owe their increafing fertility. In this country the fnow-floods, which occur after a continued froft, are lefs injurious than thofe from rains; as the ftreams of wa- ter from the upper furface of the diflolving ice flows over the under furface of it not yet diflolved; and the foil is not agitated as in rain by the percuflion of the defcending drops; infomuch that in fnow- floods the rivers are fcarcely muddy; whence thefe floods may be readily diftinguifhed from land-floods by the eye, and are much lefs iNnjurious. Great attention fhould therefore be fhewn to the preventing{mali Li fhowers en= 242 MANURES. SECTL À. Fr2, fhowers from wafhing away the foluble parts of good foil. For this purpofe all hills fhould be ploughed horizontally, and not in afcend- ing and defcendine furrows. Defcending plains of grafs-ground might alfo be laid with horizontal ridges and depreffons; by which ma- nacement fhowers will lie a few hours in the horizontal furrows or deprefhons, and either exhale or foak into the ground; and in very wet {eafons thefe may eafily by the fpade be opened into each other, if the water is found to lie too long upon them, fo as to produce too much cold by its evaporation, or too great foftnefs by its abforption into the foil. 2. Secondly, the manures of towns and cities, which are all now left buried in deep wells, or carried away by foughs into the rivers, fhould be removed by a police, which is faid to exift in China; and carried out of towns at ftated intervals of time for the purpofes of agriculture; which might be performed in the night, as is done in Edinburgh; or by means of large bafons or refervoirs at the extre- mities of the common fhores, or foughs for the reception of the ma- nure, before it is wafhed into rivers. See Embañly to China by fir G. Staunton, Vol. III, p. 308, 8vo. edit. It has been believed by fome writers in the American Medical Re- poñtory, that the peftilential fever, which has of late infefted that country, was in part produced or propagated by the filth of the ftreets of New York. Dr. S. L. Mitchill adds to his chemical remarks on manures,‘it muft be welcome intelligence, that the colleëted mafs of nuifance, which we are now with fuch happy fucceis en- gaged in removing from the city of New Vork, is convertible by the powers of vegetation from poifon to wholefome articles of food; and thus the purity and healthinefs of the towns may contribute to the thriftinefs and wealth of the furrounding country.” Medical Journal, No. I. 3. Thirdly, there fhould be no burial places in churches or in church-yards, where the monuments of departed finners fhoulder God's EE Sec XX Frog MANURES. 243 God's altar, pollute his holy places with dead men’s bones, and pro- duce by putrid exhalations contagious difeafes among thofe who fre- quent his worfhip. But proper burial grounds fhould be confecrated out of towns, and divided into two compartments, the earth from one of which, faturated with animal decompofition, fhould be taken away once in ten or twenty years, for the purpofes of acriculture; and fand or clay, or lefs fertile foil, brought into its place. À great rife of the foil, from the remains of the bodies entombed in it, is feen round the churches of almoft all populous towns:; fo as to have rendered it neceffary to defcend by feveral fteps into thofe churches, which were originally built fo as to require fteps to afcend into them; as may frequently be feen by the bafe of the architec- ture, would the removal of this earth, if the few bones, which might be found, were again buried for a further decompoñition, be hkely to fhock the relations of the deceafed; as the fuperftition con- cerning the earth, from which-we rofe, and into which we return, bas gradually vanifhed before the light of reafon; as occurred about thirty years ago in removing much rich earth from the clofe of the cathedral at Lichfield, and more lately in changing a burying ground at Shrewfbury; both which were executed without fuperftitious terror, or popular commotion. 4. Fourthly, a great wafte of the materials of fertility occurs in all countries, and cannot eafly be avoided, in the confumption by fire of fo much wood inftead of coal. the mugilage, and other nutritious juices, which exift in the fire-wood, are decompofed into their elements; and the carbon united with oxygen 1s diffufed in the atmofphere, and in part carried by the winds into the furroundins ocean; inftead of the manures occafioned by the flow decompofition of it upon or beneath the{oil, or by the depredation of infe@s; which might fupply lefs decompofed nutriment to the abforbent roots of plants. This may be more eafy to conceive, if we compare the little vege- Tr table ornée A STAR bnp da Le: ee ir de SE E 244 MÉAINSUREE"S, SECT!: 11.46 table nutriment, which could be derived from the fmall quantity of afhes left from a cart-load of burnt-ftraw, with that which would arife from the fame quantity of ftraw mixed with fome animal re- crements, and made into a manure heap. A fill greater diminution of ufeful manure would be made by burning fhavings or rafpings of horn, or woollen rags, or hair, or flefh; as a nutritive mucilace would be thus decompofed into its elements, which might otherwife bave been gradually diflolved beneath the foil, and abforbed by the roots of vegetabies nearly in an unaltered ftate; as jellies and mu- cilage are known to be drank up by the la@eals of animals; and, when drank in too great abundance, to appear almoft unchanged in their urine. It muft hence appear, that the numerous fires of a great city, 1f fupplied with wood inftead of coals, as in Paris, muft very much im- poverifh a great part of the country which fupplies it; not only in the neceflity of ufing large traëts of land for the growth of fire-wood, but alfo becaufe fo fmall a part of it returns as manure. There is a provident adage of general benevolence,‘ Burn nothing which any animal will eat;” that is,‘ Burn nothing which may nourifh ani- mals by its digeftion in their ftomachs.” May not the fame bene- volent idea be extended to the vegetable world, and fay,“ Burn no- thing which may nourifh vegetables by its flow decompoñition be neath the foil, which conftitutes their ftomachs.”” 5. Ît may be a matter of ufe as well as of curiofity to afcertain the fituations and circumftances moft favourable for promoting the fpon- taneous decompofition of vegetable fubftances; which may confift perhaps in the due quantity of air, water, and heat, with a fuffieient proportion of animal fubftances, and finally an admixture of lime to. ward the end of the procefs. 1. În a cellar covered with an arch of bricks, and clofed with a very fÎtrong door, I once obferved, that a deal fhelf two inches in thicknefs was decayed, fo as to fall down with fome wine bottles on if, SECT, Xe. 6 NAN URES. 245 it, in about four years. This fudden decay I believed to have been owing to the unchanging moifture of the board, and at the fame time toits expofure to unchanged air without the power of much ex- halation; by which a flow fermentation was induced, and a confe- quent flow putrefattion, unchecked by the extremes either of heat or cold. For the fame reafon I fuppofe the wooden fupporters of bridges decay firft juft above the furface of the water; and pieces of timber buried but a few inches under ground, which are there expofed to the influence both of water and air, go quicker into fermentation, and confequent putrefaétion, than thofe pieces of timber, which are many feet buried beneath the foil, or immerfed deep in water; which in that fituation continue unchanged for ages.‘The fame feems to occur in the vinous fermentation, which is inftantly checked, if not totally fopped, by bunging the barrel, or corking the bottle, which contains it, and thus precluding the accefs of atmofpheric air. 2. From hence it may be concluded, firft, that the vesetable and animal fubftances, which we wifh foon to become decompofed by the fermentative and putrefaive procefles, fhould be expofed to an uniform moifture, though not covered deep with water; as is gene rally praétifed in the firft part of the preparation of hemp or flax, which is defigned to diflolve the mucilage, and the cellular mem- brane of thofe vegetables, without injuring the ligneous fibres. And that they fhould be fo far accumulated as not too much to exhale: yet not to lie in fuch large heaps, as entirely to preclude the accefs of air from the interior parts of them. The manures of great farms fhould therefore be occafionally re= moved from the fold-yards, or large refervoirs of it, and laid in fmall heaps not only to increafe its furface expofed to the external atmo- fphere, for the purpofe of exciting greater fermentation, which is a flow combuftion; but alfo that air may be imprifoned in the interftices of thefe manure-heaps, as mentioned in No. 8. 2. ofthis Section. It 246 MANUR ES. SECT. À He 6: It fhould then be ufed on or in the foil, as it afterward lofes much of its nutritive qualities by evaporation, or finking into the ground, or draining away. 3. À due degree of heat is neceffary for the commencement of fermentation and putrefaétion, as both vegetable and animal materials, as fruit or flefh, may be preferved for years if kept in an ice-houfe below the freezing point of 32. And alfo, I am told, if they could be kept in an uniform degree of heat above the boiling point of 212. After the commencement of either of thefe procefles a quantity of heat is evolved from the combination of the oxygen and carbon, which contributes to forward the procefles by promoting the union of the next particles of oxygen and carbon; which may thence be compared to a flow combuftion, or to a gradual explofion of gun- powder. This heat therefore fhould be managed with fome addrefs, as a great quantity of it would calcine or evaporate too much of the ma- terials, and leave the remainder a lefs profitable mafs; as happens, I am informed, to fome parts of thofe heaps of manure, which are ufed in the manufaétory of white lead; while on the contrary, when the heat is too fmall, as in fevere froft, thefe procefles of decompo- fition will not commence, or may be ftopped in their progrefs. In the former cafe, where the heat is too great, it may be checked by covering the whole manure-heap with foil and turf, and thus pre venting the accefs of air, And when the heat is too fmall, as in old hot beds, it may be renewed or promoted by turning the heap over with the fpade, and thus confining a new quantity of air in its interftices. On thefe accounts it appears, that in the vernal and au- tumnal months thefe procefles muft fucceed better than in the win- ter or the fummer ones, 4. Toward the end of the putrefa@ive procefs the materials fhould be repeatedly turned over with the fpade, not only for the purpofe of fimply expoñing their interior parts to the atmofphere, but alfo of in- 7 cluding SEer.X, 11,6. MANURES. 247 cluding air in the interftices; as the union of carbon with oxygen, and srébably of azote with hydrogen, feems thus to be occafoned; by which the three laft of thefe elements may change from a sil ous ftate into a fluid one, and thus become ablortéd by vegetable roots. Laftly, I conclude that in general the manure heap before ftables, orin the fold-yard, fhould be placed on a gently rifing eminence, with a bafon beneath it, that the fuperfluous water, which would other- wife prevent the fermentation of the ftraw, may drain off and be there received; and that into this bafon, as often as a fluid appears in it, fome earth, or weeds, or leaves, or faw-duft, or other vegeta- ble or animal recrements fhould be thrown; the fermentation and putrefaétion of which will be thus forwarded, and the carbonic drain- ing from the manure-heap will not be loft. 5. The admixture of lime with this carbonic foil is found by daily experience to produce the moft fertile compoñitions for the growth of vegetables, and for the produétion of nitre. The great ufe of ni- trous acid in vegetation has long been acknowledged, and that of hyper-oxygenated marine acid appears probable from recent experi- ments; and would feem to be occafioned by the more loofe adhefon of the oxygen in thofe acids to their refpedtive bafes; which may therefore in its fluid ftate be more readily abforbed by vegetable roots, One ufe therefore of the admixture of lime in fuch a compoft of foil and manure is to arreft the nitrous acid, as it is formed, and by mak- ing a calcareous nitre, prevent its exhalation, or its eafy elutriation from the other materials. 6. À principal circumftance for the quicker and more perfeét de- compofition of vegetable recrements is a due quantity of animal mat- ter, and their being properly mixed together; as appears from the early experiments of fir John Pringle and Macbride, and by daily ex- perience. There is neverthelefs great negleët in this refpe& in all thofe farm-yards, where the fans have the food in fixed ftone- troughs, 1 jar ns 248 MÉNURES: DECÉ A. Tr troughs, from which the refufe is occafonally wafhed or fwept. Whereas if wooden moveable fwine-troughs were always placed on the fummit of the heaps of dry ftraw, the quantity of their fwill, confifting of broth, whey, and other vegetable and animal matter, which thefe animals wafte in their contention for it, would generate early putrefaétive procefles; befides their mixing the fubftances well together with their feet, and adding to it their urine and ordure. Befides this inattention to the manure-heap in many houfes the wafhings of boilers, and milk-pans, and difhes, as well as the foap- fuds, which are all of them manures of the moft produ&tive kind, are thrown into the common fewer, inftead of being derived or car- ried to the garden or the ftraw-yard. 7. Another inattention to the production of manures concerns the heaps of common weeds, and of dock-roots, and of cabbage-ftalks, and the roots of twitch-grafs; which improvident farmers and gar- deners frequently throw into the high roads, or confume with fre; and which if laid on heaps, and occafonally turned over, and co- vered with foil, will quickly die, and pafs into fpeedy fermentation from the fugar and mucilage, which they contain; and if to thefe a portion of lime be added, I am informed by one who made the expe- riment, that the whole was decompofed in a fhort time, and manure of the beft kind was the produ&. The fame fhould be prattifed with the leaves which fall in autumn on grafs land, efpecially from thofe orchards, or hedges, or from goofeberry-trees, which have been infefted with caterpillars; fince I am told the esgs of a future race of thefe infeéts are frequently de- pofited on the leaves, and hatched on or beneath the foil in the en- fuing fpring. Thefe therefore fhould be removed from the roots of fuch trees, and converted into manure by the procefs above men- tioned. Along with the weeds and leaves above mentioned I fhould ftrongly recommend to the induftrious agricultor to colleét the water-plants which SECT, X. 12. MAN USR ESS. 249 which grow in great abundance in lakes and rivers, for the purpofe of manure; which at prefent are employed to no advantage. Thefe might be moved twice a year, as it is probable that thefe vegetables in their younger ftate, as the typha, or cat’s-tail; the butomus, or flowering-rufh; nymphæa and alifma, as well as many other aquatic plants, would give better manure, or fooner become fufficiently de- compofed, during their more faccharine and mucilaginous ftate, than when they have acquired more fibrous leaves, and more wood y ftems. By thus expofñing the roots and tops of weeds to fermentation, their feeds would alfo be defiroyed as well as the vegetative power of their roots; and on this account the hay-feeds colleéted from ftacks, which have fermented too violently, fo as to become black by this flow combuftion, are frequently fo much injured as not to vege- tate, to the great difappointment of the fower, a circumftance which alfo fometimes occurs in ftacks of wheat, as mentioned in Sec. VE Ar. 8. Laftiy, peat, fo well underftood and fo ftrongly recommended by Lord Dundonald, is too much negleëted in agriculture. The peat or turf, which conftitutes the folid parts of morafles, as it confifts of vegetable fibres in different ftates of decompoñition, may be laid on clayey or fandy foils with the greateft advantage; and oucht to be confidered as an meftimable treafure to the farms in its vicinity. Or it may previoufly be laid on heaps, and thus mixed with air and drained from water for further decompoñftion, with or without the addition of lime. XILTYAPPEECATIONTOEr MANURES. Two queftions of importance here prefent themfelves. As the fpontaneous or chemical changes of manure-heaps in farm-yards gra- dually progrede from the faccharine and mucilaginous commence- Kk ment 250 M°A-N'UFRÉES. SECT. À 127 ment through a great variety of other fermentations; which can only be named from the principal material, which each of them pro- duces, as carbonic acid, alcohol, vinegar, volatile alkali, hydrogen, nitrous acid, and finally carbonic earth. At what era or ftage of this decompoñtion of vegetable and animal fubftances can they be moft advantageoufly applied to the purpolfes of agriculture? and fe- condly, at what time of the year? 1. In refpeét to the era of the progrefs of the decompoñition in manure-heaps, in which they may be moft advantageoufly applied in agriculture, the particular purpofe of that application muft be attend- ed to. Where they are defigned to be fpread on the furface of grafs lands, as a top-drefling, the accumulations of vegetable and animal re- crements fhould be permitted to go through the various fpontaneous procefles of decompofition, which begin with the faccharine and mu- cilaginous flate, and end with the produëtion of carbonic earth, with many kinds of intermediate fermentations, if they may be fo called, which accompany or fucceed each other, and which£ believe to be more in number than have had names applied to them. But that lefs of the fertilizing materials, whether of foluble{o- lids, or of fluids, or of gafles, may be loft in thefe feries of fermenta- tions; it is a very advantageous management to cover them with {oil, when the firit fermentation is advanced, as is known by the pro- duétion of confiderable heat; or when the putrefative one has com- menced, which is known by the fmell of volatile alkali, or of hydro- gen, Bythis method the too great rapidity of thefe fermentations is checked, and the fluid part of the manure is retained by the addi- tion of the foil below, and the gaffeous part by that above; and if to this be afterwards added a proportion of lime, which by uniting with the nitrous acid may retain it from exhalation or from alluviation, every thing is preferved that art can accomplifh. Where manure-heaps are to be ploughed into clayey foils, which are liable to become too folid and impenetrable to the root-fibres of feeds, EE SECT. X. 12. 2. MANURES, 251 feeds, as of wheat; or where knobby or bulbous roots are to be in- ferted to produce other knobs or bulbs beneath the foil, as potatoes; it is probably more advantageous to bury the manure in a lefs de- compofed ftate, while fome of the ftraw retains its form; as fuch parts by their flower decompofition will longer prevent the fuper-in- cumbent{oil from becoming too folid; and though they will in this fituation require fome time before they will be perfettly decompof- ed, and reduced to the black carbonic earth; yet they will in the end totally decay, and give the fame quantity of nutriment to the roots, though it may be more gradually applied. ei In refpe&t to the time of year thofe manures, which are to be ploughed or dug into the ground, fhould be ufed immediately before {owing the feeds or fetting the roots, which they are defigned to nur- ture; becaufe the atmofpheric air, which is buried along with the manure in the interftices of the earth, and which for many weeks, or even months, renders the foil loofe, and cafily impreffed by the foot on walking on it, gradually evolves by its union with carbon à genial heat very friendly to vegetation in this climate, as well as the immediate produ&ion of much fluid carbonic acid, and probably of a fluid mixture of nitrogen with hydrogen, which are believed to fup- ply much nutriment to plants. But thofc manures, which are defigned to be fpread on the furface of grafs-land, which is called the top-drefling, are beft applied, I fufpe®, in the early fpring; and fhould be difperfed over the foil a1-‘ moft in a flate of powder, or in lumps of very loofe cohefion; as at this time the vernal fhowers wafh them into the{oil; and they are applied to the roots of the grafs, before their eflential parts are dimi- nifhed by winter rains or by fummer exhalation.‘There are fomein Derbyfhire, who fpread manure even on the meadows, which are an- nually overflowed by the Trent or Derwent, at the end of fummer, or as foon as the grafs is mowed and removed; which appears to be an improvident management, fince the aftermath, or autumnal grafs, K k 2 1S mme man erreurs 252 MANURES. SEcT. X. 12, 3 is thus rendered unpalatable to the cattle; and the winter rains, or the vernal floods, which generally occur with the return of the {outh-weft winds, after the feafon of froft ceafes, muft waïh away a great part Of 1E. In refpeét to the moft economical manner of ufing manures in agriculture Mr. Parkinfon aflerts, that one great advantage of the drill-hufbandry confifts in putting the manure into drills, which he dires to be made at two feet diftance from each other. He fows wheat, beans, peas, cabbages, on this manure, and affirms, that four loads of manure on an acre in this kind of bufbandry is equal to fixteen loads in the ufual way of fpreading it over the whole ofthe field. Experienced Farmer, Vol. I. p. 32. 20 third queftion here prefents itfelf, if the recrements of ve- getable and animal bodies buried a few inches beneath the foil un- dergo the fame decompofition, as when laid on heaps in farm-yards. And though this is accomplifhed more flowly, yet it 15 attended with lefs lofs of carbonic acid, and of volatile alkali, and of hyrogen, and of the fluid matter of heat; all which are emitted in great quantity during the rapid fermentations of large heaps of manure, and are wafted in the atmofphere, or on unprolific ground; would it not in general be more economical to bury fuch vegetable and animal matters beneath the foil without a previous fermentation and putre- faction? In anfwer to this it muft be obferved, that in fome cafes the ufe of recent vegetables ploughed into the earth is found of advantace, as in fandy foils buck-wheat, or vetches, are fown, and the crop ploughed in, before it ripens its feeds. In this circumftance the re- cent crop 1s buried in its faccharine and mucilaginous ftate, which muft undergo indeed a flower fermentation, without being mixed with animal fubftances, but no part of the organic matter, nor of the fuid heat, is loft to the purpofes of new organization. So in the cultivation of clayey lands, whofe tenacity is too great; Of SEC, X. 12/5; NA N'U'R:ES, 253 or where knobby roots, as potatoes, are to be inferted for the produce tion of other knobby roots beneath the foil; long muck, as it is call- ed, or fuch which is only fo far decompofed as to diflolve the mu- cilage or more tender veflels or membranes, but in which the form of the fibrous or ligueous parts of the ftraw remains, is recommend- ed above; and may in thefe fituations perhaps be ploughed into the ground even in their moît early flate, when rejeted from the ftable or cowhoufe, before the commencement of their fpontaneous diflo- lution. So alfo in gardens, which are already fertile, and do not want the immediate affiftance of mature manure, it may be more economical to bury the weeds, as the ground is dug, than to convey them to a manure-heap, and replace them after a twelvemonth’s decompo- fition. But where a luxuriant crop is immediately wanted, à manure-heap towards the end of the putrefaétive procefs by being recently in- terred in the foil, which is immediately to be fown or planted, has this great advantage; that the carbonic acid is prefently formed by the mixture of atmofpheric air with the carbon of the manure; which exifts therefore in its fluid, not its gafleous ftate, and 1s thence more readily abforbed., ammoniac is produced, and nitre, and hydrogen probably 1s mixed with nitrogen; and thefe alfo, I fup- pofe, exift at firft in their fluid, not in their gaffeous ftate. And thirdly, from thefe combinations a genial degree of heat is evolved, which fo much aflifts the vernal growth of vegetation. And where manure is to be ufed as a top-drefling, it is neceflary, that it fhould be in a ftate of powder, or in fmall lumps of loofe cohefion, as mentioned above; that it may be eafly wafhed by rains to the roots of the orafs, or that the young ftems of grafs may rea- dily fhoot themfelves through it; whence mature heaps of manure are for this purpofe neceflary; and on this account any adhefive ma- nure, 254 MAANICR ES. DECTS Xe 1254: nure, as cow-dung itfelf, fhould be weekly gathered from grafs- ground, where cattle are nourifhed, and laid on heaps with foil, or ftraw, or weeds, to ferment or putrefy; till it becomes lefs tenacious, and can be profitably replaced in the enfuing fpring. Finally, I fufpe& the moft economical method of difpofing of the ftraw and dung from the farm-yard would be, as foon as a dark co- loured water drains from the heap, by which much lofs is fuftained, to carry the refufe of the ftabie and cow-houfe, as frequently as con- venient, to the ground, where it is defigned to be employed; and there to mix it with earth in heaps of proper fize, and to cover them Ukewife with foil; and by thefe means I fuppofe the whole procefs of decompofition may be carried on with very little lofs; and by the agdition of a greater or lefs quantity of foil that the era of complete or moft profitable decompofition of the compoft may be managed, fo as to coincide nearly with the time it may be wanted. 4. Fourthly, it may be afked, what kinds of manure contribute moft to the luxuriant growth of vegetables? In anfwer to this it may be faid, that as plants are inferior animals, and are furnifhed with abforbent veflels in their roots correfpondent to the laéteals in the ftomach; that the fame organic matters, which by their quick folution in the ftomach fupply the nutritive chyle to animals, will by their flow folution in or near the furface of the earth fupply the nutritive fap-juice to vegetables. Hence all kinds of animal and vegctable fubftances, which will undergo a digeftive procefs, or fpon- taneous folution, as the flefh, fat, fkin, and bones, of animals; with their fecretions of bile, faliva, mucus; and their excretions of urine, and ordure; and alfo the fruit, meal, oil, leaves, wood, of vegetables, when properly decompofed on or beneath the foil, fupply the moft nutritive food to plants. Secondly, the chyle of all animals is fimilar to the fap-juice of all vegetables in this circumftance, that they both contain mucilage and 7 fugar, … SECT. À. 12/4. MANURES. 255 fugar, and feem only to differ in this refpe&, that th e chyle of ani- mals alfo contains oil, which being mixed witl 1 the mucilage gives it its whitenefs like milk. Hence thofe matters muft fupply nutri- ment moft expeditioufly to vecetables, which fugar, or produce them with the leaft decom from the fhavings of horns, from hair, charine matter of fweet fruits, roots, fame manner thefe things with the à tioufly nutritive to animals. contain mucilage and pofition, as the jellies Woollen rags, and the fac- kernels, feeds; and in the ddition of oil are moft expedi- Thirdly, fuch materials as contain in folution thofe fimple fub- ftances, which conftitute à great part of vegetable bodies, as carbon, which is found in moft earths; and oxygen, hydrogen, and nitro- gen, which are found in water and in air; and from hence we may conclude, that whatever material has conftituted a part of living or- ganic bodies, may again conftitute à part of them; and that with more expedition, if they can be ufed witl their primary elements, Mr. Bewley, the Norfolk philofopher, faid to a friend, who was riding by his fide, that when he wanted à whip, he babitually looked for a dead ftick in the hedge, unwilling to pluck off a leafy branch, and deftroy fo many living buds. He might have added, that to burn a hair or a ftraw unneceflarily diminifhes the fum of matter ft for quick nutrition by decompofng it nearly into its elements, and fhould therefore give fome compunétions to a mind of univerfal fym- pathy. aout being decompofed into It would feem therefore, that long roots fixed into the earth, and leaves innumerable wWaving in the air, were neceflary for the decom- pofition and new combinations of Water and air, and the converfon faccharine and: mucilaginous matter; which would only cumbrous büt totally incompatible with the lo- comotions of animal bodies; of them into f have been not À + for how could à man or quadruped have 256 MANURES. SECT, X, 12: 4. have carried on his head or back a foreft of leaves, or have trailed after him long branching laéteals terminating on the furface of the earth? Animals therefore{ubfift on vegetables; that is, they take the matter fo far prepared, and poñlefs organs to prepare it further for the purpofes of greater fenfibility, and of higher animation. _ LE moifture; the art of which is be SECT. XI, 11, AND WATERING. &w Ca e SHBECPE OX. OF DRAINING AND WATERING LANDS, 1. Moreffès are in bish or low fituations. 0.$ Prings rile frou the fummmits cf mountains, pafs between tbe ffrata 3- Sfrata of the ear tb about 7 ce at Licbfe d, and the fprings. 4. Plains formed in vallies. HAE 2 Rs funk FIRE ticular to the fides of tbe bill. a By UE Je 0) 3 ditches, where tbe wall-fprings can- Holes D 2e tnto a Jand'-fione beneatb. 9. Deep Jhrings rife ns ben bored into. 10. Tany Jprings may be raifed bigher than their fources. 11. Enlar ging tbe bo not be inter cepted. {tom of wells increafes tbe water in them. 12. Springs difcovered on one Jide only f fome mountain. Difcovered by even- ing mifts. By morning rime. By aquatic plants. Warm fprings. I. 1. Drainring 0rafÎfes, æbere ee. no ei 2. În tbe craters of ancient volcanoes. 3. Îh countries of marble, granite, or quartz. 4. Fens below the level of tbe fea. Se uld be furrounded with dites. 5. Ufes of aquatic plants. IL. r. Of flooding lands. Ice preferves the grafs beneath. 1 be French bored se in(be ice. 3 Ad vantages 6f flooding recapitulated. If dejiroys rufhes, Saves manure. 4. Cau- tions 10 be obferved. not imjurious to health. Vicinity of rukning water wholejome.$. Flooding lands mi Pt be performed to à great extent. By ee < Le Le fprings, land-floods, and machinery.’s fountain. Horizontal wind-mil /, and centrifugal PHP É œ n AA r Ve I. 1, Te creat Le of water required for healthy vegetation is treated of in Se&. X. Ÿ. 3 I. But as all extremes are iDjurious, t00 much water become S pernicious to all except aquatic plants. Whence the neceffity of se. thofe abound with ;: SL”_+| e ue which too mucl 1 und Cache da etter underitood,{ince the knowle cuge DRAINING SECTAT 12: 2 G î of geology has been ftudied, and in fome meafure diffufed amongft the people. Lands in refpet to the me ethod of draining them may be divided into two fituations; thofe which lie fo high, that the water can de- fcend from them, if it be properly colleted and conduéted; and thofe which lie fo low as to command no fall, fome of which are even below the level of the fea, 2. In regard to the former it generally happens, that the waters from the fprings beneath the{oil have not a free paffage to the rivers in their vicinity; the nature of fprings fhould therefore be previoufly underftood. Many modern philofophers have endeavoured to fhew, that all the continents and iflands of the world, as well as the hills, which embofs their furfaces, have been raifed out of the primeval ocean by fubterraneous fires. This appears from the quantity of fea- fhells, which form innumerable mountains; and from the re in the rocks, of which they confift; the quan tity of volcanic produc- tions all over the world; and the numerous remains of craters of vol- canoes in mountainous countr 1ES. Jence the ss which compofe the fides of mountains, lie flant- ing downwards; and one or two or more of the ex ee{ reaching to the fummit, when the mountain was raifed up, the SRE== S nel ue SNS}_ cond or thii De or a more inferior OnC, is FIIETC EX DOIEU LO pe eil NES LA 1bl bhruftine a verv blun day. This may be well reprelented by forcibly thrufting a very biunt ) J ë- x Re NE ne En ES ce= EE ROLE inftrument through fome folds of paper, a bur will be raifed with the æ, pt t en RTE EEE: Pl CE FN Cho lowermoft leaf ftanding higheft in the center of it. Orif at tüe ori- BTE at: x= Fe+.| D le} oinal elevation of an extenfive mountain the loweft ftratun 1 fhould € A SAR|— ie de: pos! ot at firft ftand her in the center of the lummit, Il uid in = TS Ace re| = La=‘ r n a!> e| Li al EC 14 Oo DY 10ME OL the up} Ï PEUT ta OÏ PE Ï our 3 VE D in LA Les graoualiy VA afhed away DV Failis 1ntO the Valiey>. OI BIVELSS On Cis:15 52 Le d- 2 PEN ee ad à ne permoit ItratUm, WBICN 15 COIUET, ASLISMMONE elevated, the daews 4 1 er A NS nn A fid down vafs under the are: CO! iQ In Iarse QGUAÏIEILICS s alt)W 1 pais UHNaEr ne at| rit-{ec a sr thire 1 w hich non SE: 9 JE J À€ a VHRICE COIHUU IL nr AND WATERIN(. 25 either form a morafs below, or a Wecping rock by oozins #50 out in numerous places; or many of thefe lefs curre nts meeting to- gether burft out in a more copious rill. LE Gi Le e f. Œ 1 Fe Ne= sr ofifts t} A AE à 1 A pro_nñn; f+. l'he immediate cau e Of IPrIMmgsS ConiIts therelore in the conden- ; el SA 0 RES AR D PE: 1 lation of the atmofpheric moifture, during the night principally, by he greater coldnefs of tl Ne ee EE NS on tne creater coldneis of the fummits OÏ AIIIS, WhAICN 1S Cxpialned 11] GE- SI RES SES M EIRE SS N EE T A4 Verne Ata 4 A RS rate tail in the Botanic Garden, Vol. I. apart note 26::. The water 1 } ee Æ|=]-« 1, AA L. thus condenfed on the fummits of hills defcends between the ftrata of the incumbent foi!, fometimes for many miles tosether; but ge 1?: 1 nn sb= Si: se“!_ 4e 1 nerally from fhe neareit eminences into the ac djoining vallies. 3. l'aus there is a ftratum of marl, which I have obferved on the furface of the lands about Derby, which a many miles in moft directions. This ftratum of marl is of various thicknefs from 10 to 150 feet, and beneath it lies a ftratum of fand, which is alfo of vari- 5;, ous thicknefs from a few inches to fix or eight feet, and of various 2 degrees of induration; and. LÉ lies another ftratum of marl to an unknown deptn. Ont the top of R adborne common, about five miles north-weft from Derby, the fandy ftratum is ane loofe, and j above the ftratum of marl, which is deficient at the fu: nmit of thesoilé.."] r four ftronc fprinos of water burft out on the fides of this hill, which thus originate from the moifture of the atmo- CL ipnere condented on the cold fummit, and pafling through the fandy 2160 DRAINING Sécr, KE T. 3 « 2 e under one. In the town of Derby on boring with defign to fink a well, after having pafled about thirteen yards through marl, fome fand was brought up by the auger, and water followed, as related in the Philof, Tranfa&. Vol. LXXV. The dews therefore, which are perpetually condenfing on the fum- mits of thefe hills, defcend beneath the upper and under firata of marl, through the thin firatum of fand, which divides them, and form St. Alkmund’s well, and many other fprings in the vicimity of 1 Derby; and probably all thofe which fupply the wells within the town. But there is a fituation, where the manner of the produ&ion of fprings is moft agreeably viñble; it is about a mile from the city of Lichfield, near the cold bath ere&ted by fir John Floyer, in a beauti- ful piece of ground, which was formerly Dr. Darwin’s botanic garden. Ja this place a grotto about fix yards wide and ten long has been excavated on the fide of a hill confifting of filiceous fand-ftone with this peculiar circumftance; that the upper ftratum of the fand-rock, which is there about five feet thick, is divided from the lower ftra- tum of it by a fheet of clay not more than three or four inches in thicknefs; on the upper furface of this fheet of clay, between the hips of thefe rocks, a perpetual dribbling of water ooZes quite round the grotto, like a fhower from a weeping rock. Such fheets of wa- ter having been often obferved to flide between the ftrata of the earth almoft horizontally, like the horizontal joints of a ftone-wall, have, I fuppofe, given the name of wall-fprings to them, to diftin-| guifh them from pipe-fprings, or fuch as burft out in a fingle rili. Thus this thin fheet of clay prevents the water from finking into the lower firatum of fand-ftone; and produces other copious fprings, which are colleéted at about half à mile’s diftance, and conveyed by lcaden pipes to the cathedral clofe of Lichfield, which is thus fup- plied with water of uncommon purity, which contains no calcare- OUS LS SECT. l'A AND WATERING. 261 ous earth, owing to its pafling through filiceous fand over à ftratum of clhiy, and which would be à treafure to the paper-miil. or the bleach-yard. 4. One other circumftance in the prefent conformation of the earth is neceflary to be mentioned; which is, that at the time when the mountains were raifed all over the world by deep volcanoes, or by central fires, fome parts of the fummits of many of them, and of their fleeper fides, rolled down again into the new formed vallies. And fecondly, that fince that remote time the recrements of veceta- ble and animal bodies have coutinually been wafhed down from the eminences by fhowers, and have contributed gradually to accumu- late in the vallies, and to form the plains, which exift on the fides of rivers. This appears from the tin ores found in the vallies in Corn- wall in loofe pieces fimilar to thofe in the proximate mountains; and from the black carbonic foil, or morafs-turf, found in moft vallies. s. From thefe clear ideas of the ftrata of the earth, and of the ftreams of water, which flide between them, and form what are termed wall-fprings, it 15 eafy to conceive, that the beft method of preventing the vallies at the bottom of hills from being too moift muft be by cutting a long horizontal ditch into the fide of the moun- tain to intercept the water, Juit before the level land of the valley -ommences; and thus to carry away the water before it comes upon he plain beneath. For this purpole at the foot of the hill where the plain, which 1s- too moilt, commences, fome auger-holes fhould be bored to find the depth of the fprings, that is to find the thicknefs of the upper ftra- tum of the foi, If this be only four or fix feet, an horizontal ditch fhould be cut alone the bottom of the mountain to intercept the wa- G D ter; which muft#hen be carried away by one or more other ditches opening into this, and conduétiug the water fo colleéted into the neighbourimg rivulet, As the ftrata, between which the water defcends in forming thefe iprinss, ut, not vertically downw cular tot ftratum will fooner nd of this Section. hill perpen upper ftratum be not cut o0ozes-intù the bottom of holes at the bottom of this this fucceeds, many ter will then rife into the of the valley, and he lower wall-fprings, or furface This hicher. This method has been fon, as he aflerts in his int in the year 1764, the ground, and has conti bring u p alo paflage; a + days by the reapplicati 8 £ mn= Dames ee E US RL ra, en qu—= 1e furface of the 6. But ifon cv itting a ditch five or fix feet alon gti 1e bottom ofth dicular to the ri up throush them into the ditch, seit holes fhould be bored, cumbent{oil to the furface of the well underftood is the =]? e A NA e At grounds, where the fprings ca Elkington, but was previoufly Âgriculture, who funk a hole into the and.(NE T ù 3 It fhould here be noticed, that where force through holes thus bored into a« ng with it much fand, and in this cafe muft frequently be DRAINING SECTE. 10: furface se the hill, ; ESS es LS De D VA 5 ows, that the holes fhould be bored, and,the ditcl 15 t! sraétic Hoere ards, as is the common praëtice, but per- nountaill; as by that means the fe- C4 be arrived at; fing plain, which forms the fide of it, the :]=;\1A ai 7e r mn ge through; and in coniequence no watet ju ere) RS says the ditch s 16.1 then proper to bore other ]++- ditch fome yards deeper, or till water rifes TE RSS ES PRES PRE A PERTE can be{o difcovered. Where and the water into the ditches, and conduéted into the adjacent river; for the wa- bottom of this ditch fix feet below the wet thus flow away, rather than rife up from ed N. apertures of the ftratum, through the in- En)>| nl= 7e; valley, which is fo many feet oreat fecret for draining thofe not be cut into fimply by a ditch. fome years pra Cifed with fuccefs by Mr. ufed and explained by Mr. Ander- trodu&tion to Vol. III. of his Ef2 ays on e earth at the bottom of à ditch X water rofe Bx feet above the furface of ed to flow with lefs violence ever fince ethe water rifes with great oi leep ftratum, it is liable to fo as fometimes to obftruét its removed for a on of the: auger. Of this a remarkable in- ftance ee— ri- a me— En ee” À ne à TT= SECT. AR AND WATERING. 263 8 ftance is publifhed in a late volume of the Phil. Tranf..by Mr. Wul- hamy, who funk a well 236 feet deep and four feet wide; and, on then boring a few feet lower with a five-inch borer, fo much fand arofe With a violent ftream of water, as to fill up the whole well; wbich was repeatedly cleared away by buckets in its fluid ffate, and at laft the water ran over the furface to the mount of forty-fix gal- Jons in a minute. The manner of making thefe ditches narrower, as they defcend, by fpades of an adapted breadth; and of making the loweft part nar= rower than any other part, fo that the fhoulders or edges of it may fupport fones, or fagsots, to cover the whole at a fmall expence without obftruéting the currents of water, are obvious to the work- men. În many fituations hollow bricks, or ridge-tiles, or old pieces of plafter-floors, may be worth the aditional expence of providing them. st L 7. There may neverthelefs be found fituations, where the firft ftra- tum of earth mav be too thick to be eafñly penetrated; or where the water, condenfed from the atmofphere on the fummits of the hills, :; UE: 4 LT POULE. 11 SAR da rh war 1 à PA its may flide between the fecond and third, or between the third and / 1 TES SL EUR: TEE: ÉD ES 16 2 pe fourth ftrata, which form the fides of thofe Se M PS x Re€. NE+ LII119 OWINT to a GCIICICF- 4 Le Les pue Forthe radars tunes often- and MéhEe CLR EVIOMIO MAUV OI CRE IERATA AIDE NIMIIBIES ON TCME s alla ANENCE ChaË and , , Wbhich form the level :=(| n{À sy à Aie! Se Es ni it may lie too deep to be eañly arrefted by a ditch, or by boring re { } !- ECS CRAFT= ne Ike RE tr) yet by its being dammed up by the material: A[a} A| 7= A A un| ee) LL UE Moftorile N th ae Diain Of(Ne Valley, may riie up throuegh thoie materirais to the fur- i#/ Î face, and form DbLooov or mord IV OTOUNG. 4 Do Co[eæ T+] fn AE; A ir{}z 1,1 method of Trainir oO Mhz fn ChelectituatiOonSs the Common UniKkiruPmetnoe JT Araihin: Navy 2] nn 5 à D Cal RC RUE RS AU SR PARU PAS de 2j die D ns be ufefully employ ed; which ConuHuits in Cüutting many ditches four cû S J L J O J y+ Ace actois the boo ar morafse an le VE INC them{on+ba ON AUX Et aeep AChOIS LC DOS OÙ MOrATIS n d'iCHÉCOVEMNIT D LICE 10 Ltna SU RP did(ei Se Re Sn(TO at CALE SS el tne water may hat CnO obftrut GN"1. DAMIS 4a10n2/them vw hich / ÿ> D 5 S|| J+7 PIS ia U 3 ASE LES irom below, DE In DA COFECTEC and conveved À+} DOTE AE 00 De al (NOULAN JEIS advantaceouiiy Le,« 264 DRAINING SECTAN IS, Another methoä of draining moift meadows has been by making or opening drains almoit annually by a large plough with two con- verging coulters, and other adapted parts, for the purpole of catting both the fides of a ditch at the fame time, and turning out the inter- venins turf and foil, Thefe large ploughs bave been kept in fome parifhes, and drawn over moift commons by twelve or twenty hortes, to form parallel ditches. Mr. Adam Scott has invented for the fame purpofe what he terms a mole-plough, which confifts of a coulter fifteen inches long, and two and a half wide, to cut the fward; and behind this an horizontal cone of caft iron twenty inches long, and two and a half diameter at the bafe, to the middle of which is fixed an upright bar two feet long, and three inches-and a half broad, with a fharp edge. As this caft iron cone is drawn aloug fix or eight inches beneath the turtin moift Jands, either in the fpring or autumn, in many parallel lines, the water for a confiderable time is conveyed away, and no injury done to the furface; which thus feems to be an ufeful machine, and may be well managed, I am informed, by fix or eight horfes. In very moift lands, or at very moift feafons, if more hories be uled, their feet will not fink fo deep into the turf, as each horfe will draw lefs; or a contrivance of adding broader fhoes of wood to the horfes like the fnow-fhoes of hicher latitudes, might anfwer this purpole. See Tran- fa&. of Society of Arts, Vol. XV. 8. There are neverthelefs fome fituations, where the water is con- veyed beneath the firft ftratum on a thin bed of clay over a porus fand-ftone beneath tt; as in the grotto at Lichfeld above defcribed. In thefe fituations by boring many auger-holes, or by finking wells, throuch the ftratum of clay the water will penetrate the fand-ftone beneath it; and either pafs away by the porofity of this kind of ftone, or by the cracks or joints which are always found in it; of which the horizontal joints were formed at the time of the produétion or accumulation of the fand beneath the fea, which was then formed in horizontal SECE. AT. T3 0e AND WATERING. 265 aorizontal ftrata; but the vertical cracks were made at the time of its elevation by fubterraneous fires. In thefe vertical fiflures the ores of lead, ponderous earth, and calcareous fpars, are found in the lime- ftone rocks of Derbyfhire; and thofe of tin, and quartz, in the gra- nite rocks of Cornwall. 9. The knowledge of this part of geology concerning the forma- tion of fprings may be employed fo: many ufeful purpofes; thus where the wall-fprings, or water-conducting ftrata, lie fo deep as not to be accefhble at a fmall expence; hey generally exift between the fecond and third, or between the third and fourth ftrata; which rife into day higher on the fummits of the adjacent mountains than the firft ftratum; and hence, when they are bored into, the water will rife higher, than when it is found beneath the firft ftratum only; ele generally becomes deficient on lower parts of the adjacent eminences of the country. Thus where water, defcending in high columns between the ftrata of mountains, is dammed up below by the materials, which fill up the vallies; if a hole be bored in the ess deep through the incumbent foil and ftrata, it frequently rifes much above the fource of the new aperture, and fometimes above the furface of the ground. In finking te king’s well at Sheernefs the water rofe 300 feet above its fource in the well, as related in Philof, Tranfat. Vol. LXXIV. And at Hartford in Conne&ticut there is a well, which was dug fe- venty feet before water was found; and then on boring an auger hole through a rock the water rofe fo faft, as to make it difficult to keep it dry by pumps, till the hole could be blown larger by gun- powder; which was no fooner accomplifhed, than it filled, and run over, and has been a brook for near a century. Travels through AiMmérieas Pond. 1789. Lane. In the town of Richmond in Surry, and at Inflip near Prefton, in Lancafhire, Î am informed, that it is ufual to bore for water to a cer- tain depth; and that when it is found in buth thofe places, it rifes M m{o 266 DRAINING SEeTr. XF 5-10: fo high as to flow over the furface. And there is reafon to conclude, that if fimilar experiments were made in many other places, fuch ar- tificial fprings might be produced at fmall expence, both for the com- mon purpofes of life, and for the great improvement of lands by watering them. 10. Another deduétion, which may be made from this knowledge of geology, 1s, that many fprings of water, which lie too low for ferving a houfe, or ftreet, or town, or for watering higher grounds for the purpoles of agriculture or ans may 11 Many ne be dammed up many feet w ith little or no lofs. T'hus when the new bridge was building at Dublin, Mr. G. Semple found a fpring in the bed E the river, where he meant to lay the foundation of a pier; which by fixing iron pipes into it he raifed many feet; and in bor- ing a hole near the Derwent in Derby about fifteen yards deep, the water rofe above the furface of the ground, and has continued to flow now for above twelve years in rather an increafing quantity. From having obferved a valley north-weft of St.Alkmund’s well near Derby, at the head of which that pipe of water once probably exifted, and by its ent formed the valiey, y,(which current in after times found its way out in its pretent fituation), I fufpect, that St. AÏk- mond’s well might by building round it be raifed high enough to fupply many ftreets in Derby with fpring water, which are now only fupplied with river water. 4 11. À third deduc : cerning the produétion of fprings teaches, that by enlarging the bot- ed tion from the knowledge of this geology con- tom of a well, where the water oozes from between the furrounding ftrata in too fcanty a fupply, a proportionally greater quantity of wa- ter may be procured. The hole near the river Derwent in Derby above mentioned, is about an inch and a half in diameter, and was bored about fifteen yards deep through the uppermoft ftratum of mar! into the fand beneath it, and fupplies Dr. Darwin’s houle with two or three hogfheads of water a day. And Mr, Strutt near St. Pe- ter”s AND WATERING. 267 9> ET> vf LA ge. à>> ter's Bridge has funk a well for the ufe of his fteam- engine about 200 yards from the former, which ss les through the fame upper ftratum of marl, and is three feet in diameter at the: bottom, and fup- plies, when required, a hundred Le EN in a day. 12. The knowledge of this part of geology leads to another ufe- ful purpofe, the difcovery of fprings; concerning wh sn fome have pretended to pofiefs fecret or myftical intellisence both in England and in France,’ When the eminences of a country were raifed out of the primeval ocean by fubterraneous fires, fome of them were raifed mur equally on all fides, liés“ile hmeftone mountain at Breedon in Leicefterfhire; in which the central ftratum may be feen to ftand nearly ereét or vertical, and thofe on all fides at confiderable inclination. Other mountains were abru ptly broken off on one fide only from the adjoining earth, like thofe which form the hi. gh torr at Matlock; which rife with one of their fides End as a wall by the Derwent fide; fo that the ftrata of the former of thefe moun- tains may be reprefented, as before mentioned, by the bur, which ]| b il would be made on fome folds of paper, ifa very hard blunt inftru- ment was thruft through them; and the latter by raifñing up one edge of fuch folds of paper, fo as to incline the whole of it at fome angle with thé horizon. As the fprings confift of the water, which flides between thefe inclined ftrata; it is evident, that in fome eminences of ground they are only to be met with on one fide of the mountain; and in other eminences of ground on all fides of it. In fearching for fprings there- fore attention fhould be given to the inclination of the ftrata of that part of the country, which may be often feen in marl-pits, gravel- pits, or in hollow lanes. But they may in general be found above any mOift or morafly plain or valley; the moifture of which fhews, that fpriugs exift in the ftrata on that fide of the mountain. fecond obfervation for the purpofe of deteting fprings may be made on mifly evenings; as thofe parts of the ground, where the M m 2 mift 268 DRAINING SECT, XI US mift commences, are moifter than thofe in their vicinity on the fame level; and in confequence may generally, 1f they are not hollow bafons, pofiefs fprings nearer the furface; for thefe moifter parts of the ground, baving cvaporated more during the day, are become colder on their furfaces than the drier ground in their vicinity; and in mifty evenings, which are at the fame time calm, the ftationary air over thefe moift parts of the ground is alfo more loaded with the evaporated moifture; and on both thefe accounts thefe moifter fitua- tions are liable to fhew a condenfation of aerial vapour fooner than other places on the fame level. As mountaius are colder in proportion to their height, which 15 explained in Botanic Garden, Vol. I. additional note 26, the even- ing mift fometimes commences fooner on them than in the valleys; but is feen earlier in thefe fituations over the moifter places, 1f they are on the fame level with the drier ones, exa@ly as on the plains or valleys; and may therefore indicate the exiftence of fprings, un- lefs thefe moifter places confift of hollow bafons containing water, which if not atten:'ed to may in all fituations deceive the obferver, Another obfervation for deteting fprings may be made in rimy moruinos; for as moift earth is a better conduétor of heat than dry earth, the rime will fooner melt on thofe parts of the foil, which are kept moift by fprings under it than on other parts; as the common heat of the earth, which is 48 in this country, will fooner be con- duéted upwards in moift places to diffolve the rime on the furface. On this account the rime is frequently feen on frofty mornings, when the heat of the air is not much above 32, to lie an hour longer on dry cakes of cow-dung, or on bridges, or planks of wood, than on the common moift ground; as the latter much better conduéts the common heat of the earth to the incumbent rime, which is in contact with it. But as the heat of the common fprings in this country is 48, where they exift, the rime is fooner diflolved, than on the fagnant moif- ture De ci Pi rie De TEE ER mn l: SEcr. XI. 2,1. AND WATERING. 269 ture of bogs or morafles. And as the fprings about Buxton and Mat- lock, and at Bath and Briftol, are fo much warmer than common fprings; it is highly probable, that where thefe waters approach the furface of the foil, they mufl much fooner diffolve the rime on frofty mornings; which may probably be obferved in fituations much higher than their prefent apparent fources; as they flide down between the interior ftrata of thofe hills, beneath the fummit of which they are condenfed from the fteam of water boiling at great depths in the earth; which rifes up through thofe perpendicular clefts of the rocks, which were formed at their original elevation, as explained in Bo- tanic Garden, Vol. Il. note on fucus; and in Pilkinston’s View of Derbyfhire, V. I. p. 256. In the winter months the rife of fprings may be detected in moift ditches by the prefence of aquatic plants, as of water-crefs, water- parfnip, brook-lime; as in thofe ditches, which become dry in the fummer, thefe plants do not exift; and when thofe ditches with fprings in them are nearly dry, it may be difcovered which way the current has formerly defcended by the direction of the points of the leaves of the aquatic plants as certainly as by a level; an obfervation which I learnt from Mr. Brindley, the great canal-conduétor of Staf- fordfhire. Finally, thefe arts of dete&ting the fituation of fprings may be ad- vantageous to the attentive agricultor both for the purpofes of drain- ing thofe lands, which too much abound with water, and for the purpofe of watering thofe, which are too dry, and which lie beneath the level of the fprings, or to which the water may be raifed by wind-mills or water-engines to be explained hereafter. IT. 1. In refpet to draining thofe plains or morafles where no fall can be had, the water may in many fituations be caught by cutting a Jong horizontal ditch into the adjoining mountain perpendicular to the inclined plane, which conftitutes the fide of the mountain, above the level of the morafs, fo as to intercept all the wall-fprings; and may 270 DRAINING SACT. HT. 252: may then be conveyed away in wooden troughs or hollow bricks above the furface; and if fome water ftill finds its way into the mo- rafs, this lefs quantity may be conduéted to one extremity of the ground in open drains or covered foughs and raifed by an horizontal 2 windmill and centrifugal pump, as defcribed at the end of this Sec- tion; and thus the morafs may be converted into foil of the moft productive kind. 2. There may be other fituations, as in the Peak of Derbyfhire, where pools of water, or morafles, are colleéted on the hollow fum- mits of hills; which have been the craters of volcanoesin the prime- lit val’ ages of the world, as Elden-hole near Caftieton, which feems to have been the fhaft of fuch a volcano. In many of thefe bafons on the fummits of hills there ftill exift what are called“ Fa ou or cavities; where the water finks into the earth, as it colles, to pafs to fome diftant valley, as Elden-“hole above mentioned, and as in the channels of the rivers Hamps and Manifold, between Afhbourn and Leek. In others, as at the fummit of a fteep promontory called Axedge, near Buxton,andabout Broke-houfe,areunfathomed morafles, which are faid in fome places not to bear a fheep to pafs over them; and that on the more tenacious parts of them it is neceflary for the venturer to ftep from taflock to taflock, or to carry a long pole ho- rizontally in his hand, like thofe who fkaite upon fufpeéted ice, to prevent his finking over head, 1f he fhould chance to fink at all. It is probable, that by finking a well, or boring a hole, where fuch morafies or lakes now exift, into the obftruéted fhaft of the an- cient volcano, the water might be let off from thofe eminent mo- rafies at lefs expence, than by excavating a paflage for it fome miles in a country of marble. 3. Itis pofhble there may be fituations in high countries of mar- ble, or granite, or quartz, where the difficulty and expence of exca- vating the ground may be too great, as above; in which a fyphon mioht be contrived for the purpofe of raifing the water from a mo- 3 rafs D } SCT AiX led. AND WATERING. 271 Ce rafs or lake, and conveying it away. Such an inftrament might be conftruéted of bored Riga deals; but as air is liable to colle@ in the fummit of a fyphon from the water, which pañles through it, it would be neceflary to fix at the fummit an air-veflel with an aire pump at the top ofit; which might be moved by a very fmall hori- Zontal windmill fail, to be defcribed at the end of this Settion, or occafonally by the hand of a labourer for a few minutes perhaps. once or twice a day. à. The draning of thofe large plains, which lie beneath the level of the fea, is a fubje&, which belongs to the public, rather than to the individual farmer; and is pra@ifed near Linn on the river Cam by locks to keep out the tide, and by windmills to lift or forward the otherwife ftagnate water in the fen-dikes. Thefe windmills have vertical fails of the common kind, which move a vertical water- wheel, by which the water is raifed a foot or two; but it is probable even this might be done better by the horizontal fail and centrifugal pump to be defcribed at the end of this Se&ion, as being a fimpler machine, aud requiring no attention to turn it to the wind. It might be a noble work, worthy the attention of a government, that wifhed to increafe the quantity of nutriment, and confequent ) population and happinefs of the country, to employ proper engineers with a number of labourers to environ with ditches every morafiy diftriét of whatever extent, which lies beneath the level of the tides, as the tens of Lincolnfhire and Cambrideefhire. Thefe ditches fhould be cut at the feet of the adjacent rifing grounds, or of eminences fur- rounded with fens, like iflands in a lake, fo as to intercept the wall- fprings and laud-floods, and convey the water thus colleéted above the level of the morafs into the ocean. But this, I fear, is an effort not to be expected in the prefent times, when the enclofure of forefts and large commons is prévented by the intereft of individuals, or by the difficulty of procuring expenfive aëts of parliament for every minute diftri&, inftead of including them in a general: CR ns jen D À ee orme EP A CEE 2 EE sr- oÿe DRAINING SECT XL 2% a general aét, fo meritorioufly contended for by fir John Sinclar, then Prefdent of the Agricultural Society. s. Where finally the draining of marfhy grounds can not be effect- ed at a refponfible expence, fome plants” may perhaps be cultivated with profit to the cultivator; as in fome fituations the feftica Auitans, floating fefcue, callitriche, ftar-grafs; or in others the orchis for the purpofe of making faloop by drying the peeled roots in an oven. This might be better worth notice, if the feed could be ripened in this climate for its eafier propagation, which probably may be accom- plifhed either by cutting away the new root, as is affirmed in the Amoœænitates Academicæ; or by plantinig them in a garden-pot fo as to confine the roots in refpeët to fpace, which is faid in the fame work to ripen the feeds of convallaria, lily of the valley; and laftly by cultivating a few on a hot-bed or in a green-houfe. In other fituations the menyanthes, bog-bean, would flourifh abun- dantly, and might become a fubftitute for hops in the brewery, and be equally wholefome and palatable. It is indeed much to be la- mented, that we have no grain fimilar to rice, that will grow in wa- tery grounds in this cold climate, nor any efculent roots or foliage except the water-crefs. There is reafon to believe neverthelefs, that the roots of nymphæa, water-lily, or of butomus, flowering-rufh, may be efculent by fimple boiling; or that a wholefome ftarch might be obtained from them; or laftly, that they might be fermentable into ardent fpirit, lîke the roots of potatoes, or into vinegar. The nymphæa nelumbo is much cultivated in China in their fwampy grounds, and in their lakes. The feed is like an acorn, and of a tafte more delicate than that of almonds. The roots are fliced and ferved with ice in fummer at their tables; and are preferved in falt and vinegar for the winter. Embafly to China by fir G. Staunton, Vol. IIL. p. 214, 8vo. ed. T'he nymphæa alba of our country pro- duces a root of three or four inches in diameter. See Set. XVII. 2. 35 and though the feed is very fmall, and perhaps does not per- fectly mn io ER Secr, XL. 3. r. AND WATERING. 273 fe&ly ripen, I have obferved it to be agreeàble to the palate both in its recent ftate, and when dry. If thefe fhould not fucceed, other quick-growing plants might be cultivated for manures, as typha, cat’s-tail, caltha, and others; which fhould be mowed twice a year, while they are young, and in confe- quence abound with faccharine and mucilaginous matter ready to pafs into fermentation. III. 1. The advantages refulting from occafonally coverins lands with water have long been experienced in warmer countries, as in Egypt, Italy, and many parts of China; and have of late years been introduced into our own more northern climates. The great import- ance of much water to the progrefs of vegetation has already been fpoken of in Seétion X. 3. And in the warm climates above men- tioned, it 1s particularly ufeful in the cultivation of rice for the pur- ofe perhaps of fimply moiftening the cround. But the advantages of flooding meadow-lands in this country may be divided principally into three kinds, one of which confifts in fim- ply moiftening them, which feems to be the principal ufe of water- ing lands in warm countries, where the water is derived to them al- moft every evening from refervoirs above them, or from water- wheels worked by affes, and which is fometimes done in the gardens of this country by watering pans and human labour. he fecond and greater advantage of flooding lands in this cli- mate confifts in deriving much water over them from rivers or from ftrong fprings, and by thus fupplying them with the muddy fedi- ment brought down by rivers, after fudden rains, or with the cal- careous earth diflolved in many fprings. Aïil thofe fprines, which pafs through marl, or chalk, or other limeftone, are replete with calcareous earth; which they hold im folution, as thofe about Derby and about Matlock, which earth they depofit on ftanding on the oil, or in flowly theklinosoverat.o:See Set XL 62 And river INA water ER— 274 DRAINING SECT IX EE water in rainy fea fons is loaded with diffufed as well as with diflolved materials from the neighbouring country. Both thefe therefore are of great fervice in flooding meidow-lands, and perhaps almoft all other lands, But thofe fprings, which pafs only through filiceous fandftone, as thofe at Lichñeld in Staffordfhire, have no calcareous earth diflolved in them, as Î have found by expe- riment; and the water of moft rivers, when they are not fwelled by rain, are alfo too pure for this purpofe; as they have depoñited al- ready in their courfe the calcareous earth, which might abound in the fprings, which feed them; as I have obferved by experiments on the water of the Derwent at Derby, which though it runs for many miles about Matlock through a bed of limeftone, yet when clear of mud from rains, it contains no calcareous earth, as it pañes by Derby, though the fprings in the vicimity are replete with it. Nei ther of thefe fources of water can therefore do much fervice for this fecond defign of depofiting limeftone, or mud. The third advantage of flooding Jands in this climate is for the purpofe of defendinég them from the cold of the winter or vernal months. For this advantage the water from ftrong fprings, which are always at 48 degrees of Farenheït in this country, is preferable to river water, where it can be had in fufficient quantity; fince the water Ha rivers is of the fame degree of cold as the atmofphere, till the thermometer finks to 32. But both of them, when they form à fheet of thin ice, as they cover a meadow, defend the roots of the orafs from feverer degrees of cold; which are thus preferved, and de of fome grafles are believed even to vegetate beneath the ice, as the rein-deer mofs in Siberia vegetates beneath the fnow in a AeBReE of heat about 40, which is the medium between that of the under {furface of the thawing fnow, which is 32; and that of the common heat of the interior parts of the earth, which is 48; and thus the rafs in this cold climate may be wonderfully forwarded; fo as Ru séntéomnénsiinten dééédiioguiei 3 AND WATERINC. 27 Ca as almoft to double the produét of the year, if well managed and carefully attended to, The method of forming the channels to convey the water confifis in Carrying the firft or principal aqueduét along the higheft pa t of the meadow, and deriving others on the fummits of the nee: 1fthe meadow has formerly been ploughed into ridges and furrows, thefe again are to be divaricated fo as to pafs into the furrows; all thefe branches ue ftream are again to be colle&ted from the furrows, and se harged at the loweft part of the furface.| Somet {o as to cond ns imilar to this muft be managed on more level grounds, uét the water over the whole meadow, and alfo to CArr y it off, that it may not flagnate; but.that à moving fheet of water about an inch in depth may continually flow over Le whole for the purpoie of depofiting the materials diflolved or diffufed in it. The couftruion and width of thefe channels, with man y ul ca l obferva- tions, are fhewn in a pamphlet of Mr.T. Wright, on‘‘the Art of Floating Land in Gloucefterfhire.” Scatcherd. London. Mr.Wright in thé treatife above mentioned advifes, that.the aftermath of A land fhould be eaten off bare by the beginning of November, at# that the channels for conduéting the water to and from the meadows fhould be then cleanfed and repaired; and that the water fhould be fuffered to flow over the meadow for three weeks; and that then the land ought to be expofed to the air for à few days; fince fome of the grafles, and thofe of the moft nutritive kinds, he believes will not much longer exift under water. By this early preparation, he adds, that advantage is taken of the autumnal floods, which bring along with them a greater quantity of putref- cent matter than thofe of winter. In the months of December and January Mr.Wright adds, that the chief care of the floater confifts in keeping the land fheltered by the water from the feverity of frofty nights; but advifes through the whole of thefe months every ten or fourteen days to expofe the land Nn2 to ge De ee— Gé sien cmt din —+ D Eee Ten 276 DRAINING Secr. XL, 3. 2: to the air by laying it as dry as poffible for a few days; and always to difcontinue the flooding, when the land is covered with a fheet of ice. In the month of February greater attention is required; ifthe wa- ter be fuffered to flow over the meadow for the fpace of many days without intermiflion, a white feum is generated, and the grafs 1s much injured. And he jufily obferves that, if you now take off the water, and expofe the land in its wet ftate to a fevere frofty night, a great part of the grafs will be cut off. Mr.Wright adds, that in Gloucefterfhire two methods of avoidine thefe injuries are pra@ifed: one is to take off the water by day to pre- vent the produétion of the fcum, and to turn it over again at night to guard againft the froft.‘The other is to take off the water early in the morning; and, if the day be dry, to fuffer it to remain off à few days and nights; for if the land experiences only one drying day, the froft at night will do little injury. But the former of thefe prac- tices, where it can be eafñly done, he thinks preferable to the latter. In the beginning of March the grafs on well-flooded meadows will generally be{0 forward, as to afford abundant pafturage, and the wa- ter fhould be taken of for about a week, that the land may become dry and-firm; and the cattle fhouid for the firft week be allowed a little hay in the evening, if the weather be cold and raimy. In the month of April the grafs may be eaten off quite fhort and clofe, but not later; fince if you trefpafs but one week in the month of May, the crop of hay, which is to fucceed, will be much impair- ed; and the grafs will become foft and woolly, and the hay have the appearance of lattermath hay, and be lefs valuable, At the beginning of the month of May the water is again thrown ovet the meadows for a few days; which fimply by moiftening the land will in moft feafons, Mr.Wright obferves, enfure a crop of hay of one ton aud a half on an acre in the courfe of fix or feven. weeks, The AND WATERING. 275 The water is fometimes again ufed, when the hay is carried off, but may render the lattermath, he thinks, unwholefome to fheep. But this is particularly ferviceable, when the water is rendered tur- bid by fuddens rains. Some have taken off two bay-crops in one year, but this Mr. Wright thinks is imprudent in this climate; which how- ever 1 fuppofe might be accomplifhed, where the firft growth is not eaten in April, and where much turbid river water or calcareous fpring water can be ufed between them. Mr. Wright further obferves, that the hay on thefe flooded mea- dows is little inferior to upland hay, 1f it be cut at its proper age; but that fome avaricious farmers have permitted it to remain uncut tiil it produces three tons on an acre, and that then it will become long and coarfe, and little better than ftraw. But that when it is cut in June, and has been flooded well with muddy water in the winter, that it becomes little inferior to the beft upland hay. The hay, I fhould fuppofe, which 1s cut before the grafs is in full flower, while the faccharine juice ftill remains in part at the joints Pr of the flower-ftems, muft contain the moft nutritious matter; which is afterwards abforbed as the flower expands, and as the feed ripens, ind forms the méal or ftarch of the feed-lobe, and 1s fhed upon the cround, or confumed by birds, and the grafs-ftems and their leaves become fimply like the ftraw of ripened corn. his au appear of more importance to any one, who attends to the difference of the pods or hufks of peas, or of kidney-beans, dur- ng the early ftate of the enclofed feeds, and again after the feeds be- come ripe. The pod or capfule is at firft fweet and mucilaginous,{o as to fupply an agreeable and nutritive food, the latter of which, and fometimes the former, are eaten at our tables; afterwards as the feeds, which are attached alternately to each fide of the capfule, drink up by their de e life after impregnation the faccharine and mucila- sinous matters there purpofely depofited for them; the capfule itfeli becomes bei© « Re.—_—_ es— Get PR É- a mo PDT En 2:78 DRAINING SEcT. XI. 2.2. becomes a mere fibrous membrane not better than the ftraw of ripe crains above mentioned, L le) 4 Ït ma y be here repez ited, that one great ufe in this country of flood- | t4 ing grafs-grounds in winter, and in early fprins, fo as to let a thin \0 x:: Le } fheet of water perpetually flow flowiy over them, is, that it will in } i frofty nights, when the cold is not much below tl 1€ ireezing point, © 14 produce a thin fheet of ice, and thus prevent the cold from affecting the roots of the grafs beneath it; which may thus be two or three wecks A than on other lands; for ice is fo bad a condutor of PT mes TN l>=. A li heat, that water is not HS y frozen beneath it; and efpecially if it J £ Ilow, fo as to enclofe à ftratum of air between itfelf and RP TETE TE, LR ape momie 5 5 sho jura % LE Fr feems to have been attended to by the philofophers in the “ p French army, when they pafled over ice to fubdue Holland: fea leaft the ice fhould be too weak for the ee ice of their nor anc todo artillery, they bored many holes through it every night; and then by se on its furface the water was made to rife throuch thefe holes,{o as to ftand an inch above the furface; which being thus expofed to the cold air ofthe night, became frozen before morning: and thus in a few nights thickened and ftre engthened theice ten times more than would have been done naturally by the flower freezinz le) beneath it. e A+-+ n 7 e À 3. To recapitulate the ads antages of flooding, firft, not only the common meadow grounds are enriched, but morafiy ones are confo- lidated, by the n ud brought over them from river water; or the cal- careous fediment, and azotic or nitrogen air, from of fpring wa- ters, during thofe feafons when grafs does not naturalky make much progrefs in its growth. 2. They are defended from froft| by the flow- ing water, or by the ice, when it is frozen; and thus a much for- et(a STRESS- a& Warder crop of grafs is produced, as may frequently be feen over pieces of ground naturally moift; which look green in the fpring, {ome FER Secr. XL. 3. 4. AND WATERING. ë HE fome ne, before that on drier land in their vicinity. 3. The ground is rendered more eafly penetrable by the roots of grafs, both by its being à fofter, and al{o from its being feldomer os zen below the furface in the vernal months. 4. This early crop may be eaten off by cattle or fheep, and a new floodi Hng for à fhort time will forward the growth of it fo as to produce a Lou crop of hay. 5. After the hay is removed another flooding for a fhort time enfures a luxuriant growth of autumnal grafs, or aftermath. The difficulty of getting moift lands free from rufhes is faid to be readily overcome by flooding them, and that efpecially after previ- oufly mowing them, as their fséliey pith will then abforb fo much water, as. to caufe them to putrify by its ftagnation; or if this be ne 1n autumn or fpring, and a froft fupervenes, the water in their pith by expanding, as it becomes ice, burfts and deft troys their organic frire. The following conclufon is copied from Parkinfon’s Experienced Farmér.ot Upon the whole, artificial watering of meadows is a moft profitable improvement; it robs no dunghill, but raifes one for the benefit of othe LS for 1f a farmer can water ten acres of land, cut the grafs and ufe it either in ftall or fold-feeding, he might keep perhaps forty beafts; and by working the manure made by them into a compoft, and applying that compoit to other lands, he might either have a great deal more hay for the winter, or feed more cattle in the fummer.” Vol. IL, p. 68. 4. Tw o or three obfervations of importance fhould be here infert- ed. 1. That in flooding lands for a confiderable time, the water fhould nly trickle over tiieés from the canal, which leads it along the more elevated parts, and not ftand on it like a ffh-pond; as in the latter cafe the grafs roots will perifh in a few weeks in the early{pring, to he great injury of the farmer, an example of which on feveral acres once witneffed. As foon as any materials thus begin to putrefy beneath the water, I sc 0 Re pl ru rites er ù 280 DRAINING SECT. XI. 3. 4. a feum of white froth arifes owing to the air fet at liberty by putre- fa@ion; which is fuppofed by fome to injure the grafs, whereas it is a confequence rather tian a caufe of injury, and fhews, that the water has ftagnated too long; and fhould either be immediately drawn off, or fupplied by a running ftream; but the former fhould probably be preferred: if the ftems of grafs are fo tall as to rife above the running water, it is probable, that their death and putrefaétion do not fo foon occur. Secondly. It is obferved by gardeners, that in dry feafons, if you begin to water any kinds of plants, you muft continue to repeat it; agence LE) otherwife that they are fooner injured by dry weather, than thofe which have not been watered. This fa@ alfo I think I have obferved, and it may depend on the circumftance of the roots of annual vege- tables fhooting themfelves lower down in dry feafons in fearch of moifture; but if this be given them in the commencement of their growth, they then fhoot their roots more horizontally, and are after- wards in confequence fooner deftroyed by the fubfequent dry wea- ther. Thirdly. Much cold water civen fuddenly to plants, which were nearly perifhing with heat and drynefs, will I believe fometimes in- jure or deftroy them, as 1 faw occurthis year, 1798, in June to fome rows of garden beans; which after being flooded for one night wi- thered, and in part died, on the following day, which was probably caufed, not by the excefs of water, as plants of this senus would feem to bear much moifture from an experiment of Lord Kaimes, who fays in the Gentleman Farmer, that he planted a pea on fome cot- ton-wool fpread on water in a phial, and that it fprung up, and fhot roots through the cotton-wool into the water, and produced large pods full of ripe feeds.‘The death of thefe beans was more probably occafioned by the torpor of the fyftem induced by cold, as occurs to thofe who have injudicioufly drank much cold water, or plunged into a cold bath, when they have been previoufly much weakened by the unnecef{ary RS RS CURE SC - PI:« ne à 2 em+ variétés DECTIAI ESS AND WATERING. 281 uoneceflary adivity of the fyftem occafoned by continued heat, or great exercifes See/Se@: XIV rs 1: Nor is there reafon to fuppofe that to whatever extent this mode of cultivation of’grafs could be carried in this country, that any injurious effets in refpe& to the health of the inhabitants could be produced: as this mode of flooding is not by ftagnant water, as in rice grounds; which D. A. J. Cavanilles, who has lately publifhed a work on the cultivation of rice in the kingdom of Valencia, believes to be injurious to the health of the inhabitants. Magaz. Encyclop. T.. 3. In thefe cold climates the vicinity of running ftreams may per- haps be rather falubrious than the Contrary; as the air is cooledin hot weather, and warmed in cold weather, by its conta&æ with their ever-changing furfaces, till they become frozen. I at this moment recolleét many, who lived to an healthy old age in the valley of the Trent near the very edge of the water, whofe names I could repeat. But ftagnate waters, from which putrid exhalations arife, produce agues in cold countries, as in the fens of Lincolnfhire: and putrid fe- vers in hot ones; from which our armies fuffered{o much at St. Lucia both in the prefent and the laft war. 5 This pra@tice of flooding is capable of being extended to a won- derful degree in this country, not only by ufing the natural falls of brooks and fprings, and by occafionally damming them up to fupply higher fituations; and by cffettually fpreading the land-floods from accidental fhowers over the inferior lands to a great extent. And laftly, the water, which is now dammed up to fupply the numerous mills, might be diffufed in rills over a thoufand meadows, or part of it be raifed by pumps to higher orounds: and thus fertilize and en- rich the country; whilethe grinding of corn, fpinning of cotton, roll- ing iron bars, and other mechanic purpofes, might be effe&ed by wind-mills, or fteam-engines, in almoft every part of the ifland. For this purpofe likewife the new method of raifing water by the vis inertiæ or acquired momentum of moving ftreams might be weli Oo applied, 7 x 4] shit add nl sm À HET LOT DER RSS L 282 DRAININGS Etc. SECTE ne: applied, which was formerly ufed by Mr.Whitchurft of Derby on a fmall fcale at Oulton in Chefhire, as defcribed with a plate of the machine, to which an air-veffel is ingenioufly added, in the Philofo- phical Tranfaétions for the year 1575, Vol. LXV. p.277, and which is now adapted to variety of ingenious machinery by M. Boulton, Efq. of Soho near Birmingham; and is well explained with two prints in the Repertory of Arts and Manufa@tures, No. LI. 6. The following water machine, which is on the principle of Hiero’s fountain, is defigned to raife part of the water of a fpring, or fmall brook, where fome feet of fall may be acquired, to a greater height for the purpofe of watering higher levels of ground; and the horizontal windmill with centrifugal pump is defigned for the fame purpolfe, where no fall can be acquired. We fhali then perhaps have fatiated fome of our readers with this fubjeét of watering lands, and may conclude with the fhepherds in Viroil’s Eclogue, Clhudite jam rivos, Pueri, fat prata biberunt. ni Te I pascez 4 SRE PATAINR 7£ BEATE\- Reprefents the ftrata of a hill. a à isthe upper ftratum, fuppole of marie; c disthe fecond ftratum, fuppofe of fand; e f reprefents the accumulated earth in the valley. Ït is defigned to fhew, that in boring holes through: the upper ftratum to find that beneath it, they fhould be formed perpendicular to the fide of the mountain, and not perpendicular to the horizon, as is the common practice, as by thofe means the hole ÿ y is much fhorter than the hole xx. explained in Seét. XE. 1. 5. Church S ard. ublished Jan 1%800, Ov S' Johnson, StPauts > Z ondon, pl HAN MINE pull\ N\ TIRANT A V Ml l ne. PRE rte TT MES OA TX SEC AXIL:T AR A'FTON,&c. 283 D'OR XIE PE AERATION AND PULVERIZATION OF THE SOIL. {. Sois contain inflammable matters and water. Air confif?s of oxygen, nitrogen, and beat. carbonic, nitrous, and phofphoric acids, and volatile alkali with water wben buried in the foil. Heat and light given out from the union of carbon and oxygen in a letter-wafer. Sow and fet foon after the plough or fpade. 2. Pe- aetrability of the foil increafed, and mixture of its ingredients. the rains. Enlarges the Jurface. 3. Ufjes of fallowing. faid not to impoverifh tbe Joil, why. 4 Following injurious to rich lands, wby. 5. The great advan- tages of Tulls drill bujbandry. borfe-hoeing to band-hoeing. An im- proved drill machine. 6. Advantages of tranfplanting wbeat. 7. Of barrowing wheat in Jpring. 8. Rolling swbeat in fpring. As almoft all foils not only contain carbon, and other inflammable materials, which are capable of uniting with oxygen, and thus pro- ducing the carbonic and other acids; but alfo contain water, which by its decompoñfition, when in contaët with confined air, produces ammonia or volatile alkali by the union of its hydrogen with azote; and nitre by the union of its abundant oxygen with another part of the abundant azote or nitrogen of the atmofpheric air; there is rea- fon to conclude, that the great ufe of turning over the foil with the plough or fpade depends principally in the produétion of thefe effects by the confinement of both the oxygen and the azote or nitrogen of the air in the interflices of the foil; and on this account we have en- titled this fe@tion the acration of the foil rather than the oxygenation Oo 2 of DT CA nc or ts SAS= et te L 2 2Et - Ê L=, 284 AERATION AND Secr. XI, Fr of it, as the latter belongs to the refpiration rather than to the nutri- tion of vegetables. When atmofpheric air is imprifoned in the cavities of the foil by turning over its furface, which muft be in greater quantity, when the{oil is reduced into the very fmall fragments, which has been called pulverization; and when it is the leaft preffed down by animals trampling on it, it more readily unites, I believe, with the materials above mentioned than in its free ftate; which is probably effected by double or triple chemical affinities. For this atmofpheric air confifts of oxygen, azote, and the fluid matter of heat; now if the heat, which occafions the oxygen and azote of the atmofphere to exift uncombined in the form of gafles, be attrated from them by any other material, as they are confined in the cavities ofthe foil, they may by their nearer approach to each other combine into nitrous acid; or the oxygen may in its fluid flate, not in its aerial one, more readily unite with carbon; and form a fluid, not an aerial, carbonic acid; which we believe to be of fo much confequence in the growth of plants, as fhewn in Se&t. X..4. Add to this, that if any putrefaétive procefs be proceeding, where atmofpheric air is thus imprifoned in the cavities of the foil, and by the lofs of its heat is converted from a gas to a fluid; that the azote may unite with the hydrogen of the decompofing water, or contri- bute to decompofe it; and thus to form volatile alkali, which. like the nitrous acid, may either during the procefs of its formation, or af- ter it is formed, be of effeétual fervice to vegetation, at the fame time the oxygen given out from the decompofing water may contribute like that of the atmofphere to produce carbonic, nitrous, or phofpho- ric acids; and thus to render carbon, phofphorus, and the bäafis of nitre, capable of being abforbed by vegetable laéteals. Where atmofpheric air is confined along with water,[ well re- member from experiments 1 made long ago, by inverting a bottle fill- ed with air in a jar of water, that the bulk of the air was in fome days Secr. XIL. 2. PULVERIZATION. 285 days fo much diminifhed as to occupy only half the bottle, which probably occurs from the decompofition of both the water and air; and the produétion of ammonia and nitrous acid, both which are be- lieved to be fo ferviceable to vegetation, as mentioned in Seét, X. Ze 9.; That the heat of the atmofpheric air is given out, when oxygen unites with carbon, is fhewn by the heat of hot-beds; and of fer- menting faccharine and mucilaginous fluids, as in the production of ardent fpirit; and may be beautifully feen in the combination of oxy- gen with carbon in the burning of one of thofe common letter-wa- fers, which confft of the mucilage of flour, and red lead or mi- nium; not one of thofe, which are called Irifh wafers, and which are coloured with vermilion. If one of thefe minium wafers be made to blaze in the flame of a candle, the oxygen contained in.the mi- nium unites with the carbon of the flour, and gives-out a very lumin- ous fpark, and confequent great heat, and at the fame inftant à fmall globule of melted lead drops down, and may be agreeably feen, if re- ceived on a fheet of white paper held under it. It is alfo probable, that heat is emitted during the produ@ion of nitrous and of phof- phoric acids. From thefe obfervations it appears, that feeds fhould be fown, and roots planted, foon after the foil is turned over; while the produc- tion of the carbonic, nitrous, and phofphoric acids, and of volatile al- kali, and perhaps many other procefles,. are proceedings, rather than after thev are completed; and alfo while the fluid element of heat is pafling from its combined ftate, and permeating the foil, which in this cold climate in the vernal months muft be highly conducive to vege- tation. 2. By thus turning over the foil with the plough or fpade the pe. netrabihity of it by the roots of plants is alfo much facilitated; and for this purpofe, as well as for the admixture of atmofpheric air, it can fcarcely be reduced into too fine molecules, or a kind of wet pow. der; " 4 L me. Cr el,|= 5=, u: mr ——= sue me nn es ne,- anse—.— É ne-- Le ann= FT=- ne ns 2 ER ons me=. a Se DRE SE re> 3 ü 7£ di À è no Re ES.)— ATEN Dre à«- Ré 1 Pi élilige. - PR ES er_ ou A É- … Sr SPMRE E=”=-“2e PRET Terre> À re w SD astres er es _ Ê=”£ Br LS: Leds ic T5 ANSE Die a ER"_—.| PR# De st RER pt À À . D …-: Es h> RP ge er tie en DM een Pr CS : A} | A À: ca 286 AERATION AND SECR, Xi: 3. der; for the moifture of{oil is as neceflary for its being permeated by the young roots of plants, as its fmall cohefon, as mentioned in Sets Kai Ge Secondly, a more intimate mixture of the various ingredients, which moft foils poflefs, as carbon, calcareous, argillaceous, filiceous, and magnefian earths, with various metallic oxydes, as thofe of iron, and fometimes of manganefe, and calamy, all which by frequent turning over the foil with the plough or fpade, become mixed fo as to act on each other or on the roots of vegetables in every minute part of the foil. And thirdly, the vernal rains are retained by their{nking more readily into the pores and cells.of land recently turned over, and which füull poffefles an uneven furface. Befides à greater furface of it being continually expofed to the pafling air, and to the heavier im- purities, which it perpetually contains, as carbonic acid, foot, odours of many kinds. 3. À recapitulation of thefe circumftances leads us to the know- ledge of the ufe of fallowing lands, by repeatedly turning them over much carbonic acid is produced in its fluid flate; and perhaps fome of the nitrous and phofphoric acids; thefe may remain united with the vegetable recrements, or with volatile alkali, or with calcareous earth. 2. The parts of the foil may become better mixed together, and thus either chemically affe& each other to their mutual meliora- tion; or they may more uniformly fupply nutriment to the roots, which penetrate it. 3. The foil may become broken into a moift powder, and may thus be more eafly permeated, and fupply a greater furface of its cavities for the vegetable abforbents to apply themfelves to. 4. Unprofitable plants, or weeds, not being permitted to grow on it, or their being perpetually ploughed under the foil in their early growth, much vegetable nutriment will be referved by not being ex- pended; or it will be increafed by the faccharine and mucilaginous matter of the young plants, which are thus buried in it. It Plate NI: \: \ A S |——— À NT LULU LU AI fil j! OA | >| ge | | | | | 5| MNT LA |(il| e a Al er DHL TAN NE | London, fFubtished Jan rh800,6v Johnson, S'Laud ur Vard PLATE NE Îs a feétion of a machine fimilar to Hiero’s fountain, but defigned to raife water to a great perpendicular height, where there is the convenience of a fmall fall. a b the ftream of water, à« c the height of the fallofit, fuppofe ten feet, 4e two vef- fels of lead or iron containing, fuppofe, four gallons each, fg h:k 1 are veffels of lead con- taining, fuppofe, two quarts each, o p two cocks, each of which pañles through two pipes opening one and clofing the other, gr a water balance moving on its centre s and turning the two cocks o and p, alternately,{# and w x two air-pipes of lead one quarter or half: an inch diameter within, y z, y%, y x, water-pipes one inch diameter. The pipe 2€ c is always full from the ftream a b, the fmail cifterns g z /, and the large one d, are fuppofed to have been previoufly full of water, then admit water by turning the cock o through the pipe ce into the large ciftern e.. This water will prefs the air, which was in this ciftern e up the air-pipe w x, and-will force the water from the fmall cifterns g z/ into the cifterns h# and great C. At the fame time by opening B, the water and condenfed air, which previoufly exifted in the large ciftern 4, and the fmall ones fh&£, is difcharged at B. After a time the water balance gr s clofes the cocks now open, and opens their antagonifts, and the cifterns f h& are emptied in their turn by the force of the condenfed air from the ciftern 4, as the water enters into it from the pipe&c. & Ve NT plaie Ts a feétion of a M, for raifing water a few feet hich by the power of the wind for the purpofe of draining morañffes, or of watering lands on a higher ee It confifts of a windmill fail placed horizontally like that of x fmoak-jack, furrounded by an otagon tower; the diverging rays of this tower, a#, a b, may confift of two-inch deals only, if on a fmall ee or of brick-work if on a largerone. T'hefe upright pil- lars are connected together by oblique horizontal boards as fhewn at À B, by which boards placed horizontally from pillar to pillar, in refpeét to their length, but at an angle of about 45 degrees in refpeét to their breadth, fo as to form a complete oétagon including the horizontal windmill fail near the top of it; the wind as it ftrikes againft any of them, from whatever quarter it comes, is bent upwards and then ftrikes againft the horizontal wind-fail. Thefe horizontal boards, which form the fides of the oftagon, may either be, fixed in their fituations, or be made to turn upon an axis a little below their centres of[ gravity, fo as to clofe themfelves on that fide of the oétagon tower moft diftant from the wind, It may be fuppofed that the wind thus refleted would lofe confiderably of its power be- fore it ftrikes on the wind-fail, but on fixing a model of fuch a machine on the arm of a long whirling lever, with proper machinery to count the revolution of the wind fail,when thus included in à tower and moving horizontally; and then when moved cale ASUÉ was whirled on the arm of the lever with the fame velocity, it was found on many trials by Mr. Edgeworth of Edgeworth Town in Ireland, and by myfelf, that the wind by being thus reverted upwards by a fixed planed board did not feem to lofe any of its power. And as the height of the tower may be made twice as great as the diameter of the fail, there is reafon Se that the power of this horizontal wind-fail may be confiderably greater, L than if the fame fail was placed nearly vertically oppofed to the wind in the ufual man- ner, At the bottom of the fhaft of the wind-fail is placed a centrifugal pump with two arms at€ D, which has been defcribed in mechanical authors. It confifts fimply of an upright bored trunk, or cylinder of lead, with two oppolite arms with an adapted valve at the bot- tom to prevent the return of the water, and a valve at the e xtremity of each arm to pre- vent any ingrefs of air above the current of the water as it flows out. ee[e ccccisa circular trough to receive the ftreams of water from C and D, to convey em where required. late VII.| Ject: XL.°-36 ounded| r ro-inch| KDE À| INC DIE| e) tp| itres Of||| n tha|||||| om{ne d all HITS li À M Him nn D rm L À||(l : TT| th | \\|| 11! Laine J VUS ni there! IC 1 Anny eu {0 COUTV) London, Publis PS0, 0 4 ithed Jan 11800 OV J Johnson, S'Panti iunch Var — ÉD E M mme==— D"# LS. ses 7 fr_ Ps. A us te à% PR SE us a= j M ü:—-= L arme sten, ss TT LASER RE E LR Gen— A M ee: IT u - NE RE TN Pr LS SCET: XIE:4, PULVERIZATION. 287 Ît fhould be added, that fome plants are faid not to impoverifh the ground, on which they have grown dwing their herbaceous flate, before the fced-flems have arifen;. as turnips, when drawn up and carried away to feed cattle or fheep on other grounds, This has been afcribed by fome authors to the foil having been fhaded by their thick foliage, and thus not having fuffered{o much by evaporation. Some have afcribed this fuppofed melioration of the foil to its having been {creened or overfhadowed by the thicker foliage of fuch crops; and that as the putrefaétive procefs of vegetable recrements proceeds beft in damp and confined air, as wood decays fooneft in cellars, they fup- pofe the foil may thus become improved. But Mr.Tull feems either to doubt the fa@, or to attribute it to the ground, where fuch plants are cultivated, being ufually once or twice hoed; and thus in effect to have been followed by the repeated aeration and pulverization of the foil, and the deftruétion of innumerable weeds. If neverthelefs the fa@ be true, not only all the circumftances above mentioned may contribute to produce it, but alfo, as it appears by the experiments of Prieftley and Ingenhoufe, that though the perfpirable matter of vegetable leaves gives out oxygen in the fuhfhine, yet that it gives out carbonic acid in the fhade; which even in its aerial or gaffeous form is much heavier than common air, and will therefore fubfide on the earth in the fhade of this perfpiring foliage, and con- tribute to enrich the foil by the hourly addition of carbon. 4. Neverthelefs where the{oil is already replete with manures, and thefe proceiles produ&tive of carbonic, nitrous, and phofphoric l = acids, and of volatile alkali, are going on in proper abundance: fuch foils muft be injured by being too frequently turned over in fummer fallowins; and thus by expofing too great a furface, and that too fre- quently, to the air, the funfhine, and the rain; by which much of the fluid carbonic acid will be converted into aerial carbonic acid, and efcape,as well as the phofphorus and the ingredients in their ftate pre- vious to the produétion of nitrous acid, and of the volatile alkali. On Ô this ——# EE L 288 AERATION AND SECT AXES. this account in the manufa@ure of nitre in France, Spain, and Pruffa, it is directed to cover the compoñt of{oil and animal recre- ments with a fhed to prevent too great exhalation and ablution. Hence though a fummer fallow may be of advantage to a poor foil, which has nothine to lofe; it mufñt be difadvantageous to a rich one, which has nothing to gain.| Lord Dundonald in his work on the Connection of Agriculture and Chemiftry ingenioufly fuppofes, that foils become injured, when much expofed to the air by fallowing, from the carbon or other inflammable matters uniting with oxygen; and that then be- ing again combined with other materials, they become infoluble, pro- ducing limeftone, calcareous nitre, and phofohat of lime. But there is another injury to foil by frequent fallowing, which I fufpeét to be more extenfive, from the efcape of carbonic acid, or of nitrous acid, or of ammonia, into the atmofphere in the form of gas, as above mentioned; or their being wafhed away by rains. 3. Hence the great advantages of Mr.Tulls ingenious difcovery of the drill hufbandry are eafily underftood, 1. By fowing the wheat in rows, fcattered by a drill-plough at regular diftances, and buried at a regular depth, the grain is neither crowded, nor too thinly difperfed. 2. Nor are the roots buried either too deep in the foil, or too fhal- low. 3. By turning the foil firft from the rows in the fpring for a week or two, and then turning it up againft the rows, the foil be- comes newly aerated with all the good effets in confequence. 4. It becomes more penetrable by the fuperficial roots of the corn. 5. By raifing it to the fecond joint of the corn-ftems, four or fix new roots with new ftems will fhoot out, generated by the caudex of the fe- cond leaf of the corn-ftem; which is now within the foil, or in contaét with it, as explained in Seét. IX. 3. 1. and 7. XVI. 2. 2. Thus Mr. Tull's method of heaping foil againft wheat-plants up to the fecond joint anfwers in fome degree the fame purpofe, as tranfplauting the roots, and fetting them deeper in the foil with much , arbon or «then be- uble, pro- But there (pect to be TOUS acid, as above covery of wheat in buried at a . r too{hal- ring for à 1e foil be- ce, 4. ,$BY jew rOOtS f the fe- foil, of 1 1, 2,2 t-plants UP purpofe, 45 e fol with much Secr. XIL&. PULVERIZATION. 289 much lefs expence of labour. But for the more perfect pulveriza- tion of the foil, and the more complete aeration of it, he infifts much on the preference of horfe-hocins to hand-hoeins; as the former pailes deeper into the foil, and thus expofes a greater quantity of it to the air; and efpecially of that part of it, which before lay too much beneath the furface to be previoufly much affe@ed by the in- cumbent atmofphere. But the great objection to the ufe of the horfe-hoe is, that the alternate rows of corn muft be placed at too great a diftance, as will be again fpoken of in Sed. AN T.:2.2. To the many advantages of the drill hufbandry above recited Mr. Full adds, that“ where the fpring-turnips are ufed too late in the year, there is not time to bring the land into tilth for barley, and there is a lofs of the barley crop in confequence; which he fays is entirely remedied by the drilling method; for by that the land may be almoft as well tilled before the turnips are eaten or taken off, as it can afterwards.”” Hufbandry, Chap, VIIL p. 89. SO many great advantages feem to accrue from Mr. Tull'< method of drill-fowing and horfe-hoeing, that a curious queftion offers itfelf, Why it has not been more generally adopted? Firft, I fuppofe, be- caufe it is difficult to teach any thing new to adult ignorance, fo that the mañfter muft for fome time attend the procefs with his own eyc. Secondly, I believe the axle-tree of Mr.Tull’s fowing machine did not accurately emit the proper quantity of feed from the hopper, and was liable to bruife and deftroy fome of it in its paflage. And thirdly, that the improved drill machine of Mr. Cock’s patent is too expen- five for the purchafe of fmall farmers, who fear that it may not fwer the expected advantages. A1 dia I have therefore given a print at the end ofthis work ofa machine conftructed on a cheaper plan, which is fimply an improvement ofthat defcribed in Mr. T'uil’s book, by enlarging that part of the axle-tree which déelivers the‘grain, into a cylinder of fome inches diameter Pb with 299 AERATION AND SecT: XI. 6. with excavations in the rim; which rim rifes above the furface of the corn in the feed- box, and lets drop again into the feed-box, what- ever grains fill the holes above the level of the rim, as that fide of the cylinder afcends. Whence the quantity delivered is uniform, and no grains are in the way to be bruifed or injured, as explained at large along with the print; and the whole machine is fimple, and of fmall expence. 6. The moft effe@ual method of obtaining the great combined ad- vantages of acration and pulverization of the foil is by tranfplanting the roots of wheat, and parting them, as already fpoken of in Seét. IX. 3.7. By taking up the roots and replanting them in foil lately turn- ed over, and confequently expofed to the air, which is now confined in its interftices, all the advantages already mentioned are effe&tually received, from the new made fluid, carbonic, nitrous, and phofphoric acids, and from the ammonia, and other unnamed combinations. Se- condly, all the advantages arifing from the eafy penetrability of the loofe foil by the root-fibres, which are believed by Mr.Tull to put out more radicles with abforbent mouths at every part, where they are diffevered, like a brufh or pencil of hairs. Thirdly, by parting the root-fcions from each other they acquire greater fpace of air for their refpiring leaves, and of foil for their abforbent roots. Whereas when too many ftems arife from one root, or many feeds are fown near together, a tuflock is produced in a conical form rifing higheft in the center; which feems to be occafioned by the conteft of the ftems for air and light; their roots alfo muft defcend lower in their conteft for moifture, and for other advantages of the foil; whence many of thefe crowded ftems become barren, producing no ears, or ill-corned ones. Another benefit from tranfplanting corn is owing to the quicker tendency to fruétification, and confequent fooner ripening of the grain. Thus tranfplanted garden beans and tranfplanted brocoli flower fogner, and I fuppofe produce lefs ftems or ftraw, as men- tioned SECT. MIE 6: PULVERIZATION. 201 rface of 0 tioned in Se&. XVI. 1.2. I am alfo well informed by the Rev. Mr. “pr the Pole of Radborne, that the roots of thofe turnips, which were drawn ane out of the ground and tranfplanted, became confiderably larger than ee. thofe, DHER were only hoed in the common manner; Whick I fup- rs of pofe to have been owing to many of the extremities of the roots hav- ing been torn off in drabite them out of the ground; and that thence el the tendency to fhoot up the new central ftem is delayed, and the re- | fervoir of nourifhment accumulated in the tuberous root is thus in- lanting creafed in quantitv, as feveral of thefe turnips Weighed ten and eleven 8 IX. pounds; and hence probably the tranfplanting turnips by means of ÿ M a cylhindrical fpade defcribed in Vol, IV. of the Bath Society, which onfued tears the roots lefs, might not have been fo advantageous. Something EQualy fimilar occurs in rnfblédtiné fruit-trées. Sée Se. XV. 2. 4. DipUQHE But the great advantage of tranfplanting wheat above the drill- ns, Se- hufbandry confifts in being able at the fame time to divide the root- of the fcions from each other; and thus not only to prevent their crowd- put out ing each other, but alfo wonderfully to increafe the produ& from a hey are RU grain, with many other advantages mentioned by Mr. Bogle ing the in the works of the Bath Society, Vol. HI. P. 494. for their Another great advantage oftranfplanting wheat confifts in this, that as when it may be fowed in a garden, one acre of which will produce fets for yn near one Rundred acres, if they be divided and planted at nine inches dif- heft in tance from each other; and as they are not to bé tranfplanted till the e fems fpring, wheat may be thus cultivated in moifter fituations than would contelt otherwife be friendly to its growth. anv OË And that a clean crop may bé certainly thus procured; becaufe if comed the lahd be ploughed immediately before the plants are fet out, the corn will fpring much quicker from the plants, than the wéeds from quicker| their feeds; and the corn will thence bear down the growth of the ip het weeds., | Lo For many other particulars the reader is referred to the ingenious 44 paper Of Mr. Bocle above mentioned, who thinks the tranfplanting Le P p2 might RE nee Er LL es. or mm re 202. AERATION AND Secr, XIL y. might be done by boys and girls at a fmall expence; 1 fhall only add, that rape-feed, which is generally fown in Augult, and not reaped till the Auguft following, might be profitably tranfplanted, as well as peas and beans. And laftly, that it is probable, that fome means of making the holes to receive the plants might be much expedited by a broad wheel to be drawn by a man or horfe with prominent pegs on its periphery two inches tall, and nine inches afunder. 7. Another means of aeration and of pulverization has been ufed in refpeét to wheat crops by many with advantage, and that is by drawing a lightifh harrow over a wheat-crop in the fpring, which, where a crop is thin, is particularly recommended; and may alfo be of fervice where it is too thick. The harrow by breaking the clods,and byturning up the foil againft the ftems of many plants, earths them deeper as in hoeing; and thus by burying the fecond joint occafions it to tiller, or fhoot out new root-fcions; at the fame time the earth is expofed to the air, and many weeds are rooted up and covered, and fome roots of the corn. The drawing a fharp harrow over a field of wheat in the fpring muft cut or tear many of the roots of thofe ftems, which it comes Rear, which accordine to Mr. Tull’s theory would fhoot out many new radicles, or pencils of fine roots, and thus acquire more nourifh- ment. But I fufpe@ that tearing of many of the root-fibres prevents the too luxuriant growth of the ftem and leaves, and thence fooner produces the fructification, as in tranfplanting. At the fame time the earth being loofened becomes more penetrable to the remaining roots, as well as more nutritive from its aeration. Others have even ploughed à field at this feafon with good effeét, as Mr. Bogle afferts; but both of them appear to be only inferior kinds of dril hufbandry; and the former may fo far be of confider- able utility. 8. Another method of aerating and pulverizing the foil of a wheat field in fpring is by rolling it, which may be done before or after the . à ufe oo—— mi TT PT À | MNaane AC 1ICAaNsS OÏ en ufed at 15 by which, allo be and thus ut nEW e{pring t comes ut many nourifh- prevents e foone l effect, inferot -onfidet- SEcr. XJL 8. PULVERIZATION. 29 C3 ufe of the harrow, or without it.‘: As the furface of a wheat field is generally left rough with clods or eminences, the preffure of a hea- vyifh roller will not only pulverize thefe, and thus expofe their inte- rior furface to the air, and raife the foil round the wheat-ftems above the fecond joint, and thus induce them to fhoot out new root-fcions, or tiller; but will alfo prefs down the wheat roots into the{oil, and thus alfo promote the growth of new ftems, as mentioned in Sec. XVI 2. 5. if it be performed, when the ground is neither too wet nor too dry for fuch an operation. SECT, LIGHM HEAT, SecT. XII. SE, CHE XIII. OF LIGHT, HEAT, ELECTRICITY. T1. Licur and best are différent fluids. Light does not beat tranfparent bodies. A glafs fre-fereen, combines with opake bodies, and heat is detruded. 2. Light combines with folid oxygen, and with beak converts it info gas. Perfpiration of plants is decompojed by light. The hydrogen retained gives the green colour. Wa- ter byper-oxygenated. Oxygenated marine acid. Colourlefs nitrous acid. À branch émmerfed in carbonic acid and water. 3. Etiolation of vegetables. Bleaching ow- ing to oxygen. Coloar of plants to hydrogen, and tbe yellow tan of the fkin. Pure air from dew. of plants oxygenated. Light tans living bodies, and bleaches dead ones, both vegetable and animal. 4. Ufe of light in vegetable rejpi- ration. Plants do not refpire in the nigbt. and fungi live without igbt. s. Spring water frequently oxygenated. Air liberated by points. 6. Plants re- quire oxygen. Fallacy of contrary experiments. XL. 1. HEAT univerfal. Counter-| aës gravitation. Is the ceufe of fluïdity, and of acriform Jrate. Particles of mat- k ter do not touch. Heat becomes combined. Is ft at liberty in produëfion of acids. In freezing water. 2. Froft defroys fluidity. Ice expands. cosnpound|| Puids from each other, and burfis the veffels of plants. Not of evergreens. Rime{ frofis and black frofis. Low fituations not proper for gardens. Ufe of coping Jones: on fruit-walls. of young peas from S. E. 10 S.W. Bend fig-trees on the| ground. Frot erroneoufly believed to meliorate the Joil, and to be wbolefome. Clay| rendered denfer by froff. Snow proteëts plants. Animals covered with fnow are| not wet or fiarved. Lichen rangiferinus. 3. Cold defiroys vegetable irritability.| Het is a fhimulus. Acquired habits: of plants. 4. Cold produced by evaporation.| Plants not to be watered in tbe funfhine. WI. 1. ÉLECTRICITY confifès of two| fluids. Forwards the growth of plants æwbether pofitive or negative. Lightning| defroys them. 2, It affifts the decompofition of water in vegctables. 3. Clouas| 6 are CT, XIII rent bodies, 2. Lipht fpiration of hour. Wa- . À ranch aching ow- kin. Pure bodies, and table refpi- itbout Hgbt, . Plants re- al, Counter- cles of mat- ion f acids. Les compoutd sens. Rime Secr. XIIL. 1.1. ELECTRICIT Ÿ. 295 are Senerally eleltrifed plus. Experiment on vapour. Rain from hydrogen and cxygen.. Thunder Jhowerss 4. Eleffric points to colleS dew, and promote ve- getation. clock. T1. PHILOSOPHERS are not yet agreed,whether light and heat bethe fame fluid under different modifications, or two different fluids,which exift frequently together. The latter opinion feems to be more pro- bable from the circumftances related below, and alfo from the ana logy of other aqueous, aerial, or ethereal fluids, which appear to con- ft of two other fluids combined or diffufed with each other. Thus water confifts of oxygen and hydrogen combined together. Atmo- fpheric air of oxygen and nitrogen diffufed together, Ele@ricity pro: bably confifts of two fluids, which may be termed vitreous and re- finous eleétricity. Magnetifm alfo probably confifts of two fluids, which conftitute northern and fouthern polarity. The power of at- traétion feems to confift of gravitation and of chemical affinity. And laftly, the element of fire confifts I fuppofe of light and heat, Fhe diffimilarity of light and heat is evinced by this fimple cir- cumftance; that as light gives no heat to tranfparent bodies, which the emanations from a fire do, there is reafon to believe them to be different fluids. Thus when fmoke is blown near the focus of 2 large burning glafs, it does not afcend; which fhews, that the air is not heated and rarified by it; though it would burn or vitrify in an in- flant any opake body, which might be oppofed to it; but the ema- coping floues nations of heat from a fire foon rarify and warm the airinits vicinity, press on fe caufing it to afcend, as may be feen by a fpiral card-vann placed over glme. Clay a chimney-piece, and which is agreeably feen in the ufe of the new th Jnow are glafs fire-fcreens of Parifian invention, which placed before a parlour iritabihty- fire permit the rays of Hght to pafs, but intercept the emanations of evapor ae fluid heat., ms 91 Whence it would feem, that light does not itfelf communicate heat nu# to opake bodies, when it falls on them; but combines: with them, J” and a—— x—— a a ge| ÿ 296 LIGHT, HEAT, Secr, XIIL. 1. 2. and by that union heat is detruded or given out; which heat may produce inflammation of the material, if it be of an inflammable na- ture, by uniting it with the oxygen of the atmofphere; and thus producing an oh of more heat from the oxygen, and greater in- flammation of the burning body. 2. Another eflential A fetencs between light and heat confifts in the particular attra@tion of the former to oxygen; infomuch that by their union the combined or folid oxygen becomes changed into au acrial, or gafleous flate; as conftantly occurs, when ne fun fhines on the hyper-oxygenated water, which is perfpired or exhaled from plants, as mentioned in Botanic Garden, Vol. I. Cant. IV. 1. 25. But as an addition of heat feems neceflary to the converfion of a folid or fluid body into an acrial or gaffeous one, 1 fuppofe the fun’s light at the fame time by conne alfo with the water fets at To fome latent heat from it, which gives wings to the oxygen. The water perfpired by plants, SA expofed to the funfhine, is believed to be decompofed, as it efcapes from the fine extremities of the exhalent or perfpirative vefñels of plants; and that the hydrogen is reabforbed by the mouths of thofe veflels, as explained in Botanic Garden, Vol. I. note 34. That this happens to a certain degree is evinced by etiolated or blanched vegetable leaves becoming green, when expofed to the funfhine in a few days; which is, 1 bete v produced by their retaining the hydrogen of the water they perfpire, as it is decompofed by the fun’s lisht. But ît is alfo probable, that Le perfpired fluid of plants is previ- oufly hyper- oxygenated in the vegetable circulation. Firft, becaufe there is never perceived any fimell of hydrogen to attend this procefs of liberating oxygen by the fun’s light. And fecondly, becaufe the fol- lowing produétions of oxygen gas by the fun’s hoht are fimilar phe- nomena: though I fuppofe t the points or hairs on vecctable leaves may SELON to the efcape of the oxygen, as explained in Botanic Gar- , Vol, I. note 10. = Sn XIII. 1% eat may mable na. and thus reater in onfifts in 1 that by À into au un fhines led from 26. But a{old or ls light at erty fome fhine, 1 mities of nydrogen n Botanic . A 3 À QESTÉE(5 “+ Pr PO y ortee—ee MO S DR TRS ER AG SC dE ES mm 4m mp SES; SECTADOT.:1:22. ELECTRICITY, 297 Sir Benj. Thompfon, now Count R umford, in a paper publifhed in Philof, Tran Vol: LXXVI.: put thirty grains of raw filk previ- oufly wafhed into fome fpring water, and expoling it fome hours to the funfhine obtained from it very pure vital air, or oxygen gas. In that experiment the fpring water feems to have been in a ftate of hy- per-oxygenation, and the points or fine edces of the raw filk to have aflifted its liberation from the water in the funfhine, as explained in Botanic Garden, Vol. II. note on fucus. 2. The hyper-oxysenated marine acid is known very haftily to part with its fuperabundant oxygen in the funfhine, 3. Mr. Scheele inverted à glafs veflel filed with colourlefs nitrous acid into another glafs-vefel containing the fame acid; and on expofing them to the fun’s light, the inverted glafs became partly filled with pure air, and the acid at the fame time be- came coloured. Crell’s Annal. 1736. As water contains 85 hundredth parts of oxygen to 15 of hydro- gen, it may become much oxygenated occafionally by a fmall lofs of hydrogen in the vegetable fyftem; or by the carbonic acid being de- compoled in plants by the fecretion of carbon, which conftitutes fo great a part of them; and that on both of thefe accounts they may yield oxygen gas, when expofed to the fun’s light, as appears from the following experiment related from Von Uflar by G. Schmeifier. Ob- fervat. on Plants. Creech, Edinburgh, p. 92. Iftwo branches of a plant are immerfed, one in common water, and the other in water impregnated with carbonic acid, we then find, that the branch immerfed in the latter yields a much greater quau- tity of oxygenous gas in the funfhine than the other. The difference in fome experiments has been found in the proportion of 264 to r. But the proportions vary when different plants are fubjeéted to trial. Thus the carbonic acid, with which the water is impreonated, is de- compofed by the branch, the carbon apparently enters into the con- ftution of the‘plant, while the oxygen is fet at liberty, and efcapes Q q In rasrages rs Er et PIGHTSHEAT: SET ANT AE in the form of gas in the funfhine; but not in the night, as then the carbon is perfpired along with it. 3. À third circumftance, in which the effects of light differ effen- tially from thofe of heat, appears in the blanching or etiolation of ve- getables; under whatever temperature of heat a plant is kept, it be comes white, if the light be excluded from it, and is fo far difeafed, as mentioned in Seét. XIV. 2.4. Whence all vegetables turn towards the window, if confined in a room, and in denfe woods grow taller, than in open grounds, for the purpofe of acquiring accets to this ne- ceflary fluid. On this fubjeét many experiments are related by M. Senebier on vegetables confined in a dark cavern.+ From the experiment laft related of the nitrous acid becoming co- loured, when the fuperabundant oxygen was volatilized by the fun’s light, or attraëted from it; and from the experiments of bleaching cotton by the hyper-oxygenated marine acid, where the union of oxygen with the colouring matter feems to deftroy the latter by forming a new acid, which is colourlefs, it appears, that.the abfence of oxygen occafions the colour of vegetable bodies, probably by the accumulation of hydrogen; and that on this account, when they are fecluded from the light, they become white, or blanched, or etiolat- ed, by their not being in a fituation to part with fo much oxygen, as when they are expofed to the light. Hence plants growing in the fhade are white, and become green by being expofed to the fun’s light; for their natural colour being blue, the addition of hydrogen adds yellow to this blue, and#a4ys them green. I fuppofe à fimilar circumftance takes place in anima! bodies; their perfpirable matter is probably hyper-oxygenated; and, as it efcapes in the funfhine, lofes its fuperabundant oxygen; and by the hydro- gen being retained the fkin becomes zanred yellow. Though this muft occur in lefs quantity in animals, as they perfptre fo much lefs than Ir, Secr. XIII. 1. 3. ELECTRICITY. 299 en the than vegetables; and the oreatef part of their perfpired matter, which le,(e) D fi cxhales from the lungs, is not expofed to the fun’s lioht. In proof °T Ellen Of this it muft be obferved, that both vegetable and animal fubftances n of ve- become bleached white by the fun-beams and Water, when they are tbe. dead, as cabbage-ftalks, bones, ivory, tallow, bees-wax, linen and cotton hfeafed, clothi; and hence, I fuppofe, the Copper coloured natives of funny towards y taller, countries might become etiolated, or blanched, by being kept from their infancy in the dark, or removed for a few generations to more this ne- northern climates. À by M. It is probable, that on a funny morning much pure air becomes i feparated from the dew by means‘of the points of vegctables, on Ming Co- which it adheres, and much inflammable air imbibed by the vegeta- the fun’s ble, or combined with it: and, by the fun’s hght thus decompofing leaching water, the effe@s of it in bleaching linen feem to depend; the nion of water 1$ decompofed by the light at the ends or points of the cotton atter by or thread; and the vital air unites with the phlosific or colouring abfénce matters of the cloth; and produces a new acid, which is either itfelf y by the colourlefs, or wafhes out; at the fame time the hydrogen or inflam- $ they are mable part of the water efcapes. Hence there feems a realon, why RTS cotton bleaches fo much fooner than linen 5 VIZ. becaufe its fibres are 1 Oxygen, me green our being ba ans them es; their it capes three or four times fhorter, and therefore protrude fo many more points; which feem to facilitate the liberation of the vital air from the inflammable part of the water. À fun-flower three feet and a half high, according to the experi- ment of Dr. Hales, perfpired two pints in one day,(vegetable flatics) which is many times as much in Proportion to its furface, as is per= {pired from the furface and lungs of animal bodies; it follows, that the vital air, liberated from the furface of plants by the funfhine, muft much exceed the quantity of it abforbed by their refpiration; and se hydro” that hence they improve the air, in which they live, during the light| jough 1 part of the day; and thus blanched vegetables will fooner become| much JEiS Q q 2 tanned|| than;|| ni 4 a; ae= ET QE a— LL /=. Rs, re _É= GES 3 D ST A ne) 2-6 En 06 + re L AE LES-»# CS ee M e He. Rues 30G CIGEES FIAT, SECTIXELrE3P tanned into green by the fun’s light, than etiolated animal bodies will become anned yellow by the fame means. Laitiys his retention of the hydrogen on the fkins of vegetable: and animals, when their perfpirable matter is decompofed by the fun’s yel= x light, and by which the former becomes green, and the latter low, is evidently owing to the power of life: becaufe when: either of them are dead, the action of the funfhine on the water fprinkled on them again blanches them, or bleaches them white. It is hence evident, that the curious difcovery of Dr. Priefiley, that his orecn vegetable matter, and other aquatic plants, gave out vital air, when the fun fhone upon them; and the leaves of other plants did the fame when immerfed in water, as obferved by Mr. Ingen- houz, refer to the perfpiration of vegetables, not to their refpiration. Becaufe Dr. Prieftley obferved the pure air to come from both fides of the leaves, and even from the ftalks of a water-flag, whereas one fide of the leaf only ferves the office of lungs, and certainlÿ not the ftalks. Exper. on Air, Vol. HI. And thus in refpeét to the circum- ftance, in which plants and animals feemed the fartheft removed from each other, 1 mean in their fuppofed mode of refpiration, by which one was believed to purify the air, which the other had injured, they feem to differ only in degree; and the analogy between them re- mains unbroken. 4. The conteft for light, as well as for air, which is fo vifible im the growth of vegetables, as defcribed in Botanic Garden, Vol. If, note on cufcuta, fhews the former to be of great confequence to their exiflence as well asthe latter.‘Thus many flowers follow the fun during the courfe of the day by the nutation of the ftalks, not by the rotation of them, as obferved in the fun-flower by Dr. Hales; and the leaves of all plants endeavour to turn their upper furface to the light, which is their refpiratory organ, or lungs, as fhewn in Set. IV. The tal Î nt y QU Vita \- CT plants 1DIFATION, 1 sl ER PACA otn{1deS >reas ONE not the Circum- red from oy W ich 1 Levy ureo, ENEY {urface 10 ll The SEcr/X NE 1.5. ELECOTRICEET: 20:11 S) The great ufe of all plants turning their upper furfaces of their leaves to the light is thus intelligible; the water perfpired from thofe furfaces is hyper-oxygenated; and, as it cfcapes from the fharp edges ofthe mouths of the perfpiring veffels, when aéted upon by the fun’s light, gives out oxygen; which oxygen, thus liberated from the per- fpired water, and added to that of the common atmofphere, prefents to the refpiratory terminations of the pulmonary arteries on the upper furfaces of leaves an atmofphere more replete with vital air. This neceffty of light to the refpiration of vegetables is fo great, that there is realon to believe, that many plants do not refpire during the night, but exift in a torpid ftate like winter fleeping infedts. Thus the mimofa, fenfible plant, and many others, clofe the upper furfaces of their oppofite leaves together during the night, and thus And the internal f{ur- faces of innumerable flowers, which are their refpiratory organs, are clofed during the night, and thus unexpofed both to light and air. preclude them both from the air and hght. The fungei neverthelefs, which are termed vegetables, becaufe they are fixed to the earth, or to the ftones, or trees, or timber, 18 pears in the trufHe, which never appears above ground; and by other where they are found, can exift without light or much air; as ap fungi, which grow in dark cellars; and in efculent mufhrooms, which are cultivated beneath beds of ftraw. From this circumftance of their extfting without light, and from their fmell of volatile al- kali, like burnt feathers, when they are burnt, and from their tafte when cooked and eaten, they feem to approximate to the animal kingdom. 5. Laftly. It may neverthelefs be fufpeéted, that in many of the experiments of Dr. Prieftley and Dr. Ingenhouz, the produétion of vital air might be fimply owing to the aétion of the fun’s light on the water, in which the vegetables were immerfed, like that from the filk in the experiment of Count Rumford; and that the fine points, or fharp edges of thofe bodies, contributed only to facilitate the SP wie pee Eee ere ”. Re ets D fe. es 302 LIGHT; HEAT, SECT XIH à 146 the Liberation of it, when expofed to the funfhine, which thus dif- oxygenate the water by their united effet. This appears on immerfing a dry hairy leaf in water frefh from a pump, innumerable globules like quickfilver appear on almoit every point; for the extremities of thefe points attraét the particles of wa- ter lefs forcibly, than thofe particles attraét each other; hence the contained air, whofe elafticity was but juft balanced by the attractive power of the furrounding particles of water to each other, finds at the point of each fibre a place, where the refiftance to its expanfion is lefs; and in confequence it there expands, and becomes a bubble of air. Itis eafy to forefee, that the rays of the funfhine, by being re- fraGted and in part refleéted by the two furfaces of thefe minute air- bubbles, muft impart to them much more heat than to the tranfpa- rent water; and thus facilitate their afcent by further expanding them; and that the points of vegetables attraét the particles of water lefs, than they attract each other, is feen by the fpherical form of dew-drops on the points of grafs. 6. It may be added in this place, that there may alfo be a fallacy in the fuppofed refults of thofe experiments, where plants have been confined in hydrogen or azote mixed with atmofpheric air; and have been believed to have vegetated more vigoroufly, and to have me- liorated the air. In thefe experiments I fufpeét, that the impure part of the air was attracted by the water, and taken up by the abforbents of the roots of the plants fromthe water, rather than by the abforbents of their leaves or ftems in the air; and that the melioration of the air was occafioned, as above defcribed, by the ation of the light on the water perfpired from the furface of the plant, or liberated by its points from the water, with which part of it was covered. This is rendered more probable, becaufe plants and féeds in the experiments of others ceafed to vegetate in thofe gafles, which were totally de- prived of oxygen, as in M, Scheele’s experiments on the growth of feeds. IT, 1. The ÂTIL, 1, 6, thus dif- fh from à noft every les of wa- hence the attractive , finds at expanfion bubble of being re- minute ar= he tran{pa- expanding s of water 1 form of e a fallacy have been ; and have ) have me- mpure part abforbents abforbents | Of the air ht on the ted by its This 8 gperiments totally de- growtl of Le fs, The Secr. XIIL. 2. 1. ELECTRICIT Y. 303 IT. 5. The fluid matter of heat is one of the moft extenfive ele- ments in nature, perhaps next to that of gravitation; all other bodies are immerfed in it, and are preferved in their prefent flate of folidity or fluidity by the different attraction of their particles to the matter of heat, which thus counteraëts the powers of gravitation, and of chemical affinity, which would otherwife comprefs them into one folid chaotic mafs! Since all known bodies are contraëétible into lefs fpace by deprivins them of fome portion of their heat; and as there is no part of nature totally deprived of heat; there is reafon to believe, that the particles of bodies do not touch, but are held towards each other by their felf- attraétion, or recede from each other by their attraétion to the maf of heat, which furrounds them; and thus exift in an equilibrium be- tween thefe two powers. If more of the matter of heat be applied to them, they recede far- ther from each other, and become fluid; if ftill more be applied, they take an aerial form, and are termed gafles; and it is probable, that the ethereal fluid of eleétricity may alfo be diffufed with heat, as well as the ethereal fluid of light. Thus when water is heated to à certain degree, it would inftantiy affume the form of fteam, but for the preffure of the atmofphere: which prevents this change from taking place fo eafily; the fame is true of quickfilver, diamonds, and of perhaps all other bodies in na- ture; they would frft become fluid, and then aeriform, by appro- priated degrees of heat. On the contrary, this elaftic matter of heat, termed Calorique in the new nomenclature of the French academi- cians, 1s liable to become confolidated itfelf in its combinations with bodies, as certainly in nitre, and probably in combuftible bodies, as fulphur and charcoal. This combined heat is univerfally fet at liberty in the produ@tion of acids by the union of oxygen with all inflammable bodies, as fhewn in Sect. XII. 1. It is alfo taken from fome bodies by the vicinity of 6 very sr Cpl on ÉIGAMS EPATE, SEeT: XTII:2°2 À jee very cofd ones, as water when frozen lofes fuddenly a part of its combined heat, at the moment it becomes ice. 2. Itis evident, that without fluidity the blood or juices can not circulate in animal or in vegetable vefels; whence fo great a dimi- pution of heat as to produce froft on this account would deftroy them if long continued; at the fame time too great à deduétion of heat is known to deftroy the irritability of animal as well as of vegetable fibres, and muft on this account alfo prevent the circulation of their fluids, and occafion the mortification of parts of them, or the death of the whole. But when fluids are converted into ice, the bulk of them is enlarged to a confiderable degree, and that with fuch vio- lence as to burft iron veflels, as bombs, which are filled with water. Whence in this manner alfo froft deftroys thofe parts of vegetables, which are moft fucculent; as the early fhoots of afh trees, and other young plants, are frequently deftroyed in the beginning of May by à frofty night. The veffels of thefe fucculent parts of plants are diftended and burft by the expanfon of their frozen fluids; while the drier or more refinous vegetables, as pines, yews, laurels, and other everoreens, are lefs liable to injury from cold. The trees in valleys are on this ac- count more liable to injury by the vernal frofts, than thofe on emi- nences; becaufe their early fucculent fhoots appear fooner in the year. Another method, by which the aét of freezing may deftroy vege- table life, may be by feparating fome part of their fluids from other parts of them. Thus when wine, or vineoar, or falt and water, or clay diffufed in water, and perhaps milk, are frozen; the watery part, as it congeals, protrudes from its forming cryftals the fpirit, the acid, the falt, the clay, and probably the opake particles of the milk; and by a fimilar procefs on vegetable and perhaps on animal fluids, when expofed to great cold, they may be rendered unft for future circulation or life. See Sect. XV. 4, 1. The es oo— nart+= palL OL 1ÉS AG han h L VLQ Call No ant à J ns a Secr, XIII. 2. 2, ELECTRICIT Y: 30$ The expanfon of ice neverthelefS well accounts for the greater mifchief which is fometimes done by vernal froft, when preceded by much rain, or mift, or dew, as by hoar-froit, than by the dry frofts eat a dimi without rime, called black frofts; as the vegetable veffels are then “HO Rnem fuller of fluids. But when mift or dew attends à frofty night, but | Of heat 16 has not preceded it, I fuppofe a hoar froft may be lefs injurious than vevetable nt A te 1 re ) Of Chetr a black froft; as the cafe of ice on the buds of trees, or on young grafs, beino imftantly produced, covers them with a bad conduétor the death of heat, and prevents them from being expofed to fo great cold, as ae bulk of in the continuance of a black froft without hoar or rime. See Se&. {uch vio- SAME RTT A water Mr. Laurence, in a letter to Mr. Bradley, complains, that the dale- vecetables, mift attended with a froft on May-day had deftroyed all his tender ]! ann nther , 4114 OLNEI May by a euded and er or more [oreens, are on this ac- ofe on emi- ner in the JUIL fruits; though there was a fharper froft the night before without a mift, that did him no injury; and adds, that a garden not a ftone’s throw from his own on a higher fituation, being above the dale-mift, had received no damage. Bradley, V. II. p.232. From this inftruc- tive fa@ it appears, that very low fituations even in this cold climate are not proper for the purpofes of a garden. And on the contrary, very high fituations are equally improper on account of their greater cold, and the confequent backwardnefs of their vegetable produ&s, Ste Set. XV. 3. 5. Hence fruit trees againft a wall, which are covered with coping ftones proje@ine fix inches over them, are lefs injured by the vernal frofts; becaufe their being thus fheltered from the defcending nicht. dews has prevented them from being moift at the time, they were frozen; which circumftance has given rife to a vulgar error amonoft Sardeners, who fuppofe froft to defcend. v fit the..: 2 #1 e Hence as the freezinc winds of this country are from the north- Che milk;; [ tne eaft, a gardener fhould extend his rows of young peas and beans from mal fuit the fouth-eaft to the north-weft, and raife a mound of earth behind rs Cane fUIUIC. ji fit 107 10 them, and might fhelter them occafonally with ftraw, placed on the Br ground The ‘——— rs a— cr“-_ SE ee ft| ee PRÉ rs Free jKé di TR PAPER tn ET 306 LIGHT, HEAT,, SEcT. XIII 2.2, ground behind the young plants, and fupported a few inches over them in front by poles placed horizontally over the rows; remem- bering the old proverb, The wind from north-eaft Deftroys man and beaft; The wind from fouth-weft Is always the beft. The immediate caufe of the coldnefs of the N. E. winds is, that they confift of regions of air brought from the north over evaporat- ing ice, and gain an apparent cafterly direétion, becaufe they arrive at a part of the furface of the earth, which moves with greater velo- city, than the furface of the part of the earth, they come from. So on the contrary the S.W. winds are warm, as they confift of regions of air brought from the fouth, and gain an apparent wefterly direc- tion, becaufe they arrive at a part of the carth’s furface, which moves flower than the furface nearer the equator, whence they came, and of which they had previoufly acquired the velocity. As the common heat of the earth in this climate is 48 degrees, thofe tender trees, which will bear bending down, are eañly fecured from the froft by fpreading them upon the ground, and covering them with ftraw or fern. This particularly fuits fig-trees, as they are very flexible, and as they are furnifhed with an acrid juice, which defends them from infeëts; but I have neverthelefs found them in this fituation much eaten by mice. It has been believed by many, that froft meliorates the ground; but it is now well known, that ice contains no nitrous particles, as was formerly fuppofed; and that though froft by enlarging the bulk of fome moift foils may leave them more porous for a time after the thaw; yet as the water exhales, the foil becomes as hard as before, being prefied together by the incumbent atmofphere. And from an obfervation of Mr. Kirwan’s, mentioned in Section XV, 4. 1. it ap- | pears, TTL 2, 2, hes over \ Temem. s 1, that evaporat- hey arrive eater velo- from. So of regions rly direc- ich moves ame, and €Ss 4 ice, which d them mn met ps> sis Sùr, XI es; EEECTRICIEY. 2 397 pears, that moift clay becomes denfer or more folid by being frozen: and 1f this fhould not occur, yet it would quickly become as folid as before by the felf-attraction of its particles, called /4/:g by the pot- ters; as well as by the preflure of the atmofphere; as its water ex- hales, and leaves vacuities between its particles. Add to this, that on the coafts of Africa, where froft is unknow», the fertility of the foil is much fuperior to our own. In refpeét to the commonly fuppofed falubrity of frofty feafons to mankind, and to other animals, the bills of mortality are an evidence in the negative in refpe& to mankind, as in long frofts many weakly and old people perifh from debility, occafoned by the diminifhed heat not being fufficient to excite into ation their veflels previoufly too inirritable; and many birds, and other wild animals, and tender vege- tables, perifh benumbed by the degree and continuance of the cold. . It fhould however be obferved, as frofty air is alway dry, except when frozen mifts diflolve, as they adhere to the warmer fkins of ani- mals, that it does not generally afe@ us with fo great a fenfation of cold, as when air near the freezine point is loaded with moiiture: as the moifture of fuch air is perpetuaily evaporating from our fkins, and produces on them a deoree of cold greater than tl taët of dry air produces, when it is but a little beneath the freezing point. Hence frofty air is more agreeable to thofe young or ftrong people, who can keep themfelves warm by exercife; that is, who can generate hcat by increafed fecretions. But fevere and continued frofts deftroy the old and infirm, who cannot ufe much exertion: and the children of the poor, who want both food, fire, and cloth- ing, in this harfh climate. Ît may neverthelefs be true, that fhows of long duration in our win- ters may be lefs injurious to vegetation than great rains and fhorter &= 2 à L frofts. 1. Becaufe great rains carry down many thoufand pounds worth of the beft manure into the fe dually, the upper furf. 16 fimple CON= a; whereas fnow diflolves gra- ice, as it thaws, fliding over the under part, RE 2 which A LS FETE ù E- Re D EC nd 2 Re à oo di De Dé — de TE pe OPA = 308 LIGAT, PHP, SEcr. XL, 22e which remains frozen, and thence carries away lefs from the land into the rivers; whence a fnow flood may be difünguifhed from 3 rain flood by the tranfparency of the water. 1 Secondly. Snow proteéts vegetables from the feverity of the froft; fince it is senerally in a ftate of thaw, where it is in contaë with the earth; as the earth”?s heat is 48 degrees, and that of thawing fnow 1s 32°. The plants between them are generally kept in a degree of heat about 40, by which many of them are preferved. On this ac- count fome plants from Siberia were faid to perifh by the frofts at Upfal; becaufe the fnows did not commence at the fame time as in the colder climate, from which they were brought. Thus the lichen rangiferinus, coral-mofs, vegetates beneath the fnow in Siberia, where the degree of heat is always about 40; that is in the middle between the freezing point and the common heat of the earth, And as this vegetable is for many months of the winter the fole food of the rein-deer, who digs furrows in the fnow to find it; and as the milk and flefh of this animal is almoft the only fuf- tenance, which can be procured bythe natives during the long winters of thofe higher latitudes, this mofs may be faid to fupport fome mil- lions of mankimd. Snow prote@s vegetables, that are covered by it, from cold, bot becaufe it is a bad conduétor of heat itfelf, and contains much air in its pores. When living animals are buried in fnow, as fheep, or hares, the water, which their warmth produces, becomes abforbed into the furrounding fnow by capillary attraion, and the creatures are not moiftened by its dropping on them; but the cavity enlarges, 25 the fnow diffolves, affording them both a dry and a warm habita- tion. Ifthis was generally known, many cold and weary travellers in fnowy nights might be faved by covering themfelves with fnow inflead of endeavouring to proceed. It fhould be added that Haflenfratz has endeavoured to fhew by ingenious chemical experiments, that rain water and. fnow contain 4 both (IL, 2, 2, the land 4 from à the froft: with the his ac= froits at me as I eneath the 10; that is on heat of he winter ww to find only fuf- re . | |\OME mil- cold, both nuch air in ; fheep, Of es abforbed je creatures rm habite- " travellers with fnoW (e to fhe Lÿ ontain [now both ss_ DE Secr. XIII. 283. ELECTRICITY. 3°9 both of them à redundancy of oxygen compared with river water, which they may have acquired in their defcent through the atmo- fphere; and that as oxygen is fhewn by the experiments of Ingen- houz and Senebier to promote the growth of feeds and of plants, he concludes, that rain water and fnow promote vegetation in a much greater degree than river water or ice, which feems to accord with the popular obfervations on this fubjett. 3. Mr. John Hunter by applying thermometers to the internal parts of vegetables newly opened difcovered, that they poflefled in froft; feafons a degree of heat above that of the atmofphere, though lefs than that of cold blooded animals. Whence another deleterious effet of cold on vegetable bodies muft be by deftroying their irritability, and by that means ftopping the abforption and circulation of their juices; in the fame manner as is feen in the pale benumbed fingers of fome people, when expofei to the cold; and which is the immediate caufe of death in thofe, who perifh in the fnow in winter, which occurs long before their fluids are frozen. Fhe neceflity of a certain degree of heat to produce or to preferve the a@ivity of the abforbent veflels of vegetables is well evinced by the experiments of Hales and Duhamel on the rifing fap of vines in the vernal months. On a frofty day, when the fun fhone on one of thofe wounded trees, the fap flowed on the fcuth fide of the tree, but not on the north fide, Phyfique des arbres, Vol. IL. p.258 M. Duhamel further obferves, that the maples in Canada, where the froft is long and fevere, begin to bleed, when wounded with the firf thaw, and ffop again, when it freezes; and that this in frofty days occurs only on the fouth fide of the tree. This acquaints us, that one of the principal properties of heat in refpect to organic bodies, whether of vegetables or animals, con- ffts in its a@ing as a ftimulus; and that in a greater quantity than that, which the organized being has been accuftomed to, it as as an excefs of flimulus; and thus increafes the a@ivity of the fyftem in _— 310 LIGHT, FAT, S@r. XIIL. 3.1, in refpeét to the abforption of its food, circulation of its juices, and quantity of its fecretions, and confequently to its more rapid growth; but all increafe of ftimulus becomes injurious by its excefs, and is cer- tainly followed by debility; as is feen in thofe of our own fpecies, who are habitually kept in too warm rooms, or are accuftomed to drink intoxicating liquors. Hence a wife gardener muft regard the acquired habits of tender vegetables; the inhabitants of his green houfe, and thofe plants, which have been expofed to a greater heat for any length of time, fhould be gradually cooled, and watered with fubtepid water; fince expofing them to the cold of this climate is otherwife liable to de- ftroy their irritability and occafion their death, 4. The great cold produced by evaporation is now well under-. ftood. In all chemical proceffes, where aerial or fluid bodies become confolidated, a part of the heat, which was before latent, becomes preffed out from the uniting particles; as in the inftant that water freezes, or that water unites with quick lime, Onthe reverfe, when folid bodies become fluid, or fluid ones become aerial, heat is abforbed by the folution; whence it may be faid in popular language, that all chemical combinations produce heat, and all chemical folutions pro- duce cold. This fhould teach the careful gardener not to water ten- der vegetables in the heat of the funfhine, or in a warm dry wind; left the hafty evaporation fhould produce fo much cold as to deftroy them; and that more certainly from their having been previoufly too much ftimulated by heat, and in confequence their power of life, orirritability, having been already diminifhed; as further fpoken of in Set: XIV. 2. 2. è III. 1.‘The mechanical theory of eleétricity invented by Dr. Franklin is believed by fome philofophers npt fo well to explain the various phenomena of electricity, as may be accomplifhed by an hy- pothefis of the exiftence of two elcétric fluids diffufed together, and ftrongly attra@ting each other, one of them to be called vitreous, and the © L AN 3, di | Secr. XIII. Br. ÉLECTRICITY, gr JUices, and FU Se_—. pd erowth: the other refinous, ele@ricity. The latter opinion Î am inclined to à La efpoufe, but fhall not here enter into a detail of the theory; but fhall ee LUN.°. e own fpecies only obferve, that the experiments on vegetation have been principallÿ made with the accumulation of the vitreous eleétricity only, and the confequent exclufon of the refinous; thatis, with what is commonly termed pofitive ele&ricity, and not with what is termed negative eleüricity. Its therefore to be wifhed, that fome future experiments may be made with the refinous or negative eleétricity in preference: to the vitreous or poñtive eleétricity, or with both of them alter- ternately or comparatively. cuflomed to ts of tender aofe plants, th of time, ater; fince able to de- à ge; su The influence of pofñtive or vitreous eleétricity in forwardine the: germination of plants and their growth feems to be pretty well efta- blifhed; though Mr. Ingenhouz did not fucceed in his experiments, and thence doubts the fuccefs of thofe of others; and though M. Rouland, from his new experiments believes, that neither pofitive nor negative eletricity increafes vegetation; both which philofophers bad previoufly been fupporters of the contrary doétrine; for many well under. odies becomt it, becomes that water erfe, when is abforbed other naturalifts have fince repeated their experiments relative to this age, that all object, and their new refults have confirmed their former ones. Mr. jolutions pro- D'Ormey and the two Roziers have found the fame{uccefs in nu to water ten- merous experiments, which they have made in the two laft years: n dry wind; and Mr. Carmoy has fhewn in a convincing manner, that eleétricity as to deftroy accelerates germination. n previoufly Mr, D'Ormey not only found various feeds to vegetate fooner, and oweroflife,| to grow taller, which were put upon his infulated table, and fuppli- er fpoken of ed with ele@ricity; but alfo that filk-worms began to fpin much foomer, which were kept elerified, than thofe of the fame hatch, toil by Dr which were kept in the fame place and manner, except that they S exphrin the were not elettrified. Thefe experiments of Mr. D'Ormoy are ee à by an hf: tailed at length in the Journal de Phyfique of Rozier, Tom. XXXV.. ee"1 D. 20: together 4 Mr. Bartholon, who had before written a tra@ on this fubje@, and| A vatreolss; propofed» AA| 12 LIGHT, HEAT, Sr. XIII. 3. 2. propofed ingenious methods for applying eleétricity to agriculture and gardening, has alfo repeated a numerous fet of experiments; and fhews, that natural ele@ricity as well as the artificial increafes the growth of plants, and the germination of feeds; and oppofes Mr. Ingenhouz by very numerous anû conclufive fa&s. Ib. Tom. XXXV. p. 401. My friend Mr. D. Bilfborrow in June 1597 fowed muftard-feed in four garden pots at Mr. Hartop’s at Dalby Hall in Leicefterfhire. He fubjected one of thefe to pofitive or vitreous eleétricity, and ano- ther to negative or refinous elcétricity, and obferved that the feeds in the pot fubjeéted to the negative or refinous eleétricity germinated a day before the pot fubjeéted to pofitive or vitreous electricity, and both of them much before the two pots, which were not electrifed, but otherwife expofed to the fame circumftances. Nor do the injuries occafonally received from lightning 1n its paf- fage through trees or corn fields from or to the earth or clouds, which are mentioned in Set. XIV. 2. 3. in the leaft invalidate this opinion of its general utility as well as that of the fluid element of heat; for the excefs of the moft falutary ftimuli become deleterious both to ve- getable and animal bodies. 2. Since by the late difcoveries in chemiftry there is reafon to be- lieve, that water is decompofed in the veflels of vegetables; and that the hydrogene, or inflammable air, of whichit in part confifts, con- tributes to the nourifhment of the plant, and to the produ&tion of its oils, refins, gums, fugar,&c. And laftly, as eleétricity has by late experiments been found to decompofe water into the two airs, termed oxygen and hydrogen, there is a powerful analogy to induce us to believe, that it accelerates or contributes to the growth of vege- tation; and like heat may pofhbly enter into combination with many bodies, or form the bafis of fome yet unanalyfed acid, 3. The folution of water in air or in calorique feems to acquire ele&ric matter at the fame time, as appears from an experiment of Mr. nrani.… rd-feed in efterfhire, and ano- e feeds in minated a city, and electrifed, n its paf- ds, which 1S OpiNON heat; for both to ve- fon to be- 5; and that nfifts, con- oduétion of city has by e{WO airs 7 to induce ch of vegé- with manÿ s to acquié enl of xperin Mr. SECT IX, Ride ÉLECTRICITY. 313 Mr. Bennet. He put fome live coals into an infulated fannel of mc- tal, and throwing on them a little water, obferved that the afcending ficam was eleétrifed plus; and the water, which defcended through the funnel, was eleétrifed minus. Hence it appears, that thouch clouds by their change of form may fometimes become elecrifed minus, yet they have in general an accumulation of pofitive elec- tricity. This accumulation of electric matter alfo evidently contri- butes to fupport the atmofpheric vapour, when it is condenfed into the form of clouds; becaufe it is feen to defcend rapidly, after the flafhes of lightning have diminifhed its quantity. According to the theory of Mr. Lavoifier concerning the compo- fition and decompofition of water, there would feem another fource of thunder-fhowers; and that is, that the two gafles termed oxygen gas, or vital air, and hydrogen gas, or inflammable air, may exift in the fummer atmofphere in a ftate of mixture, but not of combi- nation; and that the electric fpark, or flafh of lightning, may com- bine them, and produce water inftantaneoufly. 4. À profitable application of ele@ricity by the gardener or agri- cultor to promote the growth of plants is not yet difcovered; it is neverthelefs probable, that in dry feafons the erection of numerous metallic points on the furface of the ground, but a few feet high, might in the night time contribute to precipitate the dew by facili- tating the paflage of eleétricity from the air into the earth; and that an érection of fuch points higher in the air by means of wires Wrap- ped round tall rods, like angle rods, or elevated on buildings, might frequently precipitate fhowers from the higher parts of the atmo- fphere. And fly, that fuch points erected in gardens might promote a quicker vegetation of the plants in their vicinity by fupplying them more abundantly with the elc@ric ether; if the events of the ex- periments of the philofophers above mentioned are to be depended upon, which may at leaft be worth a further trial, ss Se For Om 314 LIGHT'HEAT,;&c. SEC XI], 30%. 5. For the purpofe of keeping a few flower-pots perpetually fub= jeét to more abundant electricity, Mr. Bennet of Wirkfworth in Der- byfhire affixed a fmall apparatus to the pendulum of a clock, as de- {cribed below with a plate; but has not yet fufficiently attended to it to determine its effect on vegetation.| LED gaine our nr ie Ge mt, D RE ZE EE+ 1 D—ndhpmésin cms née 5 ED D tions Lin_:. ds, (III MO | J' jt vally{ue h in Der= Ck, as des ttended to PE APE: SECT: PASSE RE Nil Shews the ftructure of Mr. Bennet’s eleétric Doubler, applied to the pendulum of à clock for the purpofe of fubjecting à flower pot to perpetual poftive or negative ele@ricity. | À the brafs plate, which is always infulated by its glafs pedeftal, on which the elec- M| tricity is accumulated. B the brafs plate, which becomesele@&rified by the influence of the | moving plate€, which is alf infulated. D the pendulum wire. C is infulated by the glafs-tube EE. The wire F F is alfo infulated by the fame glafs, being faftened to the middle of it by a brafs focket at G. HHHHH are wires to connect the plates with each other, or with the earth. I 1 a ftring to be carried from the plate À over infulated En Fran aus > rer grraar Tue books to any part of a room, or to an infulated flower-pot. Now if À be pofitive, and€ moves, till it be parallel to it, and the-vwires at the bot- tom touch each other, then C becomes negative, and moving till it be parallel to B, and its wire touched by the uppermoft H, then B becomes pofitive; and when€ returns to ÿ PI D l À, the electricity of À and B becomes united by means of the infulated wire F F touch- ing H H. The longer end of F is bent fo as not to touch the wire of B, till the end is brought to it. Thus the pofitive electricity of À is increafed. D F J The wires are curled into feveral rings to make them more elafic, as otherwife they |+e | would foon be pufhed out of their places, and the proper contaéts not occur. The plates À and B may be fixed on heavy pedeftals, that they may be moved upon à fhelf to a pro- per diftance from the plate, which hangs by the pendulum wire. The heavier the pen- dulum and the larger the plates, the more eleétricity may be accumulated. With my fmall apparatus fixed to à Dutch wooden clock fparks are fometimes produced betweer the plates, and fometimes the clock has been flopped by their attraétion to each other. Perbaps the plates fhould not be circular, but fomething like a lady’s fan, when expand- ed, the bottom being a part of the curve defcribed by the moving pendulum, with the | po fides diretted towards the point on which it moves. 19 This drawing and defcription of his Pendulum Doubler was fent me by Mr. Bennet of Wirkfworth, and is referred to at the end of Se. XIII. of this work. If another in- fulated flower-pot was connected with the plate B inftead of the wire at the uppermoft H, perhaps it might be kept in à ftate of minus, or negative eleétricity, at the fame time that the other flower-pot was kept in a ftate of plus or pofitive electricity. Ke UM Of à clork CCITICIt ! 1 sh+’ (Ne€! { il IUEnCe oft fl} FENTE TLa 4H UIAL at the Le D (O0 D, à { styitr 1 LL TECUMNS I. CI LOUC LS + a ES | he pla Ces LV 6 A re With n LS Cou VLE 1 : each othe Sn n PX London, Published Sans r8o0 5 til Churi Yara Sel XML. 3.5 SecrT. XIV. DISEASES OFAPLANTS. U) Lai JA 5 FAC Es 2aiNe DISEASES OF PLANTS. I. Difeafes from internal caufes. 1. Difeafed irritability. Irritability derived from oxygen. Exhaufled by 100 great ftimulus. apricot flowers from the fun. Much water after a bot day injurious. accuimulated by lefs fimulus. Experiment on euphorbia. Habits of plants brought from the Jouth. Taken to America. In the bleeding feajon. in bot-boufes. Habits of plants.- tability greater after being expofed to much cold, lefs after much beat, Greatelt in the morning. antnals. Variation of heat contributes to health. 2. Eryfiphe mildew. À feffile fungus. Give light and ventilation. the land, Sow early., ruft. Probably another fungus. Uredo frumenti,. 4. Clavus, ergot. On rye, wbich it renders unwbolefome. to infe&ts by Dubamel. 5. Ufilago, finut. to infe&is by Linneus. Is probably owing to want of impregnation. How prevented. 6. Gangrena, canker.£rs apple- trees from old grafts. From wounds. Bind living bark on the wound. Or paint the alburnum. 7. Suffufio mellita, honey-dew. lf occafioned by the aphis?- ceeded by a black powder. 8. Exfudatio miliaris, miliary fwcat. On vines in bot- boufes from too great heat in confined air. 9. Fluxus umbilicalis, Jap-flow. From wounds in fpring, and after midfummer. Bind on Jponge. with wire. 10. Secretio gummofa, gum Jecretion. Bind on lead, Sponge, Indien rubber. Apply folution of green vitriol. on a new bark. IT. Difeafes from exter- nal elements. 1. Draught and moiflure. 2. Heat and cold. Shelter early Dlof- Joms from the funfhine. 3. Lightning. trees and wbeat fields. By de- Jiroying their irritability, like the flimulus of fome poifons. By burffing their veffels. How to prevent. À. Light. Etiolation of fea-cale. 5. Of acid clay. Of flerile Jand. 6. Noxious exbalations, from lead-works, and lime-kilns. 7. Posfons of arfenic, muriatic acid. 8. Condiments. Alcohol. Opium. Sea-folt. lis fe and effeff on vegetables, Ufe in the worm of fheep. 9. External injuries. Wouna 352 grape- | | è Ja il ‘4 ‘4 } L 116 {: td Mi A Ê 5 He I || lé L hi! Ru 1 ù 1| 1 1! ( 4> 1 EL! | | | 4 Li À 4 À (& À LE ÉRTE, 316 DIE SE A'SE"S SECT: Vi&o:rs grape-flaiks. Caprification. pears to ripen them. III. Difeafes from infeéts. 1. From their nefis and young. On rofes, on quince-bloffoms, on aco- vite. 2. Âpbis on peach trees. Slugs prefer withered leaves. Cows eat withered tbifles. The poi/on of yew leaves. of the aphis. Means of deflroying tem. Aphidivorous larva and jy. 2. Caterpillars on apple-trees and goofe-berries. Burn the leaves. Put a fringe round goofeberry-trees. wbite butterflies. Cabbage caterpillars deffroyed by: bras non jy. 4.: in bot-boufes. Smoke cf fulphur injurious to trees. 5. Beetles beneath the foil. Suails. Slugs. Roll turnips before fun-rile. Slugs Fe by lime or fait. isht by a board. 2 onturnips. Roll them, Sleep turnip Jeeds in liquid manure as in China. 6. Beerles. Fern-chaffer. crops of wheat. wbeat fhallow. Roll ir, Ares alt in fine powder. Thrips phyfaphus on twbeat. Corn Pare May-chaffers on bedges.. Encourage hbedge-birds, larks, rocks, bedge-bogs. Some caterpillars wbholefome to eat, others poilonous. AU very hardy dificulé to de- firey. IV. Deftruétion by vermin. 1. Mice. of swbeat from their granaries. Encourage the breed of owis. 2. Water-rats like beavers, bow driver from a ffb-pond. They eat vegetables. Are attraffed by Jcents. How to poifon them. How to entrap them. 3. Moles never drink. Jvim. ÿ re before fun-rife. How to defiroy them by traps. TE difeafes of vegetables may be divided into thofe, which ap- pear to originate from internal caufes, thofe from the external ele- ments, and thofe from the nidifications or depredations of infe&s; to which may be added the depredations of other animals, We fhall begin with difeafed irritability. DISEASES FROM INTERNAL CAUSES. I. 1. It has already been fhewn, that the buds of vegetables are individual beings, and conftitute an inferior order of animals; and that they poñlefs irritability, and fenfibility, and voluntarity, and have aflociations of motion; as explained in Zoonomia, Vol, I.. XIII. But as the three latter kinds of excitability are poffefled in 2 fo much Te ieis r+ ua Frs SEcr XIV 145. OS PELANTS. ar? lefs degree by vegetable buds, than by more perfeét animals, we fhall only confider the difeafes of their irritability. M. Girtannir endeavoured to fhew,that animal irritability originates from the oxygen, which conftitutes fomewhat lefs than a third of the atmofphere, which they breathe. And M.Van Uflar has applied the fame idea to vegetable life; and has endeavoured to fhew, that their irritability alfo originates from the oxygen, which they acquire either by the refpiration of their leaves, or by the abforption of their roots. And indeed, as refpiration 18 every minute neceflary to animal life, there is reafon to believe, that fomething immediately neceflary to the exiftence of life is acquired by the lungs of animals from the atmofphere rather than from the food, which they digeft; and that this, which is believed to be the oxygen only, is mixed with the blood, and feparated again from it by the brain, and fpinal marrow, after having undergone fome change in the circulation or fecretion of it. In the fame manner it is not improbable, but that the fpirit of ve- getation may have a fimilar origin, probably from the uncombined oxygen of the-air, refpired by the upper furfaces of their leaves; and not from that, which is abforbed by their roots in a more combined ftate; and that this oxygen is again feparated from their juices by the fenforium, or brain, of each individual bud, after having under- gone fome change in the circulation or fecretion of it. See Sec, IV. 142. The circumftances attending vegetable irritability are fimilar to thofe belonging to the irritability of animals upon a lefs extenfve fcale, as detailed in Zoonomia, Vol. I, Se&. XII. When vegetable fibres have been long ftimulated more than na- tural or ufual by increafe of heat, the fpirit of vegetation becomes ex- haufted; and in confequence a flighter degree of cold will deftroy them; becaufe their fibres after having been long excited by a greater fümulus will ceafe to a& on the application of one, which is much 4 lefs: D LÉ $= me ex D te de= Der triés 318 D'TS'E À SES SECT. XIV. 1.1. lefs; whence after hot days tender plants are more liable to be de- ftroyed by the coldnefs of the night. Whence in more northern cli- mates the gardeners fhade their tender vesetables, as the flowers of apricots, in the fpring-frofts from the meridian fun, as well as from the coldnefs of the moht; which is generally the greateft about an hour before funrife. In the hot days of June 1:98 I twice obferved feveral rows of gar- den beans become quite fickly, and many of them to die, from being flooded for an hour or two with water from a canal in the neioh- bourhood; which I afcribed more to the fudden application of too great cold, after being much enfeebled, or rendered inirritable, by the exceflive heat of the feafon, than to the too copious fupply of water to the dry ground; to which fhould be added, that fome plants are more liable to be thus injured than others; as the ftrawberries, young cab- bage plants, and onions, which were in the fame fituation, received beneñt and not deterioration by being thus occafonally watered in that dry feafon. On the contrary, when plants have been Iong expofed to a lefs füimulus of heat than natural or ufual, the fpirit of vecetation be- comes accumulated; and if they are too fuddenly fubjeéted to much greater heat, their too great increafe of a@tion induces inflammation, and confequent mortification, and death; as occurs to thofe people, who have had too much warmth applied to their frozen limbs. Ex- periments of this kind were inftituted by Van Uflar; he increafed the irritability of euphorbia peplus and efula by fecluding light and heat from them; and, when he expofed them to a meridian fun, they be- came gangrenous, and died in a fhort time. This greater or lefs irritability of plants is to be afcribed to their previous habits in refpeët to the ftimulus of greater or lefs heat. Thus the times of the appearance of vegetables in the fpring feem occañon- ally to be influenced by their previoufly acquired habits, as well as by their prefent fenfibility to heat, For the roots of potatoes, onions, will — Se" XIV.} FA f to be de- rthern cli flowers of 1 ï ell as from : about an Vs of gar- om beino e neroh- n of too e, by the water to are more ung cab- , Teceived atered in d to a lefs tation be- ed to much ammation, ofe people, nbs. Ex- reafed the t and heat , they be- jeat. Thus SECT. XIV. 197: ŒFS PEAN TS. 319 will germinate with much lefs heat in the fpring than in the au- tumn; as is eafily obfervable, where thefe roots are ftored for ufe; and hence malt is beft made in the fpring, as the barley will then ger- minate with a lefs degree of heat. The grains and roots brought from more fouthern latitudes ger= minate here fooner than thofe, which are brought from more nor- thern ones, owing to their acquired habits. Fordyce on Agriculture. It was obferved by one of the fcholars of Linneus, that the apple trees fent from hence to New England bloffomed for a few years too early for that climate, and bore no fruit; but afterwards learnt to ac- commodate themfelves to their new fituation.(Kalm’s Travels.) Vines in grape houfes, which have been expofed to the winter’s cold, will become forwarder and more vigorous than thofe, which have been kept during the winter in the houfe.(Kennedy on Gar- dening.) This accounts for the very rapid vegetation in the northern latitudes after the folution of the fnows. The increafe of the irritability of plants in refpeët to heat, after having been previoufly expofed to cold, is farther illuftrated by an ex- periment of Dr.Walker’s. He cut apertures into a birch-tree at dif- ferent heights; and on the 26th of March fome of thefe apertures bled, or oozed with the fap-juice, when the thermometer was at 39 3 which fame apertures did not bleed on the 1 3th of March,when the thermomceter was at 44. The reafon ofthisI apprehend was, be- caufe on the night ofthe 25th of March the thermometer was as low as 343 whereas on the night of the 12th of March it was at 41: though the ingenious author afcribes it to another caufe. Tranfaét. of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, V. L p. 19. There is an obfervation in Mr. Tull’s work, which he ingenioufly afcribes to the acquired habits of plants.‘By the extremely hard winter of the Year 1708 or 1709, fome lucern in Languedoc was killed, along with all the olive trees and walnut trees by the feverity of the fcafon; though 1 could not hear that one walnut tree was 2 killed D (9. A L 1: h) || )} { | (| | Il | Î & Si LA la 320 DISEASES Secr. XIV. r. 2. killed in England. Perhaps thofe in France having been accuftomed | to much hotter fummers were unable to endure the rigour of the 11 fame winter, that did not deftroy the fame plants in England.” | Horfe-hoeing Hufbandry, Ch. XIIL, p. 207. : By adapted experiments Medicus is faid to have found, that the irritability of plants is greater in the morning, lefs in the middle of the day, and much lefs in the evening. And Von Uflar found, that L| their irritability in refpeét to their contraétions was increafed in cool and rainy weather. Obferv. on Plants by Schmeifier. Edinb. So the parts of animals become more fenfible to heat after having been pre- vioufly expofed to cold; as our hands glow on coming into the houfe after having for a while been immerfed in fnow; and many infeéts, and other animals, which hide themfelves in the earth, and fleep during the winter, were obferved by M. Spallanzani to difappear at a feafon, when the heat of the atmofphere was much higher than in the fpring, when they again made their appearance. Hence it follows, that plants, which are kept in a warm room during winter, fhould occafionally be expofed to cooler air to increafe their irritability; as otherwife their growth in the fpring is obferved to be very tardy. Mankind for the fame reafon requires the perpe- tual variations of the heat of the atmofphere to preferve or reftore the irritability, and confequent aétivity, of the fyftem. Whence the health and enersy of men are greater, and their lives longer, in this variable ifland, than in the tropical continents, which poflefs greater warmth, and lefs variation of weather. 1 2. Linneus in the Philofophia Botanica has given names to but| | four internal difeafes, eurifiphe, mildew; rubigo, ruft; clavus, ergot, Î or fpur; and uftilago, fmut; to which may be added many others as defcribed below. Eryfphe, a white mucor, or mould, or mildew, with feflle À tawny heads, with which the leaves are fprinkled; this is frequent oi|; in humulus, hop; lamium, dead nettle; gallopfis, arch-angel; li- thofpermum, accuftomed our of the England? d, that the e middle of found, that fed in cool 1b, Sothe : been pre- "into the and many earth, and o difappear ch higher €, arm room to increafe is obferved the perpe- y reftore the Whence the joer, in this els greater mes to but avus, ergot; y others 45 A A à 1e] 1 WW tn ui Secr. XIV. 1. 3. OF PLANTS. thofpermum, ftone-feed; and acer, maple. T'his mucor is a plant of the fungus kind, which will grow without light, or change of air, like other funcgufes; and with its roots penetrates the vefflels of the vegetables to which it adheres. But thefe veflels are probably previoufly injured by internal difeafe.‘The methods af preventing or deftroying it muft confift in thinning the plant, or removing thofe in its vicinity, fo as to admit more light, and greater ventilation, which may at the fame time eradicate the mildew, and reftore the internal vigour of the plant. As the greater dampnefs of fome land fupplies one permanent caufe of mildew, as well as its being too much overfhadowed by thick foliage, the methods of prevention muft confift in properly draining the land, and ufing drier kinds of manure, as coal-afhes and bone-afhes, as well as by thinning the crops. And laftly, it is re- commended to fow early in the feafon for the purpofe of procuring forward crops; as this difeafe is faid more to injure late crops owing to the greater dampnefs of the ground in autumn. 3- Rubigo, ruft, a ferruginous powder fprinkled under the leaves, frequent in alchemilla, lady’s mantle, rubus faxatilis, effula degener; and particularly in fenecio or jacobæa; and efpecially in a burnt woody foil. This is probably another fungus fimilar to the former, or to fome kinds of lichen, which grows beneath the leaves of vegetables pre- vioufly difeafed, and may probably be prevented or deftroyed by ex pofing the plant to more light, and greater ventilation, as in the mucor above mentioned. An account is given by Mr. Lambert in the Tranfactions of the Linnean Society, Vol, IV. of a difeafe which may probably be fome- what fimilar to the rubiso, which he calls uredo frumenti, or blight of wheat, and defcribes it to be a fungus, which covers the ftems of wheat in wet feafons, when it is nearly ripe, fo as to give the field an appearance of being covered with foot. The ftem of the wheat is d2: faid 322 DISEASES SECT. XIV. 1. 4 EL| faid to appear to be fplit, and the growth of the plant to be much 2?|: injured. He defcribes the fungus to be linear-oblong, tawny-black. 4. Clavus, ergot, or fpur, occurs when feeds grow out into large ( horns, black without, as in fecale, rye, and in carex. This difeafe k frequently affe&s the rye in France, and fometimes in England, in moift feafons, and is called ergot, fpur, or horn-feed; the grain be- Er:| comes confiderably elongated, and is either ftraight or crooked, con- | taining black meal along with the white; and is faid to appear to be pierced by infeéts, which are fuppofed to caufe the difeafe. Mr. Duhamel afcribes it to this caufe, and compares it te galls on oak-leaves; but this has not yet been eftablifhed by fufficient obfer- vations. By the ufe of this bad grain amongft the poor, difeafes have \1 been produced, attended with great debility, and mortification of the À extremities, both in France and England. Di. Raïfon. Art. Siegle. Philof., Tranfa&. Vol. LV. 166. s. Uftilago, fmut, when the fruit inftead of feed produces a black meal, as in wheat, barley, oats, fcorzonera, tragopogon, Much is faid on this difeafe in the Dit. Raifon of Bomare. Art. Bled, who recommends fteeping the grain, before it is fown, in brine; which is generally direéted to have fo much falt added to the water, as may increafe its fpecific gravity, till an egg will fwim init; or fecondly, to fteep the feed-wheat in lime water; or thirdly, which he thinks { moft efficacious, in an alkaline ley made by adding pot-afh to lime- ie| water. 1115 In the fyftema naturæ of Linneus under the article Vermes, Zoo- | phyta, Chaos uftilago, there is a quotation from Munchhaufen, that the uftilago is a black powder, which is found in the deftroyed grains of barley, wheat, and' other graffes; and in the florets of tragopogon fcorzonera. And that this powder being macerated in warm water for fome days pales into oblong animalcules, hyaline in refpeét to colour, and playing about like fifh, as may be feen by a microfcope; and XI V, Fe 4, > be much y-black, tinto large “his difeafe ngland, in > grain be- ked, con- pear to be o galls on nt obfer- eafes have son of the tt, Sieole, es a black . Much is Bled, who je which 15 ter, 25 May of fecondly, h he thinks afh to jime- ermes, Zoo- aufen, that royed grains f tragopogoi warm water in refpeû l an de an On me SecTr. XIV ares. OF PLANTS. 528 and are again mentioned in Linneus’s diflertation on the invifble world. There is an ingenious paper in the publications of the Bath Society, in which the author obferves, that the fimut in wheat only happens, when wet weather occurs at the time of the flowering of the wheat: which may burft the anthers, and wafh away the farina He thinks that fteeping the wheat in brine or lime water IS an ancient error, and can be of no ufe but to feparate light wheat from that which is good. For he found fmutty ears and good ones growing from the fame root; and thence it could not depend on any contagious material, or infeêts eggs, adhering to the feed; and in fome even the fame ear contained both found and fmutty corns. And laftly, that fome of the corns had one end fmutty, and the other found: and he concludes, that it muft be owing to the want of impregnation from the defect of the farina fecundans; and that the putrefa&tion fucceeded the deatl of the grain. From the obfervations of Spallanzani on leguminous plants the probability of this opinion is much confirmed. He found that the feed was produced by the female organ of the plant, long before it was impregnated; which could not happen, till the flower was open, and the anther-duft ripe, Whence it is eafy to conceive, that for want of impregnation, or the vivifying principle, the wheat-corn muft putrefy like the addle eggs of poultry, which are unimpregnat- ed, and thence die, and in confequence putrefy. If this difeafe of fmut fhould become à ferious evil, it might pof- fibly be prevented by fowing the grain in diftant rows; and after {ome days fowing other rows between them of the fame, or of ano- ther kind of wheat; by which means, if wet weather fhould deftroy the anthers of one fet of rows, the alternate ones might fupply fa- rina to their ftigmas, if the weather became favourable. Sce Seû. SOVE.:8::2. Wheat difcoloured by fmut may be wafhed, and readily dried on Liz 1 a malt PE ER pre R DISEASES SEcT. XIV: 1. 6. |; 324 He: 4 | a malt kiln, and may be thus eafñly made marketable and equally good; for the hving grain will not abforb much water in a fhort| time; or it may be mixed with clean fand, and after being well agi- tated the fand may be féparated by a riddle; and if neceflary the fame fand may be wafhed and dried for repeated ufe. 6. Befides the four.internal difeafes above fpoken of, as mentioned y Linneus; and the uredo of Mr, Lambert, there are probably many || others, which have not yet been fufficiently attended to, as the can-| | ker, gangrena; the honey-fweat, exfudatio mellita; the miliary fweat, exfudatio miliaris; the fap-flow, fluxus umblicalis; and the | gum fecretion, fecretio gummofa. £ The canker, which may be termed gangrena vegetabilis, 1s a pha- gedenic ulcer of the bark; which is very deftruétive to apple-trees, and pear-trees, as it fpreads round the trunk or branches, and de-. ftroys them. Mr. Knight has obferved this difeafe to be moft frequent and fatal to thofe trees, the fruit of which has been long in fafhion; as they have been perpetually propagated for a century or two by ingrafting;| which he believes to be a continuation of the old tree, though nou-| rifhed by a new flock; and that the canker is thus a difeafe of old| age, like the mortification of the limbs of elderly people, and arifes| from theirritability of a part of the fyfiem.| But it feems more probably to be an hereditary difeafe, as the buds of trees being a lateral progeny, and more exactly refembling their parents, muft be more liable to the difeafes gradually acquired or in-| creafed by the influence of foil or climate; and have not the proba- bility of improvement, which attends the progeny of fexual genera- tion. | It is neverthelefs frequently produced on trees by external viclence, as by a ftroke with a fpade by a carelefs labourer, who is digging near them; but this probably may more eafñly affe& the old orafts above mentioned. When a deftruétion of the bark is thus produced by ex- ternal mentioned aUIV MAN V s the can- le miliary * andthe ,15a pha- ple-trees, , and de- t and fatal a: as they ingrafting; houoh nou PRTRT \ieale QI old SEcT..KIM.. 19%:“ŒEJ PE AN TS. 226 =. ternal violence, it may pofhbly be cured by the application of a piece of living bark from a lets valuable tree, bound on as mentioned in the next article, and in Set. XVII. 3. 10. The edges of thefe gangrenous ulcers of the bark fhould be nicely pared with a knife, fo as to admit the air, and to prevent the de predations of infeéts and the lodgment of moifture, which might promote the putrefaction of the ftagnant juices, and fpread the gan- grene; this fhould be fo managed as only to cut away the dead lips of the wound, but not fo as in the leaft to injure the living bark. Some thick white paint may then be fmeared on the naked albur- num or fap-wood on a dry day, which may prevent infe@ts from in- ferting their eggs into it, and produce magoots, which erode and deftroy the wood; and may alfo prevent the dews and rains from The paint fhould neverthelefs be fo fpread, as not to touch the edges of the wound; as it might injure their growth byits rotting it. poifonous quality; a quarter of an ounce of fublimate of mercury, hydrargyrus muriatus, rubbed with about a pound of white lead paint, might render it more noxious to infedts. See Set. XVII. 3. 9. and ro. 7. The honey-dew, which may be called fuffufio mellita, confifts of a faccharine juice, which I have fuppofed to be exfuded from the tree by the retrograde motions of the cutaneous lymphatic veffels, connected either with the common fap-veffels defcribed in Sec. IT. or with the umbilical veflels defcribed in Sec. II. z. 8. inftead of its being carried forwards to increafe the growth of the prefent Icaf- buds, or to lay up nutriment for the buds, which are in their em- bryon ftate; and may thus be compared to the diabœtes mellitus, or to the fweating ficknefs of the laft century. The faccharine and nutritious quality of the honey-dew, fimilar to that of the fap-juice, which rifes in the vernal months from the birch and maple, is evident from its tafte; and from the number of bces and ants, which are faid to feed on it, when it appears on fome trees; 326 DISEASES Secr. XIK. 12% trees; and which fhews, that its exfudation muft be confiderably injurious to the tree, as before mentioned in Se. VL 6. 3. În a paper written by the Abbé Boiflier de Sauvages, he defcribes two kinds of honey-dew; one of which he concludes to be an exfu- dation from the tree, and the other he aflerts to be the excrement of one kind of aphis, which the animal proje@s to the diftance of fome inches from its body on the ieaves and ground beneath it; and which he believes the animal acquires by piercing the fap-veflels of the leaf. This paper is detailed in Wildman’s work on Bees, p. 40. The circumftances are diftin&ly defcribed, and by fo great a philofo- pher as Sauvages of Montpellier, that it is difficult to doubt the au- thenticity of the fat. But that a material fo nutritive fhould be pro- duced as the excrement of an infeét is fo totally contrary to the ftrongeft analogy, that it may neverthelefs be fufpeéted to be a mor- bid exfudation from the tree; though thefe infeéts might occafion- ally prey upon it, and void it almoft unchanged at thofe feafons, be- caufe the infeéts cantinued fome months after the honey-dew ceafed, and before it commenced, as mentioned below; and the upper. fur- faces of the leaves became covered with a black powder, which had before been covered with the honey-dew. And laftly, becaufe on other trees, as on the peach and neétarine, at other feafons of the year, no honey-dew is perceived, though the aphis much abounds to the great injury of the trees. Early this morning, June 18, 1798, I obferved a remarkable ho- ney-dew on an extenfve row of nut-trees, corylus avellana, which grow by the fide of a pond of water; the fun fhone bright, and the upper furface of every leaf, which was illumined by the fun, was covered with a vifcid juice, which tafted as fweet as diluted honey. From many of thefe leaves large drops hung from the point, and dur- ing that day and the following one much of this honey dropped down {o as to moiften the gravel walk beneath the branches of every tree, and feemed more fluid as the funfhine became warmer; and the leaves, onfiderab] y n > he defcribes be an exfu- Crement of ce of fome and which els of the es, p. 46, a philofo- bt the au- Id be pro- y to the be a mor- occafion- afons, be- ew ceafed, upper fur- which had “becaufe on afons of the to arkable ho- jana, wbich ht, and the je fun, Was SECr: XVe T7. OF PEAN TS. SEA leaves, which were concealed from the fun, appeared to have lefs of the honey-dew, and fome of them none of it. How long this honey-dew had continued before I obferved it, cannot tell, but probably many days, as the weather was then, and had been uncommonly dry and warm, and fhining; and after two or three days, when the weather changed, the morbid'exfudation, if fuch it was, or the excrementitious depofition of this vifcid honey, became checked and gradually difappeared. Beneath every leaf of this extenfive hedge of filberts I difcerned fifty or a hundred aphifes of all fizes, and many of them had wings; but 1 could not perceive, that any of them had been on the upper furfaces of the leaves, where the honey only exifted; nor were any bees, or butterflies, or ants, about thefe leaves; on which they muft have adhered, if they had fettled; which pofübly they were aware of, as a hive of bees was at no great diftance. M. Duhamel obferved a fimilar fweet juice drop in fuch quantity from willows by the fide of a river in very hot and dry weather, that children were bufy in catching or gathering it, and that it tafted'like manna, but was more agreeable. He alfo mentions its dropping from nut-trees. Phyfique des arbres, Vol. I. p.150. M. Reneaume,. in the Memoires of the Academ. des Sciences, obferved a fimilar exfu- dation from the maple, and fycamore; and: adds, 1. That it was. unétuous and fweet. 2. That it was intthe greateft quantity on the leaves expofed to the fun, which appeared wet on their upper fur- faces; and that it was not feen before fun-rife. 3. That bees col- leéted it as anxioufly as common honey. 4. And that fome leaves died, whofe difcharge was very great, 65. That it exifted in a.very dry and hot feafon. But neither of thefe philofophers fpeak of its being attended by the aphis. The aphis this year was uncommonly numerous, the leaves of the peach and neétarine trees were half of them deftroyed by this perni- cious infeét, and. became bliftered and curled I fuppofe by their.punc-- 6: tures; Œ |. hi! FE:! 1 Mi L }; il HE EL Ji| ñ| HN L 328 DISEASES SECTI XIV 145. tures; which were made fome weeks earlier in the year, and by an aphis without wings, and differing fomewhat in their fhape, but without any appearance of honey-dew on thofe trees. But I could not difcover any punétures or other difeafe of the leaves of thefe nut- trees, and therefore doubt whether thefe infets, though fo numer- ous on the under furface of every leaf, could be the caufe of the mor- bid exfudation, if fuch it was, on their upper furfaces; and the more as I could not diftinguifh, that they preyed upon the honey thus produced; and I afterwards obferved that they continued in immenfe numbers under every leaf, when the weather became cooler, and moifter, and the honey-dew ceafed to be vifble. But after a few weeks I obferved the upper furface of every leaf became covered with a black powder like foot; whether this was a new material, of re- mained after the exhalation of the honey-dew, I did not determine by experiment. But if both the honey-dew and this fubfequent black powder on the upper furfaces of the leaves, were the excrement of the aphis on the under furfaces of the leaves over the former, or ow- ing to an exfudation from the tree, muft be determined by further obfervations. But as a fecond period of fap-flow is believed to exift about mid- fummer, or a depofition of vegetable nutriment for the new buds, as defcribed in Se. III. 2. 8. there is reafon to fufpe@, that the ho- ney-dew is owing to the inverted aétion of the external lymphatics occafioned by the debility induced by the continued heat, and per- haps to the moifture of fituation. Whence the nutritive fluid is thrown upon the external habit inftead of being applied to nourifh the new buds, or to be laid up as a refervoir for their ufe. Andthat ifit be voided by the aphis, it is owing to their punéturing the fap- veflels with the fine probofcis, which they poffefs, at this feafon only, or in a diftempered ftate of the tree, and drinking more of it than they are able to digeft. For a further hiftory of this infeét fee No. 3.2. of this Section. 8. Exfudatio XIV, à, r, and by an F dhape, but But Ï could of thefe m h fo numer. of the mor- id the more honey thus in immenfe cooler, and after a few vered with ral, of re- termine by quent black crement of ner, OT OW= d by further ft about mii- new buds, as that the ho- al lymphatics at, and per- ritive Auid 15 d to nourifh SEC, NIV T0 OF CPLAN TS. 329 8. Exfudatio miliaris, miliary fweat, appears to be nn à too great and continued heat, as it exifts on vines in hot-houfes which are kept too warm, or too clofe in refpe& to their. tion. This fecretion has not the fweet tafte like that of the honey-dew, but confifts of mucilage; which, as the Watery part evaporates by heat, remains on the plant in very fmall round hard clobules, like muillet feeds, whence their name. I once witncfled a very fimilar ap- pearance of minute hard round globules on the fkin in a miliary fe ver, which eafly were rubbed off with the finger; and were proba- bly occafioned, as in this vegetable difeafe, by too rer heat, and the exclufon of air, as Dee à in Zoonomia, Vol. II. Clafs 2. 1. 3. 12. In the evaporation of perfpirable matter, which in its difeafed ftate may be more mucilaginous than natural, in confined bed-rooms or hot-houfes, I fuppofe, the aqueous part only is exhaled, and the mu- cilaginous part remains in the form of a globule; in the fame man- ner as ftalactites are formed on the roofs of caverns from a folution of Calcareous earth in water, fimply by the evaporation of the water. 9. Fluxus umbilicalis, fap-flow, this occurs, when the alburnum or fap-wood of trees is wounded in the vernal nouths, as in birch and maple, defcribed in Se&. I, 2. 2. and confifts of a facch: rine and mucilaginous Auid fimilar to the honey-dew, or fuffufño mel- lita; and is often very troublefome, when vines in hot-houfes are pruned too late in the feafon, as the whole branch is liable to bleed to death, owing thus to the lofs of the fap-juice, which ought to be employed in nourifhing the young buds, and e; panding their leaves. When fome one plants have rifen but a certain height from x ja the ground, if their flems are much woui ided, or cut off, the roots ing the s are liable to bleed to death from this difcharge of the umbilical Auid, $ fealon ON or fap-juice, which ought to have nourifhed and expanded the new ore of it tin buds and foliage; as may be feen in cutting down the heracleum infegr fe Mo fpondylium, cow parfnep, in April; and on this account it has been ” Leu r.commended g, Exfudati0 ; ee—.—— || no ms; 530 DISEASES SECT. XIV: 1.10. recommended to mow down thiftles, and other weeds, which are troublefome from their numerous increafe, early in the fpring; as many of them will then die, and the reft be much weakened by the fap-flow, which attends their wounds at that feafon. In refpeét to trees another period of fap-flow is faid to exift, when the new buds are forming after Midfummer, as fpoken of in Sect. IIT, 2,8. Whence wounds at this feafon alfo muft be injurious; where this lofs of fap-juice occurs in hot-houfes various applications have been recommended by gardeners. I fufpe& that a bit of fponge bound upon the end of the cut branch, or on the wound, by means of fome elaftic bandage, muft be the moft certain application; or a wire twifted round the end of the branch cut off, fo tightly as to ftrangu- late the whole circulation of juices, and confequently deftroy the part above the ligature. 10. Secretio gummofa, gum fecretion, a morbid produétion of gum, which differs from the fap-juice above defcribed, as it contains no faccharine quality, though like the former it exfudes from the wounded alburnum of deciduous trees; whether the wound be ori- ginally caufed by internal difeafe, or by external violence, as men- tioned in the gangrene of the bark above defcribed. Where this happens to cherry-trees, prunus cerafus, a gum ex- fudes like gum arabic; which in dry weather hardens, as it adheres, and thus prevents the further difcharge of this nutritive material; otherwife the tree weeps away its life, perifhing from deficient nou- rifhment. In fimilar manner a refin is emitted from the injuries or wounds of pine-trees, and fome other evergreens, with great injury to the growth, or the deftruëtion of the tree. This exfudation of the gum or refin of trees, as it happens chiefy in fummer, 1s probably a part of nutritious fluid defigned for the new buds, which in moft deciduous trees are formed about this time, and fhould be prevented from continuing to Aow by binding on the part, previoufly made fmooth by a knife, a metallic plate, as of the lead | in AAY,[, fa Si \1n 22 VAN are dE Ï à dà \UIIEQ D the nge bound Is of fome ot à Wire o ftrangu- } eftroy the luction of t contains from the ind be ori- e mel h Le SU s AŸ Liv LALE Sscr, XIV: 2,7. OF PLANTS. 331 in which tea is wrapped,{o as to prevent rain or dew drops from dif- folvins the indurated gum. À bit of fponge, or of foft leather, or of Indian rubber, caoutchouc, might be bound on under the lead, tul the wound is healed. Might not a ftrong folution of green vitriol in water, or forne ink, if applied to the extremities of thefe bleeding veflels, ftimulate them into contraétion, and prevent the further ef- fufion of gum? Another method might be worth trial, which is mentioned in Set EMVIL:30 10::A piece of bark from a fimilar tree. of inferior value might be cut out, fo as nicely to fit the wounded part, after its edges were nicely fmoothed, and might be tied on by a proper ban- e, as the lifting cut from the edges of cloth, or flannel, fo that dag its clafticity might fecure a perpetual preffure without injury. II DISEASES FROM EXTERNAL ELEMENTS, 1. În climates liable to inceffant rains or perpetual droucht for length of time many difeafes of vegetables muft orisinate from the excefs of moifture, or to the want of it; which are not very frequent in this country. In moif feafons the leaf-buds of plants, as of grafs and corn, as well as of trees and perennial vegetables, grow too lux- uriantly; and the flowers and confequent fruits or feeds are later, and contain more aqueous, and lefs mucilaginous and faccharine matter, On the contrary, in dry feafons the leaf-buds are lefs vigorous, and therefore in lefs quantity, as the crops of hay, and the quantity of ftraw; but the fruits and feeds ripen earlier, and are of more grate= ful flavour, and more nutritious. 2. The effet of heat on vegctation is fpoken of in Set. XIII. 2. 2 The excefs of that element is feldorn much injurious to the vesctation of this Country, unlefs it may contribute to increafe the drynefs of the foil, when there is a fcarcity of moifture, But the de- Ü u 2 fect er er" 4 er Des F. RE pe TL a ee Le sr= HEREE oser mn ee s ee Er nm AR f nes RTE. TE er 2 ISERS ES SET SIV rene, ement of heat, or in common language excefs of cold, 7 de Re to the early fhoots of the afh, fraxinus, and he y bloflo oms of m i fruit- nn as nu s, pears, apricots; bel The blights occafoned by froft g when cold nights fucceed to warm fuuny days, as the living power of the plant has then been previoufly exhaufted by the ie of enerally happen in the fp: 1n9, heat, and is therefore lefs capable of being excited into the a@ions, which are neceflary to vegetable life, by the greatly diminifhed fti- mulus of a freezing atmofphere. In fome northern climates, where the long funny days fucceed the difolving of the fnows, as in Denmark and in Rufña, the gardeners are faid to fhelter their wall-trees from the meridian fun in the ver- nal months; which preferves them from the cold of the fucceeding night; and by preventing them from flowering too early avoids the danger of the vernal frofts. The deftruétion of the more fucculent parts of vegetables, as their early fhoots, and that efpecially when expofed to frofty nights, was fpoken of in Set. XIII. 2. 2. and can only be counteraéted by co- vering them from the defcending dews or rime by the coping-ftones of a wall, or matts of ftraw. 3. The blafts occafioned by lightning are more frequent, I be- lieve, than is ufually fuppofed; as Î am informed by thofe, who purchafe extenfive woods, that very many trees on being fawed through are found cracked, and much injured by lightnins. I had laft year a ffandard apple-tree, and a tall apricot-tree, in full leaf blafted at the fame time by lightning, as was believed.‘They both loft all their leaves; the apple-tree neverthelefs put out a new fo- liage, and recovered, and bore fruit this year; but the apricot, which was nailed to a hich wall, never fhewed any returning life. L XIV. 2,1 CEIS Of cold, FaXINUS, and At NriPntee aPrICOtS; 1ds AUY, OT more lümulus of the aGons, inifhed fti- fucceed the e gardeners in the ver : fucceeding r avoids the bles, as their y MgNtS, Was teralted by co- COpin g-floncs à c , full leaï They boit jut à new : Lirh apricOt, V7 a] k Secr. XIV. 2. 4. OF PLANTS. Mr, T'ull afcribes one injury to the health of wheat plants, and fre. quently their death, to hghtning; the effeéts whereof, he fays, may be obferved by the blackifh parts or patches vifible in a field of Wheat, efpecially in thofe years which have more thunder-ftorms than ufual, and adds that againft this there is no remedy. The ercétion of frequent mctallic points could alone fecure a garden or held from this misfortune; which probably occurs more frequently on damp fituations, than on dry ones; as mentioned in the account of Fairy Rings in Botanic Garden, Vol. I. note XIII. The manner in which lightning deftroys the life of vegetables may be fimilar to that, in which it deftroys animal life; which is E fuppofe by its great ftimulus exhaufting the fenforial power in the violent aétion it occafions, and thus producing total iirritability to the common fhimul, which ought to excite the vital a@tions of the{y tem; fimilar to which, though with lefs expedition, feems to be the effeêt of fome poifons on the animal fyftem, as the diftilled water of Jauro-cerafus, a folution of arfenic, the contagious matter of fevers, and even a common emetic; all which by their ftrong ftimulus feem almoft inftantaneoufly to render the ftomach, and other parts of the {yftem, nearlÿ or entirely inirritable, or difobedient to their natural fhümuli. It may alfo affe& vegetables in another way fimilar to that, which probably alfo happens, when their young fucculent fhoots are frozen: that is, by burfting their veffels, as it pañles through them, by its expanfive power; as happens to the large branches of fome trees, and to ftone-buildings, and other bad conduétors of electricity, when they are ftruck with lightning. The expanfive power of eleétricity is not only fhewn by trees and towers being rent by lightning, but by the found, which fucceeds the paflage of it through air; fince a vacuum, or nearly a vacuum, in re- {pet to air muft previoufly be made by the prefence of the electric fluid; and the fides of this vacuum rufhing together, when the | Î | | A: | | life L) ftream 9 lib: A : Mr.| { LI HA U Li A (À/ À 14 7 À = a= mn na om Ras eg=-£ er a EE À nn D mer on A 334 DISEASES Secr. XIV. 2. 4.| ftream has pañled, occafions the confequent vibrations ofthe air, which conftitute found, whether in the audible fpark of ele@ricity, or the tremendous crafh of thunder. See Se&. XIII. 3. 4. The element of light, as well as that of heat, is neceflary to ve- getation. In this climate they both feem in general to be injurious only by their defect, and feldom by their excefs. But as light acts as a ftimulus on the moreirritative or fenfitive parts of plants, which appears by the expanfion of many flowers, and of fome leaves, when the fun fhines on them; and by the nutation of the whole flo ver, as of the fun-flower, helianthus; and by the bending of the fummits of all plants confined in houfes towards the light; there may be difeafes owing to the excefs of this füimulus, which have not been attended to; to prevent which the flowers of tragapogon falfafi, and of other plants, clofe about noon. Other unobferved difeafes ma to a defe&t of the ftimulus of light; as a mimofa, fenfitive plant, which I had confined in a dark room, did not open its foliage, though late in the day, till many minutes after it was expofed to the light. The excefs of light has not been obferved to be: ttended by vece- table difeafes in thefe more northern latitudes; but the difeafe pro duced by the deficiency ofit, which is termed etiolation, or blanching, y be owine 114 has been fuccefsfully ufed to render fome vegetable leaves and ftalks efculent by depriving them of much of their acrimony, and of their cohefion, as well as of their colour; as is feen in the blancl celery, apium; endive, crambe, he following method of the growth and etiolation of fea-cale is tran{cribed from the letter of à friend; to which fhould be added, that the young heads of this vesetable without blanching are equal or fuperior to moft kinds of brocoli, braflica,< Sea-cale feed fhould be fowed the latter end of March or beginning of April in. drills, and then earthed up. In autumn it fhould be tra beds, one row of roots in à bed, ing of cichorium; Cinara, Cardoon:; fea-cale, planted into high about à foot afunder, and in the Winter Near, which ICIty, or the ecefary to ve. o De injuriow light acts as ants, which leaves. when le flo er, 4 of y be difcafes en attended nd of other y be owing fitive plant, age, though the light. ed by vese- pro- or banching, aves and ftalks r, and of their 11: ÿ f blanching OI Le sa Le feed fhouli PAR‘Ile pri in drills L a TI nted 1n£0 D! a ha st 1 d Jll[ne UIs ns (wiNtér SECT, XV. 2 5 OF PLANTS. 335 winter it fhould be covered up. It muft be kept dry, that is, the beds made in the drieft ground; it is not fit to be eaten till the third year after it is fowed. The year before it is eaten it muft be co- vered up in the beginning of winter, firft with ftable dung, which may be kept from preffing on it by a few fticks placed like a cone over each root; then with long litter two or three feet high; the higher the better, becaufe the more it is forced, the earlier it is fit to be gathered, and the whiter it will be. It is to be gathered about the beginning of January, and fo on till May, one bed being kept under another. It fhould be boiled and fent up on toaft like afpara- gus, and 1s an excellent vegetable, and at an early feafon.” 5. The earth, on which vegetables infert their roots, fometimes prefents noxious materials to their abforbent fyftem, as the acidity of fome clays; into which when the roots of fome fruit trees penetrate, they are faid to lofe their health, as mentioned in Sec. II. 9. by tbe death or decay or their root-fibres. Pure filiceous fands alfo prevent vegetation from their containing no carbonaceous matter, and by their fo readily permitting the dews and rains to exhale from them, efpecially in hotter climates, where they conftitute a moving furface unfriendly to all organized life. 6. There are alfo noxious exhalations diffufed in the atmofphere in the neighbeurhood of fome manufaétories; which are faid to injure the growth or deftroy the life of vegetables; as the fmoke from the furnaces, in which lead is fmelted from the ore, from potteries, and from lime-kilns;: to which may be added the marine falt, or marine acid, which abounds in the too great vicinity of the fea, To thefe belong the experiments of Dr. Pefchier of Geneva, who immerfed feveral plants in vapours of nitrous acid, of volatile alkali, and of ether, to the great injury or death of the plants. Jour- nal de Phyfique par Delametherie, T. ii. p: 7245: 7. Unwholefome or poifonous materials may be applied to vegeta- bles fo as to difeafe or deftroy them; as their abforbent fyftems like thofe 33 DISEASES SECTEXIV. 2, 8e thofe of animals are liable to imbibe many noxious materials, as men- PA) tioned in Seét. II. 8. A flight folution of arfenic, fprinkled on a À| peach-tree in the fpring, deftroyed the branches which received it. | ii A folution of liver of fulphur was equally fatal to the branches of a| 4 netarine-tree, and alfo oil of turpentine.| {: Mr. Von Uflar affirms, that watering plants with a due quantity| 1148: | of oxygenated muriatic acid will increafe their irritability; and 1f| | carried beyond a certain degree will injure or deftroy the vegetable by giving it too much oxygen; which is known in due quantity to be a falutary material, and the moft neceflary of all others to ve- getable as well as to animal life. 8. There are materials called condiments, which are believed to| poflefs ftimulus without nutriment in refpet to animal bodies, as fpice, falt, bitters, as the hop, and probabiy opium and vinous fpirit. Thefe when taken into the ftomach increafe its aétivity, and render the animal for a time fat, and even ftrong; but as all increafe of ftimulus, beyond what is natural, is followed by debility; after a time the animal becomes weak, and emaciated; and enervated in mind as well as body; as is uniformly feen in thofe who are addicted to the ufe of much beer and wine, or of opium; and in a lefs degree where fpice, or fait, or bitters, are taken in too large quantity. What then fhall we fay to the ufe of common falt in agriculture? as it is a ftimulus, which pofieffles no nourifhment, but may incite the vesetable abforbent vefiels into greater action; it may in a cer- tain quantity increafe their growth by their taking up more nutri- ment in a given time, and performinc their circulations and fecre-: tions with greater energy. In a greater quantity its ftimulus may be fo great as to act as an immediate poifon on vegetabies, and deftroy the motions of the veflels by exhaufting their irritability. After a time I fufpe&t vecetables will always be liable to difeafe from this fimulating innutritive material; and that thoueh it may increafe the early growth of the plant, it will injure its flowering or feed- T: XIV,: “AIS, a$ mens branrhec nf UIAlICNES Of à due quantity xlity; and if the vecetable due quantity- others to ve: e believed to al bodies, as vinous fpirit, r. and rendet | increafe of 7; after a time Le nt ed In mind à5 \ “fra UITUI ARÇRE inoite [ may ALILILU iua bur \\CY. \|, de) U} L \\ADIE A! t MAY \t { ID SECT. XIV. 2. 8. OF. PLANTS. E 43? feed-bearing; and that hence, if it be ufed at all, it{hould be a Little before the time, that the plant would acquire that part of its. which is wanted. if theherb or young fem only be wanted, as in fpinage, mercury, afparaous, apply falt early; if the flower be wanted, as in brocoli and artichoke, or in tulip or hyacinth, moiften them with a flight folution of falt, when the flower-bud is formed. When the fruit or feed is wanted, as in melons or cucumbers, or peas and beans, apply the folution of falt fill later, and at all times with rather a parfimonious hand. See Seët. X. 7. 4. Similar to this, where animals difeafed with fuperabundancy of fat are required, it is cuftomary, I am told, to feed poultry for the Lon- don markets by mixing gin and even opium with their food, and to keep them in the dark; but they muft be killed as foon as their cor- pulency is formed, or they foon become weak, and emaciated like human drunkards. And in fome countries, as in Languedoc in France, the livers of geefe and ducks are required to be enlarged and difeafed; as they are hu a dainty by modern epicures, as well as by the ancient ones, who fpeak of the tumidum jecur anferis:; and for this purpofe the animals are kept in the dark, and crammed with more than their natural quantity of nutriment; but are faid to be- come lean, and to die, if not killed as foon as this difeafe is pro- duced. It is neverthelefs to be obferved, that fea-falt as well as other fti- mulating condiments may be ad vantaseoufly ufed as medicines, though injurious as common a d. Thus it is aflerted by Baron + v+ Schulz in the communications to the board of Agriculture, Vol, I. Part IT. and IV. p. 318, that it deftroys the fafciola hepatica, or flewk-worm in fheep. Some have recommended one ounce of falt to be given every day difblved in water, but it is probable, it might be ufed with greater advantace, if hay was moiftened with the folution, Le 1 pi A PE: which would thus at the fame time Fo them with better nourifh- >, DE > QE*\ ee 10f(O6 pur- 1 h] F ha nel DIV UE mucû Philofophia $ in plants; alls of oak, awk-weed, achia, and , Veronica, 4 f flowers 1s atricaria, 1$ [LAVE Séer: AIVr 2 OF PELANTS, 341 was pierced by a fly, and rendered unprolific before the bloffoms had opened. I have alfo feen the hood of the aconite, fo replete with an acrid juice, pierced by infeëts to plunder it of its honey. 2. The curling of the leaves of neétarine, and peach, and cherry- trees, with the cells or bladders on their furfaces, are formed in con= fequence of the wounds infliéted by the aphis; in the fame manner as the galls and bedeguars on the oak and fweet-briar by other infeéts, but without their nidification or the depofition of their CSSS; though from the fudden and general appearance of thefe injuries they have been afcribed to blights from inclement weather. Some obfervers have believed neverthelefs, that thefe affected leaves were previoufly out of health; which occafioned them to fupply a proper fituation for thofe infects, which moleft them; as I have fre- quently obferved, that fnails or flugs eat thofe leaves, which have been plucked from cucumber plants, and are beginning to wither; in preference to thofe, which are growing in perfeët health. Mr. Lawrence relates, that in June the leaves of fome of his wall- pear-trees were much injured by a hail-ftorm, which leaves were af- terwards blighted, and become full of tumours from infeêts; and the pears, which were then as large as walnuts, all perifhed. On this Mr. Bradley remarks, that infeëts generally lay their eggs on the dead or putrefying parts both of vegetable and animal bodies; and adds a conjecture, that the parent infeëts may circulate in the juices of the plant, which however is not probable, as though microfcopic animals have been difcovered in the ftagnating juices of animal bodies, as in the puftules of the itch, and in the fæces in the dyfentery, and even in the femen, which may have ftagnated in the veficulæ feminales; yet no fuch animalculæ have, I believe, ever been detected in recent blood, or any recent fecretions from it. À predile&ion for fome withered leaves appears alfo in larger ani- mals as well as in infe@ts; cows will eat young thifties, a few hours after they are cut down, as their prickles become flaccid; and horfes refufe TE PE ee bi ns = Re 242 DASE AS ES SECT DIV. 2.2: AE refufe the young fhoots of yew-trees, as they grow; but wilf eat them when they are cut off, and besoin to wither; and on that ac- count lole a part of their acrimony; though there is ftill often fuf- ficient poifon within them to deftroy the animal. And it is even probable, that when the leaves of yew are withered to a greater de- gree, their poifonous acrimony becomes fo far deftroyed, that they ceafe to be deleterious to horfes; fo that in Hefle in Germany it is cuftomary in the winter to crop the young fhoots of yew-trees, and mixino them with other provender to give them as common food to horfes. See Anderfon on Agriculture, Vol.lIII. 600. On this account if wall-trees are frequently watered by an engine, fo as to moiften their leaves or branches as well as the ground at their roots on the dry days än-fpring, by which they will be kept in vi- gorous growth,[ was told, that they would totally or nearly efcape the depredations of infets; but I found by an experiment well con- duéted on three trees, that this management had no effe@; and I alfo obferved in the fpring and fummer of this year, 1708, which feems to have much favoured the produétion of the aphis, that they at- tacked.the moft healthy leaves of peach and ne@arine trees, as well as the others; and that plums, cherries, black currants, and many other trees fuffered by their depredations, though previoufly in perfect vigour. And lafily, that on repeatedly having wafhed off many thou- fands of aphifes from peach and neétarine leaves by a ftrong ftream from a forcible water-engine, that they evidently crawled again up the flems of the trees, or on the wall to which they were nailed, as in another day the lowermoft branches were thus more infefted with them than the upper ones. The hiftory of the aphis, puceron, or vine-fretter, is{o CUrIous, the deftruëtion it commits on the foliage of the peach and ne&arine is in dry fummers fo irrefiftible, and its exiftence on other trees fo extenfive, that it demands our particular attention. See No. 1. 7. Of this Section. From the-obfervations:of Swammerden, Bonnet, Dr. Richardfon, ‘an engine, nd at their kept in vi- arly efcape t well con- * and I alfo /hich feems hat they at- cees, as well ts, and many ufly in perfect f many thou- (trong ftream yled Again UP vere nailed, 4 ; infefted with is fo curious, and neetariné other trees 10 ee No, 1: 70 e rh p, Bonnéh Dr SECT. AIVNA 32. CES PEAN RS. 545 Richardfon, and of other philofophers, this extraordinary infe& rifes in the fpring from eggs, which are faid to be attached by the parent aphis to the twigs of trees in the autumn, and are believed to produce not a larva or caterpillar, but a progeny fimilar to the parent; every one of which produces in about ten days not an ess, but another liv- ing progeny to the ninth generation, without being connected amato- rally with each other. The ninth generation produces males and fe. males, fome of both kinds with wings, and others without them; and this tenth generation from thofe, which were hatched from eggs; become amatorially conneéted, and produce eggs; which are laid on the new twigs. of various trees for the next year’s progeny to be hatched by.the vernal fun. Philof. Tranfa&. Vol. LXI. p. 182. In this uncommon circumftance the eggs of the aphis refemble the feeds of plants; which firft produce fome fucceflive generations of leaf-buds, which are a viviparous progeny, before they again pro- duce feeds, which are their oviparous progeny, as mentioned in Sect, IX. 3.1. of this work. Nor is this to be afcribed to what has been termed equivocal generation, or-to an impregnation.of nine fetufes enclofed within each other, as fome have fuppofed. But this central production of the viviparous progeny of the aphis feems to refemble the. lateral produétion of a viviparous progeny from the polypus, which in time detach themfelves from their parents; like the. buds of the polygonum viviparum, or the bulbs of the magical.onion, al- Hum magicum; which are produced from the flower-cup inftead of feeds, and in time-detach themfelves, and fall on the ground. So that thefe aphifes are not, I fuppofe, to be efteemed fecundated fe- males, but: proliferous males, as explained in Zoonomia,. Vol. I, Se. 39. on generation. his double mode of reproduétion, fo exa@tiy refembling the buds and feeds of trees, accounts for the wonderful increafe of this infe&; which according to Dr, Richardfon conffts of ten generations, and of fifty at an average in each generation; fo that the fum of fifty multiplied. De. A | | | | | | = "+—_— nr me on doi ES AE na DISEASES Secr. XIV. 3. 2. 5 multiplied by fifty, and that produét again multiplied by fifty nine times, would give the produét of one esg only in countlefs millions; to which muft be added the innumerable egos laid by the tenth ge- neration for the renovation of their progeuy in the enfuing fpring. Their punêures of the leaves of peach and neëtarine trees in the vernal months, and of cherry, plum, and currant trees in the fum- mer, produce a fwelling and elevation of the cuticle of the leaf on its upper fide, and a confequent curling of it with its upper furface out- wards, which terminates in a deftruétion of it to the great injury of the tree, and frequently to the death ofit; while the leaves of the nut-trees, mentioned above, in No. r. 7. of this Seétion, appeared to be but little injured by them, though fifty or a hundred of thefe in- feéts were feen under every leaf about Midfummer, both before and after their affufion with the honey-dew.| From Dr. Richardfon’s account the aphifes on the rofe-tree ap- peared in February, when the weather happened to be warm, from fmall black oval eggs; which were depofited on the laft year’s fhoots in autumn; and that, when the weather became colder, great nume bers of them perifhed, by which circumftance the rofe-trees are in . years almoft freed from them. They came to their full growth before April, and after having twice caft off their exuviæ, every one of them produced about fifty young ones; all of which came into the world backwards, and ad- hered fometime to the vent of the parent by their mouths or fore- part; as fhewn in a magnifed flate at fig. 2. plate IX; and were at lenoth fet down on fome tender fhoots of the plant, and came to ma- turity in about ten days, cafting off their coats two, three, or four times.| The ninth generation in Oëtober confifted of males as well as fe- males, which were feen to cohabit; and the eggs produced by their intercourfe, he aflerts, were depofited generally near the new buds, or on other parts of the twigs of the trees, which they poilefied. 3 Thefe ‘32 by ffiy nine DECTAXIV 252. OF PLANTS. 345 els millions: Thefe were at firft green, but in a few days became brown, and by the tenth ve. degrees quite black. They were of regular oval figures about one viug fprine, tenth of an inch in length, and about half as broad, and adhered e trees in the firmly by means of fomething glutinous, and refifted the feverity of in the fum- the winter.: 1e leaf on its Other infe&s, which are produced from egos, and become winged furface out butterflies or moths, live for fome time in the intermediate ftate of ULIQL UL"® AL CN caterpillars or larvæ. Durino this ftate of their exiftence they feed on val 11 1. 2 ‘ Ft the leaves, on which they are hatched; or on fruits or kernels; but saves of the: U after they have acquired wings and organs of reproduction, fome of appeared to LP them take no food, as the filkworm; and others live only upon ho- of thele in-;“ k 2 ney, as bees, and moths, and butterflies. Now the aphis, I fuppofe, à before and ‘see has no intermediate flate between the egg and the fly, and there- fore makes no holes in the leaves by eating them; or if any of them o fe) J 1Ole-LHEe apr previoufly exift in a caterpillar, or larva ftate, it can be only thofe warm, 1rom which are produced from eggs in the early fpring, which is worthy years fhoots of future attention. , great nuMe Whence I fuppofe, that this fly lives not by confuming the fo- Ce-trees are in hage of the plants, which it inhabits; but by piercing the pulmo- nary veflels in their natural flate, or the lymphatic veflels of the leaf d after having in their retrograde ftate, by a fine tube or probofcis, whichit pofleffes, ced about fifty and which it may be feen by a common lens perpetually to employ, yards, and ad- as fhewn under its chin in the magnified infeét at figure firit of plate ouths or fore- IX. For the fap-juice or vegetable chyle is broucht from the radi-+ :; and Were cles of each leaf-bud, and propelled up the long caudex to the pulmo-| 5 d came to Mä- nary artery of the leaf, where it becomes oxygenated, and converted|| three, Of four into vesetable blood. And may thus be extraéted by the tubes of‘4 thefe infe&s before its fanguification.\ 8 We 25 fe Perhaps thofe aphifes, which were from egos, might eat fome part hi|| duced by ther of the peach leaves during their larva ftate, if fuch exifts, and occa- 14|| the nëw puds fion them to curl up. While thofe, which were a viviparous progeny,| = the’ polis might only pierce the fap-veflels, or blood vefiels, and thus not ap-||| 2. Int Ÿ y parently Hit _—— ne Re| _—: os“ z “4 346 DISEASES: SECT. AIN, 72. parently injure the leaves; as on the nut-trees, where perhaps they were not hatched from egss, but might have come thither in their winged ftate, and have then produced their innumerable viviparous offSpring; as on the nut-trees above mentioned I could not difcern the egos, from which they were hatched, and a few larger aphifes: (ske) with wings appeared early in the feafon amongft the fmaller ones without winos. We may finally conjeéture on this interefting fubje@, firft, that the aphifes produced from eggs early in the fpring may have a larva or caterpillar ftate, and that during that ffate they may feed on the young leaves of peaches, nectarines, plums, and cherries, and thus occafion them to curl and die, 2. That thofe, which are not from eggs, have no larva ftate, and only pun&ture the larger chyle vefels of the young twigs, or the pulmonary arteries of the leaves, which receive the vegetable fap-juice from the roots, and thus that they fuck it up, and live on it, before it is converted into blood, as moths,, butterflies, and bees, live on honey in their winged flate, though on other parts of vegetables, as on their leaves, or anther-duff, in their larva flate; and that thefe punétures are attended with no vifible ia- jury tothe leaf. 3. That for a week or two about Midfummer, when the umbilical veflels of the new buds convey the fap-juice to them, or to the refervoirs of nutriment preparing for them, that the aphifes by piercing thefe veflels, or the pulmonary arteries of the leaves, ac- quire fo large a quantity of this faccharine material, that it pañles through them almoft unchanged, falling on the leaves and ground beneath them, and produces what is called the honey-dew; but that this happens only for a fhort feafon, as a week or two about Mid- fummer, during the produ&ion of the new buds. And laftly, that the black powdéry material on the upper furface of the leaves of the put-trees and plum-trees, and of the fhrubs which grow beneath them, is an excrement from the aphifes, which hang on the under furfaces of the leaves above them, like the black bitter powder in the nut- XIV. 3.2 >erhaps they her in their Je viviparous | not difcern rger aphifes maller ones rt, that the > a larva ot ed on the s, and thus re not from hyle vefels jvés, which 5 that they d, as moths, Ne] Ke \ n0 vible\f* fymmer, When Sec. XIV. 2. 2. OF PLANTS, 347 nut-fhell; which is the excrement of the curculio, which has eaten the fweet kernel, Secondly, having laft year written the above, I have had ano- ther opportunity of attending to the aphis during the fummer of 1799, and fhall add the further remarks, which I have been able to make on this moît curious and important animal, which May in pro- cefs of time deftroy the vecetable world. © As the month of June was again in this fummer very dry, though not very warm, the aphis was propagated in immenfe numbers on a great variety of trees, fhrubs, and herbaceous plants.‘The row of nut-trees mentioned in No. r. 7, of this Seétion was infefted with a greater number of them this year than in the preceding one; yet during the feafon about Midfummer there was fo little honey-dew this year, that it might have efcaped obfervation, if it had not been particularly attended to; yet what did appear was only on the upper furfaces of thofe leaves, which had other leaves impending over them crowded with aphifes; whence I had no doubt, but that it was voided by the millions of aphifes, which adhered on the under furfaces of thofe fuperior leaves with their backs downwards. On examining them with a ftrong magnifer I could frequently perceive them infert their probofcis or trunk into the veflels of the inferior furface of the leaf; and particularly obferved, that when they were not moving from place to place, that they generally ftood with their heads towards the foot-ftalk of the leaf of nut-trees, or to- wards the bafe of the twigs of plum-trees, which circumftance I fhewed to many of my friends. Both before and after the exiftence of the honey-dew a black ma- terial, which was fometimes moift and fometimes dry, appeared on the upper furfaces of thofe leaves only, which had other leaves crowd- ed with aphifes over them, and even on the upper furface of the leaves of fome herbaceous plants, which grew under thefe nut-trees, y and DISEASES 348 SCT ANRT and alfo on others, which grew under plum-trees, which were much infefted with an aphis of a greener colour. To prove beyond poflbility of error that this black matter was de- jeted on the leaves below by the aphifes, which were‘walking with their heads downwards on thofe above, I fewed flightly with a needle and thread under feveral leaves a piece of writing paper about the fize of the leaf; and obferved on the next day that many black marks were diftinguifhable on the paper. On plum-trees and on many herbaceous plants innumerable aphifes were feen on the upper tender part of the upright fhoots, adhering with their heads downwards; and on the hanging fhoots with their heads upwards; and inferting their probofcis into the vefiels, I fup- pofe, which contained the afcending fap-juice. But on the nut-trees the moft tender or uppermoft parts of the young fhoots were covered with very numerous briftles, which appeared to be an armour pur- pofely produced to defend them from thefe deftruétive infeéts, and hence they were principally found on the under furfaces of the leaves. As the chyle of animals is mixed with the venous-blood, and is im- mediately proje&ted by the force of the heart into the pulmonary ar- tery, at the extremities of which it is principally converted into blood by its expofure to the air; fo in the vegetable fyftem the fap-juice muft be mixed with the returning venous blood, and carried forwards to the extremities of the pulmonary artery of the leaf, before it is converted into vegetable blood... Thefe pulmonary arteries pas along the under furfaces of leaves, as the upper furfaces of them are cover- ed by the fine terminations of them on an air-membrane for the pur- pofe of refpiration; hence on thefe under furfaces of leaves the aphifes adhere, and pierce the branches of the pulmonary arteries with their* probofcis ftanding with their heads towards the flalk of the leaf, that they may thus meet the ftreams of chyle or fap-juice yet unchanged inta as re covered mour pur- nfeéts, and SECT. XIV, 3. 2. GE ELA N°T'S. 349 into blood; which accounts both for their exifting in all kinds of weather on the inferior fide of the leaves, and for their ftanding with their heads towards the foot-ftalks of them.‘Thus on an upright twig of a plum-tree I this day obferved a number of aphifes adhere with their heads downwards with their probofcifes inferted into the tender ftei1, and fo near to each other, that the tail part of the lower ones extended one third of their length over the head part of thofe above them, and gave fomewhat the appearance of fcales; while on the hanging twigs they adhered with their heads upwards, ftll intent to meet the ftreams of fap-juice in the afcending chyle veflels, or in the pulmonary arteries. Dr. Bradley and others obferve, that about Midfummer there ap= pears to be a paufe in vegetation, and that at this time the new buds are generated; and Duhamel and others found, that the bark of fe- Veral trees became at this time as cafñly to be feparated from the al- burnum as inthe fpring; as is related in Se. III. 2. 8. ofthis work. Ât this time therefore there exifts a new flow of fap-juice to fupply prefent nutriment, or to furnifh a refervoir of future nutriment to the newly generated or expected embryon, either before or after its vivification, or its impregnation, if fuch a procefs may be fuppofed to occur in the production of buds. At this time then, when there exifts a fummer-flow of fap-juice, this pernicious infeét in uncounted millions pierces the fap-vefñlels round the new fhoots, or the pulmonary arteries beneath the leaves; and thus drinks the vegetable chyle, or fap-juice, with fuch avidity, as to part with much of it again almoft unchanged. This I now believe with Sauvage to be the origin of one kind of honey-dew cer- tainly; and if another kind of honey-dew exifts, as he mentions, where there are no aphifes, 1 fufpe&, as obferved in No. r. 7. of this Seétion, that it muft arife from the inverted ation of the Jymphatic veflels of the leaf, at the time of the increafed quantity of fap-juice a about ie. EE té tn 2] 4# UD 3 5© D':1 ES SECT. XIV, 3, 2. about: Midfummer; but have not had an opportunity to afcertain thefe facts, Thidly. There appears to be a power imprefled on organized bo- dies by the great author of all things, by which they not only in- creafe in fize and fireneth from their embryon ftate to their matu- rity, and occafionally cure their accidental difeafes, and repair their poifonous juices of fome plants, as of atropa hade, hyofcyamus, hen-bane, cynogloffum, hounds-tongue. Other plants are armed with thorns and prickles to prevent the depredation of animals, as ilex, holly, cratægus, haw- thorn, ribes groffularia, goofeberry; the leaves of which would be perpetually devoured but for this kind of protection. Other plants fecrete a vifcid Juice to agglutinate the infes, which crawl up to- wards their fruétification, as filene, catchfy, drofera, fun-dew; and others by the contraétion of their leaves or petals arreft or deftroy the infeëts, which attack them, as dionæa mufcipula, and apocynum an drofemifolium. But how can vegetables prote&t the whole inferior furfaces of their leaves, and of their young rifing ftems from the innumerable pro- geny of the deftruétive aphis, which penetrates their chyle vefñels and their arteries; and which from their immenfe numbers may in pro- cefs of time deftroy the vegetable world. Many vegetables have not yet acquired any means of defence, and havetherefore the firft growth of their foliage much ivjured, or totally deftroyed by this deftrudive infe@, as the nedarine, and peach, and plum, and cherry-trees, in many parts of this country, as is Every year feen and lamented. Some vecetables have neverthelefs already acquired an armour, which leffens, though it docs not totally prevent, the injuries of this animal. This is moft confpicuous on the ftems and floral-leaves of mofs- Organized bo. y not only in. Oo their matu. id repair the ur to prevent eftroy them, , à5 Of atropa Cynooloffum, and prickles itæous, haw- ch would be Other plants crawl up to- un-dew; and or deftroy the apOCYNUM an- furfaces of ther ers may In pro cables have n0 the rft grow d LHC red an armour ei sie QÎ(Dh SecT. XIV. 3. 2. OF PLANTS. 5% mofs-rofes, and on the young fhoots and leaf-ftalks of nut-trecs. Both thefe are covered with thickfet briftles, which terminatein glo- bular heads, and not only prevent the aphis from furrounding Hé in fuch great numbers, and from piercing their veffels fo an but alfo cérete from the gland, with which I fufpe@ them to be termi- nated, a juice; which is inconvenient, or deleterious to the infe, which touches it. Hence mofs-rofes appear to be lefs injured by the aphis, than other rofes, which have lefs of this armour; and while on plum-trees, and on many herbaceous plants, they hang round the upright young fhoots with their heads downwards, and infert their trunks, fo as totally to conceal the rifing fhoot; yet on nut-trees, though they are feen in millions beneath the leaves on the unarmed parts, they never appear round the young fhoots, nor on the large trunks of the vef- els beneath the leaves, all which have acquired a panoply of brifles with glandular heads to them, like thofe round the mofs-rofe, but without the branching ftruêure of the latter. While thofe plants, which are not infefted with the lesions of this fe! Je animal, have probably acquired fome material mixed with their fap-juice, or blood, which is poifonous to them; as thofe stats’ which poñiefs a milky or a yellow blood, as the Garaks euphorbia, or the celandines chelidomium, or the fig-tree, ficus. Nor 1s this more than that the holly-trees fhouid an- nually fupply prickles only to their lower leaves, about fix or eight feet from a ground, as high as the animals can reach them, which would prey upon them; but refufe the expe sa puiting forth prickles in their higher branches, which are fav A; Dy their lituation * r Le J ed Ï have repeatedly obferved on the numerous ot w bi are the ornament of Needwood foreft. From hence I fufpe&, that another reafon, why the leaves of nut- anis payes À trees and of rofe-trees are not curled up or blifiered like thofe of 1 x 1 f”\ 5& 4 re qi nf nectarines, peaches, plums, and cherries, is becaufe their foot-ftalks, I aud ==_—= menti— …" ee a Fe ES© S== ve GO 362 DIS E AS ES SECT, XIV 355 and the farger branches of the pulmonary arteries, are defended by thefe briftles, which are perhaps only beginning to appear on the Jeaf-ftalks of the plum, but which may increafe in the progreffion| of time; as all the works of nature ma ay be approaching to creater perfeétion, as mentioned more at large in No. 2. of the laft Se@ion of this work. Fourthly. The means of deftroying an infect fo extenfively inju- rious not only to gardens and hot-houfes, but to half the vécetable world, would be indeed a valuable difcovery. If the eggs exift o On the young buds, as Dr. Richardfon affirms, fome nn to thef before they are hatched, which mi, ght diflolve their fhells, as by este dilute marine acid injected on them; or by fome adhefive material, which might invifcate them as foon as they are hatched, whether they appear firft in their larva ftate, like minute caterpillars, or in the form of the parent aphis, as foap-fuds injeéted on the twigs before the leaves begin to unfold; or perbaps by rubbing them ét oil or glue by means of a fponce, or a painter” S brufh; but experiments alone can determine the effect of thefe applications, both on the infe@ and on the tree. Lime water alone will not readily deftroy the aphis, as 1 obferved by immerfing leaves with aphifes on them; which crept up the leaves, and thus efcaped.: But if pot-afh, or fixed alkali, be mixed with lime, the folution becomes fo cauftic as to de ftroy many infetts without injurine the foliage of trees, or the flems of w heat, if we may credit M. Socoloff, who in the tranfa@tions of an Academy at Peterfbnrgh, Vol.V. aflerts, that he added three p parts of quick-lim newly nd to two parts of a faturated folution of fixed alkali in wa- ter; which poured on the ground deft royed the earth-worms, and fprinkled on the leaves ue deftroyed the caterpillars, but did not injure, or much: injure the foliage of trees, or the leaves of wheat plants.| T'ar water has lately been faid to deftroy flugs, white fnails with- out enfively inju. the vécetable egos exift où tion to thefe, Is, as by very five matertal, bed, whether lars, or in the os before the ith oil or gl eriments alont | the infeét and SEcr)KINT 3e. COFIPEMNTS: 260 out fhells, and might be worthy a trial by injeéting it on trees at frft with caution, left it fhould injure them; as it is probably the vegetable acid chiefly, with a fmall portion of effential oil, which is diflolved, or mixed with the water, by agitation, See No. 3. 5. of this Section. Previous to the pullulation of the buds, it is alfo believed to be of great fervice to water wall-trees with lime-water, or with foap-fuds, or perbaps with the addition of fome pot-afh to either of them to make à more cauftic ley, fuch as is recommended for fteceping feed- Wwheat; but this with caution, as I have known a folution of hepar fulphuris kill the branches of a tree, which were moiftened with it, as well as the infeéts, which were upon it. Nor am I certain that this will anfwer the purpofe from the obfervations I'have heard from thofe, who have tried it. The eflential oils are all deleterious to certain infe&s, and hence their ufe in the vegetable economy, being produced in flowers or leaves to proteét them from the depredations of their voracious ene- mies. One of the effential oils, that of turpentine, is recommended by M. de Thoffe for the purpofe of deftroying infeéts, which infeét both vegetables and animals. Having obferved that the trees were attacked by multitudes of fmall infe@s of different colours(pucins ou pucerons), which injured their young branches, he deftroyed them all entirely in the following manner. He put into a bowl a few handfuls of earth, on which he poured à fmall quantity of oil of turpentine; he then beat the whole together with a fpatula, pouring on it water, till it became of the confiftence of foup; with this mixture he moiftened the ends of the branches, and both the infeéts and their eggs were deftroyed, and other infeéts kept aloof by the fcent of the turpentine. He adds, that he deftroyed the fleas of his puppies by once bathing them in warm water impregnated with oil of turpentine. Mem. d'Agriculture, ni 1787; Printemp. p. 109. 1 fprinkled fome oil of turpentine by means of a brufh on fome Z'Zz branches == DER SR tes,> ne ee 354 DISEASES Secr. XIV. 3.2: branches of a neGtarine-tree, which was covered with the aphis; but it killed both the infeét and the branches. A folution of arfenic mucl diluted did the fame. Might not the fcent of turpentine, or of tar, fmeared on a fruit-wall deter the flies from approaching the trees to depofit their eggs? or might not arfenic mixed with honey be fmeared on the wall, to which the trees are nailed, be likely to at- tra the aphis as well as other kinds of flying infects. But none of| thefe fhould be fmeared on the branches, left it injure or deftroy the tree. Pérhaps if a few twigs fmeared with turpentine, mixed with a little oil of turpentine to make it more fluid, and to increafe its odour, were fixed in quince-trees, or in apple-trees,. the flowers of which are liable to be deftroyed by the egos depofited: in them by a fmall fly; they might be deterred from approaching the tree, as the great ufe of eflential oils, which caufe the fragrance of flowers, feems to be to deter infects from infefting their leaves, or preying upon their honey. It is probable, that if infufrons were made in hot water, or perhaps for a longer time in cold water, of thofe leaves which no infeéts de- vour; as of the walnut, juglans; lauro-cerafus, laurel; foxglove, digitalis; hen-bane, hyofcyamus; hounds-tongue, cynogloffum; rag-Wort, fenecio jaéobæa; or of tobacco,. nicotiana; and many others; and were fprinkled onthe curled leaves of wall-trees, or on le=. LE> AX7 ee Fr the buds before they open, by:a pump, or by a brufh, oi fponge; they might deftroy the infe&s without injuring the trees, which nught be determined by a few experiments. The duft of tobacco is frequently fpread on affeéted leaves, but not . 1 5. ou. } believe with very encouraging fuccefs, owing perhaps to the powder not being very fine, or not foon enough applied. Some kinds of lime a< 1::| ftrewed on in powder might probably be too cauftic, and deftroy the leaf along with the infeëts; which alfo might be fubjeéted to experi- ment. The powder of fulphur, or of tobacco, or of any of the poi- fonous leaves above mentioned, might be injeéted upon affected trees bs SECT. XIV..3. 2. OFCPLANTS. 355 by a powder-puff, fuch as hair-dreflers ufe, or the finoke of tobacco, ! h pes or of any other of the poifonous leaves above mentioned, might be AS forcibly blown on them by an adapted pair of bellows, as the fmoke ne of many of them may poflefs as poifonous a quality as that of to- à bacco; and even the fteam of a decoction of others, as of lauro-cera- 4(o; fus, and walnut; the poifon of the former of which is kouown to rife jut none o deftroy the xed with a its odour, of which by a fmall s the great , feems to upon their 1 or-perhaps Man A n mnt- D) ILHICLU D ut in diftillation, might probably be ufed with efe@t; but this muft de- pend on the greater or lefs fixity of their efflential oïls.‘The fmoke or fteam might be applied to wall-trees by previoufly fufpending over them a large fheet of matting, or of linen, or of paper, or an old carpet; but may however be ufed with greater advantagce in hot- houfes, than in the open air. Since the above was written I dire@ed in the early fprine of this year one neétarine-tree to be moiftened with tar-water, and parts of the wall to be fmeared with tar; another to be moiftened with lime and pot-afh diflolved in water; a third with foap-fuds and lime added to them; and many both netarine and peach-trees with foap-fuds alone. This was done by means of a brufh before any flowers ap- Coxelove, peared, and was repeated thrice on different days; but to my great et difappointment, when the leaves appeared, they became afe@ed with and many the aphis as on former years. Î alfo afterwards dipped many nut- se; leaves crowded with the aphis in ftrong infufion of tobacco, for à few -[rées, L Un re; Ê”=; 7. minutes, as the leaves hung on the trees without, as I believed, de. IDUL ECS à._-: me ftroying the infecs; though fome of them appeared for a time to be. ni sd rendered torpid.: L].. 18 Se, Neverthelefs on covering a low nut-tree with fome fheets of brown À > mu paper fewed together, and throwing the fmoke of tobacco under it 4 n the 30W et a à L È._.“*% ne a irom a proper pair of bellows, great numbers of aphifes were killed,{ kids où 1m many of which dropped from the upper leaves on thofe below them, 1} ‘ A jt the. es.| à deftro] and many adhered motionlef to the under furfaces of the leaves. The nil fVed to expél fine powder of tobacco called Scotch fnuff fprinkled on the aphifes 4% y of the pur by turning up fome of the leaves quickly deftroyed them. 4 n 2 refted: ve FA Âs À bf L N np pen== nn- ss"<<.= RE à BRLS EE ee ER ke LRO TES ee:" ŒISEMSES DECTS AN 2 356 As walnut-leaves may be had in great quantity in the autumn, and the whole plant of fenecio jaccbæa, rag-wort, at any time, both which are probably deleterious to infeéts, as they feem never to be injured by them, thefe might be procured at fmall expence, and might pro- bably, when dried and burnt, produce a{moke equally deftrudive to them. Fifthly. The moft ingenious manner of deftroying the aphis would be effe&ed by the propagation of its greateft enemy, the larva of the aphidivorous y; of which I have given a print, and which is faid by Reaumeur, Tom. III. Mem. 9. to depoñit its eggs, where the aphis abounds; and that, as foon as the Jarvæ are produced, they devour hundreds around them with the neceflity of no other movements but by turning to the right or left,arrefting the aphis and fucking its juices. If thefe eggs could be collected and carefully preferved during the winter, and properly difpofed on neétarine and peach-trees in the early fpring, or protected from injury in hot-houfes; it is probable, that this plague of the aphis might be counterated by the natural means of devouring one infe&t by another; as the ferpent of Mofes devour- ed thofe of the magicians. Mr. Horrocks of Derby fhewed me this larva of the aphidivorous fly, which I faw devour two or three aphifes, and Mr. Swanwick of this town at my requeft made an accurate drawing both of the larva and fly, which he kindly favoured me with, accompanied with the following note. ‘6 On Auguft the 4th Mr. Horrocks obligingly fent me an aphidi. vorous larva in a box on a leaf of a plum-tree, on which were à number of aphifes; and I had almoft immediately the pleafure of fee- ing it eat one. é The method of taking his prey is thus: he is like the floth in his difpofition, for he does not ramble about, while he has food around him. He only lifts up his head, and firikes it down again, extending it in various directions, as if he was blind, and repeating the above ac- 8 tion. Ce XIV. 2» 2°“i Mb, and MSA x LOU WNiCh : Kn 1: (0 UC Ibiured 4 deltructive aphis would larva of the Ch 15 faid by re the aphis they devour an the early obable, that tural means D+ PA [OIES GEVOUT= ch were à wi 41 FE of fee- e loth 11 ss food aroumé A}hc gains EALL 0 SECT, XEV.: 372, OE PE A NTS. 257 tion. If by fo doing he happens to feel an aphis, he immediately feizes it by the back, lifts it up and poifes it in the air, as if to prevent it from liberating itfelf by its ftruggles againft the furface of the leaf, or that it may fall more eafily into the cavity of his mouth. In this po- fition he holds it, while he pierces it, and fucks the juice out of the body; which having done, he drops the fkin, licks his lips round with his little black tongue, contraë@s his head, and drops it down; thus refting in perfeét repofe for fome time, after which he repeats the fame aétions. But 1f he is in the midft of plenty, he feldom gives himfelf this trouble, but waits till an aphis touches him, when he immediately turns his head round, and with fatal certainty feizes hi y LA m,. poizing him as before. ‘ For the purpofe of feeing what fly was produced from this cater= pillar, I procured him food for about ten days. During this time he eat a great number of aphifes, and crew to about an inch in length; when he left off eating, contrated himfelf to about half his former leneth, ed from his falis. ‘6[n this ftate he lay about ten or eleven days, at the end of which fixed himfelf to the box by a little oluten, which he difchars- chry- mouth, and without cafting a fkin changed to a time he burft his cell, and came out a beautiful fly, of which the figure is a good reprefentation.”? NOr: … 2. The chryfalis open at one end, The caterpiilar with an aphis in his mouth. Mo. Tic hy. ie be et 1e, enemy to the aphis is. faid to be a beautiful fmail fpotted called a lady-bird by the people. Several of thefe were feen n the nut-leaves, and are believed frft to: appear there in their larva ftate, and to feed on the aphis; they then change to a chryfalis, and laftly to a fmall wWing-fheathed beetie; and fl. I fuppoie, they bore holes into the earth, as would appear from their pofefling fheaths to their wings, and that they there depofñt their-esggs to FA hatched, D - ru. WE a= as ere ste ie 2 je nu— Le MUCH ds mt#" rer a Ne RO TNT Lee | ARS“RSS LATE a F3” ps it VO prennent 358 DISEASES SECT, XIV. 3. 3. hatched, and to climb the trees infefted with the aphis in the enfuing fpring. Thus from the exertions of a few aphidivorous larvæ or caterpil- lars, from the poifonous juices of fome plants, and from the briftiy armour on the youno twigs and leaves of others, the vegetable world 15 fo far protected from the deftru&ion, with which it has been, and 15 threatened, by the fine probofcis of this multitudinous infe&, which in its manner of attack refembles that of the large bat of Afia, vef- pertilo-vampyris; which is afferted by Linneus to drink the blood by night of fervants, who fleep in the open air, Syft. Natur. pr46.5 and is faid by others to be fo fkilful an Operator as not to wake the patient by the pun&ture, which it inflids, as it agreeably fans them with its wings. 3+ Many of the orchards of apple-trees in this country are liable to Jofe all their leaves by the depredations of caterpillars; the fame oc- curs to goofeberry-trees in fome gardens, and to cabbages in the latter part of the fummer. A few years ago I obferved, that the bloffoms of the quince-tree, before they were quite expended, were perforated by a fly; as the wound could be eafly difcerned like that on young nuts, when wounded by the curculio; and all the blofloms:of a large tree were thus deftroyed by a fmall caterpillar. And in this late fummer of 1799 the apple-blofloms in this-country are much injured by a cater- pillar, which eats the feed in the pericarp of each bloflom either be- fore.or at the time of its impregnation, the petals of the flower clof- ing again over it and dyine. The leaves of many trees are renewed after having been totally de- ftroyed in the early part of the feafon; as thofe ofthe apple-tree above mentioned, which had loft its leaves entirely by lightning; as the mulberry-trees in Italy, which are thus robbed of their firft leaves to feed flk-worms, as the tea-tree in China, which is thus robbed for à fafhionable potation. And laftly, as the euonymus, or fpindle-tree, which de M. depredation of this infe€t, yet there follows an irremediable injury to He. the: fruit.» See Seét. IX. 2, 6. k A 4e As the eggs of butterflies are in the autumn wifely depoñited in An fituations, WLGre the young can find proper food, when they are niect, whicl hatched by the warmth of the fpring; thofe on apple-trees, and Of Afia, vel on goofeberry-trees, are frequently depofited on the leaves, as ak the bloo well as on other parts of the tree; and as thefe leaves fall on the atur, p, 46; ground, theeggs are thus covered and proteéted from the frofts, and to wake the SECT. XIV. 2: 2: OF: PE AN T:S. 3° 3 359 which in this country has its firft crop of leaves almoft perpetually deftroyed by caterpillars. But though the leaves are reftored after the the young caterpillars are believed to climb the trees in fearch of their y fans them food. If this be true, it would be an advantageous practice to rake together the leaves in orchards, and to burn them; which fome have are liableto done from an idea, that the fmoke thus produced was. noxious to RAS PER the egos of infe@s depofited on the branches. in the Jatter Some gardeners for this purpofe rear their goofeberry trees on one em only; and believe, that by tying a fringe round this ftem the infe&s, which are hatched in the foil, if fuch there be, can not climb aU1NICE- #4 up.the tree thus furrounded with a fringe; and as thofe caterpillars, CT which are already on the tree, let themfelves down by a thread, when vide de: the tree is fhaken, from the fear of being hurt by the vibrating twig gi Fe À if this thread be then broken, by moving a ftick round under the es thefe infeëts cannot reafcend. A paper recently tarred on the outfide Pr mi 1e it be wrapped round the ftem of the tree inftead of the fringe Di A ds ith perhaps more certain fuccefs; but the tar fhould not be fmeared e flower clof on the bark of the tree, left it fhould injure or deftroy it. à It may be obferved in the choice of apple-trees, that thofe kinds, 1 dE- which flower early, are lefs liable to the depredation of infe@ts; and thofe, which flower late, are lefs liable to the injuries of froft,.In ap-. ple-trees perhaps the former is in fome fituation the greater evil, but in pears Î fhould fufpe& the latter, the bloffoms of which are fo of- ten totally deftroyed by one night’s froft, The. LE TTL RARE ER LD nt SR qq, nn—— 260 DISEASES SECTAXIV. 54 The white butterflies, which depofit their eggs on cabbage plants, are feen flying about awkwardly in fummer, and fhould be caugoht, and deftroyed by the gardener. Or they perhaps might be invited and poifoned by a mixture of honey, and water, and arfenic; as a wealthy man in Italy was faid to have poifoned his neighbour’s bees. See Set. VI. 6. 3. Thefe cabbage-caterpillars would increafe in de- frudive numbers, but are half of them annually deftroyed by a{mal ichneumon fly; which depofits its own eggs in their backs, which are there hatched by the warmth of the animal, and live on the filk there fecreted for its future neft; and eroding their way out fpin {mall cacoons of their own; ten or twelve of which hang on each caterpillar; which thus perifhes inftead of changing into a butterfly, This I faw happen to a great many of them, which were put into a box on bran with a few cabbage leaves, and covered with gauze, a few days before they were ready to change into chryfolifts. This ichneuman fy fhould therefore be encouraged, if his winter habita- tion could be difcovered. 4. The variety of infeéts, which infeft hot-houfes, as the acarus, thrips, aphis, and cocci, and the means commonly ufed to deftroy them by the fmoke of tobacco, or by the powder of fulphur and to- bacco, or by folutions of lime and fulphur, are defcribed in Speechly’s books on the Vine and Pine; but require fome caution in their ap- plication. A friend of mine, by fubjetting a wall-tree to the fmoke of fulphur by hanging a matt before it during the fumigation, killed both the infeéts and the tree. 5. Other kinds of infe@s are produced beneath the foil, or occa- fionally retire into terreftrial habitations. Of thefe are the various families of fnails, with and without fhells, and other infeéts with fheaths over their wings, with which they are furnifhed to prevent any injury from the friétion of the fides of the hoies they make or defcend into. Jt has been lately fuppofed, that the great deftruétion of the crops of Secr. XIV. 3. c. GE. PLANTS. 26: À of turnips, which occafionally occurs, is owing to the depredation of de cauobt TPS a white flug, or fuail, which comes out of the foil before fun-rife in | A VITEQ EE dew y Mornings; and that by rolling the young turnips with a heavy HEILRIIL y À<; É Fe. roller before fun-rife for à few morninos, thefe pernicious infe@s may be deftroyed, and add manure to the nifing plants they have injured, Create in da 4 in k The wbite flugs in gardens are very deftructive to many flower- Fa ftems, as they life out of the ground, as to dictamnus fraxinella, de apoCynum androfemifolium, to phafcolus, kidney-bean, to CIDara, "01 10 d artichoke, and many other plants. 1 well remember in one feafon ay out. favourable to their produétion in a garden by the fide of the Derwent ang on each cblerving, that many artichoke ftems above a foot high were eaten > a buttery, by them near the moift earth till they fell down, like trees felled by re put into à the ax. It has lately been aflerted, that watering the ground with th gauze, à tar-Water will deftroy them; which may be made by addino à few fs. This pounds of tar to a hogfhead of water, and well fürring it, without inter habita- perceptible injury to the tar. A circle of lime round the flower- ftems, or of falt, or even of bran in dry weather, are means of pre- as the acarus, venting the approach of flugs; and fome gardeners lay a board hohtly (ed to deftro on the ground between the alleys, under which the flugs hide them- Glohur and to felves when the fun rifes, and are hence cafly caught and deftroyed. res Speechlr! The leaves of the young turnip are alfo believed to be deftroyed by Ne bei ap a fly; which, if it be of the fcarabæus, or beetle kind, which arifes out of the earth, may likewife be deftroyed by rolling."The Chi- nefe are faid by fir G. Staunton to ftcep all their feeds in liquid ma- nure until they fwell, and their germination begins to appear; which they believe not only haftens the growth of the plants, but alfo de- e totne imont ;: klled ation[CU migation, AUX le) cn té ee fends them againft infeéts beneath the oil; and that tothisfir George are[ne ne obferves it may be owing, that the Chinefe turnips efcape the fly fo jnfeûts" iDjurious to them in this country. Embaffy to China, 8vo edit. (hed to ne Vol So AM vien dE Mr. Guillet in the Bath Agri- $ they mt” culture, Vol. IL Aït. 44, feems to confirm this idea. He aflerts, that when turnip feed is fown during rain, or has rain immediately after- yon GDPTTF 3 À Ward, > es SE ER TR ee ne Eu nm. RS£ 362 DISEASES Secr. XIV. 3. 6. wards, that the firft leaves are fo vigorous that the fly never attacks them; or that the rain itfelf is fo inconvenient to the fly, as to pre- vent its appearance. Ît is alfo aflerted by Mr. Exeter in the Tran- factions of the London Society for Arts, Vol. XVI. p. 197, that the fowing turnips in drills deeper than by broad caft, accelerates the growth of the plant by giving it more moifture; whence it fooner puts forth its rough leaves, and efcapes the depredations of the fly. He fpeaks highly of the ufe of the drill, advifes the rows to be sis foot diflant, ufes three quarters of a pound of feed to an acre, and fows them from one inch and a half to two inches deep. 6. The great numbers and varieties of animated beings, which live under the foil, and fleep in winter, defcending beneath the reach of froft, is truly aftonifhing.[ once obferved fuch immenfe num- bers of fmall wing-fheathed infe&s, which I believed to be the fca- rabæus folftitialis, or fern-chaffer, as they were not one fixth part of the fize of a May-chaffer, fcarabæus melolontha, though much of the fame form and colour; which arofe out of the sround near the cold bath at Lichfeld, that I gueffed, that one or two emerged from every fquare inch of many acres of land. The grubs or maggots, from which thefe wing-fheathed flies arofe, 1 fufpeét in fome feafons and fituations favourable to their produétion to be very deftruétive to the wheat in fpring, or the early part of fummer, devouring the ftem near the furface of the ground at the joint, which is fweet, till it falls down or withers, by which many crops were nearly deftroyed this year, 1797, and that, I was inform- ed, on fome lands, which had been previoufly well limed. Mr. Tull in his hufbandry, fpeaking of wheat, advifes not to fow it deeper than an inch, fince the thread or caudex, which conneëts the lower or feminal root with the upper or coronal root, he believes to be then not fo readily found by worms in the winter, as one three inches long might be, both on account of the greater length of the 9 latter, SECT. XIV. 3. 6. OPFFPEANES. 26 A 3 5 latter, and becaufe infeéts do not rife fo near the furface in the win- « ter months. 1e Where this peftilential grub occur$, perhaps rolling the land early 1 1e in the mornings in the fpring might crufh them. And when the fly is feen to come out in fuch abundance in the fummer evenings on grafs land or fallows, it is probable, that rolling the ground in the r , evening might prevent the return into the earth both of thefe and of e the May-chaffers to depoñit their eggs, and thus prevent their future d proseny; or during their grub ftate, when they exift at the roots of wheat above or juft beneath the furface of the foil, perhaps flaked lime might be fprinkled ever the crop in powder, or fea-falt in pow- h der, which might be wafhed down the ftems of the corn in a wet day, and deftroy the infe& without injuring the vegetable; or laftly, D : by tar-water; all which might be firft tried on a fmall part of a field; . for as lime is not all of equal purity, it is not all of the fame ftrensth L or caufticity. à Another infe@ is faid to injure wheat when in flower, and is fup- à pofed to be the thrips phyfapus of Linneus, as mentioned in the tranfations of the Linnean Society, Vol. IIT. But as it only attacks , the late flowering ftems, it may pofhbly be prev ented by fowing the se wheat early, if it fhould ever become a ferious evil. da Some time ago an infeét called a corn-butterfly committed great . ravages in France while in its vermicular ftate, fo as to ruin two hun- di dred parifhes. À cure for it was at lenoth difcovered, which con- ÿ| fifted in drying the wheat i in an oven before fowing it, aud thus ex- si pofing it to fuch a degree of heat as would deftroy the egss of the infe& without injuring the feed; or perhaps which hatched them W without fufficient moifture to foften the grain for their fupport. See Ys Encycl. Britan. Agricult. je Between Cheferheld and Plaifly in Derbyfhire I well remember ee above forty years ago to have feen for two or three miles together he every leaf of the hedges devoured by the May-chaffers, fcarabæus 2 27 melolontha, 64 BTSEASES SEor.XIW 2:06: #9 melolontha, which hung on each other, where the foliage was de- ftroyed, like bees in a fwarm. And to have found in the fame vear, as it lay dead in a field near Chefterfield, a true locuñ, like a very large grafs-hopper with very long and broad wings; which I pre- ferved in fpirits, and was informed, that many of them were found in other parts of England about the fame time. AI thefe noxious animals might be deftroyed or diminifhed by encouraging the breed of fmall hedge-birds, and perhaps of larks, and of rooks, by not taking their nefts. I have obferved, that houle fpar- rows deftroy the May-chaffer, eating out the central part of it; and am toid that turkeys and rooks do the fame; which I thence con- clude might be as grateful food, if properly cooked, as the locufts or termites of the eaft. And probably the large grub, or larva of it, which the rooks pick up in following the plow, is as delicious as the grub called groogroo, and a large caterpiilar, which feeds on the palm; both of which are roafted and eaten in the Weft Indies. The various fpecies of linnets carry fmall caterpillars to their gaping young; and bedgehogs are faid to devour fnails, and on that account to be profit- ably kept in gardens. When a fevere froft occurs, before the ground is covered with fnow, thofe infeéts, which do not penetrate deeply intothe earth dur- ing their hybernation, as the fhell-lefs fnails or flugs, are liable to be deftroyed, and probably many of the larvæ of the fern-chaffer and May-chaffer, as is{een by their diminifhed numbers in the enfuing {eafon. In China the aurelia of the flk-worm, after the filk is wound off, and the white earth-grub, and the larva of the fphinx motb, furnifh articles at the table, and are faid to be delicious. Embañy to China. Neverthelefs all the caterpillar tribes may not be equally innocuous; as in this climate the hairy caterpillars, if laid between the fingers, where the fkin is tender, I have obferved to produce an itching, and leave fome of their pointed briftles in the fkin. And M. Vaillant, in Secr. XIV. 3. 7. OF PLANTS. 365 in his travels in Africa from the Cape, aflerts, that both a black and a white hairy caterpillar becomes fo poifonous, when it feeds on a large euphorbia, that the natives put them in bass, bruife them, and after a few days poifon their arrows with them. But that they are lefs poifonous if they feed on lefs acrid vegetables. There muft be great difficulty in deftroying the larvæ, or grubs, or caterpillars, of many infects, which are injurious to the fruits and kernels, as well as to the foliage of plants, by any chemical mix- tures; as in this ftate, I fuppofe, fome of them are uncommouly hardy or tenacious of life. Mr. Gouch affirms, that he kept the cur- culio nucum, or worm found in nuts, in brandy for feventeen hours, which recovered; and Ï remember putting a worm, which came from a perfon, who called it an afcaris, though it was above an inch long, and nearly as thick as a thin crow-quill, into a faturated folu- tion of fugar of lead in water; which lived many hours without apparent injury. See Nicholfon’s Journal, No. 21, for November 1798. 7. À great number of bees, as well as of moths, and butterflies, muft be very injurious to flowers, and confequently to the produc- tion of fruits, as all of them plunder the neëtaries of their honey, and thence deprive the anthers and ftigmas of their adapted nourifh- ment, as mentioned in Seét. VI. 6. 3. This would be more deftruc- tive to the feminal produts of plants, but that many of them poñefs means of defending their refervoirs of honey, and yet of expofing it to the influence of the air, fome of them by long winding canals, as in the bottom of the tubes of the honey-fuckles, trefoils, and lark- fpurs, lonicera, trifolium, delphinitum; others by covering it with:a hood, as in monkfhood, aconitum; others by a gluten, as in catchfy, filene, aud in fun-dew, drofera; others by contraéting fome part of their leaves or flowers, and deftroying the hoftile infeét, as in dionœæa mufcipula, and in apocynum androfemifolium; and finally, many other flowers have probably acquired the habit of fecreting more ho- ney A RS nr 366 D HSE AIDES SECE. REV. 2.7 ney than is neceffary for their own confumption, as cacalia fuaveolens, alpine colts-foot, and pelygonum fagopyrum, buck-wheat, From | all thefe contrivances the flowers of plants probably receive lefs in- | jury from the depredations of bees, moths, and butterfiies, in this | country, and from the hbumming bird in tropical climates, than they | otherwife would be fubjeét to. fl But befdes the lofs of much of their honey an abundance of bees muft likewife injure the feminal produéts of vesetables by plunder- ing the ftamina of flowers of their anther-duft for bee-bread, as Mr. Hunter believes; and alfo of the wax, which covers the anthers for fl Er their defence againft rain. Neverthelefs, as mankind convert to their own purpofes the honey thus colleéted by bees, and the wax, with which they fabricate their combs; and as the feeds of plants and their fruits are neverthelefs in fufficient abundance; the depredations of bees are not counteraéted like thofe of other infeéts, but on the con-. trary encouraged.| The following obfervations, which I made this fummer, may be of fervice to thofe who keep bees, and which I fhall therefore here relate. The bees of one fociety frequentlv attack thofe of another fociety, | plunder them of their honey, and deftroy moft of them, perhaps all of them, in battle; in this refpeét refembling the focieties of man- kind! This war for plunder occurs more frequently than is com- monly fufpeéted. Lait year I had one hive of bees totally deftroyed, and the year before another, which I did not take means to prevent, though 1 faw the conteft, and the number deftroyed in the latter; but not early enough in the commencement of hoftilities. TU] Laft week, June 16, I happened to fee a great number of bees on jh the wing near the mouth of my only hive, and fuppofed that they them 1 diftinétly faw it was-a violent battle; and at night obferved LUE| about a hundred dead bees on the ground, and on the bench before | À were about to fwarm. In an hour or two, on again attending to the hive. Ithen direéted a board about an inch thick to be laid on à: À Û the SET MN de de OP PA AUNELS: 367 =) ë the bee-bench, and fet the hive on this board with its mouth ex- À adly on the edge of this board, the mouth of the hive was allo con- s traGted to about an inch in length, and a femicircular hollow was nace in the board immediately under the mouth of the hive. By this means the aflailing beés were obliged to alight on the beé-bench, $ and then to climb per De detley up the edge of the board, on which the hive was now placed; and thus appeared to act with great dif- advantace; and à much lefs number of bees appeared to be flain in this day’s battle; whence it would be advantageous always to place C - bee-hives in this manner. à Neverthelefs, as the war did not ceafe, I direted early on the next L morning to remove the bee-hive to a diftant part of the sarden, and j to a more eafterly afpect, and found to my great fatisfaétion, that the hofts of the enemy did not follow; and that in a few hours the un- : affailed bees refumed their work, as appeared by their going into the hive with loaded thighs; and though a few of them were feen on | the following two nights refting on their old habitation, thefe were | carried early on the enfuing morning in their torpid ftate to the :| new fituation, and the war ended without extermination of either jus l CictYe le| È| IV. DESTRUCTION BY VERMIN. 1) 1. The deftruction of grain, after it is fown, by the field-mice, which mine their way very quickly under newly ploughed lands near the furface, is faid by Mr. Wagftaff, in the papers of the Bath So- À ciety, Vol. VI. to be effeéted in or feafons to a very great extent.| Y He adds, that the tuflocks of wheat, feen to arife in many fields, are=} 0 owing to the granaries of thefe diminutive animals; which he has{| d often‘foufid to contain nearly a hatful of corn, which grows into à : tuft, if the owner becomes accidentally deftroyed. Mr.Wagftaff alfo afferts, that they feed much on the young plants, as 4 +.-r1238 = | 1 ll| À 268 DESE AS ES DECT- NIV 42. as they arife from the feed, and multiply at that time very faft. He deteéts their habitations by fmall mounds of earth being thrown up on or near the apertures of their dwellings, or of the paflaces, which Jead to their nefts or granaries; and by following the courfe of thefe paffages he found and deftroyed the parents and the progeny. Mr.Wagftaff recommends the taking up and dividing the tuffocks of wheat, thus fown in the autumn by the feld-mice, and tranf- planting them in the fpring; and allo to thin other parts of a young crop, as they appear too thickly fown, which he efteems an advanta- geous practice. Acorns when fown, and garden beans, and peas, are liable to be dug up or devoured by thefe voracious little animals, which may be deftroyed by traps baited with cheele; or beft of all by the ei ragement of the breed of owls, fo a@ive in the purfuit of: vermin, and thence{o ufeful to the sardener and firm: fall permit their fervants and children to deftroy both their ezos and cal- low young. 2. This country was infefted with two kinds of rats, the houfe-rat and the water-rat; but it is believed, that wathin the laft half cen- tury the water-rat has deftroyed the houfe-rat.‘The water rats pof- fcfs fome kinds of ingenuity fimilar to the beaver in the confiruction of their houfes near the brinks of rivers and pools; which have two apertures, one above ground amongft the grafs, and the other beneath the furface of the water; and unlefs they can hide their upper open- ing amid weeds or grafs, they forfake the ftuation. Thus if a rim, three or four feet in breadth, round a ffh-pond be kept fo low as to, rife only two, or three, or four inches above the level of the water; and if this be kept clean from high grafs, or weeds, the rats will de- fert the pond. J'have feen a young water-rat devour a large leaf of water-plantain, alifma plantago, and therefore fuppofe that they occafonally prey on the foliage, as well as on the feeds and fruits of vegetables, and on young animals, as ducklings and rabbits, As thete animals, like the dog, 2 SECT. NIV, 4.7. GEPEANTES. 369 dog, are of a lafcivious nature, and as fome materials have a ftrong fcent, refemblins perhaps that of their venereal orgafm, they are liable to be attracted by fuch fmells, as dogs are, on the fame account, I fuppofe, inclined to roll themfelves on putrid carrion; and male cats to eat marum, valerian, and cat-mint. On this account it is ufual for rat-catchers to avail themfelves of this propenfity, and ta mix effential oil of rhodium, or muik, with the poifonous powder: of ftrychnos nux vomica, or of delphinium ftavifagria, or perhaps of arfenic. The great injury to vegetation effeted by thefe rats confifts in their making innumerable burrows beneath the foil, and feedins on the roots of a great variety of vegetables. Some new planted apple- trees I remember to have feen taken out of the ground with nearls the whole of their fmaller roots eaten, and the larger ones peeled by thefe reptiles. They will alfo deftroy young ducks, young rabbits, and young chickens; and devour with great avidity every kind of food, with which poultry and fwine are ufuaily fed; and are hence in Many Ways injurious in fituations near water. The fubfeauent receipts for poifoning this mifchievous vermin are printed in the papers of the Bath Agricultural Society, and faid to have been attended with great fuccefs. Firft, to a quart of oatmeal add fix drops of o:! of rhodium, one grain of mufk, and two or three of the nuts of nux vomica finely powdered; make it into pellets, and put them into the rat-holes. This was at firft greedilÿ eaten, and did great execution, but the wife animals after a time ceafed to eat it. The fecond confifled of three parts of oatmeal, and one of flavifa- gria, ftave’s-acre, mixed well into a pafte with honey. Pieces of this pafte were laid in their holes, and again did great execution. A third method of deftroying them there recommended is by laying a large box down on its front fide with the lid fupported open by a ftring over a pully; and by trailing toafted cheefe, and a red herring, from their holes to this box; and placing oatmeal and other food in this 2. box, Éa DISEASES Cecr. XIV: 42 j { box, which they are for a few nights permitted to eat unmolefted; L(a) and finally to watch them by moonlight, the infide of the box being painted white; and, when many of them are feen, to let down the did; by whicl contrivance fixty.of them were taken at once. 3. Moles, as well as rats, have occafñonally increafed fo greatly in numbers as to much injure the agricultor; they perforate the earth near its furface, and are faid never to drink, but to feed on the roots of vegetable, as well as on fubterraneous infeéts; and though they are believed never to drink, yet they have been feen occafionaliy to fwim over lakes of water to the iflands which they furround, of T which an ocular proof is related in the tranfactions of the Lainnean Society, Vol. IH. 1797. Some have recommended to injeét the fmoke of burning fulphur, or of tobacco, into their fubterraneous manfions: but as the earth frequently falls in behind them, as they pafs, or 1s accumulated behind them by their hindermoft fect, as they crforate the foil with their foremoft feet or hands, this method of attack can feldom fucceed, unlefs the neft of the animal be near the fumigated aperture. Others have advifed to pour water into their l LS holes, which is equally inefhicacious in general, though it may have effect in particular fituations. Some alfo have baited traps with worms, and others have advifed to put poifon into their holes; but they are not to be attrated together like rats from their not appear- ing above cround. The following method was related to me by Francis Paget of El- fton near Newark, a very popular and fuccefsful mole-catcher, whom 1 once attended in his occupation to witnefs his operations. The moles have cities under ground, which confift of houfes, or nefts, where they breed and nurfe their young 3 communicating with thefe are wider and more frequented ftreets, made by the perpetual jour- neys of the male and female parents; as well as many other lefs fre- quented allies or bye roads, with many diverging branches, which they daily extend to collect food for themfelves or their progeny. This OFFPEANTS. QNI 22 This animal is more aétive in the vernal months; durino the time of the courtfhip of the males; and many more burrows are at this made in:the earth for their meeting with each other. And though thefe animals are commonly efteemed to be blind, yet they appear to have fome perception of light even in their fubterraneous habitations; becaufe they begin their work as foon as it is light, and confequently before the warmth of the fun can be fuppofed to affect them. Hence his method of deftroying them confifted firft in at- tending their fituation early before fuu-rife; and at that time he fre- quently could fee the earth move over them, or the grafs upon it; and by a fmall light fpade he frequently cut of their retreat, by triking it into the ground behind them, and then dug them up. He added, that by laying the ear on a newliy raifed mole-hill, the found of the fcratching mole might fometimes be heard at a dif- tance, and direét where to find it; as the folid earth conveys{mall vibrations better, or to a greater diftance, than the light air. And that a terrier dos, after having been accuftomed to the bufinefs, was frequently of férvice in dete&ting by his nofe the place of the mole beneath the foil, and by endeavouring to fcratch the earth over it. The mole he faid generally fuckles four or five, and fometimes fix, young ones; which are placed confiderably deeper in the ground than their common runs; and as thefe nefts are funk much deeper into the ground than their ftreets or bye-roads, and the mole-hills DO confequently larger, the earth on the fummit of thofe mole-hills i$ - generally of a different colour, and is raifed higher than that of the other ones. Thefe nefts are to be dug up, having firft intercepted the canal between them and the mole-hills in their vicinity, to cut off the retreat of the inhabitants. The next important circumftance is to difcover, which are the fre- quented ftreets, and which the bye-roads, for the purpofe of fetting fubterraneous traps, This is effeéted by making a mark on every new mele-hill by a light preflure of your foot; and on the next mornmg 2h by S”2z DISEASES,&c. Segr. XIV, 4.8. by obferving whether a mole has again paffed that way, and obliterat- ed the foot mark; and this is to be done two or three fucceflive aornings.‘Thefe foot-marks fhould not be deeply imprefled, Îeft it fhould alarm the animal on his return, and he fhould form a new brauch of road, rather than open the obftruéted one. The traps are then to be fet in the frequented ftreets,{0 as nicely to fit the divided canal. They confift of a hollow femicylinder of wood with grooved rings at each end of it, in which are placed two noofes of horfehair, one at each end, faftened loofely by a peg in the center, and ftretched above ground by a bent flick. When the mole bas pañled half way through one of the noofes, and removes the cen- tral peg in his progreffion, the bent ftick rifes by its elafticity, and ftrangulates the animal. He added, that where the foil was too moift or tenacious, that the moles in pafling the old runs fometimes pufhed a little of it before them, and thus loofened the central peg before they were in the noofe; in which cafe he fixed the peg a little fafter in the trap. By thefe means Francis Paget cleared many of the neishbouring parifhes of this kind of vermin in a few days, or a week or two, and laid them under an annual tax for the defence of their territories from thefe invaders. And added, that fome other mole-catchers had carried moles into thofe farms, whofe occupiers refufed to pay them an annual füipend, a practice which he fcorned to ufe. I have de- tailed this method to prevent this impofition, and to enable every farmer to be his own mole-catcher, or to teach the art to huis fer- vants, PHYTOLOGI e PEAT ES. 1. Exhibits the aphis, puceron, or vine-fretter, and the infe@s which deftroy it, Fig. 1. reprefents the aphis of the rofe-tree without wings very much magnifed, copied from M. Bonnet, with its antennæ before, and its two horns behind, which are not half the length of the antennæ, are immoveable, and faid by Bonnet to be hollow canals from which the fweet juice called honey-dew is evacuated;- laftly, with the trunk under its head in the pofition in which it penetrates the leaves. In fome the horns behind are want- ing, and little knobs fupply their place, which; Reaumur thirks fupply the fame fweet juice. That fome poffeffing wings, and others not, does not diftinguifh the fexes is agreed by all obfervers. Fig. 2. reprefents a magnified aphis of à pear-tree, from which à young one is fuf- pended for fome time after it is otherwife born. Fig. 3. reprefents the aphidivorous larva, with an aphis in its mouth, and the chryfalis of the fame infect, before it is transformed into the fly at fig. 4. All thefe were drawn from :-- r.. à ND à nature, and exaétly refemble fimilar reprefentations in the work of Bonnet. Fig. s. reprefents an infect from Bonnet, which he terms an,aphis lion, as it fo greedily devours the aphifes. This infect is transformed into the fly at fig. 6. Fig. 7. reprefents a fpotted hemifpheric fcarabeus, called by fome a lady-bird, into which the infeét at fig. 8. is transformed, which is alfo faid to be a great aphis-eater. Oeuvres de C. Bonnet, T', r, Fite x Jéct. XIV. 3.2. ,»* À 2'Uu8oo,bv LSohnson, S'Pauls Church Yurd. London, Published Jan 1 | 1 \) PS ARE PART THE THIRP: AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE. SD CT, y THE PRODUCTION OF FRUITS. Bads immediately from feeds never produce feeds. Neither in annuals nor frees. As in wbeat, tulip, apple-tree. from the broad cauder of a tulip, and the long caudex of trees, are of different maturity. Leaf-buds changed into flower-buds at Midjummer, or flover-buds into leaf. buds by art. I. To produce fruit-bearing trees. 1. Séedling-trees. Their puberty Ingraft walnut and mulberry trees. Tf unpruned young trees or efpalliers bear fruit fooner than other Jendards? Buds on bended branches earlier and larger. An apple Jour on one Jide. How 10 pro- duce fine feedling-trees or flowers. Leaves of feedling-trees. 2. Root-fuckers from apples, vines, briers, figs, are like ingrafied Jcions. 3. Scions from branches planted in the earth. 4 quick-bedge thus raïfed. Chinefe method. bow raifed by Mr. Miche. 4. An ingrafted Jcion jometimes affeffs the Jlock. Acquires vVigour from a vigorous flock. On trees of the fame genus, On trees of different genus. to bereditary difeafes, not to old axe, liké tbe parent tree. Sum- its die frff.’s ingrafied nofes. apple on one fide. Æpply rind to rind in grafting. Flower-bud not proper for inoculation.- Sweeter apples bave wbiter bloffoms. Colour of black cherry and purple grape knoxon by their red leaves in outumn. Lines from Virgils Georgics. II. To increafe the number of fruit- buds.-buds are furnifbed with new caudexes down the trunk.- buas not jo. Retard the produffion of neto caudexes. Viviparous and oviparous progeny. of new caudexes, or bark flaments, are compound in in- grafted trees, and Juddenly generated. 1. Bend down the viviparous branches, ah ee me, am a RC ere 274 PROBUCHETON SEÉCTANE| and they become oviparous, and receive more nutriment.-trees trained in borizontel circles. and peaches trained on the grourd. 2. Tilt à wire or tie a cord round viviparous branches. Apple-trees become dwarfs by fre-| quent ingrafting on them. 3 Wound or break a viviparous Ürancb, or cut cf a cylinder of tbe bark. The veffels of the alburnuin Jometimes aët as capilary tubes. Decorticated oaks. Tapped birch and maple. Deccrticate alternate branches about| Midjummer. roots produce root-fcions. roots.. Take bark off and replace it. Cut three or four circular incifions, or à fpiral line. To make dwarfs. À. Tranfplant a tree, or cu} the roots, or confine them. up and tranfplant beans, brocoli, flrawberries. Allo crowd the roots of firawberries. Put a brick floor under fruit-trees. lily of valley in pots. Orchis. Cu- cumbers and melons. 5. Cut away central viviparous branches. Why fpurs are oviparous. Why terminal buds are viviparous. of it. Management of melons. Management of vines. off viviparous fecondary buds, and they &ecome oviparous next year at the Jame eye. À longer beat to ripen the wood ex- plained. If this could be praëtifed on other fruit-trees. 6. Lines from Botanic Garden. II. To perfeét and enlarge the fruit. 1. Shorten the oviparous branches, Cut away root-fuckers. 2. Pinch off ufelefs viviparous buds. Pick out fecondary buds.. And of melons. 3. Thin wall-fruits, and grapes.| grows without light. 4. ie waxed thread round twigs of fig-trees and pear-trees| ben in floxwer, to prevent new leaf-buds. 5. Give additional moiflure, manure, and warmtb. Moiflure enlarges fruit by relaxing their cuticle, and preventing ab- Jorption from them. Of fuckling goofeberries. Wotering rice svben in flower. Ma- aure adds nutriment. Much warmtb with much moiflure both enlarges fruit and adds to its flavour. Hot-boufes beated by Jleam.” Pines cultivated in water.| 6. Proteër floxvers and fruits from frof. À low fituation 15 nof proper for a garden. Walls covered witb projefting coping fiones are ufeful in Jpring, not in Jummer. coping fheds.-flues in garden-walls. À Jecret in the management of them. flowers from the Jun. 7. Fruits ripen Jooner if avounded, or gathered before they are ripe, or baked in the bot-boufè, or in an oven. IV... To preferve fruit. Keep it from beat and cold, and from moiflure. How beat and cold deftroy the life of fruit. feparates falts, vinous fpirir, end vinegar, from water. Condenfes clay. mucilage. frozen fruit low. Preferve fruits in ice-houfes, or by Jieam. 2. Gatber fruit during I| 4s SECT Va: 1: OFF R UMTS:| 37 515 acid ffate. Eveporate part of its water. Keep it cool. 3. Impregnate fruit &itb Jugar. Brandy poilons mucor or mould. 4. Fruits preferved in brine, in vinegarsan fpirit of wine, ralihie.. Verfes on pruning trees and melons. THE objets of the culture of the farm or garden may be divided into the produétion of fruits, feeds, roots, barks, woods, leaves, and flowers. We have repeatediy endeavoured to fhew, that the buds immedi- ately arifing from feeds are not themfelves capable of producing feeds neither in herbaceous nor in arborefcent vecetables; but that the firft bud from every feed is fuccecded by a fecond bud more per- fe€t than itfelf; and that by a third, fourth, or many more; each generation being more perfect than the preceding one, till they ac- quire a puberty,1f it may be fo called, or a power of producing fexual organs, and a confequent feminal progeny. In thofe plants, which are called annuals, becaufe their feeds are own, and produce other feeds, in the fame year, and then perifh, fome fucceflive buds grow on each other, before a flower can be pro= duced; as 15 feen in the ftems of wheat, and fowthiftle, triticum, fouchus; which confift of joints, which appear to be fucceflive buds growing on each other. From the tulip feed à fingle bud arifes the firft year with a circu- lar flat caudex exifting beneath'it, on which one principal new bulb is formed annually more perfect than its parent, as is feen by the larger leaf; and alfo fome lefs buibs are produced around the more perfe&t one in the bofom of each rudiment of a leaf, which compofes or enclofes the principal bulb, as defcribed in Se@. VII. 1.3, and Se. IX. 3. 1. and 3.6.‘Thefe lefs perfeët bulbs round the principal one, after the principal one has acquired its puberty, or power of producing fexual organs, are of greater or lefs degree of maturity, as appears by their fize; and thence I fuppofe muft require more or fewer years, before they flower. Similar 376 PRODUEC FION BECr. AV x: 17, Similar to this circumftance of the tulip-root, the buds of trees, which firft arife from the feed, produce annually other buds more perfeét than themfelves, till they acquire the power of feminal ge- neration; and afterwards not only a flower-bud is formed, which is in fome trees the central bud on the extremity of the twig, as in pear-trees, and on the fpurs of apple-trees; but alfo many leaf-buds of greater or lefs maturity are formed around the principal, or flower- bud; which require more or fewer years, before they obtain the ma- turity neceflary to produce a flower. It was fhewn in Seét. VII, 1. 7. that every part of the long cau- dex, extending from a bud on the fummit of a tree to the root, can produce a bud, like every part of the broad caudex of a tulip-root; but thofe produced in the bofom of the leaf I believe generally to be the moft mature; and thofe which arife from a lower part of the caudex to be lefs mature, and will in confequence require more fuc- cefive buds to proceed from them, before they can form a flower. Thus when the whole branches of a fruit-tree are lopped from the trunk, the new buds are produced from the lower parts of the cau- dexes of the branch-buds, which have been lopped off, and are there- fore an immature progeny, and require fome years before they can flower. It hence appears, that a number of buds or bulbs in all vegetables muft fucceed each other from the feed, before a flower and confe- quent fruit can be generated; but that thefe fucceflive generations are more numerous or fewer in fome plants than in others; that they in fome plants may only fucceed each other annually; in others per- haps many of them in the fame fummer, as in the herbaceous plants,: as wheat; and in thofe trees, whofe annual joints have their pith divided from each other, as in vines. And laftly, that the number of thefe fucceflive generations, or the times of their produétion, whe- ther only annually, or many of them in one fummer, may be dimi- nifhed SEC DV PEAR. CF: FRUTES. nifhed or accelerated by art; and that in attending to all thefe cir- cumftances confifts the fuccefsful management of fruit-trees. The new buds on deciduous trees in this climate are Su iced about Midfummer, as obferved in Seët. IX. 2. 0; and it is believed , by the Linnean fchool, that many of them at this time may be fo afleted by art, as to become either leaf-buds or flower-buds. At this feafon therefore the produétion of buds on wall-trees, or efpa- hiers, or on ftandards, fhould employ the attention of the horticultor; as thofe feedling-trees produce leaf-buds only, which are too young to produce flower-buds; and asthe particular fhoots or buds of other trees are not fo mature as to produce flower-buds; and laftly, as fome trees flourifh too vigoroufly, as it is termed, to produce fowérebuds. The things to be attended'to are the age of the tree, from which the:oraft was taken, which now forms a branch; the maturity of the particular buds, ATEN you wifh to encourage; and the vigour of the whole tree, or its ten ency to produce leaf-buds in preference to flower-buds. I. TO PRODUCE FRÜIT-BEARING TREES 1. There are four methods of procuring fruit-trees for the pur- pofes of horticulture, by feeds, by root-fuckers, by planted fcions LJ1C 2 Le DE] Of by ingrafted fcions. | à OS VE ediing ATOS, It was obferved above in Section IX. 2: 1. and 2. 6. that in tulips and hyacinths, and even in potatoes and onions, the bulbs fucceed Each other for two or three vears or longer, before they produce ge 7 K e£? F|| ETES Ne Howers; and that the fame happens to the buds of feedlino-trees ES| SES| m= ps Yhich are many years a fucceflhion of Jeaf-buds only FETES PAS DR 2 1 RCCRE EE D LS SE| Cac] PRE Fe PNA ARTE| pa 10 ation of A HNOIC HOWEr-0ud4: for the pPOWEr, Wnaicn piouulces tn nn 4 y 71 CHATS O 378 PROBUCTION Secr. XV. 1. 1. lateral germination of buds, feems to require a lefs mature organiza- tion than that, which is employed in the fexual generation of feeds; whence a kind of puberty of the plant feems to be acquired for the produétion of the feminal or amatorial progeny, analogous to the transformation of caterpillars into butterflies; which appears to be effetted folely for the purpofe of propagation. M. Speechly, in his treatife on the Culture of the Vine, p. 49, feems to fay, that feedling vines muft be three or four years old, be- fore they produce fruit; whereas a planted fcion, or an ingrafted one, from an aged tree, will produce fruit the firft or fecond year; and according to the obfervations of Mr. Knight, feedling apple-trees will not bear fruit till they are twelve or fourteen years old; and other fruit-trees in fimilar manner require fome years after their birth from the feed, before they arrive at fufficient maturity to bear flowers. See Se&.VIL. 1. 3. Hence he advifes the horticultor to procure{cions for grafting from fuch trees as already bear fruit; but pays no regard to the ftock, into which they are to be inferted; and adds, that he be- lieves, if fcions from a bearing walnut or mulberry tree were 1n- grafted on a feedling one, that it would produce fruit in two or three years; which otherwife would not occur in lefs than twenty. Trea- tife on Apple and Pear. Longman, London. Aud hence we fee the advantage of ingrafting on feedling orange or lemon-trees in our green-houfes the fcions taken from thofe, which bear fruit; as otner- wife they would continue fo many years before the buds would ac- quire fufficient maturity to generate fowers. Some have believed that young trees will bear fruit foorier, 1f they are not pruned, but permitted to grow quite wild in large bufhes, It is poilible, that this may occur either from the unfkilful horti- cultor pruning off all the terminal twigs, whofe buds were forwarder becaufe the great number of new leaf-buds, proceeding from an ex- >) @® Lei 7 Es) in refpet to age, than the lateral ones much beneath t uberant branching head, may fo crowd the bark of the QE. FRULES, n their caudexes, that fome of them may fooner find a difficulty in forming their embryon caudexes, and may in confequence become flower-buds. But I much doubt, that this can frequently occur from either caufe, as I think, 1 have feen cfpaliers bear fome years fooner than ftandards, which were ingrafted at the fame time, and from the fame trees. And I have been informed of other fecdli Ing apple-trees, which have born fruit in not much more than half the time above mentioned by Mr. Knight. Je is much to be wifhed, that proper experiments were made on feedling trees by planting them as efpaliers, or againft walls, and bending down their branches below the horizon, fince the difi- culty of their generat ing leaf-buds might be thus increafed; as they could not fo eafily form their“bros caudexes on the comprefled bark of the bended branch; and thé fap-juice for the nourifhment of fruit-buds would be thus rather increafed than diminifhed, accord- ing to an experiment of Dr. Walker, who found the buds at the extremities of bended branches to fwell fooner in the feafon, and to become larger, than thofe of an equal height on the more upright branches. Edinburgh Tranfations, Vol, I. Mr. Bradley has mentioned an apple, which was fweet and boiled foft on one fide, and four and boiled hard on the other; and afcribed it probably to the real caufe with much ingenuity in the Cara long befère the publication of the fyftem of Linneus.: He afcribes it to the male farina of fome neishbouring harfh apple-tree affeétino at the time of the impregnation the Mots of the flower of a fweet oue; and thus a produétion of drébe feeds might be generated in the fame pericar p, and a confequent different di of nutriment prepared for each; and thus the dificrent parts of the apple become four or fweet, w Hiéh 3 is analocous to a bitch producing différent kinds of puppies at the fame birth, réfinE ing the different dogs with whicl fhe had cohabited. The fame circumftance is faid to have occurred in oranges and in grapes of different kinds. 3 2 By NN| Et Î fl L WA 1 E!|" FE 4 IL th d LL M: QU L 1e MN 380 PR O'D'U'CET ON SET, JV Sr boue tt Se de nl nie c PA 3y this method of applying the farina of one cood variety of fruit, as of apple or pear, to the ftigma of another good variety, it 18 very 1 Î jat fomie ver y EXCEL ent new varieties of fruit might DE pro- duced from the feeds, which might fupply for a century the orchards ET€ of the curious, inftead of our sdiden pippins, and nonpareils; which are faid to be ho and fo liable to canker as not to be worth cultivation. 1t is probable alfo, that new varieties of tulips aud hvaciuths, and of melons and cucumbers, as we Il as of all other vec ctables, might be thus produced. The following obfervations are from Mr. Knight’s treatife on £ Le and Pear, p.47.‘ Every feed, thouch taken from the fame appl, furnifhes a new and diftinét variety; and fome of thefe will y gro ow with more luxuriance than others; and the fruits produced by the different plants will poflefs different degrees of merit; but an eftimate may be made of their cood and bad qualities at the con- clufon of the firft fummer by the refemblance the leaves bear to the ighly cultivated, or to the wild kinds; as has been remarked by the writers on this fubjeét of the laft century. The plants, whofe buds in the annual wood are full and prominent, are ufually more produétive than thofe whofe buds are fmall and fhrunk into the bark:; roduce will depend much on the power the blof- oflefs of bearing cold; a nd this power varies in the differ rent arieties, and can only be known from experience., T'hofe, which produce their leaves and bloffoms rather early in the fpring, are ge- nerallv to be preferred; for though they are more expofed. to injury from froft, they lefs frequently fuffer from the attacks of infeéts, the more common caufe of failure. «The leaves of young feedling plants annually change, become more thick and EURE and affume more the character of the culti- vated kinds.‘Thefe external changes s indicate fome internal ones C FE SERA EU 2 of he plant, which may pofbly be fimilar in their nature to:thofe, which take-place in animals Letween their In- fatiCy iait y Fr = 2 + — : à ARENA il the conftitu mcm SECTÉC VER. OS RU TS: 381 1 1 1 fancy and the time, when they become capable of propagating their 2... Of Root:fcions. Root-fuckers from bearing bur-apples, or from bearing codlines, orafts from thofe trees: becaufe they are a viviparous offspring, as well as the fcions or twigs are believed to become fruitful as foon as from the branches; and are therefore not fimilar to the oviparous progeny, or the young trees produced from feeds.‘This muit ne- verthelefs in great meafure depend upon the age of the fucker; as thofe root-buds, which rife into fuckers, are not for un or generated in the bofom of a leaf, but from a part of one of the long caudexes of a branch-bud; and will therefore,[ fuppofe, require à fuccefion of buds for fome years, before they will acquire e fufficient maturity to produce a flower; as the central. buds from the bofom of a leaf I fuppoie to be much forwarder than the lateral buds from the fame caudex; as is feen in the central or flower-bulb of a tulip, and its im- mature lateral bulbs from the fame caudex. Root-fuckers from thofe trees, which have been ingrafted on the roots’ of other trees, as the robinia on the acacua,. arife above the ee part, which is beneath the foil; but thofe root-fuckers, which arife from trees, which were grafted above nd are fimilar to the_. not to the-fruit-bearing head; which might have been a wild pear or wild apple; and will in that cafe produce crab-pears,, or crab-apples, with thorny ftems. When a branch of a vine, or briar, or of many other trees, is bent down, and a part of it inferted into the ground with its fummit in the air, it will emit roots at the joints, and become a new tree. So the roush knobs on the bark of a bur-apple-tree, I am informed, will fhoot out roots, if furrounded with moilt earth; and the branch may be-then-cut off, and fuccefsfully planted.… And from almoft every joint of a fig-tree roots will protrude,, if farrounded even with a : ie woollen 382 B.EGDUCXTON woollen fhred, which happens to be frequentiy moiftened by the dews or rain; and the branch may be fuccefsfully bent down and planted in a garden-pot. All thefe, like fuckers from the roots of icedling- trees, or like orafted fcions, will become fertile, as foon as the tree, from which they are the offspring; whether it be a icedling-tree ot not. This circumftance does not occur exactly fimilar in the infertion of buds from oneitree into the bark of ancther; as thofe buds, which do not arife from the bofom of.a leaf, but from lower parts of the caudexes of a branch-bud, as from the bark of a branch, whofe fum- mit has been cut of, are lefs mature, I believe, than the fummit-buüds, or thofe which arifé from the bofom of a leaf; and will therefore re- quire fome years before they can produce flowers; as is feen in thofe apple or pear trees, whofe fummits have been entirely lopped off. ‘Chis is a new obfervation, I believe, and worth the attention of thofe, who inoculate the buds of one fruit-tree into another. Root-fuckers may probably be liable to degenerate in refpeét their vigorous grow th by hereditary difeafes, owing to the too great age of the orig inal plant of that variety, like the ingraîted fcions fro he branches. Whence it may be neceflary to procure root-fuckers. rafpberry-plants, and of goofeberri ies, and even of artichokes, and {trawberries, from fuch as have been raifed from feed not too jong o, when any of thefe begin to degenerate. Aa as, 3. Of Planted Scions. os The fcions taken from the branches of many trees, if planted in the earth, will emit roots, and flourifh in the fame manner, as when they are crafted on other trees. Fhis fucceeds with great certainty, if an InV afréa glafs be put over them for a few days to prevent their perfpiring more at firft, than their abforbent vefiels can fupply. See et. I 1, 1 have been informed, that a quickifet, or hawthorn 9 hedoe, DEC NSMV ads FRET: 283 «+ hedge, cratægus, was thus planted and became à good fence con- fiderably fooner than from fowing the feed. The Chinefe are faid by fir G. Staunton to be unacquainted with the art of ingrafting, and to produce dwarf fruit-trees, which are broucht to table loaded with fruit at their feftivals, by furrounding a branch of a bearing fruit-tree at îts bifurcation with a bag of earth, which is kept moift for fome months; till the branch puts out roots, probably from the Lips of a wound in the bark, and is at length fepa- rated, and tran{planted into a pot. Embañly to China, Vol. II. pie, vo. edition; and it is then rendered a dwarf by repeatedly cutting out the central buds, as in the management of melons, as mentioned in No. 2. 5. and 3. 2. of this Se&tion. Vines poflefs fo vigorous a power of vegetation, that the prefent moft approved method of propagating them in grape-houfes confifts in planting their{cions. The late Rev. Jobn Michel of Thornhill, in Vorkfhire, the philofopher, who difcovered to the world the art of making artificial magnets, which had been concealed by Mr. Knight; whofe frierdihip I long pofleffed, and whofe lofs 1 have Jons lament- ed; amuled himfelf and family at vacant hours in his bot-houfe. The obfervations of a man of fuch accurate and univertal knowledoe are always worth recording; and though his ideas on this fubjeét have already appeared in Mr. Speechly’s Culture of the Vine,[ fhall here tranfcribe à part of one of his letters to me dated in May 1585. ‘* Uhe way in which we raife our vines we account our own; for ÏI don’t know, that it was practifed by any body before we fet the ex- ample. It is now pretty generally adopted however by the gar- deners and nurferymen in this part of the world. Juftead of leaving three or four eyes on the cuttings, as ufed formerly to be done, which made thèm awkward ft rago n a fingle eye to each, cutting them with as long à part below hng things, we never plant more tha the eye as they can admit, without encroachine too much upon the next eye below; that is to fay, we leave perhaps about half an inch, OF TION SÉCT. ANT. GO + kaysë \# bert rF+ Co) "a LE LA pri ei or a little more, as it may happen, above it. Thefe cuttings we a lant by half a dozen or a dozen together, at the diftance ONCNTEE, four, or five inches, in the bark:bed, where it 18 pretty warm; but not {o ee as to endanger the burning of the roots, HER they fhall:icome out; and where it is alfo pretty moift, or elfe we water them. We ] Ve 5 Te: OR Pre ec FALSE plant them floping fo as to make an auole of about thirty degrees !; ae+) LL< RTE lo:(nu ERA TA EE erhaps, a little more or lefs, with the horizon, theeye being hioneit; it alfo fhall be‘covered about an inch with the ) = Cora + ri [@ [a 4 + LES pa +? pt bak, which is a very neceflary precaution'; for though it ougbt-juft to finell the frefh air, it muft be kept moift, to prevent thé bud and {hoot, when it comes, from drying; otherwife it will very fre- muentlv die away prefently after it has jé a little, or at béft it will queutiy GHERAM AY PIECE LYS ECC 145 Li a JITCIE, at DEIT IC WHI erow unkindly, not having yet made roots fufficrent to fupply it with the fap nece Rary for AR{upport; which will not be thé cafe, 1f the bud is fufficiently covéreü at fr ft, and till it has acquired more roots. We generally plant our vines in this way, about the be ginning Or niddle of January; and if the bark is pretty warm, and as moift as it fhould be, the cuttings will begin to pufh both at top and bottom in about a fortuight or three w eeks at the moft. When the vines have fhot a little, perhaps three or four inches, but before the roots are got too long,{in which cafe it would be impoñüble to avoid break- ing them by ren noving, on account of their extreme tenderuefs and brittlenefs) we difplace a good deal of the bark very near them, till we can throw them down all together, w bich fhakes the bark very sently from their roots; fo that one may difengage them fufficiently eafy, and without much hurting them. We then plant three.or four of the moft promifing and thriving ones out of the whole num- ber fingly in fmall pots in earth, which has} hot-houfe a day or two to get warm, letting the roots drop down on à Little earth at the bottom, at firft, as they convenientiy can, and then covering them'with more earth careful ly, tilkithe pot is pro- perly filled; and the ftem about three or four inches long, as I faid vines roots reak- and , till very ntly €. 0f jum" OP: EFRUTTS: 38 before, ffanding in the middle; and then plentifully watering the earth to fettle it to the roots. We now plunge them again in t bark, where in five or fix weeks, more or lefs, they+R have fillec their pots pretty well with roots; when they will beain to fhew“ their little progrefs, and the fmallnefs of the fhoots, that they want more room. We then take them carefully out of thefe fmall pots, difturbing the ball of earth as little as poflible, and put it all together into larger pots, putting a little frefh earth at bottom and round about, and watering well as before; and we then again plunge them into'the bark. ‘€ By about the latter end of May, or beginning of June, the beft of them will be four or five, or perhaps fix feet ne and oucht now to be removed, difturbing the roots as little as pofhble, into the na- tural ground, where der are to remain. If this is done carefully, and the earth well watered about them to fettle it to their roots, they will frequently begin growing again almoft immediately, but at leaft in three or four days; and will ie often fhoot in the hot-houfetwo inches in à day, and bythe end of the year will have fhot from cighteen or nineteen, to three, four, or five and twenty feet. Though we approve of this as rather the beft, yet if thefe cuttings are planted in the fame way either fingly in fmall pots, or two or three together in each, with earth, inftead of planting them in the bark, deftroying al but the beft one, when they have fhot a little, and plunging them either in the bark, or in default of a bark-bed, in a common hot-bed, they will do equally, or nearly equally well; only taking care, that the hot-bed is not too hot, fo as to injure the roots, of which there is fometimes danger.” 4. Of Tngrafied Scions. The art of ingrafting trees is of great antiquity, and 15 atte nded vith numérous well known advantages, but is not yet arrived to its 3 D utmoft 386 PRODUCTION SECT. XV. 1. 4- utmoft perfection; for it is not yet certainly known, whether the in- crafted fcion gives or takes any property to or from thetree, which receives it, except that it acquires nourifhment from it. There is one inftance recorded by Bradley, where the{cion of a variegated jaffamine.gave variegation to the leaves beneath it ofthe unvariegated jaffamine, on which it was ingrafted, though the graft itfelf perifhed. See Se&. V. 1. This feems to fhew, that a commu- nication of juices exifts between the oraft and the ftock; and that thus fome change in the colour of the leaves of the ftock might be occafioned by the inofculation of the veflels of the new bud with thofe of other buds in its vicinity. Thus if a fcion of a purple grape was ingrafted on a white one, the leaves of the latter might proba- bly become fomewhat red in the autumn, like thofe of the purple- vine; but there are no inftances recorded, where this communication of juices from the graft to the ftock, or from the flock to the graft, has varied the flavour or the form of the flowers, or fruit of either of them. For thoueh the fame vegetable blood pañles along both the upper and lower part of the caudex of the new fcion, which extends from its fummit on the branch to its bafe in the earth; yet the molecules fecreted from this blood are feleéted or formed by the different glands of the part of the caudex, which was brought with the ingrafted fcion, and of the part of it which remained on the ftock, in the fame manner as different kinds of fecretions are PRES from the fame. blood in animal bodies. Some have neverthelefs believed, that fcions, ingrafted on more vigorous trees of the fame genus, have acquired greater vigour in the growth both of their leaf-buds and fruit-buds. Mr. Speechly afferts, that he has improved many kinds of vines by ingrafting thofe, which bear fmall grapes, and which have generally weak wood, on ftronger ones, which he has often experienced; and recommends the Syrian vine to graft upon, and prefers thofe, which were raifed from feed 8 for SECT. XV+ I. 4. OF ERUAXTS: 587 for this purpofe; and the contrary feems to appear, where more vi- gorous fcions have been ingrafted on lefs vigorous ftocks; as apple- fcions on crab-ftocks; where in a few years the part above the graft- ed joint becomes much larger in diameter than that below it. Grafted fcions fucceed well in general on trees of the fame genus, as in the common ingraftment of fruit-trees; fo the laurel, prunus lauro-cerafus, will grow on the common cherry, prunus cerafus, and produce a tall evergreen tree. But there are faid to be inftances alfo of fuccefs in the ingraftment of trees not only of different genera, but even of different orders, and clafles; as I have been informed, that apple-fcions, pyrus malus, have grown, when ingrafted on hazels, corylus. And one of the fathers of the Carthufian order is faid to bave fucceeded in grafting a vine, vitis, On a fig-tree, ficus; and a jaflamine on an orange. Travels in France and Italy, by E.Wright. It is hence probable, that many new difcoveries might be made by more frequent experiments on this fubject. It neverthelefs appears, that in grafted trees, though the ftock an- nually becomes covered with a new bark, as well as the graft, yet it does not change its nature; fince any new buds, which come out from the ftock afterwards, are fimilar to the ftock, not to the graft; and in many trees the graft grows fo much fafter as to become nearly of double the diameter of the ftock, as is frequently feen in old cherry-trees, and is fpoken of in Set. VII. 1. 7. Thus the buds of fruit-trees, like the bulbs of tulips, when raifed from feed, annually improve in their colour, length, thicknefs, and often in the fhape of their leaves, for a certain number of years; and then acquire a male, or.a female, organ of reproduétion, as in the claffes of monœcia, and diœcia; or both, as in hermaphrodite flowers. After this period the central buds and bulbs annually produced are in every refpect fimilar to their parents, as mentioned in Sect. VII. 1. 3. except in the nearer progrefs to old age of the tree, or of the bulb-pro- geny; and the confequent tendency to hereditary difeafes. But the 3De lateral | 258 PROD TCTTOEN SEC. AV To4 ee 1 Le Fr ateral buds from the lower parts of the caudex of the ceàtral ones, which are not generated in the bofoms of leaves, are of a more im- mature kind, and in that refpeét do not refemble the central bud, or | bulb; but require fome years before they flower. a 1 ight has obferved, that the grafts from thofe fruit-trees, which have been in public eftimation for a ceñtury or two, are now ï{o liable to canker, that the bear very little fruit, and are not worth cultivation; which he afcribes to the age of the tree; as a graft he [ fays is fimply an elongation of the parent tree. And as it demands | fome years to acquire the puberty neccflary for fexual generation,{o it may become weak and inirritable by age, and perifh about the fame : time with the original tree; vhich is fomewhat Countenanced by another remark of Mr. Knight, that the fammits, or long extremi- ties of old trees, frequently die many yéars before fome fmaller | branches from the trunk, which continue to flourifh, as is frequently (een in old oaks as well as in fruit-trees; and which he might fup- pofe to be occafioned by the greater age of the ER buds than \ of the lateral ones, as well.as from the greater length of their ab- \ forbent veflels, and the confequent greater refñftance to the afcent of the fap-juice, which may alfo be fooner in apeded, or totally ftopped Ÿ h by the inirritability of old age. Neverthelefs as the buds of trees are fucceflive progenies, and can- not therefore be liable to old age, as they die annually; the degeneracy of the buds of very old trees, or of thofe which have longs fucceeded #1 3 ; each other by their lateral, and not by fexual generation, muft arife f à from their being liable to hereditary die: ifes only, and not to heredi- TARN ITA tary improvements, as obferved above in Seét. XIV. 1. 6. That the degeneracy of fome plants is owing to nd dif- eafes, and not to old age, appears from their continuing for long periods of time after the produétion of thete difeafes, as berberries without feeds, and vines without feeds, and 4]: A without fruit, though probably with feeds, as tie barren hautbois ftrawberries a 3 SERV UA, OfFSFRUPTES. 389 ftrawberries, which bear no fruit, fo called, have perfect si nina and piflilla, as I this day obferved with a good lens; to which may be added thofe female figs which have no aperture to admit i iImpregna- tion, and the monftrous double flowers, which have loft the power of feminal propagation, and fome mule-plants, which never poñieiT- ed it. We have nothing in the animal fyftem, except in the polypus, and a few obfcure infects, fimilar to lateral generation; and cannot there- fore decidedly argue on this fubjeét. Nor have we any thing fimila to ingraftment in animals, except that of inflamed parts growing to- gether, the traniplantation of teeth, and confiruëétion of artificial notes from the fkin of the patient’s arm, ferioufly delivered by Tali- cotius, with many engraved plates in a work on that fubjett. But: this ingraftment of nofes was unfortunately burle efqued by the author of Htidibree; and perhaps this ingenious idea of Mr. Knight, that the ingrafted{cion betomes difeafed by age, and perifhes about the fame time with the parent tree, may be liable to a fimilar ridicule by fome future writer on gardening. % o léearned T'alicotius from The brawny part of Porter’s bum : a eee nofes, which Would laft as long as parent breech; But when the date of Knock was out, Of drop'd the fympathetic fnoùt, < Canro:L l 287 There is an apple faid to exift at New York in America, which is aflerted to be four on one fide of it, and fweet on the other fide; and to have been produced by flitting a fcion of a four apple, and ano- ther fimilar one of a fweet apple, taking care to cut the buds ofeach fcion with a very fharp.knife exa@tly in half, and by applying them and binding them nicely together, and then ingrafting this double Q fcioi 7 390 PRODUCTION Sec. XV. 1.4. fcion on a tree. Î mention this, as it is related by Mr. Jay in the communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. I. part 3 and 4, p.302; and is referred to in the Memoirs of the American Aca- demy, Vol. I. p. 386. But there muft undoubtedly have been fome miftake in refpeë& to the produétion of fuch an apple by any method of sraftins, and which is fo well explained as above by Mr. Bradley. It only remains here to add in refpeët to grafting, that it is necef- fary to apply the bark, which contains or confifts of the caudex of the young fcion, exa@ly to the bark of the branch, into which it is inferted, or applied; and then all fpecies of ingrafting fucceeds, whether it is performed-on a branch or on a root; and whether by excifion, or inoculation, or inarching. But I fufpect, that where a fingle bud is inoculated, it has often failed from the unfkilful operator having fele&ted a flower-bud inftead of a leaf-bud; which probably unites its caudex to thofe of the ftock with lefs visour, and certainly dies after it has ripened its feed; or by his imprudently holding the bud in his mouth, as he afcends the ladder, or while he makes the incifion, and thus deftroying it by heat, as Ï once obferved. A leaf- bud may in general be difinguifhed from a flower-bud by its being fharper pointed and lefs fpherical. Where the fummits of very young fcions of only a few weeks old are to be ufed to ingraft with and upon, it may be neceffary alfo to apply the pith exaétly to the pith; as this fummit bud is yet a primary being, and not like a lateral one, w hofe whole caudex exifts in the bark, which adheres to it, when it is taken off for inocula- tion. The choice of buds for the purpofe of inoculation is probably of more confequence than has hitherto been imagined. As we have endeavoured to fhew, that buds from parts of the bark diftant from the central bud, and which are not generated in the bofom of a leaf, are in different ftates of maturity; they muft require more years be- fore they can produce a fexual progeny of flowers, and a confequent feminal SECT. AVS OF-FRUÜUTTFS: 391 feminal offspring, with the refervoir of nutriment, or fruit, which attends it. À fubjeét which is new, and merits to be further inquired into. It is curious to obferve, that when harfher fruits become fwecter, that the bloflom becomes whiter, as is univerfally feen in thofe of our native crabs, and of our cultivated apples; and that the buds become larger, and the green leaves alfo bscome of larger area, and of paler complexion. Thus Mr. Knight obferves,‘ that the width and thicknefs of the leaves generally indicate the fize of the future apple; and the colour of the black cherry and purple grape may be known by their autum- nal tints; and that even in plants, which have fprung from feed in the preceding fpring; as the tinging matter in the leaves of thefe plants is probably of the fame kind as’‘that, to which the fruits will in future owe their colour.” The leaves of the purple grape become quite red in autumn, as well as thofe of the geranium robertianum, and many other kinds of foliage, which F fuppofe may be owing to their abundancy of acid, which uniting With the blue part of what conflitutes along with the yellow part the green colour of vege- table leaves, converts it to red; as it changes the colour of blue flowets into red ones. j 5. À tranflation of the beautiful lines in Virgil’s Georgics on in- orafting may amufe the reader. Where cruder juices fwell the leafy vein, Stint the young germ, the tender bloffom ftain; On each lop’d fhoot a fofter fcion bind, Pith prefs'd to pith, and rind applied to rind. So fhall the trunk with loftier creft afcend, And wide in air robufter arms extend, Nurfe the new buds, admire the leaves unknown, And blufhing bend with fruitage not its own. IT, TO 392 PRODUCTION SEGT SUN cest II. TO INCREASE THE NUMBER OF FRUIT-BUDS. The terms ftrength and weaknefs, in their ufual acceptation, when applied to the vegetation of trees, are metaphorical expreflions, or denote the effe@& or confequence, rather than the caufe, of their bearing leaf-buds or flower-buds, as fpoken of in Sec.IX. 2.7. For \ the production of leaf-buds, or Hower-buds, though it may be faid to | accompany the greater or lefs vigour of a tree, depends on the fa- cility or dificulty, with which the long caudexes of the new buds, which conftitute the filaments of the bark, can be generated. Thus the new vegetable production formed in the axilla of a leaf about Midfummer, which is called a leaf-bud, confifts of many em- bryon buds, perhaps twenty or thirty, which are.to form the next year’s fhoot; and each of thefe muft be furnifhed at the fame time | with a long caudex in miniature, extending from the leaf.or fummit (L to its radicle or bafe; which confifts of umbilical veflels for its vernal he| nr. putriment, and of a continuation of other abforbent veffels, and of \| arteries and veins, as defcribed in Se&.VII. 7. 7. which pañles along the branches and trunk from the apex or leaf of the bud in the air to its bafe or radicle in the ground; and which thus forms the new bark, and contributes to thicken and ftrengthen the trunk and branches of the tree; becaufe each new leaf-bud with its fummit, caudex, and radicle, continues afterwards to adhere to the parent tree. But the production in the axilla of a leaf, which is called a flower- bud, or fruit-bud, confifts only of an individual vegetable with the 4 rudiments of a number of flowers, with one caudex for its growth and nutriment; for as the feed falls from the tree, when ripe, no new apparatus of caudexes in miniature for each individual feed, as for each individual embryon-bud, is required to pafs down the trunk | into the ground to form a new bark; and thus to thicken and | to ftrengthen the trunk and branches. ( Add SECTINV 2 TI. OF’ FRUFES: Add to this, that not only the feeds require no ñhew caudexes to pafs down the trunk, but that probably the flamina and coral of each flower ftrike their roots only into the blood-veflels, which commu- or like cufcuta, dodder, vifcum, mifletoe, and tillandfa, and epiden- drum; and therefore require no caudexes and radicles to pafs down nicate with the bractes, like mofles or fungufes, which grow on trees, a into the ground. Whence it appears, that by rendering it more difficult for new buds to acquire new caudexes along the branches or trunk from the fummit into the ground, the tree will be necefftated to produce flower-buds in preference to leaf-buds; a theory, which was firft de- livered in the Botanic Garden, Vol. I. canto 4.|. 470, note, and ex- plains the whole art of the management of fruit-trees. Vegetables therefore in refpeét to their mode of propagation are ei- ther viviparous or oviparous. The live progeny of vegetables con- fifts of the buds, which rife on their branches in the bofom of each leaf, or on its long caudex extending down the bark of trees; or which arife on the bulbs, knobs, wires, or fcions, from the broad cau- dex on the roots of herbaceous plants. The egg-progeny of vege-, tables confifts in their feeds, with the previous apparatus of the flower, and concomitant nutriment in the fruit and cotyledons. And as plants, or parts of plants, are faid to be in greater vigour, when the viviparous progeny is prevalent; as the caudexes of this adherent ofpring form a new bark, and thence: thicken and ftrengthen the trunk and branches; and to be in lefs vigour when the oviparous progeny is prevalent; as the feeds fall from the tree, and confe- quently require no caudexes to form a new bark, and thence to thicken and ftrengthen the tree. We fhall generally ufe the word viviparous inftead of vigorous, when applied to vegetables, which ge- nerate leaf-buds principally; and oviparous inftead of weak, when applied to vegetables, which generate flower-buds principally; for the 3 E words 394 PRODUCTION SEcr XV For. words vigorous or weak may properly exprefs the greater or lefs| health of vegetables in both thefe fituations. The reader will pleafe to obferve, that in the Botanic Garden we have called the bark of trees an intertexture of the roots of each in- dividual bud;-but that this is not accurate language, as the filaments, which conftitute the bark, are each of them the caudex of a bud, or central part of it; which has a leaf at its upper extremity, and a ra- dicle at its lower one. And that each new caudex, or bark filament, is generated along the whole trunk of the tree by the caudex or bark filament beneath it; as appears in thofe fruit-trees where one, ortwo, or three fcions have been ingrafted on each other, as mentioned in Sect.VII. 1. 7. for in thefe compound trees, when a bud arifes from any part of the trunk, it is feen to refemble that part. of the ftock, and not to refemble the new grafted fcion above it. We finally fup- pofe, that this whole long caudex of a new bud is generally generat- ed all at the fame time by the fympathetic aëtion of the parts of the parent caudex along with the bud in the bofom of the leaf of. that parent caudex; and that it is not oradually produced, as we firft fuppofed, by the elongation of the roots of each budlet in the bofom of the leaves. The following methods will contribute to prevent the young buds from fo readily acquiring new caudexes on the trunk of the tree; and will therefore retard the generation of leaf-buds, and confequently afift the generation of fruit-buds; and fhould be executed about Midfummer, or foon after, as at that time the new buds are formed. 1. The frfi method confifis in bending the viviparous branches to the horizon, which converts them into oviparous ones, for by the curvature of fuch branches the bark will be comprefed on the under fide, and extended on the upper fide of the curve, and its veflels on both fides will be contrated in their diameters, and thus the difficulty of pro- ducing new caudexes for the generation of embryon leaf-buds will 6 be SET, XV: 241 OE: FRUET-S: 395 be increafed, in whatever ftate of miniature they may be conceived to exiit.| A curious fat feems to be eftablifhed by the experiments of Dr. Walker in the firft volume of the Edinburgh Tranfaétions, which fhews, that the bending of a branch even below its infertion into the trunk does not impede the afcent or derivation of the vernal fap-juice into it; but on the contrary, that it rather appears to affit it, refem- bling in fome meafure a capillary fyphon, as mentioned in Set. II. 2. 4. Which may be owing to the vernal fap-juice afcending princi- pally, or entirely, in the fap-wood, as appears by the new leaves ex- panding to a certain degree on decorticated oak-trees, as fhewn in Se. IX. 2.8. And as the veflels of this alburnum are more rigid, they may be lefs liable to contraétion or coarétation by bending down the branch than the bark-veflels, as well as from their being placed within the latter, and therefore lefs liable to compreffñon beneath the curvature, and to elongation above it. Whence it appears, that the bending down a branch of a fruit-tree below the horizon does not diminifh the nutriment of the fruit-buds, but rather increafes it; as Dr. Walker obferved thefe buds to grow fooner and larger at the extremities of the bended branches than on other parts of equal height. It was aflerted by Mr. Lawrence, that the more the branches of any tree are carried horizontally, the more apt that tree is to bear fruit; and that the more upright or perpendicular the branches are led, the more difpofed is that tree to increafe in wood; which he afcribes to the bending down of the branches impeding the circula- tion of the{ap. Art of Gardening. Mr. Hitt in his T'reatife on Fruit Trees, affirms, that if a vigorous branch of a wall-tree be bent down to the horizon or beneath it, it lofes its vigour, and becomes a bearing branch; and therefore recommends his method of nailing the branches of wall-trees, and of tying thofe of efpaliers, in an hori- zontal direétion or ftill lower; as in this conftrained fituation there 3E 2 muft 396 PRODUCTION SECT, XV. 202: muft occur greater dificuity,[ fuppofe, in the produétion of the new caudexes, neceflary for the embryon progeny of buds, upwards or ho- rizontally along the bended branch contrary to their natural habits, as well as from the compreflion of the bark beneath the curvature of the branch, and its extenfion aboveit; Whence more flower-fhoots are produced, which do not require new caudexes to pafs along the bénded branch; but which permit their progeny, the feeds, to fall upon the earth, and penetrate it with their new roots. In Lord Stafford’s gardens at Trentham 1 remember to have feen nany years ago fome ftandard dwarf apple-trees with all their branches bent down, and fixed on a flight frame-work about a foot from the ground; which feemed to be uncommonly prolific, as a circle of white and purple flowerstwenty feet in diameter on branches radiated from a center, appeared to a diftant eye like a lunar halo, or a carpet of rich embroidery. The greater produétion of fruit-buds on branches bended to the horizon muft contribute, I fhould fuppofe, to the prolific effect of training neétarine and peach-trees on tiles laid on the ground, or on the gentle declivity of a bank of earth facing the fouth, which has Jately been recommended by fome one, whofe name Ï do not recol- leét, who gained a patent for his difcovery. And it is indeed proba= ble, that both thefe modes of training fruit-trees, one of which may be called an horizontal wall-tree, and the other an horizontal efpa- lier, would repay the labour of the horticultor; as they would be ex- pofed to a more vertical fun in fummer, which might more cer- tainly ripen their fruit; and would be kept fomewhat backwarder in the early fpring, by the greater obliquity of the fun-beams, and might be therefore lefs liable to injury from the vernal froft; and when in bloffom might eafily be covered in the night, when neceflary, by mats thrown over them fupported by ftakes with horizontal poles on them. 2. Secondily. The rwifling a wire, or tying a waxed firing, round the SECT, XV, 227. re O'PSÉRURRS. 39 the viviparous branches of a tree, induces them to become oviparous, as obferved by Mr. Whitmill, who bound not only the viviparous fhoots of various wall-trees with ftrong wire, but allo fome of their large roots, and thus increafed the produét of his fruit. Bradley on Gar- dening, Vol. Il. p.155. And M. Buffon produced the fame efe& by a tight cord round the branches, which previoufly produced leaf: buds inftead of flower-buds. At. Paris. ann. 1738.“ M.Buffon concludes from the above experiments, that an ingraft- ed branch bears fruit more copioufly, and more certainly, from its veflels being comprefled by the callus around the ingrafted jun@ion, which may have this effet, and at the fame time contribute by pre- venting the luxuriant growth of its leaf fhoots to render the tree of more dwarfifh ftature. I am informed that many dwarf apple-trees, which are now planted in garden pots both in France and England, bear much fruit, and are elegantly placed in the centre of a defert at luxurious tables; and that the principal art of producing them con- fifts in ingrafting them three or four times, fcion on fcion; fo that the ftem is comprefled by the callus of three or four ingraftments be- fore the branches are permitted to divaricate; and the trees are thus rendered beautiful dwarfs. The effect of thus comprefling the bark by a wire, or a cord, or by the callus round the junëétures of the ingrafted{cions, is undoubtedly accomplifhed by the increafed dificulty oppofed to the production of the caudexes for each new embryon leaf-bud, as above explained, and the confequent generation of flower-buds inftead of them. 3 Thirdly. The wounding, or breaking a VIVIpar ous Branch, or cut- ing away a ring of tbe bark, as of pear-trees, or a femi-cylinder of the bark of other fruit-trees, induces them to. become oviparous. Where young trees difcover too great visour, Mr. Lawrence ad- vifes to cut the moft vigorous fhoots two parts in three through, leav- ing a large notch, that the wound may not heal too foon; which he adds will both render them fruitful, make them more readily con- ; form. 398 PRODUCTION SECT. XV. 2,3. form to the wall or efpalier, and preferve fuch as are dwarfs from too much afpiring in very ftrong branches, efpecially of pears; he re- ommends two or more fuch incifions to be made in the fame branch. Another method he propofes is to break the too vigorous branches half through with the hand, which he has praétifed with fuccefs in apricots and peaches, when the branches were formed direétty for- ward from the wall, and thefe branches have continued feveral years to bear fruit, though fome-have occafionally died by effufing gum; and though thefe incifions and breaking the branches may be per- formed at any time of the year, he prefers the fpring on account of _the wet or froft of winter. Art of Gardening. A complete cylinder of the bark about an inch in height was cut off from the branch of à pear-tree againft a wall in Mr. Howard's garden at Lichfield about five years ago; the circumcifed part is now not above half the diameter of the branch above and below it, yet this branch has been fullof fruit every year fince, when the other branches of the tree bore only fparingly. I lately obferved, that the leaves of this wounded branch were fmaller and paler, and the fruit lefs in fize, and ripened fooner than on the other parts of the tree; and another branch has the bark taken off not quite all round with much the fame effet. The theory of this curious vegetable fa& receives great light from the foregoing account of the individuality of buds. À flower-bud dies when it has perfeéted its feed, like an annual plant, and hence re- quires no place on the bark for new caudexes to pafs downwards; but on the contrary leaf-buds, as they advance into fhoots, form new buds in the axilla of every leaf; which new buds require new cau- dexes to pafs down the bark, and thus thicken as well as elongate the branch. Now if a cylinder of the bark be deftroyed, many of thefe new caudexes cannot be produced; and thence more of the buds will be converted into fower-buds. Ja Secr. XV. 2. 3 OF FRUITS. 200 ES A)&) In this curious circumftance the caudexes of the buds of the tree above the decorticated part feem to have emitted fhort radicles into the alburnum; the veflels of which muft thus have acted as capillary tubes between the upper and lower caudexes of thofe buds; as capil- lary tubes will rarfe water by the attraction of their internal furfaces nearly to their fummits, when they are not too high in proportion to their diameter; but water will in no cafe flow over their fummits, but will always ftand with a concave furface below the uppermoft rim of the tube, in. which fituation it may readily be abforbed by ve. getable radicles; and may be fupplied from beneath by the fap-juice raifed by the vegetable action of the abforbent veffels of the caudexes, whofe radicles terminate in the earth. _ Itis cuftomary to debark oak trees in the fpring, which are intend- ed to be felled in the enfuing autumn; becaufe the bark-comes off eafer at this feafon; and the fap-wood, or alburnum,. is believed to become harder, and more durable, if the tree remains till the end of fummer. The trees thus ftripped of their bark put forth fhoots as ufual with acorns on the fixth, feventh, and eighth joints, like vines; but in the branches I examined the joints of the debarked trees were much fhortér than thofe of other oak-trees, the acorns were more numerous, and no new buds were produced above the joints which bore acorns. From hence it appears, that the branches of decorticated oak-trees produce fewer leaf-buds, and more flower-buds. And fe- condly, that the new buds of debarked oak trees continue to obtain moifture from the alburnum after the feafon of the afcent of the fap in other vegetables ceafes; which in this unnatural ftate of the de- barked tree may act as capillary tubes, like the alburnum of the fmall debarked cylinder of a pear-tree above mentioned; or as the veffels of the alburnum may not yet have loft their vegetable life, they may continue to abforb fap-juice or water from their radicles, and carry it,to the buds at the fümmits by their fpiral contra@ions as in the bleeding feafon. It k&# 40 PRODUCTION Secr. XV. 2. 3. It is probable, that if oaks were debarked in the fummer, that much fewer leaf-buds would appear amidft the flower-buds; becaufe many of the latter muft be advanced too far, when the trees are debarked in the fpring, to be converted into flower-buds by preventing the production of their caudexes, or by impeding the afcent of the nu- -tritive fap-juice; which in thefe trees is lodged principally 1 fuppofe in the alburnum, as fpoken of in Se&. IX. 2. 8. On the fame ac- count, when much fap-juice is taken in the vernal months from the birch or maple for the purpofes of making wine in this country, or fugar in America, Î am informed, that no great difference occurs in the refpective numbers of flower-buds or leaf-buds, which then fucceed; but that the general luxuriance of the tree is diminifhed; which evinces, that for the defign of generating more flower-buds and fewer leaf-buds by partial decortication, it fhould be performed about Midfummer.| The cylindrical or femicylindrical decortication of a large root of a tree, as well as of a brancb, is faid to anfwer the purpofe of increaf- ing the produétion of fruit-buds by leflening the number of leaf- buds; but may be fubjet to two inconveniences; firft, that the wounded root being near the furface of the ground may be liable to rot like the bottoms of hedge-ftakes; or like timber, which is kept in moift cellars; or the pofts of wooden bridges, which are alter- nately expofed to water and to air. À fecond inconvenience may oc- cur from terreftrial infeéts having accefs to the alburnum of the root, which is often full of fweet fap-juice to invite them, and is other- wife generally defended by an acrid rind. The parts of a tree immediately below a decorticated or a ftrangu- Jated branch or root will generally become viviparous,. and will thence be faid to be increafed in vigour; that 15, it will produce new leaf-buds, and thofe of a luxuriant appearance; becaufe the in- jury of the bark of the branch or root will prevent the parts above from receiving fo much of the nutritive fap-juice, as in their found late; » Enr néer SECT. XV. 2. 3. ORIFRDETSTT- 401 ftate; and confequently the parts beneath will poflefs more of it; and alfo becaufe thefe new buds are generated from à lower part of the caudex, and will thence be a few years before they will acquire that maturity, or puberty, which is neceflary for the generation of flower-buds, or the produétion of a fexual or feminal progeny; whence by ftrangulating or decorticating the alternate branches of 2 pear-tree they will bear for fix or eight years; and the other alternate ones will become in the fame time ftrong and vigorous, ready to un- dergo a fimilar operation, when the former ceafe to be of further ufe; but the fruit will become fmaller in fize, though in greater number, and ripen earlier in the feafon. In the fame manner new root-fcions are faid to be produced by ftrangulating a branch of a root near the furface with à tight ftrins, or by flitting a root near the trunk, Evelyn’s Sylva; as in thefe cafes the afcent of the fap-juice is impeded, and the part below becomes viviparous, or produces new leaf-buds for the reafons mentioned in the laft paragraph; as is frequently feen where the end of a branch is lopped, or beneath the fcar of the junétion of an ingrafted fcion. On the fame account it is not uncommon to ingraft with fuccefs on roots taken out of the sround, and afterwards replanted; as the ro- binia on the root of acacia, and any other apples on the roots of the fuckers of bur-apple, or codling, mentioned in Se&. IX. 2e 5: For the fame reafon the roots of fome plants, which are otherwife not cafly propagated, will fhoot up buds; if a part of them next the ftem of the plant be half cut through, or raifed out of the ground, and expofed to the air: asin pyramidal campanula, and geranium lo- batum. And for the fame reafon the lateral branches of numerous fhrubs, as well as of herbaceous plants, will put forth roots, when they are bent down into the ground, if they are previoufly wounded to prevent the free fupply of the vegetable nutriment in its ufual courfe, as in laying carnations, dianthus. À method of converting the viviparous branches of pear and apple 26 trees 402| PRODUCTION cr. KV.27% trees into oviparous branches is defcribed by Mr. Fitzgerald in the Philofph. Tranfa&. Vol. LIL. and feems to be fuperior to the exfec- tion of a cylinder of the bark above mentioned; as the alburnum is not left naked after the operation. In the month of Auguft he made a circular incifion round the principal branches of feveral pear-trees, apple-trees, plum-trees, and cherry-trees, near the ftems of each, quite through the bark. About three or four inches higher he then made another incifion round the bark, and then a perpendicular one, joining thefe two circular ones, and feparated the cylinder of bark nicely from the wood, covering it, and the bare part of the wood, from the air for about a quarter of an hour, when the wound becan to bleed. He then replaced the bark with great exaëtnefs, and bound it round rather tightly with bafs, fo as to cover the wound entirely, and half an inch above and below the circumcifons. In about a month the bark began to fwell above and below the bandages, he then unbound them, and found the parts quite healed. He rebound them flightly with bafs, and let them remain fo till the beginning of the next fummer, when he again took off the bandages, and found them all healthy; and every one of them bore plentifully that feafon, though it was in general reckoned a fcarce fruit year. He treated two young pear-trees in this manner, which never had yet had any bloom; on one of them he operated on the main arms, and on feveral of the lefs branches from thofe main arms; and on only one of the main arms of the other. The firft, he fays, bore a furprizing quantity of fruit in the next fummer; and the circumcifed arm of the other bore a moderate quantity; though no other part of the tree had any appearance of bloom. Mr. Fitzgerald afterwards took a cylinder of the bark from the branches of two young apple trees about the fame fize, as exaétly as he could by meafure; and changing them, bound them each on the other tree.‘The bark of one had a leaf-bud and two apples growing on it; the barks of both of them healed perfeétly, the leaf-bud put forth Secr:-XV. 2 4e OF FRUITS. 403 forth leaves, and the apples remained on and ripened; and both the branches bore fo plentifully, that one broke with its load, and it was neceffary to prop the other.- The theory of the fuccefs of thefe curious experiments confirms that delivered above concerning the fcars made by the junétion of ingrafted fcions with the ftocks; and it is probable, that three or four circular incifions through the bark on viviparous pear or apple trees, or a fpiral incifion, as defcribed in Seét. IX. 2. 8. might anfwer the purpofe without detra@ing and replacing the bark; as fcars or callous circles would be thus produced, which might render it more difficult for the new caudexes of the embryon leaf-buds to be gene- rated, or their parts united, and confequently increafe the number of flower-buds.| Mr. Fitzgerald further obferves, that he changed cylinders of the bark with equal fuccefs of neétarine and peach trees; and that the branches thus operated upon were retarded in their general growth; which coincides with the idea of repeatedly grafting one fcion above another on the apple-trees defigned for dwarfs to be fet in garden pots, as defcribed in No. 2. 2. of this Seëétion. 4. The tranfplanting a viviparous fruit-tree, or defiroying fome of its roots before Midfummer, or the confining 1fs roots 1n a garden pot, or on a floor of bricks beneath the foil, will induce 1t to become oviparous. Mr. Knight, in his treatife on the Culture of the Apple and Pear, p. 83, has the following paflage.‘ In the garden culture of the apple, where the trees are retained as dwarfs or efpaliers, the more visgoroufly growing kinds are often rendered unproduétive by the ex- ceflive, though neceflary, ufe of the pruning knife. 1 have always fucceeded in making trees of this kind fruitful by digging them up, and replacing them with fome frefh mould in the fame fituation. The too great luxuriance of srowth is checked, and a difpofition to bear 1s in Confequence brought on.” The fame obfervation was made by Mr. Lawrence, who took up trees which were too vigorous; 362 that 404 PK Q DFE T l'ON"OLETI AV: SA. that is, which produced viviparous buds inftead of oviparous ones, and replanted them to render them fruitful. Art of Gardenimg. Lond, 722. ln tranfplanting trees for any purpofe it may be obferved, that they fhould not be replanted deep in the foil, fince the moft nutri- tive or falubrious parts of the earth are thofe within the reach of the fun’s warmth, of the defcending moifture, and of the oxygen of the atmofphere. And as the root-fibres of trees, like thofe of feeds, al- ways grow towards the moifteft part of the foil, as the young fhoots and leaves grow towards the pureft air and brighteft light; it fol- lows, that the root-fibres feldom rife higher in the graund than they were originally fet, and feldom elongate themfelves even perfe&ly horizontally; fo that when a fruit-tree is planted too deep in the earth, it feldom grows with healthy vigour, either in refpe@ toits leaf-buds or its flower-buds. This curious effeŒ& cannot be produced by generally debilitating the tree from its want of due nourifhment; becaufe it is faid to fuc- ceed beft in very good foil, or by the addition of new garden mould, as before direëted; but by rendering more difficult the produ&ion of radicles from the caudexes of the embryon leaf-buds; which de-: fcend to the fineft ramifications of the old roots, and elongate them- felves beyond the extremities of their ultimate fibrils; a great num- ber of which roots being torn of by tranfplantation, or compreffed in à garden pot, the produétion or progrefs of many of the new radi- cles muft be impeded or prevented; and the numerous caudexes of new lJeaf-buds be in confequence formed with greater difficulty, whence an increafed tendency to generate flower-buds. For the fame reafon if beans, vicia faba, which are but a few inches high, be tranfplanted; they do not become fo tall, but they flower and ripen their feeds fooner; becaufe they can not fo eafily generate new leaf-buds. The fame occurs in frequently tranfplant- 599 brocoli, braffica; the plant does not grow fo tall, but has earlier flowers, SECT. XV. 2%, OF: FRENTS 405 fowers, and in greater number; and it is hence better to pluck them up, than to die them up, for the purpofe of replanting them; as by that means more of the root-fibres are torn of, and the plants be- come almoft totally oviparous. It is well known, that the veffels of animal bodies are lefs liable to: biced,. when they are torn afunder, than when they are cut with a fharp inftrument; as their diameters are contraed, or their internal furfaces brought into contaét with each other, in the ac of extend= img them, till they break. Thus if the navel-ftrings of new born ani- mals are cut inftead of torn, they are liable to bleed to death; and there is a remarkable cafe of a miller”s fervant, who had his arm and fhoulder bone, or fcapula, torn off in a windmill without much lofs. of blood. This is mentioned te fhew, that it may alfo be better to tear up roots, which are tranfplanted for this purpole, than to dig them up; as they may thence effufe lefs vegetable blood, and in confe- quence be lefs weakened by the operation. fn tranfplanting ftrawberries many of the roots being torn off, fewer leaf-bud$, and confequent wires, are produced from the dificulty, which their embryon caudexes find in producing new radicles over the old ones to fupply nutriment to the wires, till they bend down äd' protrude roots into the ground at their other extremities, whence a greater number of flower-buds are generated; on this account the roots-of ftrawberries fhould generally be tranfplanted, or new ones from the wires fhould be cultivated, every third or fourth year, to pres vent the too luxuriant growth of their wires; or a fimilar difficult y of producing wires- or leaf-buds. may be effe@ed by crowding the roots of ftrawberries together, as fome gardenérs recommend;: but I fuppofe by thefe means the fruit may become fmaller from{carcity @f nutriment, though more numerous. À floor of bricks, or of ftone, extended about two feet deep be- neath the roots of wall trees, has been practifed in fome gardéns from: an idea, that the roots fhot themfelves too deep into fome unwhole: {eme — 2_ PR PU £: fs ê 71 Ê A LE #0 {" ( 406 PRODUCTION Secr KW Bus| {ome ftratum of earth; and it has been obferved, that the trees be- came better fruit-bearers. In fome fituations it is pofüble, this might| be the caufe of the new prolific property of the trees; but I fufpett| it has occurred generally from the difhculty oppofed to the number and elongation of the root-fibres, and confequently to the generation of the new caudexes of the embryon leaf-buds; whence a greater produétion of flower-buds enfued. In fimilar manner it is aflerted by one of the Linnean fchool in the Amænitates Academicæ, that fome bulbous rooted plants, which feldom produce feeds in Sweden, will produce prolific feeds, if their roots be confined in a garden pot, till they crowd each other; as thofe of the lily.of the valley, convallaria. And that the orchis will bear prolific feeds, 1f the new root early in the feafon be fevered from the old one, which has put up the flower-ftem. This muft occur in the former cafe from the difficulty, which the plants find to ge- nerate new offéets at their roots, which are their viviparous progeny; and in the latter cafe from the new offset being deftroyed; whence in both fituations more nutriment is expended on the flower, On the fame account it is probable, that confining the roots of cu- cumbers and melons in fmall garden pots would ftop the too lux- uriant growth of their leaf-buds, and render them fooner oviparousÿ if care was taken to fupply them with water more frequently, and with fufficient nutriment by mixing with the water fome of the car- bonic black fluid, which has drained from a manure heap. s. If the central viviparous branches of a plant be cut away or fhort- ened, the lateral ones will fooner or niore completely become oviparous. 1. There are many very fmall buds on the lower parts of large branches, which do not feem to grow to maturity, and in confequence produce neither new leaf-buds nor new flower-buds. There are other lateral fhoots on many treës, which only pufh out à few inches, and are called fpurs, and which bear fruit the fucceeding fummer at their extremities,. In many other plants the lateral branches arg oviparous, 6 except Renard”. Sscr. XV. ap Gr RRURKES. 40 1 LA except at the extremity, which is terminated with a viviparous bud; while the central branches continue long to generate only a vivipar- ous progeny, as in vines and melons. The firft of thefe, or the unprolific exiftence of the buds at the bottom of large branches, may be owing in part to their feebler ef- forts of pullulation from the want of fufficient funfhine and venti- jation; and alfo in part, like the fpurs, and other lateral branches, to the difficulty they encounter in producing the embryon caudexes of new leaf-buds along the trunk; which is already occupied by thofe of the more vigorous vegetation of the central branches, which pof- fefs a greater fhare of funfhine and ventilation.| But the principal caufe,which renders the fpurs and lateral branches oviparous, refults from the refiftance the embryon caudexes of leaf- buds experience by the curvature of the lateral branch, where it joins the trunk, and the confequent coarétation of its veflels, added to the difficulty every lateral bud has to encounter from its own curvature at its exit from the parent twig; on which laft account the central bud at the extremity of an oviparous branch:1s generally viviparous, becaufe it has not any eurvature at its exit. All this correfponds with the fa above defcribed, that when the viviparous arms of wall-trees are bent down to the horizon, they become oviparous. See No. 2. 1. of this Section. 2. What then happens in all thefe fituations when the central parts are cut away or fhortened? the dwarf buds at the bottom of thefe large viviparous branches, which are in part cut away, will find more room to pufh down the embryon caudexes of new leaf-buds; and will produce a viviparous progeny; and thofe at the bottom of oviparous branches, which are fhortened by cutting off their vivipar- ous extremities, will alfo now pullulate, and produce flower-buds for the fucceeding year, owing to the derivation of fome of that nourifh- ment to them, which would otherwife have been expended on the fummit-bud, Secondly, the fpurs will generate an oviparous pro- SEnYys TR 7 408 PRODUCTION SecT. XV. 2. 5. geny, but will acquire more nutriment, becaufe à1l the veflels of plants inofculate, as mentioned in Set. IX. 2. 10. and will thence proûuce larger fruit, and more cértainly ripen it. Thirdly, the other lateral branches will receive more nourifhment, and become more vertical, and will thence find Lefs oppofñition to the produ&ion of the caudexes, both of their flower-buds and Jeaf-buds; either of which may become ftronger or more numerous according to the greater or lefs inclination of the branches to the horizon; and both of them may be more vigorous properly fpeaking; that is, they may become larger leaf-buds, or larger flower-buds, than others of the{ame tree, 3- Thus in the management of MELONS, which would grow into branches much too extenfive for the artificial glafs-frames of our climate, and would not have time to ripen their later fruit in our fhort ummers; it 1s neceflary firft to check the vigour, properly fo fpeak- ing, of the whole plant. This is done by Wafhing the feed from the ripe fruit, which fhould naturally contribute to nourifh it; and by keeping the feed four or five years, that the mucilaginous nutriment depofted in the cotyledons may alfo be in fome degree impaired 15 alfo probable, that confining the roots of melons and cucutnbers in garden-pots, if they were well fupplied with nutriment, warmth, and water, might be advantageous for this purpofe.| Secondly, as foon as the leaf appears an inch in diameter, experienc- ed gardeners pick out the central bud, which caufes though à more vigorous, lateral fhoot; which therefore fooner bears fruit, and that of à larger kind; as it acquires more nourifhmert from the defiruétion of the central one. And as thefe lateral branches are liable to produce other viviparous fhoots at their extremities, after they have generated] buds, it again becomes neceflary to piach off _ mities of them, not only to sit an Oviparous, ateral flower- the viviparous extre- accommodate them to the fize of the glafs-frame, but alfo to fupply them with more nutriment, which would otherwife have been expended on the viviparou s fummit. The SECT, V2. cr. OF RER-UPTTS: 409 The central bud, or fummit, of the lateral branches, is generally viviparous, as well as of the central branches; becaufe the embryon caudexes of its new offspring are oppofed in the produëtion along the bark by only one curvature at the infertion of the branch into the trunk; whereas the lateral buds of the lateral branches have the pro- crefs of the embryon caudexes of their new buds oppofed by two cur- b, and'another from the branch vatures, one of the bud to the branc to the trunk. There is another reafon, why the lateral buds of many plants pro- duce flowers fooner than the fummit; which is, that the lateral buds of thofe plants, where the pith of the upright central fhoot is not divided, are propagated from the central fhoot, and are therefore one seneration older; and have thus acquired the maturity neceflary for amatorial reproduction. In other plants, where the pith of the ftem is divided at every joint, the fummit bud has been preceded by more generations, and is therefore more mature for the purpofe of produc- ing flowers, than the lateral ones, as in a fem of wheat; and pro- bably in the artichoke, and on the fpurs of fome fruit trees, as of pears. ‘4. It-was obferved in Se&. IX. 3. r. that in the ftems of wheat three or four joints are formed above each other previous to that, which bears the ear; and that in many other annual or biennial plants two or three viviparous lateral fhoots occur, as in artichoke, cinara; and falfañi, tragoposon, before the central one flowers. The fame happens to the vine-fhoots; two or three joints with a leaf and a viviparous bud at each are always firft produced; and as each of thefe have a divifion of the pith between every joint, as remarked in Sect:[::8. I fuppoñe, that thefe joints are feparate plants growing on -ach other like the joints of the ftem of wheat; and that hence in vine-fhoots three or four fucceffive generations of Jeaf-fhoots muft exift, before the new fhoct can attain fufficient maturity to form a flower; as the amatorial generation of feeds was fhewn to require UC Bebe £ j NIFnEI LA 410 PRODUETFION DECT ENV. 2:10 higher animation, if it may be fo called, than the lateral generation of leaf-buds. The fame mode of growth occurs in the young fhoots of oaks, and which is thus curioufly accounted for. Æhe lateral Pres iches of many maturé trees, though they bear flower-buds on their fices, are generally terminated with a leaf-bud, as above explained; it happens in fome of them, and particularly to vines, that after two or three flower-buds are produced on a lateral branch, that it fhalil proceed to grow in length, and to produce leaf- buds at ever ÿ joint above the flower-buds, 4s well as at the fummit; wbich may bethus perhaps fatisfa@torily explained, After the third, and fourth, and fifth joints of a new lateral fhoot have generated flowers, which require few or no more caudexes; room enough is left on the bark of the fhoot for thofe above them to acquire the numer- ous new miniature caudexes of embryon leaf-buds, and where the new caudexes of embryon buds can eafily be produced along the bark, and fufficient nutriment is fupplied; all vecetables are more liable to pro- pagate themfelves by buds than by feeds. Hence in the management of VINES, as well as of MELONS, it IS ufeful at two or three joints above the laft bunch of fruit to pinch off the viviparous end of the new branch, not fo much to accommo- date the length of it to the houfe, as to fupply the growing fruit with more nourifhment from the inofculations ,of the veflels of the cau- dexes of thefe viviparous buds, which are now cut off, with thofe of| the oviparous ones, which remain.|| À curious vegetable fat, which appears in the culture of vies in hot-houfes here prefents itfelf to our notice, When a vigorous fhoot advances without producing fruit-buds at the third or fourth joint, it is frequentlÿ permitted to grow in length to above twenty feet; but at every joint the new or fecondary bud is pinched off, either foon after its appearance, or after it has fhot out oné or two joints. By this management of permitting the central fummit of the fhoot to grow till Auguft or September, the èyes, whofe buds have been Q pinched Di SEET: 2 Ve.2: 5 OFFRUITS. à 1,1 pinched off, do not put out a frefh during that fummer; but new buds are formed at each eye, which germinate the next fummer, and almoft all of them produce fruit. 1f however fome of the fhoots in thé bofom of thefe leaves are pinched off too foon after their appearance, they are occafionally lia- ble to generate new leaf-buds, which fhoot out afrefh from the fame eye; and it is faid, that thefe eyes, which have thus produced two leaf-buds in fucceffion in one fummer, will nôt generally produce buds of any kind in the fucceeding fummer; for as feveral of thefe joints in vigorous vines béar two or three buds from the fame eye‘at the fame time, fo others bear them in fucceflion. The theory of thefe important faéts may not be eafy to invefli- gate; it is commonly fuppofed, that pinching off the lateral fhoots at every bud of a new vine-branch ftrengthens the next year’s expe&- ed bud, by not expending fo much nutritive juice; and that giving the vines a fortnight’s artificial heat, after the fummer heat leflens, ripens the wood for the produétion of the next year’s fruit; but thefe are words, I imagine, without accurate ideas. I fuppofe, when each lateral fhoot of this year’s branch of a vine is pinched off, that its caudexes, which had already formed a part of the bark, coalefce; and may thus render it more difficult for the camdexes of the fucceeding embryon bud in the fame eye, which is to be expanded next fpring, to be produced along the bark, by having previoufly occupied the fituation which thofe new caudexes would require; aud that thusthe fecondary buds of. thefe eyes become flower-buds, which might otherwife have been leaf-buds. The continued heat a week or-two above the ufual time of fum- li >. Sn Re; D| ee#+ mer, Which is faid to ripen the wood, may contribute to dry and 1 narden it, as weil as to forward the orowth of the buds; and thus | 2 AVE=#4 Ex' e RTE Î both to render the protrufion of embryon roots more difficult, ind nr ler ST RE Ne Un al Re es!;&: confequently to produce flower-buds, and thofe of a larger kind. DA ET RE eo)": ee: Whether a fimilar method to this praétuifed on vines couk 3 G2 plicd 412 PROD ETTON SECTE, AM: 23-pe d plied with advantage in the management of other fruit-trees is a cir- cumftance of great importance, and can only be determined by ex- periment. But asthe firft foliage of euonymus is generally deftroyed by infe@s in this country, and yet a fecond growth of foliage is pro- A a and as Î witnefled laft year, that the whole firft a es of an apple-tree were deftroyed, was believed, by Lightning, and which yet Fe forth an entire new of leaves in a few weeks; 1s there not reafon to conclude, that if the leaf-buds were picked out early in the feafon from a ftrons fhoot of peach or apricot, either new leaf-buds might be produced in that fumer, or flower-buds in the fucceed- ing one, as happens to the vine-fhoots above defcribed; and that ou: wall-trees might be thus rendered more certainly prolific. And laftly, might not the chipping out with fine fciffars the extremities of young vine-fhoots, which would otherwife be barren ones, convert fome of their tendrils into bunches by thus fupplying them with additional nutriment, by preventing its expenditure in the elongation of the Viviparous branch? This experiment might be the more readily tried, as fome aflert, that the barren buds may be diftinguifhed from the prolific ones by their form before they expand. 6. Arts of producing flower-b-buds. The following quotation, partly from the Botanic Garden, Vol. I. Canto 4. 1. 465, may amufe the reader, and conclude the fecond part of this Section. If prouder branches with exuberance rude Point their green germs, their barren fhoots protrude; Lop with fharp fteel the central growth, or bind A wiry ringlet round the fwelling rind; Bif with chifel fharp the root below, Or bend to earth the inhofpitable bough. So, while oppofed, no embryon leaf-bud fhoots Down the reluétant bark its fibre-roots; 8 New TEE SORTE, 4 SECT. XV29.1r, DFFERUETS 413 New germs fhall fwell with amatorial power, And fexual beauties deck the glowing flower; While the clos’d petals from noéturnal cold With filken veil the virgin figma fold, Shake into viewlefs air the morning dews, And wave in light their iridefcent hues; With graceful bend the asther by her fide Shall watch the blufhes of his waking bride, Give to her hand the honey’d cup, or fip Celeftial neétar from her fweeter lip, Hang in wild raptures o’er the yielding fair, Love out his hour, and leave his life in air. ITI. TO PERFECT AND ENLARGE THE FRUIT. Ît is believed by fome of the Linnean fchool, that flower-buds or leaf-buds may be converted into each other in the early ftate of their exiftence, as mentioned in Seét. IX. 2.8. It'is indeed probable, that either a flower-bud or leaf-bud may be generated inftead of each other reciprocally, before either of them exifts; but after either of them has obtained a certain degree of maturity, fo as to be diftin- guifhed by its form being more pointed or more fpherical; 1 fufpe“& no addition or detraction of nutriment, or of the facility of the pro- duétion of its embryon caudexes down the bark and radicles beneath can change its deftination. 1. Shorten the oviparous branches, wben the leaves fall off, by prun= ing their viviparous funmmis, and cut away the root-fuckers. The fummits of the läterai branches, as well as the ereét ones, are fur- nifhed generally with viviparous buds; which in many wall-trees fhould be cut off, after the leaves fall in autumn; that more nutri- ment may be derived to the fruit-buds, which may occafionally be- come fomewhat enlarged during the milder days of winter; as they are now certainly too far advanced to be changed into leaf-buds; and 1& un 6 DU D jp FT LE“ cl 7©——— | | L| D il Li: & Ÿ h: À Li WE ï PAT PRODUETFTION SECT AW. 3 2; if this pruning be deferred till late in the winter months, the flower: ubds will not be quite fo forward, as if it be performed earlier. For the fame reafon the root-fuckers alfo fhould be cut away in the au- tumno, that all the nutriment, which they would otherwife expend, may be derived to the flower-buds$, and induce them carly to en- laroe themfelves. + Prach or rub off all ufélefs viviparous buds in the fhri 1ng or fum- mer, as 1hey'occur.. In thofe trees where the fruit-buds arife on the new leaf-fhoots along with the leaf-buds, and cannot therefore be fooner diflinguifhed or approached, as in figs and_vines, the fum- mit leaf-buds fhould be pinched off two joints above the fruit-buds, as foon as they: QU that more nutriment may be conveyed to the fruit-buds. See No, 3. 4. of this Section. And in the ui wall-trees the new leaf-buds, which appear during the fpring and fummer months in wrong places, where they cannot be trained properly againft the wall, or where they are too numerous, fhould be rubbed or pinched off, as they occur; whence more nourifhment will be derived to the ripening fruit, and to thofe new leaf-buds which are to remain to produce future flower-buds. And if the new buds, which are feen in their young ftate in the axilla of the leaves of the new fhoots, were picked out by the point of a knife, or pnched off, where they grow long enough for that pur- pofe, as the fecondary fhoots of vines in grape houfes are pinched; it might probably induce thofe eyes to produce flowers in the fucceed- ing year, as fpoken of in No. 2. 5. of this Setion, as well as con- tribute to enlarge the prefent fruit by the expenditure of lefs nutri- ment on the leaf-buds, an idea well deferving the teft of experi= ment. j|\ In the fame manner in the cultivation of melons and cucumbers af- ter the central bud is pinched off, as mentioned above, No. 2. s.the ‘viviparous extremities of the lateral branches fhould be al{o deftroy- ed, as foon as a fufficient number of female flowers are impregnated; that SEC AVE ga: OF ERUT PS: 415 that a greater fhare of nutriment may be derived to them, inftead of crowding the frame with new branches, whofe fruit-buds would be too late to ripen in our fhort fummers, 3. Thra all thofe fruits, wbich are 100 numerous: pluck off apricots, peacbes, goofeberries; and cut out 12any grapes froin each bunch with Jciffars. By the inofculation of the veflels of veocctables mentioned in Seét.[. 3, when any parts of a tree are déftroyed, thofe in their vi- cinity become more vigorous. On this account when part of the fruit 15 taken away as early as may be, the remaining part acquires more nutriment. Add to this, that, where fruit is crowded, fome of it becomes precluded from the fun and air,‘and in confequence does not perfe@ly ripen, and is liable to become mouldy; for mucor is a vegetable produétion, which like other fungi does not require either much light or air, as appears from the growth of fome funguffes in dark cellars, and of common mufhrooms beneath beds of ftraw, as LE mentioned in Set. XIII, r. 4. 4. Prevent the production of new leaf-budr. [n fome pear trees the whole of the bloffoms become fterile, and fall off without any apparent injury from cold, and this for many fucceflive years. The fame occurs fometimes to chefnut trees, æf culus pavia, after the flower the fruétification entirely falls of; fome of thefe might be male flowers, as Miller obferves, but the whole could not be fuch.‘The fame happens very frequently to the fig- trees of this climate, fometimes the whole crop falls of, when they _ære about the fize of filberts; thatis, while they are ftill in flower, which though concealed within the fig, muft precede the fwelling of the feeds, whether thefe be impreonated or not. À correfpondent faét occurred to me a few years ago. I had fix young trees of the Ifchia fig with fruit on them in pots in a ftove, On removing them into larger boxes the figs fell off, which I afcrib- ed to the increafed vigour of the plants; as they protruded very vigor- ous fhoots occafñoned by the accumulation of new foil round their r@ots. ES QUE: d L Li Li H 1 A 4284 2: } AIO re: PRO DE CF LON DECTUAN 34, roots. Perhaps thefe plants might rather be faid to have beer ower than in fruit, and perhaps thefe flowers were all male ones only,, or accompanied only with imperfet female ones?: Whence I conclude, that about the feafon when the corals of thefe flowers with their ftimens and ftigmas die, the trees generate and pourifh too many new leaf-buds, owing to the facility with which they can produce the new caudexes of thefe young buds down the bark; and that by the whole of the vegetable fap-juice being derived to the new buds for their prefent growth, or to form refervoirs for their future growth, the pericarp and feeds, whether impregnated or not, are deprived of their due nutriment and fall off, See Se. AV TA Hence I propofe to tie waxed thread or fine wire round the twios of pear-trees, which have ufually mifcarried, as foon as they are in flower,{o as to comprefs, but not fo as to ftrangulate them; or to wound the bark by a circular or femicircular incifion, which might counteraét their facility of procreating new leaf-buds; which I fuf- peët would be more effeétual in preventing the flowers from falling off, than pinching off the new leaf-buds, as they appear; which is recommended by Dr. Bradley in the management of fig-trees, and is done to vimes in hot-houfes; but which I found to be ineffe@ual on many fig-branches both in the natural ground and in pots, and afcrib- ed its failure to the continuance of the efforts of the fig-tree to pro- duce new leaf-buds; whereas in vines, I fuppofe, the grapes would ripen, whether the new leaf-buds remain or are deftroyed, See No. 3.2. of.this Section. Pontedera obferved, that in the iflands of the Archipelago fome fig- trees bear in the fpring many male flowers, and few female ones, the former of which fall off; and that they bear a fecond crop chiefly of female flowers in the autumn, which ripen in the enfuing fpring. Anthologia. Can this occur.in the fig-trees of this country? Other figs are faid not to ripen but to fall off before their maturity, unlefs SECT, XV. 34 Se CFLTE R ÊT T S. 41 7 1 Q unlefs they be wounded by infeës in their caprification, or punétur- ed by a ftraw. A further inveñ tigation of this fu biea is much wanted to propagate figs with fuccefs in this climate. See Botani Vol. II. note on caprificus. See alfo Milne’s Botan. Didion. Article Caprification.\ ) HS Rate Waraen, - 5. Give additional moiflure, manure, and warmtb, during the early part of the growth__. By additional moiflure the fruit re larger; in hot-houfes this may be effe@ted two ways, one by water- ing the earth on which the vesctables grow, and another by produc- ing fleam by watering the warm flues or floors; which will after- vards in the colder hou be again condenfed, and fettle in the form of dew on the fruit and res By fupplying vecetables as well as animals with an abundancy of fluid, they are liable to increafe in bulk, both becaufe the external cuticle, which confines the growth of both of them, becomes relax- ed, as is feen in the hands of thofe women, who have many hours been employed in wafhine; and alfo becaufe the cutaneous abforbent à? veflels will thus imbibe more fluid from the external furface; and the cellular abforbents will therefore imbibe lefs from the nn. cells, and confequent]ly more mucus or fat will remain in them. Thus in Lancafhire, where premiums are given for large coofe- berries, I am told, that fome of thofe, who are(ol icitous for the prizes, not only thin the fruit of a goofeberry-tree, fo as to leave but two or three goofeberries on a branch, but then by fupportins a tea-faucer under each of thefe soofeberries, bathe it for fome weeks in fo much water as to cover about a fourth part of it, which they call fuckling the soofeberry. In fome parts of the Carnatic, where rice is cultivated, they are faid not to derive the water on it, tillit is in flow er> becaufe that would induce the ftem to fhoot too luxuriantly, like our wheat-crops in wet-feafons; but, as foon as it is in flower, t they find it expedient to flood it with water for the purpofe of fillng and enlarging the 2 gars, ro— 418 PRODUCTION Secr. XV. 3.5. arr,(Communications to Board of Agriculture, Vol. I. p. 355,} which it may effet both by relaxing de ic si the grain, and preventing the too great internal abforption of the mucus or ftarch depofited in the cells of it; and laftly by fupplying it with more nu- triment. There are two circumftances to be attended to in giving water to plants; which are, not to water them during the Le part of the day in fummer, nor in the evenings of fpring, when a froft may be ex- pected; in both thefe ES Seneee we may be faid to copy nature, as rain is generally preceded by a cloudy fky, and is never accom- panied by fl“oft; though that fometimes follows it, and is then very injurious to vegetation, When plants have been long ftimulated by a hot funfhine into jolent action, 1f this ae of heat be too oreatly and too fud- denly diminifhed by the affufon of cold water, or by its fudden eva-. poration, their veflels ceafe to a, and death enfues; exaëtly as has too frequently happened to thofe, who have bathed in a cold fpring of water after having been heated by violent and continued exercife on a hot day. When fevere froft follows the watering of plants, they are rendered torpid, and die by the too great and fudden diminution of the Male of heat; which is equally neceffary to the a&ivity of vegetäble as to a animal fibres; and in fome inftances the circulation of their fluids may be ftopped by the congelation of them; and in others their veffels may be burft by the e:«pan fion attending the con- verfion of water into ice; or laftly, by the feparation of their different fluids by congelation. See Set. XV. 4. 1. When an A dition of manure can be procured, as where the black carbonic juice from a dunghill mixed with water, or foap-fuds, which have been ufed in wafhing, can be employed inftead of water alone; it muft undoubtedly add to the nutriment, and confequently L enlarge PREMIERE EST TE SECT NV OF FRUITS. 419 enlarge the fize of the fruit by that means alfo, as wel ditional water. Where too much moifture is given without at the fame time an addition of warmth, fome inconveniences are liable to occur, as a XX7 VV lefs aromatic and faccharine flavour of the fruit. hen therefore fruits become nearly ripe, lefs water fhould be given them, unlefs it is convenient at the fame time to increafe the heat, in which they are immerfed, as may be done in fome hot-houfes; and then the flavour of the fruit may be heightened, as well as its fize increafcd, as fhewn by Mr. Baftard in the Philofophical T'ranfaét. wbo planted pine-apple plants in veflels of water, and placed thefe veffels near the top of the hot-houfe, or on the fire-flues, for the purpoie of fupplying them with a greater heat; and produced by thefe means both larger, as he afferts, and better flavoured pine apples. On this important fubject I fhall tranfcribe his words, and fhail only add, that fteam from boiling water is now fuccefsfuily ufed in fome hot-houfes for the growth both of vines and of pines, but muft require foime attention in the application of it; as it is occafonally conveyed through fmall apertures, which perforate a brick arch, which is conftruéted fomewhat like the floor of a malt-kiln, where the water boils beneath the beds of bark or of foil; and is occafionally admitted into the room above, and thus fupplies moiflure and heat both to the ground and to the air of the hot-houfe, My hot-houfe is covered with the beft crown glafs, which F ap- prehend gives more heat than the common fort of green olafs gene- rally ufed for hot houfes. In the front part of the houle, and indeed any where in the loweft parts of it, the pine-apple plants will not thrive well in water. The way in which Î treat them is as fol- =.] Ë Par t- lows. J'place a fhelf near the highefh part of the back wall,{o that ._, pe> à A:+& he pine-plants may ftand without abfolutely touching the glafs, but as near it as can be, On this fhelf I place pans full of water, about 11 feven or eight inches deep; and in thefe pans I put the pine-apple D=(Or plants, Eu passé 420 P RO DU CTTIOMN DEC Te A rise À plants, growing in the fame pots of earth, as they are generally planted in to be plunged into the bark-bed in the common Way; that 16, put the-pot of earth with the pine-plant in it in the pan full of vater; and as the water decreafes, J conftantly fill up the pan. I place either plants in fruit, or young plants as foon as they are well rooted, in thefe pans of water, and find they thrive equally well; the fruit reared this way 15 always much larger, as well as better fla- voured, than when ripened in the bark-bed. I have more than once put only the plants themfelves without any earth, Î mean after they had roots, into thefe pans of water, with only water fufficient to keep the roots always covered, and found them flourifh beyond expecta- tion. À neichbour of mine has placed a leaden ciftern upon the é of the back flue,(in which, as it is in contat with the flue, the wa ter is always warm, when there is fire in the houfe,) and finds bis fruit excellent and large, ‘The way I account for this fuccefs is, that the warm air al- ways afcending to the part, where this fhelf is placed, as being the hishe part cf the houfe, keeps it much hotter than in any other part. The temperature at that place is, I believe, feldom lefs than what is indicated by the 734 degree of Fahrenheit’s thermometer; and when the fun fhines, it is Gften at above 100"; the water the plants grow in feems to enable them to bear the greateft heat, if fuf- hcient air be allowed; and I often fee the roots of the plants growing out of the holes in the bottom of the pot of earth, and fhooting vi- 11 il TOFOUiV 1D tne water. le)) “*-itis not foreign to this purpofe to mention, that, as a perfon.was moving a large pine-plant from the hot-bed in my houfe laft fum- mer, which plant was juit fhewing fruit, by fome accident he broke Ô. Î off the plant juft above the earth in which it orew, and there was no root whatever left to it; by way of a L I e the plant, and fixed it upright in a pan of water(without any earth whatever) on the | | SET. XV. 30: GF'ERUITFS. 42% the fhelf; it there foon threw out roots, and bore a pine- 3 I x, As 426 PRODUET] ON Secr. XV. 47. 1. Às life whether animal or vegetable prevents putrefaétion, and as many fruits exift long, after they are gathered from the tree, béfore they become ripe and die fpontaneoufly, and in coufequence putrefy,. as crabs, floes, medlars, and auftere pears."Fhe art of. preferving thefe confifts in ftoring them, where the heat is neither much above or below 48 degrees, which is the temperature of the interior parts of the earth: that is, in a dry cellar, or beneath the foil, or well covered with ftraw or mats in a dry chamber. As greater heat might make them ripen fooner, than they are wanted, by the increafed activity of their vegetable life; and froft by deftroying that life would fubject them to putrefy, when they become thawed; as perpetually happens to apples and potatoes, which are not well defended from froft. And lafly, the moïfture would injure them many ways; firft-by its con- tributing to deftroy their vegetable life; fecondly in promoting the chemical procefs of putrefaction; and thirdly by its encouraging the growth of mucor, or mould, which will grow in moift fituations without much light or air. Too great warmth deftroys both animal and vegetable life by fli- raulating their veflels into too great ativity for a time, whence a fubfequent torpor from the too great previous expenditure of the liv- ing power, which terminates in death. After the death of the organi- zation a boiling heat coagulates the mucilaginous fluids, andif con- tinued would I believe prevent the chemical fermentation of them; and that thus both vegetable and animal fubftances might be preferv- ed. The experiment is difficult to try, and could not therefore be of much praétical utility if it fhouid fucceed. Great cold on the contrary deftroys both animals and vegetables by the torpor occafoned by the defett of ftimulus, and a confequent temporary death. Afterwards if a great degree of cold be continued, in fome cafes the expanfon of their freezing juices may burft the ve- getable veflels, and thus render the life of them irrecoverable, Büt nother curious thing happens to many aqueous folutions, or diffufions, à: tnere 15 à x SECT:. XV. 4e. OL E RUES EL 429 diffufions, which is, that at the time of congelation the diflolved or diffufed particles are pufhed frem the ice, either to the centre, if the cold be applied equally on all fides, or into various cells, as mentioned in DÉC LET, 2.52: This exclufon of falt is feen in freezing any faline folution in\va- ter; as common falt or blue vitriol expofed to fevere froft in a two- ounce phial are driven to the center of it, Wine, vinegar, and even milk, may be thus deprived of much of their water. Very moift clay, when expofed to frofty air, fhrinks and becomes much more folid ac- cording to the afertion of Mr. Kirwan. Mineralog. Vol, I. p. 9, the freezing water covering its furface with ice, and driving the mole- cules of clay nearer the centre, And laftly, the mucilage produced by boiling wheat flour in water, Like book-binders pafte, if not too thick, lofes its cohefion by being frozen, the water driving, as it freezes, the ftarch from its cryftallization; and from this cireum- fance probably is occafioned the change of flavour of apples, potatoes, and other vegetables, on being thawed after they have been frozen. It is neverthelefs aflirmed, I think, by Monf. Reaumeur, that if frozen apples be dipped in cold water repeatedly, and the ice thus formed on their furface be wiped of, or if they be left in a large pail full of very cold water, fo that they may not thaw too haftily, they will not lofe their flavour, If this be true, and the apples will keep found fome time afterwards, it would feem that the vegetable life was not deftroyed; but that, like fleeping infeéts, they were reani- mated by the warmth; otherwife, if the flavour be not deftroyed, and they could be immediately eaten or ufed in cookery, ît is ftill a valuable difcovery if true, and might lead us to preferve variety of fruits in ice-houfes, as ftrawberries, currants, grapes, and pines, to the great advantage of fociety. See Se&. XVII. 2. 4. As the procefs of fermentation will not commence or continue, Ï believe, in the heat of boiling water, or 2123; and as this degree of heat can be eafily preferved by fteam, or by the vicinity of veflels 312 containing PEINE ee memerte een""à ES RP ER tie d à ee * Les à Se"+_ TEE js noce Rs— TS=“" ma n ere à e+* ñ_—— ms\ #* æ s D nie D’ a=. nee PRE. d o— es. ET’ 2 Le_ Ed vu| ”— gs ee si LE dE se F Ë= e nc 7 1 a ENT HAS fi- hé mi 282 EEE Tue S- 428 PRODUCTION DECTAXV E4z containino boiling water: it is probable, that fruits for the ufe of cookery might be thus preferved throughout the year, as the pulp of boiled apples, goofeberries,&c. put into bottles, and placed fo as to be expofed to the wafted fteam of fteam-engines, or immerfed in the hot water, which flows from the condenfing of it; or near the boilers fixed behind fome kitchen fires; as 1 fufpe®, that if fuch a de gree of heat could be applied once a day, it wouid countera& the ten- dency to fermentation. z. Another method of preferving fome fruits is by gathering them during their acid ftate, before that acid juice is converted into fugar; as lemons, orances, goofeberries, pears, and fome apples; and if a part of the water be evaporated by a boding. heat fo: as to leave the acidity more concentrated, it is lefs. liable to ferment, and in confequence will be longer preferved. For this purpofe the fruit fhould be kept in a cellar, and-corked in bottles, fo as to be preclud: ed from the changes of air, and variations of heat; goofeberries, and rhubarb-ftalks, are thus fuccefsfully preferved for winter ufe; and if a tea fpoonful of brandy be put into each quart bottle, it will prevent the growth of mucor or mould upon them. 3- Às fugar will not pafs into fermentation unlefs diluted with much-water, and lefs fo in low degrees of heat, many fruits may be thus preferved by impregnatins them with fugar, and the better if they are kept in a dry cellar. Dr. Hales found that by inverting the end of a branch of a tree into a bottle of brandy for a few hours, that the whole branch died; hence it is ufual and ufeful to cover pre- {erved fruits with a paper moiftened with vinous fpirit, which pre- vents the growth of mucor or mould upon their furfaces, which:is a vegetable thus eafily killed by.the intoxicating ftimulus. If fweet fruits be dried by heat, not only the fuperfluous water becomes exhaled, but the faccharine procefs is alfo promoted, and much of the mucilaginous or.acid particles are converted into fugar, as in baking pears, or in drying fgs, dates, raifins, apricots;. fo that bv SECT. XV. 4:54. GE::E RU: FT. by gradually drying them many fruits may be well preferved, and re- quire afterwards fimply to be kept dry. . Some fruits, as the olive, are preferved'in their uaripe ftate in: ) P P falt and water; the unripe pods of kidney-beans, and the hats of mufhrooms, may be thus alfo kept for months in weak brine in a cool cellar enclofed in bottles without much change. But the oily kernels of nuts are well preferved in cellars beneath the{oil to pre- clude the variations of heat, and covered in jars to prevent their eva- poration, Other fruits are converted into pickles and preferved in vinegar, but lofe their flavour; and others by being immerfed in vinous fpirit are preferved, as cherries, and thus tranfmuted from food to poifon. And when the kernels of apricots, cherries, or bitter almonds, are preferved in brandy, which is called ratafñia, we poflefs a mixture of two of the moft poifonous produétions of the vegetable kingdom; except perhaps the leaves of lauro-cerafus diftilled in al- cohol, which was fold as ratafña in Dublin, and produced many fudden deaths in the gin-fhops. v. The following lines.are inferted to amufe the reader, and to inprint fome of the foregoins doétrine on his memory. HRTE OF PRUNING-WALE-TREES.. BEHEAD new-prafted trees in fpring, Ere the firft cuckoo tries to fing; But jeave four fwelling buds to grow With wide-diverging arms below; Or fix one central trunk erect, And on each fide its boughs deflec. In fummer hours from fertile ftems Rub off the fupernumerous gems; But where unfruitful branches rife En proud luxuriance to the fkies, 429: Te PRODUCTION Exfect the exuberant growths, or bind À wiry ringlet round the rind; Or feize with fhreds the leafy birtb, And bend it parallel to earth. When from their winter-lodge efcape The fwelling fg, or cluftering grape; Pinch off the fummit-fhoots, that rife, Two joints above the fertile eyes; But when with branches wide and tall The vine fhall crowd your trellis’d wall; Or when from ftrong external roots Each rafter owns three vigorous fhoots; Watch, and as grows the afcending wood Lop at two joints each lateral bud. So fhall each eye a clufter bear 2 To-charm the next fucceeding year; And, as the fpiral tendrils cling, Deck with feftoons the brow of fpring, But when the wintry cold prevails, Attend with chifel, knife, and nails; Of pears, plums, cherries, apples, figs, Stretch at full length the tender twigs; Vine, nectarine, apricot, and peach, Cut off one third or half of each; And, as each widening branch extends, Leave à full fpan between the ends. Where crowded growths lefs fpace allow, Clofe lop them from the parent bough; But when they rife too weak or few, Prune out old wood, and train in new. So, as each tree your wall receives, Fair fruits fhall blufh ami the leaves. SECL. XV 5 DECT. XV: 5. ART OF PRUNING MELONS AND CUCUMBERS.: Wuen melon, cucumber, and gourd, Their two firft rougher leaves afford, Ere yet thefe fecond leaves advance Wide as your nail their green expanfe; Arm'd with fine knife, or fciffars good, Bife& or clip the central bud; Whence many a lateral branch inftead Shall rife like hydra’s fabled head. When the fair belles in gaudy rows Salute their vegetable beaux; And, as they lofe their virgin bloom, Shew, ere it fwells, the pregnant womb; Lop, as each crowded branch extends, The barren flowers, and leafy ends. So with fharp ftings the bee-fwarm drives: Their ufelefs drones from autumn hives. But if in frames your flowers confin’d Feel not one breezy breath of wind, Seek the tall males, and bend in air Their diftant lovers to the fair; Or pluck with fingers nice, and fhed The genial pollen o’er their bed. So fhall each happier plant unfold| Prolific germs, and fruits of gold. SC Tax VIN THE, PRODUCTION OF SEEDS. 1. To produce feeds ea y. 1. Sow before tointer, or in warm Situations. 2. Tranf- 7 plant tbe roots. 3. Cut cÿ Juperfluous fboots. 4. Give fs water. IL. To pro- duce feeds in great quantity. 1. Soc early, or wben tbe Jeed ripens. 2.1 ranf- Plant the roots déeper, cr earib them#p.. Horje-boe and band-boe. Tnproved dril bufbandry. Dibbling. Corn lands laid level. Eg yptian wbeat with branch- ing ears. 2. Defiroy the central fhoot.… Kat down beat and roll it. This is Jornettmes injurious. 4. Pinch off UJelefs Jummits of beans. Eat down 100 ViSOUT- ous wbeat. 5. Roll if to leffen tbe fraw. 6. Give lefs water. 1II. To ripen feeds. 1. Warmth and drynef. 2. Frofly nigbts. 3. Lime forwards tbe ripen- 2ng of feeds. 4. Cut off bulbs and root-fuckers of orchis. tuberofus. Rbeui palmatum. IV. To generate beft kinds of feeds. Choofe early plants 2nfulated from others. Tinpregnate the Jligmas‘of Jome with 1be anther, À Bi | LE 4 498 PRODUCTION OF. XVII. 3. 10. contains lefs acrimony, and is therefore more liable to be bored into and eaten by a large worm or magsot almoft as thick as a goofe- quil: which I Have feen happen to a pear-tree, fo as to cunit he the whole internal wood, till the tree was blown down. In refpeët to the caution neceffary to be obferved in not touching the living edges of the wounded bark with fuch materials as may in- jure the tree bÿ their abforption, I remember fecing feveral younc elm trees, which died by their boles having been édiErea, as Ï was informed, by quick-lime mixed with cow durig to prevent their be- ing injured by horfes; and I have feen Hide of peach and nec- tarine trees deftroyed ss fprinkling them, when in leaf, with a flight folution of arfenic, and others with fpirit of turpentine. 10. À more curious method of cure is faid to have fucceeded, where the bark of a tree has recently been torn off even to great extent, and that is by binding the fame piece of bark on again, or another piece from the Eee tree, or from one of a fimilar nature, nicely adapting the edges of the bark to be applied to the edges of that, which furrounds the wound of the tree, which it is EN will coalefce in the fame manner, as the vellels of the bark of an ingraft- ed fcion unite with thofe of the bark of the ftock ingrafted on; which is ftri&ly analogous to the union of inflamed or wounded parts . animal bodies, as in the cure of the hare-lip, or the infertion of he living tooth from one perfon into the; jaw of another, or the fac- ae nofes of l'alicotius. If the bark over the cankered parts of apple-trees could be thus re- newed by paring the edges of the mortified bark to the quick, and then nicely applying a piece of healthy bark from an apple-tree of in- ferior value, and fecuring it with an elaftic bandage, as a fhred of flannel, it would be a very valuable difcovery. Another method, where a branch of a valuable tree is in the pro- grefs of being deftroyed by canker, might be by inclofing the can- kered part, and fome inches above it, in a garden- pot of nb pre- vioufly Secr. XVIL 3. 10.::ROOTS AND BARKS. 499 vioufly divided, and fupported by ftakes, and tied together round the branch; which might then ftrike roots in the earth of the garden- pot, and after fome months might be cut off, and planted on the ground, and might thus be preferved, and produce a new tree; which experiment I have this fummer tried on two apple-trees, and believe it will fucceed. 500| PRODUCTION OF SECT: X VIE, DE CT: KNIIL. PRODUCTION OF LEAVES AND WOOD. f. 1. Leaves are the lungs of vegetables. Graffes propagated by their roots. Some are viviparous.“Joints of graffes are fucceffive vegetables. And their roots. Ex- traët roots of fwitch-grafs by a Jcarifier with inclined teetb. root-leaves for graxing, and Jlem-leaves for bay. Eat down tbe firfi fem. Cut gras young for bay. Why young bay is liable to take fire. How to prevent it by firaw. Eat low meadows late. Sow rye-grafs, trefoil, wbite clover, for Jusceflive berbage. Other grafs feeds. Roll them in ring. Effeës of frof. Ufe more water as in rice grounds. thick. Heavy caiile fhould be fall. fed.. How 10 defiroy tuf- Jocks. How to make bay. 2. Some root-leaves eaten raw. Others Previofly boiled. Upper part of Jome roots and of Jome flems efculent. Æparagus. Art of cultivation of roct-leaves and Jlem-leaves. Of mulberry-leaves. 3. Etiolation of. leaves leffens their acrimony. Efiolated flowers. Etiolated ladies. 4. Aromatic end bitterifb leaves ufed as tea, as of fage. Wken to Le gathered.. Tea recom- mended. 5. Leaves ufed in medicine.-bean inflead of bops. for tanning, as 00k, afb, and alder leaves. Others for dying, as indigo and woad. 6. Leaves will ferment and may make a kind of beer. II. 1. Wood is produced from a To increafe wood moifien the trees. Scratch the bark. How 10 Jiraighten crocked trees. Pincb off the flowers. 2. To render timber trees tall with out knots, or crooked for fhip-timber. Willows. Oxiers. Sugar-maple Scotch frs. 3. Preferve wood from lighining, and from wood-peckers. 4. Woods differ in colour. Ujedin dying. Differ in medical and chemical properties.£ Oak corrodes lead. Sap-wood rots under lead. How prevented. tbe myf- teries Cf Free Mafonry. 6. Woods differ in their bardnels and fincothnefs. Blocks fer! printing. 7. In their durability as cyprefs. for piles. 8. In lateral ccb cé on:: À Hygrometer Pendulum. 9. In fpecific gravity. of hollow trunks, 10. In elaflicity., 11. Hot 10 tranjplant ler ge trees, How {a ee: Secr. XVIIL 1.17.. LEAVES AND WOOD.$OT do prop them. 19, Time of felling timber after barking it, The concentric rings of timber. 13. Pith is brain. Does not communicate from bud to bud,- goe from artichoke. From elder. 14. Boundary to the growth of trees. Not ta coralline rocks. I. Of Leaves. 1. The buds of plants have already been fhewn to be individual vegetable beings, and the leaves to conftitute the lungs of each in- dividual bud. And laftly, that the new bud in the bofom of each leaf is the ofispring from the caudex of that old bud, of which the leaf conftitutes the lungs. he leaves, of grafles are of great confequence, as they nourifh many of our domeftic quadrupeds; the cultivation of grafles has therefore been much attended to. Many of thefe propagate them- felves more by their roots than by their feed; efpecially where their Îtems are perpetually deftroyed by the grazins of cattle, fheep, or geefe; and fome of them are faid to be viviparous, as the feftuca dumetorum, or fefcue grafs; that is, that they bear bulbs on their fÎtems after flowering inftead of feeds, which in time drop off, and ftrike root into the ground, like the polygonum viviparum, and the alium magicum; which circumftance is faid to obtain in many al- pine grafles, whofe feeds are annually devoured by{mal birds. The ftems of the grafles confift in general of joint above joint without lateral branches; each joint of which feems to be a fuccef. five plant growins on the preceding one, and generated in the bofom of the leaf, which furrounds it; the ftem may therefore be efteemed a{ucceflion of leaf-buds, till at length a flower-bud is produced on the fummit, as fhewn in Sect, IX. 3. 1. In fome grafles, as the agroflis canina, or triticum repens, dog’s-crafs, twitch-orafs, or couch-grafs, the root confifts of joints as well as the flem; w may be confidered as feparate individual plants, like the bulbs of po- 1 tatoes, as every joint of thefe roots will grow into a new plant to the 402 PRODUCTION OF SECTSEX VIT; 117. great annoyance of the agricultor, which, when the ground is not hard, may be beft, I believe, drawn out by a deep harrow, or by Mr. Cook’s fcarifier; as a plough turns them over under the foil, as it breaks them, and thus much increafes their number by in a man- ner tranfplanting them. The teeth of the harrow, or fcarifier, fhould be inclined forwards towards the horfe for the purpofe of lifting up the roots, and that it may not too eafñly rife out of the foil; and it fhould be fixed by wedges or fcrew-nuts to the wooden frame for the purpofe of occafonally lengthening them to adapt them to different foils, as the roots pierce deeper into lefs tenacious foils than into clayey ones, Hence it appears, that a plant of grafs confifts not only of a tuft of leaves furrounding the root, but that the three or four lower joints of the fem, as of a wheat-ftraw, are fo many fuccefive leaf-buds, . which are generated by the caudex of the leaf, which furrounds each joint, and precede the flower-bud at the fummit; and that hence with the defign of producing much herbage for cattle, the propagation of new leaves from the root is principally to be attended to; but with the defign of producing hay, or winter fodder, the leaf-buds of the ftem are principally to be attended to. For the former of thefe purpofes the ftem of grafs fhould be eaten down as foon as it rifes; whence more crafs leaves will arife from the root; as is well known to thofe who eat down the firft ftem of wheat, when it is too luxuriant. For the fecond purpofe the leaf- buds, which conftitute the ftems of grafs, fhould be cut down, be- fore the flower-ftem at the fummit has begun to ripen its feeds; as at that time the fweet juice lodged in the joint below the flower-ftem becomes expended on the feed; and the ftem becomes converted into ftraw rather than into hay.| From hence it is readily underftood, why thofe paftures, which are perpetually grazed, are fo much thicker or clofer crowded with grafs roots than thofe, which are annually mowed; and why grafs cut J young Sgcr. XVIIL 1.1, AND WOOD. 503 young makes fo much fiveeter and more nutritive hay than that, which has ripened and fhed its feed. And laftly, why the hay from grafs cut young is fo much more liable to take fire, if ricked too moift; becaule the greater quantity of fugar in the joints of the ftems produces fo violent a fermentation, when it has fufficient water to diffolve it, that it generates fo much heat as to burft into flame. This might beft be prevented, where chopped ftraw is defigned to be given to horfes along with their hay, by laying alternately in the hay- ftack a ftratum of new hay and a ftratum of ftraw, or of clover and ftraw; whence the rapid fermentation, which occafions combuftion, may be prevented, and the ftraw may be rendered eafier of digeftion by being impregnated with the fermentative infection, or yeft, of the fermenting hay. The art of increafing the quantity of leaves round the roots of crafles confifts in eating off the central ftems by fheep, or horfes, or cattle, early in the feafon, as above mentioned; whence new ones are produced around the firft joint of the fem thus bitten off, and from the diftant horizontal root-wires of fuch grafles, as produce them. In low meadows it is hence doubly profitable to eat down the early grafs till about the middle of May, as in moift fituations there js no danger but a crop of hay will fucceed; which by this me- thod will be finer and more copious; and at the fame time fome weeks provender of hay will have been faved by the ufe of the early ++ bd =” ++ ee) M + intended for pafture, as for fheep, many people advife ta ind each other in their growth. Mr. Parkinfon fows four bufhels of the feed of rye-crafs, lolium perenne, teñ pounds of trefoil feed,= l'um pratenfe, and ten of white clover, trifolum repens, on every acre; and adds, that the rye-orafs fhould be eaten early, while the white clover is ftill concealed in the ground, and the trefoil makes only fome fmall appearance. That when the rye-orafs is eaten down the D PET ot ce|, 504 PRODUCTION OF. XVIIL 1.1. the trefoil fprings up, and becomes food for the fheep; after which the white clover fucceeds; and after this is confumed, the rye-crafs again fprings up, and fupplies food during the winter months, ifthe weather proves tolerably mild; amd he further afferts, that a third more: of fhcep at leaft may be thus nourifhed than by any other means. Experienced Farmer, Vol. I. p. 88. For the production of a meadow much fuperior to thofe commonly {een Mr. Curtis recommends fix kinds of grafs and two of clover to be fowed; the feeds are to be mixed together in the following pro- portions. Meadow foxtail, alopecurus pratenfis, one pint; meadow fefcue, feftuca pratenfis, one pint; fmooth ftalked meadow-orafs, poa pratenfis, half a pint; rough ftalked meadow-crafs, poa trivialis, half a pint; crefted dog’s-tail, cynofurus criftatus, a quarter of a pint; fweet-fcented vernal grafs, anthoxanthum odoratum, a quarter of apint; Dutch clover, trifolium repens, half a pint; red clover, tri- folium pratenfe, half a pint; thefe feeds are to be mixed together, and about three bufhels to be fown on an acre in rows for the con- venience of hocing them. About the end of Auguft or beginning of September they fhould be occafonally weeded and thinned, and roll- ed in the fpring, to prefs down into the ground fuch roots as may have been raifed by the froft. Mr. Curtis thinks that meadow foxtail and rouch ftalked meadow- grafs fuit moift foils the beft: and that the fmooth ftalked meadow- grafs and crefted dog’s-tail fuit dry paftures; and laftly, that the meadow fefcue, and the fweet-fcented vernal grafs, fuit land either moift.or moderately dry; and gives the following order of their times of flowering. 1. Sweet-fcented vernal. 2. Meadow foxtail. 3. Smooth ftalked meadow-grafs. 4, Rough ftalked meadow-crafs. 5. Meadow fefcue, 6. Crefted dog’s-tail. See Halls Encycloped. Art. Agriculture. Not only new fown. grafles defigned for meadows, but the larger grafies, which have the names of corn, as heat, oats, barley, may be advantageoufly rolled, when dry, after froft, which by expanding the water co on| D EG St EE SECT. IN Vus LEAVES AND: WOOD. 5035 water in moift foils leflens the cavities, which are occupied by roots; and as roots or their branches are in general conical, they become pufhed upwards; and fuch as are, loofe rife quite out of the ground, as 1s often feen to happen to the roots of the ftrawberries, when a frofty night has occurred foon after their being tranfplanted. After a flight froft the larger pebbles of a gravel walk are feen below the furface, as if they had funk downwards during the night; whereas this is owing to a fimilar caufe, the expanfon of the moift foil or gravel an inch deep; but as the froft had not penetrated fo low as to {well the ground beneath the large pebbles, thefe had not been lift- ed up like the fmaller ones, or the wet fand. Secondly, both to increafe the quantity of leaves round the root, and to increafe the fize or vigour, as well perhaps as the number, of leaf-buds on the ftem, a greater fupply of water than ufual, where it can be done, would be advantageous; as is done to the rice-grounds in warm countries in the early part of its growth, and as in flooding our own meadows occafonally in the vernal months. Thus very moiit feafons are well known to forward the luxuriant growth of the herbage, and ftems, in the cultivation of wheat, and to render the gars later, and lefs prolific. Where plants are fown for the purpofe of confuming the firft fo- liage, as grafles or faint-foin, the feed fhould be fown thicker, than where the plant is grown for the purpofe of producing feeds, as in wheat or peas; becaufe the quantity of the firit foliage will be greater in refpett to number; and the central parts of the tuflocks, as is of- ten feen in wheat and peas, when fown too thick, will rife two or three inches higher in their conteft for light and air, like the trees of thick planted woods; and will hence produce a forwarder pafture as well as a more copious one. To which fhould be added, that the plants with fucculent ftems, as faint-foin, lucern, red clover, receive fo much injury from the trampling of heavy cattle, that they fhould be mowed, and given to À. ? I COWS 506 PRODUCTION OF SEcT. XVIIL 1. r, cows and horfes in their ftalls; which fhould neverthelefs have x yard or fold occafionally to run into with the convenience of water: and if ftraw be chopped along with this green food, it might be à cheap and a falutary addition. Where a piece of grafs land is overrun with tuflocks of four grafs, which often happens near towns, I have been informed, that lime or coal-afhes fpread on them would render the gorafs fweeter, fo that horfes or cattle would eat it. But I fuppofe the more certain and advantageous management would confift in mowing it frequently, and giving it to the horfes or cattle in the ftable or ftall; as I believe they will eat it greedily after it has been a few hours withered, and thus the land will not only yield more provender at prefent, but af- ter a few mowings a fweeter orafs will rife in the place of that which was of a bad kind, or of too luxuriant growth; for which purpofe it fhould be mowed as near the ground as may be; or if it be frequent- ly mowed during the fummer, and left on the ground, fome cattle will eat it, when it is withered to a certain degree; by which the difagreeable flavour of it is probably leflened or deftroyed. The art of making hay confifts in evaporating about two thirds of the weight of it, as obferved by Young and Ruckert, Dr. Hales found a fun-flower plant, which weighed forty-eight ounces to lofe thirty-fix ounces by drying in the air during thirty days; and con- fequently to have loft three fourths of its weight. Vegetables to ap pearance perfectly dry contain three fifths or three fourths of their weight of water; a part of which water Mr. Kirwan thinks is not in its liquid ftate, but that it is by a lofs of much of its fpecific heat in a great meafure folidified. Kirwan on Manures, p. 37. Thus when ; water is thrown on frefh quick-lime, a part of it unites with the lime, and becomes folid, giving out much heat; which converts another part of it into fteam, as mentioned in Se&. X, 4. 4. There are two methods of making hay praétifed in different parts NT«18 OX SECT. XVII, 1.1 LEAVES AND WOOD. cO'7 ®) =)‘ of the country. In the more fouthern counties the fwarths are not turned over or fcattered for a day, or two; or three, but remain as they were left by the fcythe. In the more northern counties the hay-makers follow the mowers, and fcatter the grafs immediately, or on the fucceeding day. Perhaps a method between thefe may in general better fuit this climate, Herbs colleéted for medicinal purpofes, as well as flowers, fhould be dried in the fhade; otherwife they become bleached, and lofe both their colour and their odour, by too great infolation, and exha- lation. Now if the fwarth of cut grafs be only turned over once a day for three or four days, the internal parts of it may be faid to be dried in the fhade; and afterwards if it be fpread over the ground for only a few hours on a fine day, I fuppofe it would become dry enough to ftack, and have loft confiderably lefs of its nutritive quality. Some advife a chimney to be left in the center of a flack to prevent the hay taking fire, but there fhould then alfo be culverts under the ftack to fupply that chimney with air; which may be made by cut- ting three or four trenches in the earth, and covering them with boards or füicks with their apertures expofed to the wind in all di- rections. Perhaps the beft way would be to make the ftack narrow and long, and bent into a femicirele or crefcent to enable them the better to refift the winds, inftead of round or fquare, though a greater furface would indeed be afterwards expofed to the weather, and in fome degree injured, by this mode of conftruction. When the orafs is fpread uniformly over the whole meadow, which is called tedding, it will fooner dry, as fo much larger a fur- face of it is expofed to the wind and fun; but it fhould certainly be put into fmall cocks or wind-rows at night, efpecially if the weather be moift; becaufe it will otherwife receive much dirt and flime from the innumerable worms, which rife out ofthe ground always in moift warm nights, and generally when the furface is covered with moift F2 grafs 508 PRODUCTION OF SECT. AVI. 22 grafs at all feafons; and when they retreat into their fubterranean manfons in the morning, they are liable to draw in the ends of the grafs to ftop up the apertures of their holes, and by that means pre- vent the centipes from following them into their homes, and deftroy- ing them. See Zoonomia, Vol. I. Se&. XVI. 16. Whence much of the new hay becomes injured by the foil, they previoufly pufh before them out of their mines, and by that which adheres to the grafs, which was drawn in to ftop the apertures of them, as well as by the flime, which they leave behind them on the new hay, which they pafs through or over. On this account hay-cocks fhould be made as high as may be in proportion to their bafe, that lefs furface may be in contaët with the ground, as well as that a greater furface may be expofed to the air for a quicker exhalation of its moifture, and for the purpofe of the better fecuring it from accidental fhowers. In wet feafons, I fufpeét, the beft method muft confift in turning over the rows of fwarth every day or every alternate day, or making it into fmall cocks, and turning them over in the fame manner, that the rain may not injure the whole of it by pafling.perpetually through it, and wafhing away its faccharine and mucilaginous fluids; and alfo that the part next the ground, and the central parts of the cock ‘or fwarth, may not pafs into fermentation and putrefaétion. And laftly, when it can be put into tall cocks, as the weather becomes drier, it will not only fooner exhale its moifture by the conta& of the atmofphere, but a beginning fermentation will fet at fiberty fome degree of heat, and thus contribute to dry it by increafing the eva. poration; as the great heat generated in hay-ftacks which have been finifhed but one day or two, afifts much to dry the whole ftack in moift feafons, as is feen by the denfe fteam, which arifes from them. 2, Many root-leaves are confumed at our tables either in their raw flate, as thofe of water-crefs, fifymbrium nafturtium, lettuce, lattuca fativa, muftard, finapis, celery, apium; many others are previouily boiled Secr, XVIII 1.2 LEAVES AND WOOD. 509 boiled to diminifh their acrimony, and to coagulate their mucilage, as the root-leaves of fpinach, fpinacia, of cabbage, braflica oleracea, and even of turnips, braflica rapa; along with thefe ftem-leaves of many plants the fower-buds at their fummits are eaten, as thofe of mercury, mercurialis, and of fome of the cabbage kind called bro- coli, braffica italica: Many of thefe leaves not only confift of a refpiratory organ, but at the lower parts of them efpecially, or in their ftalks, there exifts à refervoir of nutriment for the rifing flower-ftem or for the ripening {eed, as in rhubarb leaves, and in cabbage leaves, which is fimilar to that in the roots of other herbaceous plants, and which renders them both palatable and nutritive. Moft of thefe concentric leaves are fituated in contact with the earth, as thofe of lettuces, la@tuca, and falfafi, tragopogon. But others of them, as the cabbages, are placed on à ftem at fome diftance from the ground; in the former the up- per part of the root or caudex is palatable and nutritious, as well as the lower part of the leaves; and fome of them are of fuperior fla- vour when boiled. In the latter the refervoir of nutriment for the future flower-ftem and feed confifts in the lower part of the ribs of. the concentric foliage, as in the concentric leaves or lamina, which cover the bulb of the onion, or even in the ftalks, as in cabbages, and artichoke, which are therefore not only efculent, but palatable and nutritive. Other leaves are eaten in their early ftate along with the ftem, which they furround, as afparagus, and the young fhoots of{pinach, and of fome kinds of brocoli, and of mercury; which laft are fome- times fuffered to fhew their flowers before they come to our tables, and are then treated of in Seét. XIX. The art of cultivating all thefe confifts in fupplying them with. abundant carbonic earth, and with abundant moifture, as thefe are more friendly to the luxuriant growth of root-leaves or ftem-leaves, than to the produétion of the flowers, or ripening of the feeds, as ap- P EaTrs 510 PRODUCTION OF. XVIIL 1.3. pears by the too luxuriant growth both of herbaceous plants and of fruit trees in moift feafons. Another method of forwardins the growth of the new leaves and Îtem-fhoots of perennial herbaceous plants, as of afparagus, is an- nually to loofen or turn over the earth around and above the roots, for the purpofe of admitting air into its cells or cavities to convert a part of the manure or carbonaceous foil, with which they have been fupplied, into ammonia, or into-carbonic acid, and thus both to af- ford them warmth and nutriment.; Add to this, that the leaves of trees may be increafed in fize by lop- ping off the branches, by which means the remaining buds acquire more nutriment; the black mulberry tree is thus kept low, and formed into extenfive fhrubberies in China for the purpofe of feeding filkworms, as obferved by fir G. Staunton, who thinks the leavés are thus rendered both larger and more fucculent; and adds, that the afh-tree is alfo fometimes ufed for the fame purpofe. 3. Another method of deftroying the too great acrimony of leaves, befides that of boiling them, confifts in fecluding them from light, and is termed etiolation. This is chiefly pra@ifed on cellery, apium, by earthing it up nearly to the top of the plant; and on fea-kale, crambe maritima, by covering the plant entirely with horfe-litter or ftraw, as defcribed in Se&t. XIV. 3. 3; and on lettuces, and endive, by tying together the root-leaves with a bandage, In many plants the central bud during its early growth feems to be naturally in a flate of etiolation, as it is excluded from the light by the curvature of the furrounding foliage, as in cabbaces, and par- ticularly in fome fpecies of aloe, which are faid to confume nearly a century 1n opening their numerous concentric foliage. Thefe etio- lated leaves, like flowers before the calyx is opened, are white; and the leaves become green, or the flowers of many other colours, when expofed to the light, as explained in Se&t. XIII. 1. 3. It is probable that the foliage of many other plants might be rendered efculent by 4 thus Secr. XVIIL 1.4 LEAVES AND WOOD. SII thus deftroying their acrimony, and decreafng the tenacity of their fibres by etiolation, as well as the leaves of celery, apium; and car- doon, cinara; and of endive, cichorium endivia. A feclufon from the fun’s light and from air has an effeét fome- what fimilar on animal bodies, rendering them pale and weak, as may be feen in the etiolated young ladies of fome boarding fchools; and in thofe who pafs their waking hours in unventilated parlours during more than half the night. 4. Other vegetable foliage has been brought into very extenfive ufe infufed in hot water for its agreeable aromatic or bitterifh fla- vour, as thofe of foreign tea, thea; and of the afh, fraxinus, of our own ifland, the leaves of which were colle@ted, before they became expanded, and fold after being dried for the inferior kind of Bohea tea in fo great quantity as to occafon an at of parliament to be pañf- ed about forty years ago to lay a fine on any one, who fhould have accumulated more than fifty pounds of afh leaves, which were not the produce of his own trees. The leaves of many other of our domeftic vegetables, as of mint, balm, and fage, mentha, meliffa, falvia, have been infufed in hot water as an agreeable diluent beverage both in health and ficknefs; the laft of which, the fage, poffefles a very ” pleafant aromatic flavour; and if the infufion be poured from the leaves, before it has acquired too much of the bitter flavour, it is very crateful to the palate or ftomach, and has been efteemed falubrious from high antiquity to the prefent times, whence the line of Ho- face: Cur moriatur homo, cui falvia crefcit in horto? All thefe infufions become nutritive, when drank with cream and fugar, and, have certainly contributed to the health of the inhabi- tants of this ifland by decreañng the potation of fermenuted or fpiritu- ous liquors; and to their morality by more frequently mixing the ladies and gentlemen in the fame fociety. The 512 PRODUCTION OF. XVIIL 145. The leaves of thefe plants, as well as the aromatic or balfamic buds of fome other plants, as of myrica, gale; of tacamahaca, populus balfamifera; of balm of Gilead, amyris giliadenfis, and,many others, fhould be gathered at the time of their greateft fragrance, as the ef- fential oils, which conftitute their odorous exhalation, perpetually evaporate, as our fenfe of fmell informs us; and were apparently for the purpofe of defending the plants from the depredation of infe&s in their ftate of infancy. 5. Other leaves have been ufed for medicinal purpofes, and for the arts of dying and tanning, like the barks before mentioned; as the leaves of carduus beneditus, cnicus acarna, as an emetic; thofe of foxglove, digitalis purpurea, as an abforbent in anafarca; thofe of bog-bean, menyanthes trifoliata, as a corroborant: which laft might probably fupply the place of hops, humulus lupulus, in the brewe- ries of malt-liquors; and as it might be plentifully cultivated on boggy grounds, which are not at prefent ufed for-other purpofes, might be a cheaper bitter to the confumer, and fave to the public much more fertile foil for the cultivation of corn or other valuable vegetables.: The leaves of teucrium fcorodonia, wood-fage, are as bitter as thofe of menyanthes, bog-bean, and have been ufed with fuccefs, as I have witneffed, in the cure of agues; and, as it grows on dry barren foils, might poffibly be cultivated to fupply the place of peruvian bark in fome difeafes, or to fupply the ufe of hops in the breweries of malt-liquor. The leaves of oak-trees, quercus robur, and of afh-trees, fraxinus excelfior, and of alder, betula alnus, even after they drop fpontane- oufly in the autumn, are faid to ferve the purpofe of tanning animal membranes, like the barks of the fame trees fpoken of in Se&. XVII. 3-53 and for the purpofes of dying, the leaves of indiso, indigofera tinétoria; and of wood, ifatis tinctoria; and of weld, refeda luteola, 8 have ne——— *$ecT. XVIIL 1.5. AND WOOD. 13 ‘ have been much cultivated, and extenfively ufed; and a fpecies of polygonum is faid to be much cultivated in China for the fame pur- _ pofés as indigofera by fir G. Staunton; to which may be added the fo- liace of lichen fru@icofus, or archil, a whitifh lichen brought from the rocks of the Canary Iflands, which gives a beautiful bloom to other colours, but 1s itfelf very fugitive, Linneus afleits in the Swedifh Tranfactions, that this archil mofs is to be found on the weftern coafts of England; and it is faid, that the archil is now pre- pared by Mefirs. Gordens at Leith near Edinburgh from a fpecies found in the Highlands of Scotland. Encyclopedia Britannica, Art. Archil. The manner of cultivation and of the extraction of the co- louring matter from the leaves of thefe plants may be alfo feen in Bomare’s Diétionaire Raïfonne, and in Chambers’s Encyclopedia. Ir it probable, that many other plants, as hedyfarum, faintfoin, or the broad thick leaves of phytoïlacca, might yield a fimilar material to that of indigo, woad, and weld, if properly cultivated and prepared, as well as other kinds of moffes or lichens to that above mentioned. The green colour of perhaps all vegetables, as well as of thofe from which indigo and woad are produced, is owing to the blue fe- cula, which has been obtained for the dyers principally from thofe plants; and to a yellow material, which is more fugitive or more ea- fly decompofed, which yellow may pofübly be owing to iron. This blue fecula is fimply obtained from indiso, as it fubfdes from the fluid, in which the plant is fuffered to ferment; and is obtained from woad along with the cellular parts of the leaves during their fermen- tation in water, and beaten into a mafs. It is probable that the blueft kinds of vegetables may contain the moft of this fecula. For domeftic purpolfes the juice of the fage-leaf, falvia officinaiis, bas been ufed both to give colour and flavour to cheefe; and the juice of fpinach is employed, I am informed, to colour the green uf- quebaugh, a favourite dram with the Irifh vulgar. And it is proba- ble, that the leaf of the vine, which bears purple grapes, might give R 3 U a fimilar rs é a| ri PRES se:= age Eness QUE : 4 pl À hi s14 PRODUCTION OF. XVIIL. 2. r. a fimilar colour and aftringent tafte to our domeftic wines, as the fkin of the fame grape gives to the foreign wines made from it; fince the leaves of this vine alwavs become quite red in autumn, be- fore they fall, probably by the concentration of their acidity, as their water evaporates unfupplied; as all blue vegetable juices be-. come green by an admixture of alkali, and red by that of an acid. 6. Another ufe for which leaves are colle&ted by fome gardeners, as they fall in autuman from any kinds of trees, is for the produétion of heat by fermentation in hot-houfes, or melon-frames, inftead of oak-bark, after its bitter particles have been much-extracted by the. tanner; and it is probable, that many leaves might be feletted, as they will thus underco fermentation, which might aford a fpirituous. drink like fmall beer without any difagreeable flavour, or unwhole- fome material; which now ferve only for manure when gathered into heaps, or by their flow decay on arable lands; or encumber the grafs lands, they fall upon.| 11. Of Woods. 1, The leaf-buds of trees producing a viviparous offspring acquire new caudexes, extending from the branches to the ground, and the intertexture of thefe caudexes forms the new bark over the old one. But the flower-buds acquire no new caudexes down the bark, as their oviparous progeny does not adhere to the fide of the parent bud, but falls down when mature, and ftrikes root into the foil. Now astbhe bark of trees is thus produced along with the leaf- buds, and as it annually becomes alburnum or fap-wood; and that fap-wood gradually lofes all vesetable life, and becomes heart-wood, it follows, that the art of forwarding the growth of the wood of trees muit confift in producing and nourifhing the leaf-buds. For this purpole the roots of trees fhould be fupplied with rather more water,.than they generally poffefs in their moft natural ftate, or the branches fhould be fprinkled by a water-engine; as moifture fa- cilitates nr EE: ee ne+—, SecT. XVIII 2. 1. LEAVES AND WOOD, Sr cilitates the production of the new caudexés of the leaf-buds proba- bly by leflening the cohefion of the cuticle, or mechanicallÿ relax- ing it, like the cuticle of our hands when long foaked in water, as well as by fupplying them with more nutriment. It may fometimes occur, that the cuticle of trees, or exterior bark, may adhere too ftrongly, and by not opening in cracks confine the growth, or prevent the produétion of the caudexes of the new buds. There is annually a new cuticle produced beneath the old ones, as well as a new bark above the old ones; hence fome trees have as many cuticles as they are years old, others caft them more eafily, as à fnake cafts its cuticle: When a number of cuticles thus exift one over another, it is ufeful to fcratch them longitudinally, which will admit the new bark beneath, confifting of the caudexes of the various buds to fwell out, and form a line more prominent than the other parts of the trunk ofthe tree. If crooked young trees be thus fcratched in- ternally in refpeét to the curvature, and this repeatedly,[ am in- formed, that they will gradually become ftraight, by thus encourag- ing the growth within the curvature more than on its convex fide. Another method of increafing the number and vigour of the leaf- buds, and in confequence of enlarging the wood of a tree, confifts in pinching off the flowers, as foon as they appear 3 as the nourifhment is thus fupplied to the leaf-buds by the inofculation of the veñlels of the bark, which otherwife would have been expended on the flowers, fruit, and feeds. The truth of this circumftance is not only coun- tenanced by gardeners, who pull off the flowers of fruit-trees lately planted to encourage their orowth, but alfo from the appearance of fickly trees; which are liable to perifh, when in flower. In this cafe it often happens, that, after the flowers fade, fome of the leaf-buds continue to expand, or new ones put ouf, owing to the fupply of nutriment not being now expended on the flowers. 2. As tall timber trees without branches, and confequent knots in the timber, are moft valuable except for fhip-building, this may be at certainly 516 PRODUCTION OF. XVII. 2, 2. certainly effeted by planting them near each other; as then the powerful conteit with each other for Bght and air propels them up- wards, inficad of producing many lateral branches; as may be feen in many Woods, which have not been too much thinned, For this purpofe fome have planted trees of lefs value though of quicker growth, as pines, amongft oaks; which may be pruned or lopped, if they fhade the oaks too much, and may be finally removed, when the oaks are crowded by them; whence fingle trees feldom grow fo tall as thofe in woods, and appear ftunted, as it is called; which is generally afcribed to the cold feafons, or to their being expofed more to the winds; which may perhaps fometimes happen in this nor- thern climate; or where trees are expofed to infalubrious air, as near the fea; or exift in colder fituations, as on the fummits of moun- tains.| Something fimilar to this may be feen in tuflocks of grafs, or where too many feeds of wheat have been fown near together. The central part of the knot of wheat or grafs grows much taller than the external part, fo as to give it a conical figure; which has-been by {ome afcribed to the central part having been fheltered from the cold by the external ring, but is more generally owing to the ftrugole of the internal ftems for the acquifition of light and air. The Society of Agriculture at Copenhagen has propofed prizes concerning the cultivation of timber for fhip-building. One queftion is, whether the neceffary form and degree of flexion can by any means be given to growing timber without injuring it? This I imagine may be done by annualiy fcratching the external bark or cuticle ei- ther longitudinally or horizontally on the fouth fide of the part of a tree, which is wifhed to be curved, as the fouth fide of trees are known to grow fafter annually than the north fide, as is feen by the greater thicknefs of the concentric rings of a tree, when felled and fawed into blocks; and becaufe the cuticle bounds the lateral growth of the trunks of trees, as the fkin of animals bounds the growth of the Secr. XVII, 2.2 LEAVES AND WOOD. 517 the cellular parts beneath it; and hence thatfide of the tree, where the cuticle or exterior bark is frequently fcratched through, will be- come larger than the other fide of the tree, and tend to bend it into a curve with the fcratched fide outwards. Trees alfo on the outfide rows of woods will fpontaneoufly bend outwards for light and air, and may Ï fufpeét be more eafily formed into proper curves by the method above propoted. And where trees in a wood are at a proper diftance from each other, they may forcibly be bent by cordage to- wards each other, and then by wounding the exterior and interior bark longitudinally, or perhaps horizontally alfo on the exterior fide of the curved part of the tree, they may be brought into almoft any degree of flexure, which they will afterwards preferve as the tree advances. Some of the quicker growing trees may be more valuable to the planter than oaks, and fome in different foils are more valuable than others; as willow-trees in the hedge-rows in moift grounds are faid, if headed once in ten years, on an average to produce each of them one fhilling a year. Perhaps the ozier for bafket making may be ftili more advantageous in low grounds; there is a valuable paper on thé planting of them and the choice of the kinds of them in the T'rant- attions of the Society of Arts, Vol. XVI. p. 129, by Mr. Phillips. Perhaps the fugar-maple may alfo be cultivated in this climate to ad- vantage on many barren commons, as on Cannock Heath. And cer- tainly pines, as Scotch fr, might in thefe fituations fucceed aftonifh- ing]y, as appears by the#lantations of Mr. Anfon on the barren moun- tains near his feat in Staffordfhire; and alfo from the plantations of the marquis of Bath at the foot of Wiltfhire Downs near War- minfter, whofe fteward, Mr. Davis, has given a valuable account of the profit of planting Scotch fir in preference to other timber trees; and finally afferts,‘ that although fir-timber is worth individualiÿ more per tree than oak or beech of the fame fize, thefe trees will ne- verthelefs grow fafter and thicker together than any other trees, Four firs 518 PRODUCTION OF. XVII. 2. 3. firs will grow, where but one oak or beech will grow; for firs are the better, and deciduous trees the worfe, for being crowded.” I fup- pofe becaufe the branches of the latter are valuable, but the former is injured by the knots left in the trunk, where large branches have exifted. Tranf. of Society. of Arts, Vol. XVI. D. 126. Mr. Davis adds further, I fuppofe from his own obfervation, that ‘the chalk-hills in Hampfhire are peculiarly proper for beech; the flinty loams and clays of the fame county for oaks and afh; the mofly fteep fides of the Wiltfhire Downs for hazel: the rugoed and almoft naked rocks of Mendip in Somerfetfhire near Chedder pro- duce the lime-tree and the walnut in the greateft luxuriance; and on the higheft parts of the fame Mendip hills, where no other tree can fland the fea-breeze, fycamore flourifhes as well as in the moft fertile vallies. But taking into confideration the general demand of countries, and the peculiarities of different foils, no kind of wood is fo generally profitable for planting in coppices as afh.” J4. 3. Another thing concerning timber-trees, which ought to be at- tended to, is the injury, they are liable to receive from lghtnine; which, T am informed, is much more frequent than is generally fup- pofed; infomuch that in felling moft woods, elpecially thofe which grow In Wet fituations, very many of the treesare found to be crack- ed longitudinally to the great injury of the timber; to prevent this, pointed wires, as thick as a goofe quill, fhould be attached to à few of the talleft trees of all flourifhing woods reaching above their fum- mits, as conduétors of lightning. Add to this that the holes made by wood-peckers, I am told, are very numerous, and do much injury to the timber of our forefts, which can only be prevented by deftroy- ing that beautiful and ingenious bird. 4. Woods differ from each other in many refpeëts, and are there- fore ufed for many other purpofes befides mechanical Ones; asin colour; whence particular woods are chofen for their beauty in the conftruétion of the furuiture of houfes, as rofe- wood, afpalathus; 3 oth Êrs ES ms a, op——_ Secr XVII. 2.9-LEAVES AND.WO07. 518 others are ufed in the art of dying, as the Campechy wood, hæma- toxylum, and faunders, fantalum, and pterocarpus; and feveral others. Other woods differ in their medicinal properties, as guaicum, quaflia, Campechy wood, and faflafras. Others differ in their che- mical properties, affording effential oils, as oleum rhodii, and turpentines of balfams, and tar; and in their reftringency,. as the oak. s. The oak probably contains much. gallic acid, fuch as has been extracted from.the galls occafioned on their leaves by the punëtures. of infects; whence oak boards are faid to corrode the fheets of lead,. which are laid on them, and are hence believed to be improper for the gutture-boards on the roofs of houfes. But the fap-wood, or ex- ternal part of all timber, I fufpect, muft be improper for this pur- pofe on another account;. as, when confined from much air by the fheët of lead over it, it muft lie for many months in the year in. that ftate of moifture, which will favour the fermentation of the faccharine matter, which all fap-wood contains; and will thence be fubje& to the dry rot, as it is called by architeéts. This may be long prevented by. leaving proper holes in the walls on all fides the build-- ing immediately under the roof, as has been generally done by thofe itinerant bodies of architeëts, who fhewed fuch prodigies of genius in the conftruétion of cathedrals in this ifland, and all over Europe; and whofe fecret identifying words, and confederate figns, which were neceffary to them in foreign countries, whofe language they had not time to acquire, feems to have given origin to the modern myfteries. of Free-mafonry. The rot of wood might probably be entirely prevented by foaking dry timber frft in lime-water, till it has abforbed as much of it as may be; and then after it is dry by foaking it in a weak folution of vitriolic acid in water; which will'unite with the lime already de-- pofited in the pores of the timber, and convert it into gypfum; which 1 fuppofe will not only preferve it from decay for many centuries, 1f E 1 LL 20 PRODUCTION OF Secr. X VIIL 2. 6. it be kept dry, but allo render it lefs inflammable, a circumftance worthy attending to in the conftruétion of wood-built houfes. 1 alfo conceive that beams fo impregnated would be lef liable to fwag, and boards fo prepared lefs liable to warp. In the immenfe falt- mines of Hungary many large wooden props, which fupport the roof, and are perpetually moiftened with falt-water trickling down them, are faid to have fuffered no decay for many centuries. 6. Woods alfo differ from each other in their hardnefs, or the general cohefion of their particles, whence one kind of timber has obtained the name of iron-wood, fideroxylum. Others differ in the finenefs of their conftituent fibres, which fhew à beautifully finooth polifh, when planed, as rofe-wood, afpalathus. Where thefe two properties of hardnefs and finoothnefs exift to- gether, as in box, buxus fempervirens, the wood muft be peculiarly valuable for the purpofe of making wooden printing blocks, fo well managed at this time by Mr. Bewick of Newcaftle in his books of Natural Hiftory of Quadrupeds and Birds. 7. Other woods differ in their durability, as cyprefs, cedar, maho- gany, are faid to be indiftruétible by time, or by the depredation of infeëts. The wood of the cedar of Bermudas, Juniperus Bermus diana, in which black-lead penciis are inclofed, is faid not to be eaten by either aerial, terreftrial, or marine infe@s, and is thence ufed in the Weft Indies for building veffels, whofe bottoms are not pene- trated by fea-worms. The unperifhable chefts, which contain the Egyptian mummies, were of cyprefs, as well as the coffins in which the Athenians are faid by Thucydides to have buried their heroes. The gates at St. Peter’s at Rome, which had lafted from the time of Conftantine to that of Pope Eugene the fourth, that is eleven hun- dred years, were of cyprefs, and had at that time fuffered no decay. Of thefe fome are believed to endure longer in water than others, as alder, betula alnus, and is therefore efteemed preferable for piles to guard the banks of rivers. But Mr, Brindly, the condudor of the I grand -— es En, ns or =_ si; ER " 7e 5 d 7— 7— s_= ZE. a— EPOPEN” heat or moifture of Secr. XVIII. 2.8. LEAVES AND WOOD. 521 grand trunk canal, affured me, that he believed from obfervation, ‘< that red Riga deal, or pine-wood, would endure as long as oak in all fituations,”” owing perhaps to its being fo full of refin or turpen- 1 tine. 8. Other woods differ in the degree of the lateral adhefion of their longitudinal fibres, as the fir-wood, or deal, pinus, whence the tim- ber readily fplits by wedges. As the moifture of the atmofphere is abforbed into the pores of the dry cellular membrane, whch conne&s the loncitudinal fibres of thefe woods, more than into thofe of the longitudinal fibres themfelves, they become much more dilated]a- terally than extended longitudinally, by the change of a dry atmo- fphere to a moift one; whence by joining pieces of deal cut crofs-wife into a rod of fome feet in length, a very fenfble creeping hygrome- ter was made by Mr. Edgeworth, defcribed in the Botanic Garden, Vol. II. note on Impatiens. And as this wood is not liable to be much extended by low degrees of heat, when it is impregnated with le|]= QE à eAax7An e]> AJ a=)= à s ASE boilins oil, or covered with varnifh, to prevent the accefs of aerial e} 1,, 3, à Te€ nerce AY]| a{ 1e rte.: moifture, the pendulums of time-keepers have been conftruéted of it, which have not perceptibly lengthened in any variations of the tne atmoipnñnere. . A TER fr Ross> il el 9. Another circumftance of great confequence, in which waods M SR é ohe 0 PA nie Me NP del ne A dite differ, is their fpecific gravity, as many of them will fink in water, °1 as oak after it has been long moiftened; and others will fwim with much of their contents above water, as deal, and hence TETE UE) Fear ere Joles of rude naviva- ufed for the conftruétion of rafts for the pu à 2 d w| Abe SR RS er es PMR A LE dar tion-) an WwniIcn are nOW Iaid l'O DE COMTTACTEQUINEMANCeErAS EnCINE> ; seit Gasitt RSA COSTA ATEN SAR et HIpRE of war, probably for the defign of fuddenly landing troops, hories, PARA À SES£ 1 Se SERRE AE ETATS L'or ME ne EE RUE de 7«Se 5 artiliery, and provifions, from the ffips of invading armies on danger- i#4 L|,€ 2 Fac Pine AU En ter hr SALE CAES ee gi FN STE OUs fhores, and for the certamty of re-EMDarKINS tNhEM. ACIENES= 4 LE - lefe pr. É; ANT AE ee| TT MA RE] verthelefs can not carry great burthens fimply by then IpECIHIC 1E- Le L C4 - C2! 6 2 ke 4>] et.f 1 1 an 3= 14 br tZ7 A1?] sn lee| VILY; but 1f each piece of timber could be made hoïow, and rendered A tone Ce Re Re mise EP ee UN à water-tioht, 10' as to contain air, Which might probaDiy D à%4 5 y » À 522 PRODUCTION OF_Secr. XVIIL. 2. 10. boring them, and pluggine up the ends: or by joining thick boards together by means of paint and flannel, or caoutchouc, fo as to con- firuét long fquare wooden troughs filled with air, perhaps eight or ten inches diameter within, and twenty or thirty feet long. If the jun@tions of thefe eould be rendered water-tioht, and a number of fuch hollow trunks could be chained loofely together, and laid crofs-wife three or four times over each other, they might carry very large burthens, not eafily to be deftroyed by florms, or funk by can- non fhot 10. Another difference of the longitudinal fibres of timber confifts in their degree of elafticity, a circumftance of much greater confe- quence to our anceftors in refpeët to the art of war than to the pre- fent generation; as their bows for dicharging arrows, and the cata- pulta, or engine for throwing ftones, depended on the recoil of rods or beams of timber forcibly bent into a curve. For the conftruction of bows the yew-tree, taxus, was ufed in this land, and was plant- ed in church-yards, probably for the purpofe of fupplying the youth of the parifh with bows, that they might become expert in the ufe of them; many of which have acquired extreme old age, and remain to this day. 11. When tall trees are defigned to be tranfplanted for the pur- pofe of ornamenting a pleafure-sround, it is proper to dig a circular trench round them two or three feet deep in the early fpring; whence many new roots will fhoot from thofe, which have their ends cut off, and thus the ball of earth will be better held together, when the tree is removec in the fucceeding autumn, and the tree by having previoufly produced fo many more fine abforbent radicles will be more certain to grow in its new fituation. Hence when new grafted fruit-fcions on young ftocks are defigned to remain a, few years in the nurfery, before they are defigned for fale, fome provident gardeners I am told tranfplant them every two years, that the root-fibres may be more numerous in a fmall com- pafs, ET SecTr. XVIIR 212:* AND WOOD. 23 a Le pafs, which occafons them to grow, when finally tranfplanted, with more certainty, and with greater vigour. Às tranfplanted trees fhould not be fet too deep in the ground, as their growth is then always much checked, as explained in Seét. XV. 2. 4. they generally require fome kind of props to prevent them from being overturned, or much fhook by the winds, before they have fufficiently extended their roots. As the bark is the only living part of the tree, it is liable to receive much injury from its contufion by the preflure of the props againft it, or by the ftrangu- lation of the bandage which holds it to them. Hence as the inter- nal wood of a tree is not alive,[ remember many years ago, that I faftened one prop by a ftrong nail to each fruit-tree of a fmall or- chard, which I then planted; and found the tree fupported with much lefs apparent injury than in the ufual manner by three props and adapted cordage. 12. The time for felling timber has generally been in the winter feafon, when labourers could beft be fpared from other rural em- ployments, and from the archite&ure of towns; but it was long ago obferved by Mr. S. Pepys in a paper publifhed in the Philofoph. Tranta&. Vol. XVIL. p. 455, that the beft time for felling oaks for fhip-building was after having taken off the bark in the early fpring, and having fuffered the new foliage to put forth and die. For by the pullulation of the new buds the faccharine matter in the fap- wood or alburnum is expended, and it then becomes nearly as hard and durable as the heart-wood, being both lefs liable to decay, or to be penetrated by infeéts; which was a curious and ingenious difco- very at that time, though the theory was not well underftood; the truth of which has now been eftablifhed, I believe, by the experi- ence of a century. As the bark of trees annually changes into alburnum or fap-wood, fo the alburnum annually changes into lifelefs wood; whence the concentric rings, which are feen in the trunks of trees, when they 3 À 2 are : PRODUETION OF;. Secre XV: 2, Ex CG t} + are felled, are annuallÿ produced; and are faid generally to be thicker on that fide of the trunk, which grows towards the fouth, than on the northern fide, and thicker in the fummers moft favourable to ve- cetation than the contrary. Thefe rings, as they lofe their vege- table life, and at the fame time a part of their moifture by evapora- tion, or abforption, gradually become harder and of a darker colour; infomuch, that by counting their number, it is faid, that not only the age of the tree, but that the mildnefs or moifture of each fum- mer during the time of its growth may be eftimated by the refpec- tive thicknefs of the rings of timber. 13. In the fame manner the central pith alfo lofes its vegetable hfe, probably after the firft year; and then gradually becomes ab- forbed, or fo impregnated with ligneous particles, as not to be diftin- guifhed from the furrounding wood. The pith of a young bud fo refembles the brain and fpinal marrow of animals in refpeët to its central fituation,- that it probably gives out nerves to everÿ living fibre of the bud; though thefe have yet efcaped out eyes and glaffes; and thus furmfhes the power of motion, as well as of fenfation, to the various parts of the vegetable fyftem. ne curious fat, which J have obferved, feems to countenance this conjeéture; which is, that the pith of a laft year’s twig communicates to the leaves on each fide of it, but not to the new buds in the bofoms of thofe leaves; be- caufe thofe new buds are each an individual being, generated by the caudex of the leaf, and muft therefore pofiefs a fenforium of its own. Sée. Seét. I. 8. and IX. 2. 4. The pith of trees contains much mucilage, as well as the ftalks of annual and perennial plants, whether they are hollow or not; the pith of a palm-tree, cycas circinalis, is foftened with water, and paffed through fieves, and thus forms the fagoe of our fhops; it is poffible the large pith of the ftalks of artichokes, cinara fcolymus, might be manufaétured into a fimilar kind of taftelefs mucilage; and the pith of the young fhoots of elder, fambucus nigra, might alfo pofübly Sgcr. XVIIL 2.14 AND WOOD. S2E poffibly be made into taftelefs mucilage, if previoufly agitated in cold water to wafh away any acrid Dh as in the preparation of ftarch. 14. When we contemplate the manner of the produëtion of the internal wôod of trees from the induration of the fap-wood, and the annual increafe of the fap-wood from the bark, which was previoufly generated by the caudexes of the numerous buds; there would ap- pear to be no natural boundary to the gro uth-ofetieesds; But ethat their trunks, thouch a mile diftant from each other, might be en- larged, till they meet together, and cover the whole earth with lig- neous. mountains, conftruéted by fucceflive generations o buds; as fome parts of the oeean are crowded with calcareous rocks, fabricated by the fucceflive generations of coralline infeéts! À very large tree 1s de ibid ve fr. Adanfon in Africa, which is called by Linneus Adanfonia, Fe re of that philofopher; of which he fays the diameter of the trunk frequently exceeds twenty- five feet, and the horizontal branches are from forty-five to fifty-five feet long, and fo large, that each branch is equal to the largeft tree in E The breadth of the top is from 120 to 150 feet; and one of the roots bared only in part by the wafhing away of the earth by the river, near which it grew, meafured r10 feet long, and yet thefe ftupendous trees do not exceed 70 feet in height. Voyage to Senegal. And in this country, when the internal wood is gradually detach- ed from the alburnum, as it decays, as in fome old hollow oaks and willows, fo that it does not deftroy the tree by the putrid matter being abforbed, there feems to be no termination of the growth of the external remains of the tree, tillthe wind blows it down fromits want of folid wood to fupport it. Of this kind of hollow tree a re- markable inftance remains in Welbeck Park in Nottinchamfhire, through the middle of which a coach is faid to have been driven. There is another oak of uncommon dimenfons in the foreft of Needwood, 4 called: 526 PRODUCTION OF. XVIII 2.16. called Swilcar oak, celebrated in an unpublifhed poem by Mr.Mundy, on his leaving that foreft, and is there faid to be 600 years old. Bat the caudexes of buds, which compofe the barks and afterwards the timber of trees, differ from the nefts or cells of the coralline in-. fcéts, which compofe their calcareous rocks bencath the waves, in this circumftance. The cells of the coralline infects, like the fhells of other fea-animals, become harder by time, changing by flow de- grees the phofphoric acid, which they contain, for carbonic acid; and fome of them afterwards for filiceous acid, and are thus converted into limeftone and flint, and remain eternal monuments of departed animal life. Wilft the remaining vafcular{yftem, after the death of vegeta- ble buds, like the flefh of animals, undergoes in procefs of time à chemical decompofition, and lofes by fermentation and putrefa@ion both their carbonic and phofphoric acids, which probably gave them their folidity, and crumble into duft; which is feen in the rotten trunks of trees, which lofe fo much of their carbon as they decay; and alfo become luminous, when expofed to the air by the efcape or produétion of phofphoric acid. And finally, their other component parts are feparated by elutriation, and form moraffes 5 Whence coals, iron, clay, and fandftone; all which are found on the lime-rocks, which were previoufly generated in the ocean, and remain eternal monuments of departed vegetable life. Whence it appears, that a boundary is fet to the fize of trees by their internal decay, but none to the growth of coral-rocks, which are fo formidable in the navi- gation of the fouthern ocean. 15. on the cultivation of Timber. The political advantage or difadvantage of cultivating timber in this ifland fhould be here confidered. In the prefent infane ftate of human RE Re ECT. XVII. 2.15 LEAVES AND WOOD. 27 human fociety, when war and its preparations employ the ingenuity and labour of almoft ail nations; and mankind deftroy or enflave each other with as little mercy, as they deftroy and enflave the be- ftial world; and may intime, for what appears to the contrary, re- turn to their favage flate, and begin to eat each other again, as feems to have occurred at or before the commencement of almoft all civil focieties; the firft political attention fhould certainly in this pe- riod of human infatuation be employed to ftrengthen the country, to enable it to repel the invafion of foreign enemies, and to defend its natural rights, when they are infringed by them; but not to attack or invade other nations for any predatory or ambitious pur- poie. The next important thing fhould be for this nation to fet a great example of juftice and humanity to all contending nations, and: thence again to introduce truth and virtue into the world with peace and happinefs in their train, Now as the power to refft invafion, and to defend our natural rights, when infringed by foreign enemies, muft depend more on the number of men than on the number of trees; there need be no hefitation in determining, that thofe lands, which can be employ- ed in the prefent produétion of vegetable or animal food, fhould not be occupied in the tedious cultivation of future timber. But that, as the fummits of this country confift principally of a ridge of mountains extending from fouth to north between the eaft- ern and weftern feas, as thofe of the Peak of Derbyfhiré and the Mocrlands of Staffordfhire, which are fo bleak or fo barren as to be totally unfit for the plough or for pafturage, and yet might be em- ployed for raifing variety of timbers; which from our great fuccefles in naval engagements may be termed with great propriety, when employed in building fhips, the wooden walls of this ifland: All thofe unfertile mountains from the extremity of Cornwall to the ex- tremity of Scotland, fhould be covered with extenfive forefts of fuch RODUCTION OF SECTX VIII. 2. 16. fuch kinds of wood, as experience has fhewn them to be capa- ble to fuftain, and which may be beft adapted to the conftruction of fhips, 16. The following addrefs to Swilcar oak in Needwood foreft, a very talltree, which meafures thirteen yards round at its bafe, and eleven yards round at four feet from the ground, and is. be- lieved to be fix hunñdred years old, was written at the end of Mr. Mundy’s poem on leaving that foreft, and may amufe the Weary eader, aud conclude this Section. ADDRESS TO SWILCAR OAK. Gigantic Oak! whofe wrinkled form hath ftood,; Age after age, the Patriarch of the wood!— Thou, who haft feen a thoufand fprings unfold Fheir ravel’d buds, and dip their flowers in gold; Ten thoufand times yon moon relight her horn, And that bright ftar of evening güld the morn!— Erft, when the Druid-bards with filver hair Pour’d round thy trunk the melody of prayer; When chiefs and heroes join’d the kneeling throng, \ And choral virgins trill'd the adoring fong; While harps refponfive rung amid the glade, And holy echoes thrill’d thy vaulted fbade; Say, did fuch dulcet notes arreft thy gales, Âs Munbpy pours along the liftening vales? Gigantic Oak!—thy hoary head fublime , Erewhile muft perifh in the wrecks of time; Should round thÿ brow innocuous lightninas fhoot, And to fierce whirlwinds fhake thy fteadfaft root; Yet fhalt T'hou fall I—thy leafy treffes fade,‘* And thofe bare fhatter’d antlers ftrew the glade; Secr. XVIII, 2. 16..: LEAVES AND:WOOD. Arm after arm fhall leave the mouldering buft, And thy firm fibres crumble into duft!— But Muwp’s verfe fhall confecrate thy name, And rifing forefts envy SwiLcaR’s fame; Green fhall thy gems expand, thy branches play, And bloom for ever in the immortal lay. PRODUCTION SECT: XIX. SN Ce A PRODUCTION OF FLOWERS. TI. Flowers from feeds. 1. Double flowers from feeds. Hereditary difeajes in plants. Full flowers bave no famine. Three kinds of double columbine. Vege- table monflers analogous to animal mules. The Jlamen, pifil, and calyx, are the moff unchangeable parts. Double Jlowers diflinguifhed by the calyx, are much more durable than fingle ones. Double Doppies yield more opium, Annuel Infeërs. 2. The colours of fingle flowers from Jeed bow varied. of foliage. Vegetable juices are byper- oxygenated. This fluid oxygen is converted into gas by the Jus ligbt; wbich therefore colours living vegetables, and bleaches dead ones. I. 1. Flowers from buds. Double ones bo caufed.. Surround the bud with water. Oùl, and conferve of rofes. Their double flowers. babits. 2. Hot to vary the colour fhrub-flowers, by anther-duft, by inocula- tion. Trees bow variegated by ingraftnent, 0r made into evergreens. 3. How to increafe the wumber of Flowers. III. 1. Flowers from roots. By]-ro0ted Flowers.* To caufe their duplicature, break off the flower, raife thein out of the ground. 2. Single bulb-rooted fowers, To increafe them in fixe or number, take away offsets, crowd their roofs. Propagation by offsets. By feeds. How broken into colours. Plant them in different Joils. Tulips break into colours from age. 3. Perennial branching rocrs. Duplicature of 1beir flowers, propa- gated by offsets, by feeds. Their Single Flowers. How broken into colours. By feeds, by tranjplenting. IV. Efculent and medicinal flowers. Vegetable mu- cilage coagulated by boiling in water, in feam. They lofe their green colour in fieam, Why? Artichcke-flalks. à. Cultivation of brocoli. on its roots. 3- Hop. Cemomile. Their duplicature: VW. Flowers ufedinthe arts. For dying, ornotto. For JPinning, cotton, cotton-rufb, cat’s-teil. VI. Nutritious paris of vegetables. 1. AZy/brooms. Gluten of Wheat. Oils. 0. Suger. Mucilage. Où. 3. Starch. Mecl, 4. Alburnum, Barks, Roots of fert axa Skor. KIX, 1.1, OF FLOWERS 531 and of bryony. 6. Immature flowers. Honey. Leaf-flalks. Leaves. Re- Jervoirs of nutriment. VII. Happinefs of organized nature. 1. Seeds and eggs have not fenfitive life. Milk gives two-fold pleafure. animals and difeaftd vegetables perifh, and give life to more fenfible ones. Old age unknown before fociety. is not immortal. 2. Animal abforption and fecretion 55 attended with agreeable fenfa!ion. matter more folid. The fome in ve- getables. 3. Strata of limefione formed from animal Jhells. of coel, clay, Jend, from vegetable fecretions, gave pleafure at the time of their produSion; and are monuments of pafi felicity, and of tbe benevolence of the Deity. VII. Cui- tivation of brocoli, à poem. THE beautiful colours of the petals of flowers with their polifhed furfaces are fcarcely rivalled by thofe of fhells, of feathers, or of precious flones. Many of thefe tranfient beauties, which give fuch briliancy to our gardens, delight at the fame time the fenfe of fmell with their odours; yet have they not been extenfively ufed as ar- ticles either of diet, medicine, or the arts. For the purpofe of cul- tivation they may be divided into thofe immediately derived from feeds, thofe from buds, and thofe from roots; to which may be added the efculent and medicinal ones, and thofe ufed in the arts. 1. Flowers from Seed. _1. The eye of the forift is frequently delighted with double flowers, which fhew a greater blaze of colour in a fmall fpace, and continue fome weeks longer in blow than fingle ones; and, though they are properly called vegetable monfters by the botanifts, may give information to the philofopher in refpeët to the fexual genera- tion of vegetables.‘The method therefore of producing double flowers from feeds is a matter of importance, as well as the art of giving to both thefe and the fingle flowers their moft healthy ex- panfñon, and the greateft brilliancy and variety of their colours, D Nez Thoush a hé mnt mms german ce 532 PRODUCTION SECT A XIX.. h.1e Fhough thofe multiplied flowers, which are faid to be full, pof- fefs no ftamens, or piftils, and conlequently can produce no feeds; yet are they frequently raifed immediately from feeds; for thofe flowers, which are cultivated with more mauure, moifture, and warmth, than is natural, become more vigorous and larger, and at the fame time are liable to fhew a tendency to become double, by having one or two fupernumerary petals in each flower, as the ftock July-flower, cheiranthus, and anemone. And what is truly curi- ous, this tendency to duplicature is communicated to the feeds of thofe individual bloffoms; infomuch that florifts are direted to tie a thread round fuch flowers, which have a fupernumerary petal, to mark them, and to colleét their feeds feparately; which are faid uni- formly to produce double or full flowers, 1f cultivated as above with rather more manure, moifture, and warmth, than thofe plants have naturally been accuftomed to. The analocy of this circumftance with the hereditary difeafes of animals is truly wonderful;-as the children of thofe parents, who have acquired the gout or dropfy by intemperance in the ufe of fer- mented or fpirituous potations, become affiéted with thofe difeafes, as Ï have frequently obferved, in a much greater degree by the fame quantity of intemperance, which originally produced them in their parents; or they acquire the fame quantity of thofe difeafes by a lefs degree of intemperance, than occafions them in others, whofe parents have not üfed fermented or fpirituous liquors to excefs. The luxuriance of flowers, which is believed to arife.from their cultivation in more nutritive foils_ with greater moifture and warmth, confifts in the increafe of fome parts of the flower, and the confequent exclufon of others: and is diftinguifhed by Linnæus into the multiplication and plenitude of flowers, and into prohferous ones. Multiplied flowers confift of double, triple, or quadruple co- rols; but full flowers are{ multiplied as to exclude the flamina; while in proliferous ones other flowers arife from within the principal OF FLOWERS.| 533 principal flower, and frequently from its center. Philof, Botan. p. 80. Jt is fuppofed that the ftamina of fome double flowers are con- verted into petals; but on examination, I fufpeét that the number of petals is increafed, and the ftamina prevented from growing by being comprefled by them in their nafcent ftate; as in many of them, I believe, the rudiments of fome flamina may be feen, as in ranunculus. So when a new flower rifes in the center of the old one, its fuppofed, that the piftillum is converted into the ftem of à new flower, as in proliferous daify, bellis prolifera; but I fufpeét, that the piftillum is prevented from rifing by the immoderate growth of the new flower-ftem; as in fome of them, I am told, the rudi- ment of the piftillum may be perceived. Thus monopetalous flowers are doubled or multiplied by the in- creafed divifions of the limb, as obferved by Linnæus, Philof. Botan. p. 83, who adds, that the metamorphofis of Englifh foapwort is very fingular, as its five petals are transformed into one petal, and that in opulus flore globofo the central florets become fimilar to thofe of the circumference, acquiring wheeled corols, and being barren: in thefe cafes the ftamens cannot be changed into corols, as the num- ber of corols is not increafed. Afterwards, in p. 84, the fame:il- luftrious author obferves, that in double lychnis the rudiment of the common piful is prefent. The luxuriance of flowers therefore confifts in the multiphica- tion of the corols or netaries, which laft are properly an appendage to the former; and the prevention of the growth of the male and female organs is the confequence. Thus the flower of aquilegia, columbine, has three kinds of plenitude: r. the petals become mul- tiplied, andthesuectaries excluded:°-2. the nettaries are multiplied, and the petals excluded; 3. the neétaries are multiplied, the petäls 3 remainiug, So that there are five petals, and between each of thete three nectaries, which exift within each other. À Curious 534 PRODUCTION SECT. XIX. À Curious analogy here allo exifts between thefe vecetable monfters and thofe of the auimal world: as à duplicature of Himbs frequently attends the latter, as chickens and turkeys with four legs and four Wings, and calves with two heads, And in mules the parts fubfervient to generation become deficient, whence they can< not propagate their fpecies: exa@ly as in thefe full flowers, which cau thence produce no feed. And in refpett to botanic fyftems, it may be obferved from thefe vegetables of luxuriant growths, that the flamens and pifls are lefs liable to change than the corols and neétaries, and are therefore more P'oper parts for the claffification of plants; on which idea Linnæus has conftructed his unrivalled fyflem. And laftly that the Calyx, or perianth, is the next moft unchangeable part of the flower, as this is feldom doubled or multi- plied; and that hence by infpetting the calyx the genera of many double flowers may be detected; thus tlre double ranunculus poilefles a calyx, but the double anemonc is without one, like the fingle ones of thofe genera. The greater duration of double flowers than fingle ones is fo re- markable in fome poppies, that their fingle flowers lofe the corolla in a few hours, while in the double ones it Continues feveral days: this circumftance is well worthy the attention of thofe, who cultivate poppies for the purpofe of wounding the head, which inclofes the feeds, for the opium, which thus exfudes. As Poppies with double flowers may probably be capable of yieldino opium, before they fhed their flowers, and as long as other poppies, after they fhed them, Dr. Smith afcribes this event to the organs of reproduction being obliterated, and the confequent want of imprecaation; by the great füimulus of which he thinks the vegetable irritability may be fooner exhaufted in fingle flowers: and adds,“ that on the fame account many plants refift à orcater degree of cold for feveral winters before flowering; but after that event they perifh at the firft approach of cold, and can by no art be preferved fo as to furvive the winter.” k= Aud. dt DECT, AUX: 1 2 OF FLOWERS.| ÿ2s And repeats an obfervation from Linnæus, that the piftilla of the female hemp, cannabis, continued much longer to exift when not expoféd to the male pollen, than thofe piftil on which the pelle: had béen effufed, T'rats on Nat. Hift. Péx 77 Ît may be obferved, that many infeûs may be called annual ones as well as many vesctables, and die, as foon as they have provided the eggs or iceds for the reproduétion of their fpecies, as the flkworm, and, 1 fuppofe, all the kinds of moths and butterflies; ma any of which take no food at all, after they have acquired their organs of generation aud their amatorial pafñion, and yet appear fat and aëtive; and others live only upon honey, and feem to die as foon 2s that pafhon is gratified, probably from baving no further pleafureable fti- mulus to excite the animal power into activity, rather than from its total exhauftion; becaufe other animals, whofe exiftence is not na- turally fo fhort, are not injured or deftroyed by the moderate ufe of the powers of reproduction; and that power leaves them long before their death. An experiment to fhew, whether the moths of filk- worms would live longer 1f deprived of their paramours, might be worth the attention of naturalifts: and allo, whether te butterfies of our climate might not be preferved during the winter, if fed with honey like bees, and kept from exceflive cold. I dire@ted fome honey to be offered to the fiikworm-butterflies, which they would not attend to, though they may probably feek for it in their native chimates. Värièties in the colours of fngle flowers raifed from feeds may probably be generally. red by fowing near tosether thofe of the fame fpecies, which a!‘eady poflefs different colours:: fo that during the difperfion of their anther-duft by the wind, or Er they may intermix and adulterate each other. Or: this may be mor certanly effected by bendir ng the flowers of one colour, and be the anther-duit over thofe of another colour. In this manner, I {uppofe, om on< 536 FÉROID'UL"TT ON SECTRIX: 192, fuppofe, it happens, that the beds of centaurea cyanus become of fuch various and beautiful fhades of blues, purples, and whites. Another method of giving variety of colours to feedlins flowers confifts in fowing them on natural foils, or on factitious compofts, which differ much from each other in refpe“t to vegetable nu- triment, and perhaps in refpet to their colour, as fome ani- mals change their natural colours when in different fituations of foil. As frogs much refemble the colour of the foil on which they live, and our domefticated horfes, dogs, cats, rabbits, pigeons, and poultry, change their colours into endlefs varieties, oWing to the difference of their nutriment or fituation. But obfervations and experiments are wanting on this fubje& in refpe® to the colours of feedling flowers, as well asin refpect to the variegation of the leaves -Of fhrubs and trees; which laft originates probably from foil or fitua- tion, and may be propagated by ingrafting. As the origin of double flowers is believed to refult from the lux- uriant growth of the plant, owing to too much nourifhment, moif- ture, and warmth, fo the origin of new colours in flowers, and of variegated foliage, is thought to occur from the innutrition of the fil, on which they grow, compared to that which they have na- turally been accuftomed to, or from defeét of moifture and of heat; which is countenanced by the dwarfifh fize of fuch plants in general, and efpecially by the leffened ftature of tulips, when their petals break into variety of colours. The proximate caufe of the change of colours in flowers or foliage muft be fought from the modern acquifitions of aerial chemiftry. The prefence of oxygen gas deprives dead vegetable fibres, as cotton- wool and the threads of flax, of their colour; that is, it bleaches them; which is probably owing to its uniting with the colouring _ matter and forming a new acid, which is tranfparent, Thus the hyper-oxygenated muriatic acid almoft imftantaneoufly deprives cot- ton and linen of their colour; and the fun’s lioht on moiftened linen SECRIAEKEES. OF FLOWERS. 537 € of à; * fpread upon the ground feems to decompofe the water,‘and "4 the oxygen thus detached whitens the linen. The etiolation or “js blanching of living vegetables on the contrary feems to originate ofts, 6 A rom the want of the fun’s light to convert into gas the fluid oxy- + gen; which, by difloiving their colouring matter, and forming ni: new and perhaps taftelefs acids, deprives them of colour.: Hence of the water, which vegetables perfpire in the funfhine, becomes hyper- ich oxygenated, which has much puzzled philofophers to account for; 5, and the oxygen rifes from it without decompoñnse it; which laft Lo circumftance is evinced by the total abfence of the fmell of hydro- and gen, which fo powerfully affeéts our noftrils, when a fpoonful of 8 Of water 1s thrown on burning coals. aves Now as plants, which grow lefs visoroufly from defeë& of nutri- tua ment, moifture, air, or warmth, may acquire or poflefs lefs oxygen to diflolve their colouring matter, their ftru@ure may approach to- ux- wards that of dead vegetables; and hence they may become bleached oif- inftead of coloured by the influence of the fun’s light, efpecially in j of thofe parts where their vital funétions are performed with lefs vi- the gour; fo an etiolated vegetable, as a blanched plant of celery, apium na graveolens, becomes green in a few days, when expofed to the light eat: and air; and white again, if deprived of life, and expofed to the ral, funfhine and dews. "" The immediate caufe of the various colours of fome flowers, as of poppies, might be a fubje® of curious inveftigation. I once fup- NE pofed,‘that the thinnefs of the pellicle of fome flowers might occa- à fon them to reflect different colours, as is feen on dropping a drop Arye of oil from a bridge on the water below on a bright day. But co- Le| lours thus produced vary with the fituation of the obferver, in refpeét ches| to the obliquity or angle of refletion, in which they are feen; and ais are thence variable with every motion 6f them, as thofe colours feen s the on foap-bubbles, and on mother-pearl, and on the Labradore-ftone, - and on fome filks. For thofe colours depend on the thinnefs of the ened ar reflecting linen 538 PRODUCTION, XX ar reflecting furface, which when feen more obliquely become thicker; and then refleéts thofe colours, which pafled through thinner plates; in the fame manner as the red light of the fetting fun is refleéted from glafs windows, feen very obliquely by the obferver. The colours of flowers therefore, as they are not variable by the obliquity, with which they are feen, like thofe of mother-pearl card- fifh, do not depend on the thinnefs of their pellicle; but, I fuppofe, to the greater facility that fome parts of them poflefs in parting with their oxygen, when expofed to the fun’s light, than other parts of them; for all flowers are more or lefs etiolated, before they firit open. In the filk manufaétory a variable colour is produced by making the warp of one colour and the woof of another; perhaps the variable colour of a peacock”’s tail may be owing to a mixture of different coloured down placed in lines near each other. 11. Flowers from Budk. 1. The flowers arifing from the buds of fhrubs or trees are able to become double or full by the multiplication of their petals, as thofe of rofes, cherries, hawthorn, peach, rofa, prunus, cerafus, cra- tegus oxyacantha, amygdalus perfica. Which tendency to duplica- ture, as in the flowers of annual plants, 1s probably owing to the too visorous growth of the bud from a too nutritious foil, or the combination of abundant moifture and warmth, and would probably be forwarded by furrounding the bud itfelf frequently with water; as 15 fo beautifully feen in thofe plants, which have a cup round their joints to preferve for a time the rain, which falls upon them, as round the joints of dypfacus, teafel, filphium, tillandfia, and ne- penthes. It is remarkable, that though the duplicature of many flowers is believed to have been owing to the more nutritious foil, in which they SEcr NX 222 OF FLOWERS: 539 they have been cultivated, yet that, when tranfplanted into lefs fer- | tile foils, or ingrafted on lefs luxuriant trees, they ftill retain their tendency to duplicature; which can only be afcribed to the continu- - ance of an acquired habit, or to the fucce‘ion of hereditary difeafes, | fo frequently obferved in the animal fyffem. This duplicature of flowers from buds is generally propagated by ingrafting the fcions of fuch, as bear multiplied petals, on fimilar plants, which bear fingle flowers; and may be of fervice not only for beauty, but for the purpofe of inereafe in thofe plants, the petals of whofe flowers are confumed for any purpofe, as the leaves of rofes. À gentleman at Nottingham annually diftils a profitable quantity | of effential oil of rofes, by colle&ing all of them he can purchafe in | the neighbourhood during the feafon; and this by the ufual procefs, which is not difficult though tedious. And a furgeon at Stafford has introduced an agrecable and profitable kind of agriculture, by planting half an acre of ground with red rofes, and converting the flowers into conferve with fugar, or by fimply drying them for the London market. 2. Itis probable, that numerous varieties of colour in the fingle flowers of fhrubs, as well as thofe of annual plants, might be ob- tained by fhaking the anther-duft of one variety over the ftigma of another, where any difference of colour already exifts in the fame _fpecies. And perhaps fome changes of colour of the flowers might be produced by inoculating the buds of a fhrub, whofe flowers are of ‘one colour, into the branches of another variety ofthe fame fpecies or genus; as the variegation of the foliage of plants is faid to have been produced in this manner, according to the affertions of Mr. Bradley.and Mr. Laurence, who budded à fpotted paflion-flower and a ftriped jafmine on thofe, which were not variegated, and produced a fimilar variegation of them, as related in Se&. V. r. This has been afcribed to the abforption of fome infeftious matter from the inocu- lated bud, which propagated a fimilar difeafe to the whole tree; and 442 has PT=, DÉS OR a ETES _—— Le. AT CL R Le Por. ne D IE nr an RÉ oo à 540 PRODUCTION SECT. XX 50e has thence been ufed as an argument in favour of a vegetable CirCU- lation of juices. A fimilar fa is alfo aflerted by Mr. Milne. He fays, that‘‘ an evergreen tree ingrafted o a deciduous one determines the latter to retain its leaves; this obfervation is confirmed by repeated experi- ments, particularly by grafting the laurel, laurocerafus, an ever- green, on the common cherry, cerafus; or the ilex, an-evergreen oak, on the common oak.” Botanical Dict. Art. Defoliatio AI thefe feem to want further experiments to authenticate the fa@s fo delivered on the authority of ingenious men.: 3. To increafe the number of the flowers of fhrubs, all thofe arts are applicable, which are defcribed in Sect. XV. 2. for the produétion of fruit on wall trees; which, when the tree is of a proper age,. confift, 1. in bending down the viviparous branches to the horizon, which renders them oviparous; 2. by twifting a wire, or tying à cord round the viviparous branches; 3. by wounding or cutting away a narrow cylinder of the bark; 4. by tranfplanting or cutting off fome of the roots; 5. by cutting away the central or viviparous branches; 6. by ingrafting. rt. Flowers from KRoofs. 1. Many bulb-rooted flowers are defervedly in great eftimation by florifts, asthe tulip, hyacinth, lily, colchicum, crocus, fritillary,&c. and of thofe many are liable to become double, which adds in gene- ral fo much to their fplendour and to their duration, as narciflus, hyacinth, colchicum, tulip. The immediate caufe of duplicature or multiplication of the pe- tals of thefe flowers is probably fimilar to that of thofe above men- tioned, and originates from their Juxuriant growth, owing to the fertility NS Secr. XIX. 3.1. OF FLOWERS. gai fertility of the foil, and the abundance of moifture and of warmth in combination,| Other circumftances, which may add to their luxuriant growth, may alfo contribute to their duplicatures; fuch as by breaking off the flower as foon as it begins to fade; and thus, by preventing the nutritious vegétable juices from being expended in the growth of the feeds, more of it may be derived to the principal fucceeding bulb. Thus it is aflerted, that the preventing fome annual plants from flowering lengthens their lives, which it may effeét by occafioning them to produce new root-fcions, and thus to become perennial ve- setables.‘The very ingenious Mr. Bogle, in the papers of the Bath Society, believes that wheat, oats, and barley, may be made peren- nials, if they are eaten down by cattle or fheep, oi cut by the fcythe or fickle, fo as to prevent them from producing ears. As tulip-bulbs raifed from feed produce à larger bulb the fucceed- ing year, and again a larger with a different leaf on the third year, and fo on till the fifth or fixth, the bulbs thus annually improving till they flower; and even after they flower they are believed to continue to improve for fome years, till the colour of the petals be- come ftriped: I fufpeét that the art of procuring a great duplica- ture of the petals of thefe flowers confifts in breaking off the flower- ftem on the fifth, fixth, and feventh years, from the fowing of the feed; that is, for a year, or two, or three, after the flower-fte firft appears, as noted in Seët. VIIL. 1.3. And that the tendency to duplicature will continue in the fucceeding bulbs by the acquired habit, as in the hereditary difeafes of animals. And fecondly, thefe flower-roots become more luxuriant by raif- ing them out of the ground, as foon as the leaves wither, which are the parents of the new bulbs; and then by taking away the fmaller or collateral new bulbs from the principal one, which might otherwife incommode its growth by their vicinity, and confequent compref- vf fion, 542 PRO DECTTON SECTNIX 32: fion, both thefe methods are of equal ufe to enlarge and render more visorous the fingle flowers of bulb-roots, as well as to increafe their tendency to duplicature, 2. The fingle flowers of fome of thefe plants may be probably not only enlarged, but fo ftrensthened as to ripen their feeds in this cli- mate, by nicely laying bare the root, and taking from it the new progeny; whether a fingle new bulb, as in orchis mafcula, or the numerous ones of hyacinth, tulip, or lily of the valley; as by thefe means the vegetable nutriment is not expended on the new bulbs, and probably more of it may thence be derived to the flower. See Set. XVIE.a. 3. Another method of increafñing the bulb-rooted flowers in fize or number confifts in crowding their roots in garden-pots, or by not annually tranfplanting them; and thus by preventing their offsets from being formed, or by decreafing the number or vigour of them; thus lily of valley, and jonquil, feldom afford large or numerous flowers, till they have remained three or four years in the fame fitua- tion; but muft neverthelefs be then occafonally in part tranfplant- ed, leaft the roots fhould die from being fo crowded as not to form each of them oneannual new bulb, which is their mode of reproduc- tion. The ufual method of propagating bulbous roots has been by the fmaller offsets, which are formed annually round the principal or central new bulb, as in tulips; which central new bulb has com- mouly been miftaken for the old root; by this mode of propagation the fimilarity of the new progeny to the parent is nicely preferved; and on that account fome of thefe new roots of tulips and hyacinths have been fold at extravagant prices. For the circumftance of this mode of reprodu&tion fee Sect.IX. 3. 2. But in refpeé to producing variety of colour in the fingle flowers of bulbous roots, the moft effe&ual method, I fuppofe, muft be by fowing their feeds, and waiting a few years, till their fucceflive bulbs at SECTXIX 7. 2 OF'FLOWERS:£43 at length produce flowers, as defcribed in Se&. XVIT. r. 2. and par- ticularly 1f the anther-duft of one variety in réfpeét to colour be fhed on the ftigma of another variety. Another method of producing a change or variety of colours in bulb-rooted flowers may be by planting them every year, till they flower, on very nutritious foil, with an abundant éombination of moifture and of heat, as thefe two elements fhould exift together to effect the moft luxuriant growth of vegetables. And after they have flowered, or on the year in which they are expected to flower, they fhould be tranfplanted on a lefs nutritive foil, with lefs heat and moifture. Or probably this lefs quantity of nutriment, heat, and moifture, might be ufed at the commencement of their growth, or even at fowing their feed, with fimilar effe& of fooner breaking into variety of colours. The beauty of the double yellow tulip, and its greater longevity, much recommend it to common eyes; but the endlefs variety in the colours of fingle tulips has long and defervedly been the admiration of florifts. The curious event of their breaking into various colours from an uniform purple, a year or two after their firft flowerine, and at the fame time of their lofing nearly one third of the height of their flems, feems to indicate, that this effe@& refults not from the debility of age, but from the acquifition of hereditary difeafes, as thefe new colours, into which they break, afterwards remain for uncount- “ed generations, and may in this refpeét be compared to the canker in apple-trees, mentioned in Sect. XIV. 1. 3. Fhis change of colour from darker to lighter in tulips may proba- bly be accelerated or increafed by keeping the roots long out of the ground in dry or warm apartments, fo as to harden their fibres, and diminifh the diameters of their fecreting veflels, and thereby hin- dering their abforption of colouring molecules, fimilar to grey hairs produced on animals by age or external injury of the part. This would feem to obtain in tulips, as when they break into coleurs, they I s44 PRODUCTION Secr. XIX. 3. 3. they lofe one third of their fize, and confequently the diameters of their fecretory and of their abforbent veflels muft be much di- minifhed, New kiods of varieties in the fituations or produétion ofwhite parts of the petals of flowers might be caufed, 1 fufpet, by com- prefling fome parts of them before the flower opens, by tying fine threads round the calyx, which inclofes them; as many darker co- loured cats and dogs have all thofe parts lighter or quite white, which have been comprefled together, as they lay in their fetus ftate in the uterus; an inftance of which exifts in a black male cat, which now lies upon the hearth, and an inftance of a black terrier bitch is de- feribetdrin Zoonamis, Vol: IL CR I;:2; 2. 11. Thismay be worth the attention of florifts and flowerfellers; and it is probable, that the white ftreaks in dark flowers may have been thus produced by their greater compreffion in the calyx, before the flower opens, 3. Thé caufes of duplicature in perennial flowers with branching roots, as ranunculus, caltha, hepatica, anemone, cheiranthus, dian- thus, filene, wallflower, carnation, catchfiy, are probably fuch as afford a general luxuriancy of growth to thofe vecetables, and may be certainly propagated by offsets from thofe roots, or by laying their branches in the ground, fo as to exactly refemble their parents. Many of thefe double flowers may alfo be procured by colleéting the feeds from fuch fingle Aowers of the fame fpecies, as poffefs a fuper- numerary petal; which, if fowed on fertile ground, will prefent us with double or multiplied flowers, as the anemone and july-flower mentioned in No. IL. 1. of this Section. The effet of breaking the fingle ones into varieties of colour, which, in anemones and poppies as well as in tulips, are uncom- monly beautiful, 15 probably owing-to the lefs fertility of the foil, or lefs fupply of heat and moifture, where they have happened to refide, and that more effe&ually if they were removed from more favourable fituations. The È | DEGT. OLXY AT OF FLOWERS. 45 € The varieties of the fingle flowers alfo of thofe roots may be pro- : pagated unchanged, as well as the double ones, by dividing the roots or tranfplanting the offsets, ar by laying their branches in the ground, as of pinks and carnations. Other varieties may be pro-\ cured by colle&ting feeds and fowing them in diffimilar foils and fituations; and fuch flowers as are of approved beauty, may pro- bably be occafionally ftrengthened and enlarged by depriving them in part of their offsets early in the feafon; or may be broken into colours by keeping the roots fome weeks or months out. of the ground in the autumn in dry or warm apartments. The colours of flowers of this kind, E believe, are frequentiy changed by fituation; in my garden fome roots of comfrey, fym- phytum, with purple flowers had long exifted on a moiftifh border; and laft year other roots, I fuppofe from the feeds of the former, grew in a dryer fituation, and bore white flowers. And Mr. Brad- ley afferts, in his Philof. Account of Nature, p.71, that fome roots of purple hepatica, which were removed from Tothill-fields to Hen- ley on the T'hames, became white; and became purple again, when LU they were returned to their native fituation. IV. Efculent and Medicinal Flowers. f 1. The efculent flowers moft in ufe at our tables have their mu- cilage in fome degree coagulated by boiling them in water or in fteam, and are confumed before their maturity, as thofe of arti- choke, cinara fcolymus; of mercury, mercurialis; of fea-cale, crambe maritima; and of brocoli and cauliflower, braflica oleracea, italica and botrytis. The flowers of the nafturtion, tropeolum ma- jus, pofñefs an agreeable acrimony, and are eaten raw, fhred with the frefh leaves of lettuce, young muftard plants, or red cabbage, Other flowers are ufed for domeftic or medicinal purpofes, as thofe 4 À of 546 PRODUCTION Secr, XIX, 454 of hops, humulus lupulus, camomile, anthemis nobilis, rofes, carda- mine, violets. The three foremoft of thefe, the artichoke, and mercury, and fea-cale, are perennial plants; and, as they put forth numerous root- fcions or offsets, may have their principal ftem much invigorated, and will confequently produce larger flowers, by taking away many of thefe offsets, fo as to leave but two or three on a root, And as the ripeninsg of the feed is no objeét, a greater abundance of moifture, than chefe plants have been naturally accuftomed to, with propor- tional increafe of warmth in refpeét to fituation, will forward their growth, and increafe their fize. À great part of the nutritious mucilage in the ee is placed in the upper part of the ftem, as well as in the pericarpium of the flower, which fhould therefore be boiïled along with it for the pur- pofe of coagulation; and might then ne be managed fo as to refemble fagoe, if granulated by pafling it through fieves. The art of boiling vegetables of all kinds ia fteam inftead of in water, might probably be managed to advantage, as a greater degree of heat might be thus given them, by contriving to increafe the heat of the fteam after it has left the water; and thus the vesetable mu- cilage in roots and feeds, as in potatoes and flour-puddings, as well as in their leaves, ftems, and flower-cups, might be rendered pro- bably more nutritive, and perhaps more palatable. But many of the leaves of vegetables, as the fummits of cabbage- fprouts, lofe their green colour by being boiled in fteam, and look ; like blanched vegetables.‘This etiolation of fome vegetables by fteam is probably owing to its diflolving their colouring matter, which may then become decompofëd; and may render them Jefs agreeable to thofe who choofe by the eye rather than by the palate; which green colour is however heightened by boiling them in fome hard waters which contain diflolved lime or fea-falt, or by a flight admixture of common falt with foft water. An effe& which 1 PSE EE re SECT. XIX. 4. 2. QGF FLOWERS. 547 is owing to the evaporation of a part of the marine acid, and to the remainnng alkali, which was the bafis of it, when applied to bluifh vegetables converting them into green, as in the common experi- ment of adding falt of tartar to fyrup of violets; or; according to the cuftom of fome cooks, who add a little potafh, or fixed ve- getable alkali, to the water, in which youns peas are boiled to make them green, and afterwards a very little fugar to fweeten them. The fame effeét of making vegetables green, when boiled in other kinds of hard waters, is probably produced by the lime, which abounds in them; and which like the vecetable alkali when the aerial acid, which was united with it evaporates, is faid to convert bluifh vegetable colours into green ones. The nutritious mucilage refides likewife in the young ftems of mercury, Which fhould therefore be eaten before the flower begins to open. The flalks and immature flowers of fea-cale are fimilar to good brocoli, 1f eaten young; though many gardeners prefer the blanching them, which fupplies an early and agreeable repañt, de- fcribed in Seë&. XIV. 3. 3. Afparagus does not perhaps properly belong to this feétion, as the fem is eaten, before the flower becomes vifible. 2. The cultivation of brocoli and cauliflower muft be very fimi- lar, except as to the feafons of the year, as they are varieties of the fame fpecies of plant of the cabbage family. The following direc- tions for the cultivation of brocoli were fent me by Edward T'ighe, qe"an ingenious gentleman of Ireland, along with an elegant Latin poem on the fame fubjet, a free tranflation of which is placed at the end of this feétion. ‘€ Brocoli may be fo managed as to fupply the table with a deli- cious and falutary vecetable during the months of November, De- cember, January, February, March, April, and May. 4 À 2 FFro- 48 PRODUCTION SECTOXEXS 47 À + Le à ‘1. Procure prime feed from Rome or Naples both for early and late fowing. 2. Sow at the ceffation of the vernal fnows, and repeat it once a month till the end of May, or longer.; pen 83) , When three leaves appear, tranfplant them; and when fix leaves appear, tranfplant them again. Afterwards in June, July, and Auguft, tranfplant them two or three feet afunder, to remain. 4. During September and O&ober the ground muft be Ioofened, and repeatedly cleared from weeds and ftones; and the plants earthed up to preferve their roots from the froit, and to pre- vent their being injured by the equinoétial winds. 5. Water them occafonally with water impregnated with dung. 6, Sow and plant them far from hedges, trees, and walls. The head is generally completed in five or fix days from its firft appearance, and fhould not remain much longer; the ftalk fhould be boiled with the flower, and peeled in the kitchen, before it is brought to the table.” Some kinds of Italian brocoli are faid to produce fome knobs or bulbs at their roots, which are fuppofed to be for the purpofe of raifing other ftems;. if this laft circumftance be afcertained, they fhould be broken off, when the principal ftem is tranfplanted; like the new root of orchis to enlarge the flower, mentioned in Section XV. 2.4. But they may be fimply a refervoir of nutriment for the principal ftém, as in carrots and turnips; in that cafe they fhould certainly remain, and be tranfplanted along with the ftem.’ 3. In refpe& to the flowers of hop, humulus lupulus; and cha- momile, authemis nobilis; as well as thofe of rofes, violets, carda- mine, and the nafturtion above mentioned; as their petals only are required, it would add much to their quality, if they could be cul- tivated in their double or multiplied ftate, as is generally indeed pradtifed UT Sec. XX. 5er OF FLOWERS. 549 practifed in refpect to rofes and chamomile; many acres of the lat- ter of which are cultivated near Chefterfield in Derbyfhire, and are fold, I am informed, to mix with hops, when thofe crops are de- ficient, as well as for the purpofes of medicine. What might bethe effect of endeavouring to introduce a duplicature or multiplication of the flowers of artichoke, fea-cale, cauliflower, and brocoli, has not, I believe, been experienced. v. Flowers ufed in the Arts. 1. The beautiful membrane, which covers the feeds of euonymus, or fpindle-tree, and of the bixa of South America, is faid to be ma- nufaétured into the anotta, or arnotta, ufed in colouring cheefe; but I am told that madder, made from the root of rubia tintoria, is fold frequently in its ftead, and may be readily grown by farmers in their; own gardens. Few flowers are ufed in the art of dying, their co- lours are fo fugitive, as they readily bleach when expofed to the light, and cannot be kept long even in the herbariums of botanifts without lofins their colours; which is believed to be owing to the oxygen of the atmofphere being feparated from the aerial water by the fun’s light, and converted into a gas combined only with heat or light, and in that ffate more readily uniting with the colouring _matter of flowers, and producing a new acid, which is tranfparent, colourlefs, or white, or is diflolved and wafhed away by the dews or rains. The blue colour of the flowers of violets has been extrated by water, and preferved by the addition of fugar converting it into fy- rup for the purpofes of medicine in part, but chiefly for thofe of chemiftry, to fhew the change of vesetable blues into greens by an admixture of fixed alkali, as falt of tartar or potafh; and into red à 7 by 550 PRODUCTION SEcTr. XIX. 652 by the admixture of an acid, as thofe of fulphur, nitre, or marine falt.|| 2. Another very important flower, which is fuffered to grow to maturity for the purpofe of ufing the fine fibres which wing or in- velope its feeds, 1s that of the cotton plant, goflypiam; which, as it requires fo much lefs preparation than the fibres of the ftems of flax and of hemp or nettles, is likely to become the principal cloth.- ing of mankind; and efpecially fince the art of fpinning it was brought to fuch wonderful perfetion by the genius of Sir Richard Arkwright, who difcovered that two fets of rollers movins. with dif- ferent velocities would draw out the fibres of cotton into a fine thread more accurately than could be done by the human hand, as well as more expeditioufly, along with much other very ingeni- ous machinery. There are two bog or water plants in our morales, which produce much vegetable fibres attached to their feeds, one of thefe is the ty- pha, or cat’s-tail; and the other eriophorum, or cotton-rufh. The fibres of the former are fhort and coarfe, but might ferve perhaps to ftuff cufhions, or even coarfe beds; thofe of the latter are longer, and perhaps fine enough to fpin. And as both thefe only grow on bogs or in water, where we at prefent cultivate no ufeful vegetables, one, or both of them, might poffibly be worthy the attention of thofe, who pofféfs aquatic or marfhy fituations.‘The cultivation of the cotton plant belongs to warmer climates, and may probably re- quire abundant water for its vigorous growth, as well as the typha and eriophorum of this country. vi. Nutritious parts of Vegetables. 1. Having treated of the cultivation of fruits, feeds, roots, barks, leaves, woods, and flowers, an important queftion prefents itielf; which SCET, XIX:6:2. OFTFLOWERS SSI which of them may fupply the moft nutrition to mankind, or to other animals? 6 It may be anfwered firft, that thofe vegetables, or parts of vege: tables, which approach neareft to the nature of animal bodfes, are moit likely to fupply them with the moft nutriment; as the efcu- lent mufhroems, and the gluten of wheat, and the oils of feeds and kernels. The former clafs of plants feems to connect the animal and vegetable kingdoms of nature, as fpoken of in Set, XVII. 2. 5. and though many of them poflefs an acrid, and fome of them an in= toxicating quality, it is probable that the former might be deftroyed, and the latter diminifhed, by the heat employed in cookery. This fhould neverthelefs be attempted with due caution; fince, though one kind of vegetable acrimony, as that of water-crefles and of cab: bages, is much diminifhed or deftroyed by a boiling heat, yet that of the leaves of arum maculatum, and of arum arifarum, I found by experiment, was not decreafed by boiling. And a few grains of the powder of Iycoperdon, puff-ball, have lately been recommended in epileptic fits, and may thence poffibly pofefs à powerful narcotic quality. The gluten of wheat is fuppofed to approach towards the coagulable 1ymph of animal bodies, as referred to in Se. XVI. ET and was once, Î believe, advertifed as an alimentary powder, and recommended as a nourifhment of the moft portable kind for the fuffenance of marching armies. And laftly the oils of vegetables approach much to à fimilitude with thofe of animal bodies. 2. Secondiy, i may be anfwered, that fince the chyle of all red- blooded animals is believed to be nearly fimilar, and to confift prin- cipaliy of fugar, mucilage, and oil; the laft of which ingredients renders it white by its infolubility in water, and thence diftinguifhes it from the vegetable chyle or fap-juice of trees, which is tranfparent, and 1$ believed to confit principally of fugar and mucilage without oil; thofe parts of vegetables which contain the greateft quantity of 1 thefe 2 EE Ps PR É $ | 552 PRODUCTION SECT.XIX, 6.2: thefe ingredients which compofe animal chyle, or are convertible into them by the power of digeftion, may be fuppofed to contain the moft nutriment for red-blooded animals. To this may be added, that the nutritive quality of fugar is in- conteftably evinced from the known fa®&, that the flaves in the fugar iflands become in better condition during the fugar feafon, though they are compelled to labour harder. The nutritive quality of fimple mucilage was fhéwn in a remarkable inftance on record; where a caravan by fome misfortune had confumed or loft all their other provifions, and lived many weeks on the gum arabic alone, which conftituted their principal merchandife.‘The nutritive quality of oil is obfervable in the procefs of feeding cattle with oil-cake, and in the habits of the natives of the northern latitudes, who ufe the oil of fifh for both meat and drink, and derive from it their principal: nourifhment. Sugar is known to be the fame, from whatever vegetable it is ex- traed, whether from the fruit of the vine or apple-tree, from the joints of the fugar-cane, from the fap-veflels of the maple, from the alburnum of the manna afh, from the feeds of germinated barley and rice, from the roots of beets, carrots, and potatoes, or, laftly, from the nectaries of fiowers. The expreffed oils of vegetables are alfo believed not much to differ from each other in refpe& to the nutriment they contain, though fome of them may approach nearer to the na- ture of animal fat; as the painters diftinguifh them by their greater aptitude to dry, when mixed with their colours and expofed to the air. But the word mucilage has been ufed for ftarch, which will not diflolve in cold water, as well as for gum arabic, and other mu- cilages properly fo called, which will difloive in cold water, and even for the gluten of wheat, which will not diflolve in either hot or cold water. We may therefore conclude, that thofe parts of vege- tables, which contain the moft of thefe materials, are the moft re nutritive, Secr. XIX, 6.3‘OF FLOWERS.£ 2 Cry nutritive, 1f they do not contain along with them fome noxious materials united with their. falutary ones, and which cannot be readily feparated from them. 3+ Though the parts of vegetables, which poffefs much oil, fugar, or mucilage, may afford morè expeditious nutrition, as they con- fütute the ingredients of the chyle of all red-blooded animals; yet there are other materials, which appear to be fo readily convertible into fugar or into mucilage, as perhaps nearly to fupply an equal quantity of nutriment. Thus by the procefs of germination, as when feeds of barley are converted into malt, and when roots pullu- late in our ftore-rooms, as of onions or potatoes; the farina, con- fifting of meal or ftarch, is in part converted into fugar, and in part into mucilage; fimilar to this procefs of germination appears to be that of ripening, by which the auftere juices of fruits are tranfmuted into fweet ones; and alfo the culinary proceffes of baking or boiling, by which the auftere juices of unripe pears are changed into fiweet ones by the application of heat, as mentioned in Seét. VI.&. But another more expeditious converfion of vegetable materials into fugar is by the digeftion of animals, which may be truly termed a faccha- rine procefs; as appears in thofe, who labour under diabates, as by evaporating the urine of one of thefe patients, fixteen ounces of im- pure fugar were daily extraéted for fome time. Zoonomia, Vol, I. SA XXIX 4. Hence, though the oily kernels of nuts, walnuts, almonds, and the oily feeds of flax, hemp, rape, may contain moft expeditious nu- triment; and next to thefe the faccharine fruits of figs, dates, rai- fins, and the fweet roots of beet, mungel-worfal, ground artichoke, helianthus tuberofus, parfnip, carrot, may contain expeditious nu- triment. Yet the more farinaceous feeds, as of wheat, péas;“rice, barley, oats, and buck-wheat, polysgonum fagopyrum, and the roots of potatoes, which contain ftarch, and flour, and mucilage, which are convertible into fugar in the ftomachs of animals, and are pro- 4 B bably 554 PRODUCTION. XIX. 6. 4: bably by that digeftive procefs, and their previous maftication in the mouth, mingled with more animal coagulable lymph, as the faliva, gaftric, and pancreatic juices, and may thus fupply a more animal- ized nutriment than the former; and may on that account con- tribute more to ftrengsthen the fyftem. Of thefe feeds and roots it appears probable, that thofe, which contain the moft ftarch or gluten, as wheat, afford the moft nourifhment, as they are believed to make the beft bread, 4. The alburnum, or fap-wood, of moft trees in the winter months probably contains much nutritious matter; whence it is{o foon deftroyed by fermentation or putrefaction when deprived of life; and by infeéts, when it is deprived of its proteéting bark. This nu- tritious matter might be obtained by grating, or rafping, or pounding it, and boiling the powder or faw-duft thus procured.‘The bark of all thofe vegetables, which are armed with thorns or prickles, is be- lieved to contain much nutritious matter, which their armour was defigned to prote&t; as the inner barks of elm, holly, goofeberry, whin or gorfe, contain much nutritive mucilage; thus the deer in Needwood Foreft greedily peel the bark from the branches of holly, which are cut from the fummits of thofe trees, where they have no prickles, as mentioned in Botanic Garden, Vol. II. note on lIiex. And horfes are faid to be well nourifhed by gorfe, if the prickles are previoufly deftroyed by rolling a ftone over it, as the tanners bruife their oak-bark; and fome horfes are faid to be fo fond of it, and fo wife, as to bruife young gorfe-bufhes with their feet, and then to eat them. Fern roots are faid to be eaten by the natives of New Holland, and in other countries in times of fcarcity; but as their farinaceous or mucilaginous matter is included in ligneous fibres too hard for maftication, the method of cooking it 1s faid to confift in boiling the root, and then extra@tins the fibres by hammering it to pieces. The root of white bryony, which grows to a great fize in our hedge-bot- toms, Secr. XIX. 6.5. OF FLOWERS. sse toms, is faid, by M. Permentier, to pofñefs a quantity of ftarch, which was capable of being wafhed from the acrid mucilage by grat- ing 1t into cold water, and of being manufaétured into an agreeable and falutary bread; like the bread made from the caffiva, which is faid to undergo a fimilar procefs, by exprefling fome of the acrimo- nious mucilage previous to the application of the heat of cookery. Which however not only deftroys the acrimony cf many vege- tables, as of water-creffes, cabbages, and the fkins of potatoes, but is ao believed to render fome of them more nutritive by coagulating their mucilage, which was previoufly combined with too great a proportion of water. 5.[t would appear therefore in general, that the feeds or kernels of vecetables afford the moft nutriment; next to thefe their fruits and roots; and afterwards the alburnum or bark. Some of the flowers alfo in their early ftate before impregnation, as thofe of artichoke, cinara, and cauliflower, braflica, are nutritious from the mucilage, which they pofñlefs; and fome feeds already impregnated, but ftill in their immature ftate, along with their hufks or capfules, as thofe of kidney-bean, phafeolus, and of very young peas, afford a falutary nutriment. And laftly all flowers after the expaufion of their corols fecrete honey; which fupplies food to innumerable in- fe&s, who plunder it, as well as to mankind. In the bafes of many leaves another faccharine or mucilaginous juice is fecreted, as at the joints of grafs, on the bulbs of onions, and at the lower parts of the leaves of cabbages, and around the ftems of afparagus, mercury, and hop-buds, during the early ftate of their flowers; but the leaves themfelves, like the lungs of animals, feem to poñlefs lefs nutritious aliment than many other parts of their fyftem. vit. The :6 PRODUCTION:. Stern XIX, re vit. The Happinefs of Organic Life. AÏl organized nature may be divided into ftationary organizations, and locomotive organizations; the former of which are called vese- tables, and the latter animals. All thofe parts of vegetables, which are moft nutritious to animals, confift, as obferved above, of aliment fecreted from the vegetable blood, and laid up in refervoirs for the future fuftenance of their embryon or infant progeny; which re- fervoirs are plundered by locomotive animals, and devoured along with the progeny, they were defigned to fupport! add to this, that the ftronger locomotive animals devour the weaker ones without mercy. Such is the condition of organic nature! whofe firft law might be exprefled in the words,‘* Eat or be eaten!” and which would feem to be one great flaughter-houfe, one univerfal fcene of rapacity and injuftice! 1. Where fhall we find a benevolent idea to confole us amid fo much apparent mifery?—I hope the fympathizing reader will not think the following account of the happinefs, which organized beings acquire from irritation only, impertinently inferted in this place; their happinefs derived from imagination and volition may be treated of in fome future work.| It may firft be obferved, that the feeds of plants and the eggs of animals, when they have left the pericarp or uterus, and have not yet commenced their new growth upon the foil, or beneath the wings of the mother, exift in a torpid ffate, not pofeffed of fenfitive life; and cannot therefore at this time be fuppofed to fuffer pain, when they are deftroyed by other animals; though thofe animals obtain pleafure from the aétivity, into which their vafcular fyftems are excited by the ftimuius of the aliment thus fupplied. Secondly, that the young of laétefcent animals both acquire and commuuicate pleafure to the enamoured mother, from whom they receive SECTOR Le OF: FÉEOWERS. 5er receive their nutriment, as mentioned in Botanic Garden, Vol. I. Cantol. 1. 278, note; which conftitutes the moft beautiful and moft benevolent part of the great fyftem of nature. Thirdly, all animals, and, I fuppofe, vegetables, receive pleafure in the reproduction of their fpecies; and whére feeds are difperfed on the foil, and the eggs of fome animals and of many infects are buried beneath it, to be revived and hatched by the warmth of the fun; there can be no pain in thefe cafes infliéted on the mother, when they are deftroyed by animals or by infe@s, as fhe is unconfcious of their deftruétion. Fourthly, as all animal exiftence muft perifh in procefs of time, by the inirritability and confequent debility occafioned by the repe- tition of ftimulus, which is termed habit, and appears to be an uni- verfal law of nature: it is fo ordered, that as foon as any organized being becomes lefs irritable and lefs fenfible, and in confequence feeble or fickly, that it is deftroyed and eaten by other more irritable and more fenfible, and in confequence more vigorous organized beings; as infects attack the weaker vegetable produétions in pre- ference to the healthy ones; and beafts of prey more eafly catch and conquer the aged and infirm, and the young ones are defended by their parents.‘ By this contrivance more pleafureable fenfation exifts in the world, as the organized matter is taken from a ftate of lefs ir- ritability and lefs fenfibility, and converted into a ftate of greater; that is in other words, that the old organizations, whether ftation- ary or locomotive ones, are tranfmigrated into young ones: whence it happened, that before mankind introduced rational fociety, and conquered the favage world, old age was unknown on earth!. Finally, the aged and infirm, from their prefent ftate of inirrita- bility and infenfibility, lofe their lives with lefs pain, and which 4 ceafes inftantly with the ftroke of death; infomuch that death“1 cannot fo properly be called poñtive evil, as the termination of| good. F É a 558 PRODUCTION.XIX. 7.1. To this fhould be added, that a long continued or a great excefs of pain cannot affiét an organized being; as fyncope or fudden death, and confequent decompofition, attends very violent pains; and a lingering death attends the continuation of lefs violent ones. Hence it becomes a confoling circumfiance, that mifery is not im- mortal. A philofopher, whom I left in my library, has perufed the above paragraphs, and added the fubfequent one to my manufcript.‘It confoles me to find, as[ contemplate with you the whole of orga- nized nature, that it is not in the power of any one perfonage, whe- ther ftatefman or hero, to produce by his ill-employed ativity fo much mifery, as might have been fuppofed. Thus, if a Ruflian army, in thefe infane times, after having endured a laborious march of many hundred miles, is deftroyed by a French army in defence of their republic, what has happened? Forty thoufand human crea- tures dragoed from their homes and their connexions ceafe to exift, and have manured the earth; but the quantity of organized matter, of which they were compofed, prefently revives in the forms of mil- lions of microfcopic animals, vesetables, and infe&ts, and afterwards of quadrupeds and men; the fum of whofe happinefs is perhaps much greater than that of the harafled foldiers, by whofe deftruc- tion they have gained their exiftence!—Is not this a confoling idea to a mind of uaiverfal fympathy? ‘6[ well remember to have heard an ingenious agricultor boaff, that he had drained two hundred acres of morafiy land, on which he now was able to feed a hundred oxén; and added,‘is not that a me- ritorious thing??‘ True,’ replied one of the company,‘but you for- get, that you have deftroyed a thoufand free republics of ants, and ten thoufand rational frogs, befides innumerable aquatic infe&ts, and aquatic vegetables.’- ‘ Having written the above, I fear you may think me a mifan- thrope, but I affure you a contrary fenfation dwells in my bofom; ; and SECT XIXPT 2. OF FLOWERS. 559 and though I commiferate the evils of all organic being, Homo fum, humani nihil a me alienum puto.” 2. The vafcular fyftems of animal bodies are excited into aétion by the ftimulus of the fluids, which they abforb, circulate, and fe- crete; and when this aétion is exerted in its natural or moft ufual quantity, it 15 attended with agreeable fenfation, which conftitutes the pleafure of organized exiftence.‘Thefe vafcular aétions of ani- mals, which perform digeftion, fanguification, and fecretion, convert the aliment, after its folution in the ftomach, into more compounded and more folid materials; as into mufcles, membranes, nerves, bones, and fhells; at the fame time that pleafurable fenfation attends this activity of the fyftem. The vafcular actions of vegetables, which perform their digeftion, fanguification, and fecretion, convert the elements of air and water, or other aliments, which they receive from organized matter decompofng beneath the foil, into more com- pounded or more folid materials, as into vegetable veflels, mufcles, membranes, nerves, and ligneous fibres; and a degree of pleafure- able fenfation muft be fuppofed from the ftrongeft analogy to attend this aétivity of their fyftems. 3e Many of the materials, which have been thus produced by the digeftion and fecretion of organized beings, and have given pleafure in their produétion, have been flow in their decompoñition after the death of the creature; as the fhells of fifh were originally thus formed, and were left at the bottom of the ocean, till they became wonderfully accumulated, were afterwards elevated by fubmarine fires, and conffitute at this day the immenfe rocks and unmeafured ftrata of limeftone, chalk, and marble. As mentioned in Seét. X. Jo Fr: The ftrata, which are incumbent on the calcareous ones, which confift of coals, fand, iron, clay, and marl, are all of them be- hieved to have been originally the produ&ts chiefly of vegetable orga- nization; Whatever changes they have fince underoone in the long progrefs 560 PRODUCTION Secr. XIX, 8. progrefs of their decompofition, and that all thofe folid parts of the carth have been thus fabricated from their fimpler elements by vege- table and by animal life, and have given pleafure to thofe organized beings, which formed them, at the time of their production. We hence acquire this fublime and interefting idea; that all the calcareous mountains in the world, and all the ftrata of clay, coal, marl, fand, and iron, which are incumbent on them, are Monu- MENTS OF THE PAST FELICITY OF ORGANIZED NATURE!—AND CONSEQUENTLY OF THE BENEVOLENCE OF THE DEITY! L] vins, The Cultivation of Brocol. Tranflated in part from an elegant Latin poem of Edward Tighe, Efq. THERE are of learned tafte, who ftill prefer Cos-lettuce, tarragon, and cucumber; There are, who ftill with equal praifes yoke Young peas, afparagus, and artichoke; Beaux there are füll with lamb and fpinach nurs’d, And clewns eat beans and bacon, till they burft. This boon I afk of Fate, where’er I dine, O, be the Proteus-form of cabbage mine!— Cale, colewort, cauliflower, or foft and ckar If Brocozr delight thy nicer ear, Give, rural Mufe! the culture and the name In verfe immortal to the rolls of Fame. When the bright Bull afcending firft adorns The Spring’s fair forehead with his golden horns; YVhen the bright Bull, 1oth of April. Italian | Sec. XIX. 8. OF FLOWERS. 6 Italian feeds with parfimonious hand The watchful Gardener fcatters o’er his land; Quick moves the rake, with iron teeth divides The yielding glebe, the living treafure hides; O'’er the fmooth foil, with horrent thorns befet, Swells in the breeze the undulating, net; Bright fhells and feathers dance on twifting ftrines, And the fcar’d Finch retreats on rapid wings. Next when the Twins their lucid forms difplay, L And hand in hand flute the lord of day; When climbs the Crab the blue ethereal plain, Or fhakes the Lion his refulgent mane; Each pañfing month renew the gratefül toil, Upturn with fhining blade the fertile foil; New feeds infert, whofe vegetable birth May rife fuçceffive from the womb of earth. So fhall hibernal hours on frozen wing View the green produéts of the breezy fpring; Admiring nymphs the genial banquet fhare, Smile on thy labours, and reward thy care. But when three leaves the young Afpirer fhoots, To other fails tranfplant the fhorten’d roots; Where no tall branches form a vaulted glade, Nor ivy’d tower projects a length of fhade; There in wide ranks thy verdant realms divide, | Parting each opening file a martial ftride. | There with charm’d words of fome poetic fpell | Call the blue Naïads from their fecret cell; From filver urns in lucid cireles pour Round each weak ftem the falutary fhower. Pants thy young heart to grafp the laurel’d prize, And fwell thy Brocoli to gigantic fize?— The Twins, 2eth of May. The Crab, 2oth of June. The Lion, 32d of July. 4 C Soon RS DORE—… PRODUCTION SECT. XIX. 8 Soon as each head with youthful grace receives The verdant curls of fix unfolding leaves; O, ftll tranfplant them on each drizzly morn, Oft as the moon relights her waining horn; Till her bright veft the ftar-clad Virgin trails, Or corn-crown’d Autumn lifts his golden fcales. Then ply the fhining hoe with artful toil, Fre the grey night-froft binds the ftiffen’d foil; And, as o’er heaven the rifing Scorpion crawls, Surround the fhuddering ftems with earthen walls, So fhall each plant ereét its leafy form, Unfhook by Autumn’s équinoxial ftorm; And round and fmooth, with filvery veins embofs’d, Repel the dew-drops, and evade the froft. Thus on the Stoic’s round and polifh’4 brows Her venom’d fhafñfts in vain misfortune throwss By virtue arm’d, he braves the tented field, The innocuous arrows tinklhng on his fhield. Hence when afcendant rules the watery Star, Or the celeftial Fifhes fwim in air, Thy guarded ftalks fhall lift their curled heads, And fringed foliage fhade thy ample beds, Gem with bright emerald Winter’s tracklefs fnows, Or bind with leafy wreaths his icy brows. When leads the Spring amid her budding groves The laughing graces, and the quiver’d loves; Again the Bull fhail fhake his radiant hair O’er the rich produét of his early care; The flar-clad Virgin, 224 of Auguit. Golden fcales, 2ad of September. Scorpion, 224 of OËtober. Evade the fraft. One advantage, which vege- tables receive by repelling'the water by the upper furfaces of their leaves, is, that it may not incommode their refpiration; but another is, that by not being thus moiftened they are lefs injared by froft.* Watery Star, 19th January. Celeffial Fifhes, vyth February. The Bull, 1oth April. With SECT. XIX. 8. OF FLOWERS. 563 With hanging lip and longing eye fhall move, And Envy dwell in yon blue fields above.— Oft in each month, poetic Tighe! be thine To difh green Brocoli with favory chine; Oft down thy tuneful throat be thine to cram The fnow-white cauliflower with fowl and ham!— Nor envy thou, with fuch rich viands bleft The pye of Perigord, or Swallow’s nef. The pye of Perigord was made of the red-lepged pattridges before the French revolu- tion; and was fold in London at the price of a guinea for each bird it contained. Swallow’s nef. There is a fpecies of fwallow, that builds a neft on the banks of the Nile and Ganges, which confifts of ifinglafs; which the bird colleéts from putrid fifh left on the fands; and which is efteemed a great delicacy, and enters the moft coftly{oups at the[uxurious tables of the eaft, 4C2| SECT. “- à_—«= J CS SR 9, k res: SE"1 es EE— a. PE ge ee mm tn VE 0 564 NATURAL CLASSES. SEcr. XX. 1. SE CL. XX » PLAN FOR DISPOSING PART OF THE VEGETABLE SYSTEM OF LINNEUS INTO MORE NATURAL CLASSES AND ORDERS. 1. The claffes of plants diftinguifbed by the proportion or fituation of the flamina are more natural than thofe diftinguifhed by their numbers. Many. Linnean claffes thus diffinguifbed. Many of the orders are natural claffifications. of natural claffes. 2. The fituation and proportion of the fexual organs are lefs hable to va- riation than their numbers. Great variation in refpelf to number of the fiemina. From luxuriant growth: Some fpecies bave but half the number.‘Others bave part of them without anthers.… The number of piffilla varies in different Jpecies 0j the fame genus.… Progrefs of nature to greater perfetion. Ofthe clafs Syngenefia. 3. Immutable parts difcovered by reafoning as well as by obfervation.. Filaments of Meadia unchangeable, and of bemerocalis fulva, nigelle, collinfonia, fpartium. 4. Some natural orders might become claffes.. As the graffes, and thé umbcllate, end fiellate. Forms of the filaments, and of the anthers, as well as their fitua- tions, lefs variable than their numbers. 5: Claffic charafters. From Jhort and long flaments. From their unequal beights. From their different infertions. From their refpeftive fituations. From their adhefions to each other. Or 10 the corol, or fiyle.. From their exiflence in different flowers. From the connexion of the an- thers, or from tbe forms of the filaments and anthers.. 6. Uncertainty of the num- ber of pifilla. Their proportions and figures lefs variable. And would define more natural orders. 7. Charaëters of orders from the length of tbe Jiyle. The curvature of it. The attitudes of it. Divifions of the fligma. Abfence of the fhigma. Adbefions of the Jiyle. 8. Conclufion. 1. OFTEN as Î have admired the clafification of vegetables by the great Linneus deduced from their fexual.organs of reproduction, fome *æ ? Secr. XX. r. NATURAL CLASSES. 56: v fome of the claffes have appeared to me to be more excellent than others, as they feemed to approach nearer to natural ones. On fur- ther attention to this fubje&, I perceived that thofe claffes, which were deduced from the proportions or fituations of the ftamina, or which included the number of the ftamina along with their propor- tions and fituations, were more natural claffes than thofe, which were diftinguifhed fimply by the number of them. Thus the clafles termed Dydynamia and Tetradynamia, which are derived from:the proportions and fituations of the ftamina as well as their number, are wonderfuilly natural; to which may be added the claffes Icofandria, and Polyandria, as their diagnoftic character confifts in the fituation of the ftamina on the calyx or petals in the former clafs, and on the receptacle in thellatter, though the names of thefe clafles are not fo-happy,. as they fimply refer to: their num- bers, which are unfortunately very variable, Some other of the Linnean clafles are diftinguifhed by the fitua- tion ofthe filaments, as the Monadelphia, Diadelphia, Polyadeiphia,. and Gynandria; all which approach towards natural clafles; and the Syngenefa, which is diftinguifhed by the adhefon of the anthers, 1s a clafs beautifully natural, except the lait order. Many of the orders alfo in the fexual fyftem are natural clafifica- tions, as the grafles in the claf Triandria, the umbellated plants in the clafs Pentandria, and perhaps the cruciform piants in the clafs Fetandria; with many amongft thofe which are terined natural orders at the end of the Genera Plantarum; all which might proba- bly be difcriminated by fome fituation, or proportion, or. form, of their refpeétive ftamina. As the claffes deduced from the proportions. or fituations of the flamina alone, or conjointly with their refpetive number, appear thus to produce more natural diftributions of vegetables, than thofe derived fimply from their number; it might have been more fortu= nate for the fcience of Botany, if the great author of the fexual | fyftem 566 NATURAL CLASSES. Sec. XX. 2. fyftem had turned his mind to have clafed all of them from the pro- portions, fituations, and forms of the ftamina alone, or from thefe conjointly with their number, and to have diftinguifhed the orders according to the proportions, fituations, or forms of the piftilla alone, or conjointly with their numbers. The great ufe of diftributing plantsinto natural clafes is not only for the SE rbBfe of more ealilie diftinguifhing them from each other, and difcovering their names, but alfo 7e that of more readily detect- ing the virtues or ufes of them in diet, medicine, or the arts; as for the purpofes of dying, tanning, architeture, fhip- building; which has already been happily A in attending to the genera or faoulies of plants, which are all natural diftributions of them, whence the fame virtues or qualities generally exift among all the fpecies of the fame genus, though perhaps in different. 2. But another great advantage would probably occur from deduc- ing the charaëters of the sie of vegetables from the fituations, proportions, or forms of the fexual organs rather than from their number; which is, that thefe criterions of the clafles and orders would be much lefs fubject to variation. The variation of the number of ftamina not only frequently oc- curs from the too Juxuriant growth of many cultivated flowers, or by the duplicature or multiplication of their petals, or ne@aries,which is liable much to inconvenience the young botanift; but feveral of the fpecies of plants have but half the number of ftamina, which other fpecies of the fame genus poflefs. This occurs fo frequently, that the defe& of number is exprefled as an effential character of the fpecies in many inftances. Thus the ceraftium pentandrum, and fper- gula pentranda, diftinguifh thofe fpecies from the other plants of the genus, which pofñlefs ten ftamens; fo tamarix floribus pentandris, tamarix floribus decandris, falix floribus diandris, falix triandra, falix pentandra, valeriana floribus.monandris, valeriana floribus diandris, verbena diandra. L So À— Secr. XX. 2. NATURAL CLASSES. 567 . So the vernal flowers of the corchorus filiquofus have but four ftamina, but the autumnal ones have numerous ftamina. The linum flax of this country has but five perfe& ftamina, and five without an- thers on their fummits; whereas the linum lufitanicum, Portugal flax, poileffes ten complete ones. The verbena, vervain, of our coun- try has four flamina, that of Sweden but two; the genus albuca, bignonia catalpa, gratiola, and hemlock-leaved geranium, have only half their filaments crowned with anthers; all which and many others evince the uncertainty of depending on numbers alone for diftinguifhing. the claffes of plants.| Nor are the number of piftilla more certain as a criterion of the orders.‘Thus there 1s nigella pentagyna, and’ nigella decagyna; hypericum floribus pentagynis, trisynis, and digynis,. with innu- merable other fimilar inftances, as mentioned in No. 6 of this Sec- tion. Which evince, that great confufion muft be occafioned by a reliance fimply on the number of the piftilla for defining the orders of plants. I contend, that the number of the fexual organs in flowers is more orefs oftime, than their fituations or proportions, or forms, aud might therefore probably be more advantageoufly employed in diftinguifhing liable to change by the influence of{oil or climate, or by the pro-- their clafles and orders from each other, as well as in rendering them: more natural combinations. This mutability or uncertanty of the number of the organs of re- production belonging to individual owers, would feem to arife from an attempt of all organized beings towards greater perfection. Wbhence as the fuccefs of the procefs of reproduétion becomes more certain from the greater perfection of the vegetable being, the organs for the purpofe of reproduélion feem to become fewer. Whence fome flowers have loft half the ftamina, and in others the anthers, of thofe ftamina are yet only deficient, and in others the pifilla are deficient; all which in procefs of time may eradually become lefs numerous, 565 NATURAL CLASSES. SECTE XX, 3. numerous, or feparate themfelves from hermaphrodite flowers-into fexual ones, as in the claffes of monœcia and diœcia; and all of them finally, after a long procefs of ages, become of the orders mo- nandria and monogynia of thofe clafles; whilft new kinds of vege- tables may begin a fimilar progrefs from lefs to greater perfeétion. So in animals, the lefs perfect feem to pofiefs organs for a more nu- merous reproduction, as fifh and infeéts. Such would feem to be the perpetual progrefs of all organized being from lefs to greater per- feŒion exifting from the beginning of time to the end of it! a power impreffed on nature by the great Father of ail. Thus in the clafs fyngenefa, the tendency of thefe vegetables from more numerous to a more fimple organization for the purpofe of reproduétion is wonderfully confpicuous. In the order polygamia æqualis, all the florets are furnifhed with male and female organs. In the order polygamia fuperflua, the florets in the centre have both male and female organs, thofe in the circumference have only fe- male ones; and of thofe fome have loft the corol of the floret. In the order polygamia fruftranea the florets in the centre poflefs both male and female organs, but thofe in the circumference have nei- ther; though at the fame time the corols of thofe florets remain. And laftly, in the order polygamia neceflaria the central florèts are fimply male florets, and thofe in the circumference fimply female ones; and thus approach to the clafs of monœcia, having the male and female organs in feparate florets; and may in procefs of time exift in feparate flowers, and afterwards in feparate plants, like the two fexes of the more perfeét animals. Something fimilar to this feems already to have occurred in the plant phytolacca, of the clafs decandria decagynia; which pofñfefes one fpecies with twenty males, another with ten, another with only eight males and eight females, and laftly one of the clafs diœcia, or two houfes. 3. In many flowers fome circumfances of the fituations or pro- portions or forms of the filaments or anthers may be fhewn, by ree- 4 … foning ee 0 re= RE EPS SECTS EX. NATURAL: CLASSES. 56 | |- | Joning as Well as by obfervation, to be lefs mutable than others; as « the fhortnefs of the filaments of dodecatheon meadia, cyclamen, fo- | lanum, borago, fufchia, and others. As mentioned in Botanic Gar- | den, Vol. Il. note on Meadia, T'hus in the flower of meadia the || filaments are exceedingly fhort compared to the ftyle, and feem to have been in that circumftance immutable. Whence it became ne- ceflary, firft to furnifh them with long anthers, which ftand pointed towards the diftant ftigma apparently endeavouring to reach it, Se. condly, it was neceflary to bend the flower-ftalks, when the corols open into thofe graceful curves, which conftitute the uncommon beauty both of this flower and of the fufchia; that the ftigma by hanging down immediately beneath the anthers might thus receive, as it falls, the prolific farina. And that this was the evident defign; : of the curvature of the flower-ftalk appears from its rifing again, and| becoming quite ereét, as foon as the impregnation of the pericarp is accomplhifhed.'hirdly, as the flower thus becomes perpendicularly pendent, it was neceflary to reflet the petals for the purpofe of ad- mitting light and air to the fexual organs. We may reafon from this ftruéture of the meadia, that all this ap- paratus of long erect anthers to approach the ftigma; of bending the fower-ftalk, that the fexual organs might become pendulous; and then of reflecting the petals to give light and air; might have all béen fpared, if the filaments alone could have grown as long as the flyle; as occurs in moft other flowers. And that therefore in thefe 4. flowers the filaments are the moft unchangeable parts of them; and | that hence the comparative length of the filaments in refpeét to the | ftyle would afford the moft immutable mark of their effential cha- | raCter, or for the purpofe of clafification. | Another apparent inftance of the great unchangeablenefs of the length of the filaments-exifts in the hemerocallis fulva, tawny day- hly, in which I obferve the ftyle is crooked, or bent into a zigzao, | about the middle of it, evidently for the purpofe of fhortenins it, AD that 670 NATURAL CLASSES, SEoT, XX, 4 that the anthers might approach the fioma; the ftalk of the flower not being fo flexible as to allow it to become pendent, as in the he- merocallis flava, or yellow day-lily. In nigella, devil in the bufh, the ftyles are very long compared with the filaments, and bending down their ftigmas over the an- thers in curves, give the flower a refemblance to a regal crown; which need not to have occurred, if the filaments could more eafily have been lengthened. In collinfonia the two anthers ftand widely diverging on fhort flaments, and the tall capillary fiyle bends its ftigma into contact firft with one of them, and afterwards with the other. In the fpar- tium fcoparium, common broom, the long ftyle bends round into a circle to accommodate the ftigma to the fhort fet of anthers, which great curvature need not have exfted, if the filaments could more eafñly have grown longer. Other inftances of fimilar ftruêture are felated in Se. VIT. 2. 2. of this work. It is probable, that fimilar obfervations, and a confequent reafon- ing on them, might be applied to many other kinds of flowers fo as to deteét the moft unchangeable parts of them: but great time, la- bour, opportunity, and ingenuity, would be required to eftablifh from them the moft invariable and moft natural clafles of vege-. tation. 4. Many différent proportions and fituations and forms of the fila-: ments.are enumerated. in the Philofophia Botanica of Linnæus; fome of which might pofbly have become claffical characters, if he had turned his attention to them, and given them adapted names; as he has done to thofe clafles, which he has derived from the fitu- ations of the fexual organs, as didynamia, tetradynamia, fyngenefa, and others, which approach nearer to natural clafles, and are fubject to lefs variation than the numerical ones. Some of thofe collections of plants, which Linnæus has termed & TRE RAS ETE natural orders, and fome of thofe of Ray, and Tournefort, might : À perhaps Rp= du ELA TT Le mien 7 s Ÿ sr PCI RIT= So 2 RIRE Om ren À SP SE a ET SEC Tr‘. NN: 4 N: A NL URAL CLASSES. 571 perhaps have had names affixed to them, denoting the fituations or proportions or forms of their ftamina, and have thus conftituted na- tural clafles in the Linnæan fyflem. Thus for example the natural order of grafles might perhaps have had a name denoting their The natural order of grafles is{o confpi- s to have ftruck all beholders; they conftitute, it is faid, ly a fixth part of the vegetable kingdom, efpecially in open countries; the leaves are not eafñly broken by being trampled on, but die in winter, becoming yellow and dry; but what is wonder- ful, théy are faid to revive in the fpring, and become green again. This natural order of plants has been divided into cerealia and gra- mina, corn and grafles; which however only differ in refpeét to the fize of the ie It is much difunited by the numerical diftinétions of the fexual fyftem, as fome orafles belong to the clafs monandria, diandria, triandria, and res and thofe of the triandria, and hexandria, are either hermaphrodite, or monœcious, or polygamous plants. Ofthefe à very curious and extenfive table is given in the Prælettiones in Ordin. Natur. a Gifeke Hamburg. 1792, p: 138. À great part of the natural order of caryophyllei, in which the number of the ftamina is very variable, are obferved by Mr. Milne to have their filaments alternately attached to the claws of the petals and to the receptacle, and might pofhbly have a claflical denomina- tion from that circumftance. Botan. Dic. Art. Caryophyllei. The five ftamina of the umbellated plants in the clafs of pentan- dria digynia, with five petals, two feeds, above; which are term- ed umbellatæ in the natural orders of Linnæus; as they diverge from each other, might perhaps be called five ftarred, or cinque-pointed ftamina from this fituation. And in part the natural order of plants termed ftel llatæ by Linnæus, as galium, and afperula; which belong to the clafs tetandria monogynia with one petal, two berries, above; the four diverging ffamina might perhaps be termed ci“uciform, as they oppofe each he And ne thefe natural collections of vege- 4 D 2 tables at Le DS para M ne gr M ed ue NATURAL CLASSES. Secr. XX. 5. tables might acquire à claffical denomination from the fituations of their ftamina, or perhaps from the form of their filaments or anthers, Fo thefe fituations and proportions of the ftamina, with many others, might be added the form of the filaments, as capillary, flat, wedgeform, fpiral, awled; and alfo the forms and fituations of the anthers, as globular, oblong, arrowy, angular, horned. Which may be feen in the Philofophia Botanica of Linnæus, ps 65; or a tranflation of them in Miln’s Botanical Diétionary, under the titles of filament and anther. AIl which, I fuppofe, are much lefs vari- able by foil or climate, than the numbers of their refpettive fexual organs, and would in the hands of an ingenious botanift form more natural claffifications. 5. Clafcal chara@ters might perhaps be taken from the lensth of the filaments compared to that of the ftyle, with fome other con- comitant circumftances; as firft where they are fomewhat fhorte than the flyle, as in the pendent bell-flowers of lily, fritillaria, cam- panula. Secondly where the filaments are more than twice as fhort as the ftyle, as in meadia, cyclamen, folanum, borago, fufchia. Or thirdly where the filaments are more than twice as long as the Îtyle, and in the natural order of graffes. Secondiy, the unequal heights of the filaments at the frft opening of the corol. In many flowers the inferior fet of ftamina rife up to the ftigma, when the higher fet have difcharged their pollen. To thefe fituations of the ftamina may alfo be added their number, as in the two very natural clafles of Linnæus, the didynamia and the te- tradynamia. One of thefe might be termed two higher than two; the other four higher than two. To which might perhaps be added a third clafs, of many higher than many; as fix above fix in lithrum falicaria, five above five in lychnis. Thirdly, the different infertions of the filaments, as frft on the calyx, which principally diftinguifhes the clafs icofandria of Lin- 6 nœæus, ELA TT NN Ra —— mn"— EE D 0 om one rm nm nere umo RP TT RER ET Secr. XX. 5. NATURAL CLASSES. 573 næus, and which thus approaches towards à natural clafs. Secondly on the receptacle, which diftinguifhes the clafs polyandria of Lan- næus, which alfo approaches toward a natural clafs. And thirdly, the infertion of the filaments alternately to the claws of the petals, and to the receptacle; which diftinguifhes a part of the natural order of the caryophyllei, in which the number of the flamina is very various, Fourthly, the fituation of the filaments in refpel to each other; as firft in the natural order of Linnæus termed ftellatæ, or a part of the tetrandria monogynia; the diverging filaments oppofe each other, and might be termed cruciform, as in galium, afperula. Or fe- condly, where five diverging filaments aflumie the appearance of a ., as in the natural order of umbellatæ, or a part of pentandria di-: gynia, and might have a name borrowed alfo from their number, like five-ftarred, or cinque-pointed, applied to the filaments, as men- tioned above, Fifthiy, the adhefons of the filaments to each other at their bafe: This has given names to three clafles of the Linnæan fyftem, which approach to natural ones, under the term of brotherhoods:; as firff, where the filaments all adhere at their bafe, as in the clafs monadele phia; fecondly, where they adhere in two fets, as in the clafs dia- delphia; and thirdly, where they adhere in many fets, as in the clafs polyadelphia. Sixthly, the adhefions of the filaments to the corol, as where they adhere more than half their length to the internal part of it, as in many monopetalous flowers, as primula, auricula; or where the filament arifes from the petal, or where the anthers adhere to the margin of the petal, as in many of the natural order of fcitamineæ, as obferved in the Præle@. in Ord. Natur. a Gifeke, p. 189. Seventhly, where the filaments adhere to the ftyle, as in the clafs gynandria, which approaches to a natural one. | Fighthly, the fituations of the flamina not in the fame flowers with $ 74 NATURAL CLASSES. SECT: XX, 6. { 1] 4 with the pifullum. This has alfo siven names to three clafes of the Linnæan fyftem, monœcia, diœcia, polygamia f Ninthly, the connexion of the anthers, which has given the name 1 l fully extenfive and natural clafs. To thefe varieties of fituation, proportion, and adhefion, of the filaments, may be added thofe of the anthers on their fummits: which to an attentive obferver may perhaps be as numerous as thofe of the filaments, and to thefe may again be added the various forms of the filaments, as capillary, flat, wedgeform, fpiral, feathered,&c. and alfo the various forms of the anthers, as oblong, globular, ar- rowy, angular, horned. Al which are defcribed in the Philofophia Botanica. And by an adoption of fome of thefe feparately or in conjunétion for claffical characters, I fhouid hope that new claffifica- tions might be difcovered inftead of thofe, which are fimply numeri- cal. Which might be more natural ones, lefs fubjeét to variation, eafer to be diftinguifhed from each other, and more fimilar in their good or bad qualities; and might thus add to the great beauty and utility of the prefent wonderful arrangement of fo many thoufand vegetables in the Linnæan fyftem. 6. The fame obfervations and mode of reafoning are applicable to the various orders of the fexual fyftem. Which if the great Lin- næus had fortunately deduced them from the proportions, fituations, or forms of the ftyles and ftigmas, the characteriftic figns might have been lefs liable to change by foil or climate, and many of the orders have been more natural collections of vegetables, than thofe are, which he has derived fimply from their number. The uncertainty of the number of piftilla, and the confufon, which might be occafioned by a reliance on itj was mentioned in No. 2 of this feétion; there is a nigella pentagyna, and a nigella decagyna; there is an hypericum floribus pentagynis, trigynis, and digynis; and in the whole order of fruftraneous polygamy in the DCET. CES de NAT UR A iL. Cr SSE ë de LE / DJ 9 the clafs fyngenefa the florets of the ray are furnifhed with a ftyle and no ftioma, as in the funflower. The flowers of the polysonum, whofe claflical charatter‘is oc- tandria, and its order trigynia, affords many inftances of the uncer- tainty of the number of the fexual organs, both in refpect to the ftamina and piftilla.‘Thus the fpecies 4, 5, 6, 7, poflefs but five ftsmina 4n- each j.the fpeciesi6,-09,.2105.-have-each of thém. f& ftamina, and the eleventh fpecies has fèven famina. And lftly the fpecies 4, 5, 6, 8, gd, 11, 12, have each of them. but two piftilla, nd all the reft three piftilla. From thefe and other innumerable inftances there is reafon tocon- clude, that the proportions, fituations, and forms of the ftyle and figma, to which might be added their number conjointly, would have made eflential characters for the orders, which would have been lefs variable than thofe derived only from the number of them, and uld have rendered them more natural colle“tions. 7. The characters of the orders might be deduced firft from the length of the ftyle compared with that of the ob as where the ftyle is more than twice as long as the filaments, as in meadia, cyclamen, folanum, fufchia, Secondly, where the ftyle is about one third longer than the filaments, as in llium, fritillaria, cam- panula, and many other bell-flowers. Thirdly, where the ftyle: very fhort compared to the filaments, as in poppies. The charaéters of the orders might be deduced from the cur- vatures of the ftyle. As firft, where the ftyle bends into a curve over the pi to Mint the ftigma into contact with them, as in :..) f J: SR= nigella, devil in the bufh. Secondly, where the ftyle bends into a RE æ Va circle like a french-horn to accommodate the ftigma to two fets of "TX ftamina in fucceflion, firft the lower, and then Que higher, as in 1 F]] g+} Cu 7|A fpartium fcoparium, common broom. Thirdly, where the{tyle 1s A e 5 m+ 1 rot crooked in the middle of it, making a kind of zigzag, to lower the ASLh 576 NATURAL CLASSES. Sec. XX.». fügma to the anthers beneath it, as in hemerocallis fulva, tawny day-lily. . 3. Charaëtérs might be deduced from the attitude ofthe ftyle; as where it is pendent, that the fticma may be accommodated to the anthers above it, as in many bell-flowers. Secondly, where it is inchined at a confiderable angle to accommodite the ftigma to the in- clined anthers, as in epilobium, willow-herb, and gloriofa fuperba. Thirdly, where the ftyle is ere, to adapt the ftigma to the upright anthers, as in many flowers. 4. Where the divifions of the ftigma expand, and bend down to- ward the anthers beneath them, as in fome kinds of dianthus, pink, and in epilobium. 5. The total abfence of the ftyle might mark an order. 6. The total abfence of the ftigma, which is a charaeriftic mark of the florets of the ray in the order fruftrancous polygamy of the clafs fyngenefa, 7. Where the ftyle adheres to the ftamina, as in the natural order of Linnæus termed calamariæ, as obferved in Philof. Botanica, No. 102, on the: Piftills,:p. 69: 8. Where the ftyle füupports the ftamina as in the claf gynan- dria.| 9. Where the ftyle appears to exift both above and below the germ, as in Capparis, euphorbia, 10. The lateral adhefon of the ftyle to the germ, as in one of the natural orders of Linnæus, which he has termed fenticofæ, or briers, which includes the rofe, rafpberry, ftrawberry, agrimony, al- chemilla, and many others, which might be named from the lateral adhefon of the ftyle to the germ, which Linnæus afferts to exift both in the natural order above mentioned, and in the order Icofan- dria polygÿna. Philof. Botan. p. 67. If to thefe proportions or fituations of the ftyle were added the va- rieties Ca PA Secr. XX. 7. NATURAL CLASSES. 577 ricties of its figure, as cylindrical, angular, awled, capillary; and to thefe were again added the divifions of the ftigma, as convolute, re- volute, fix-parted, many-parted. And to thefe were again added the various forms of the ftigma, as globular, egsed, end-nicked, cruciform, feathery,&c. which are enumerated in the Philofophia Botanica; there is great reafon to believe, that chara@teriftic marks of all the orders of plants might be deduced and named from fome of thofe circumftances feparately or conjointly; which might diftin- guifh them from each other with-oreater eafe and certainty, and by raarks lefs variable by foil or climate, than by the number alone; and by rendering them more natural add to the beauty and utility of the Linnæan fyftem. Concl u/ion. Neverthelefs I am well aware of the great general inconvenience of altering fo extenfive a fyftem once eftablifhed, and am forry to fee. fome idle efforts to add the clafles already deduced from fituation or proportion to thofe, which are fimply numerical; and thus rather to deteriorate than to improve the prefent fyftem of the great mafter. T profefs myfelf incapable to execute the plan, which I have here fuggefted, as it would require a moft exact knowledge of the detail of botany, as well as of the outline; would require many years of un- remitted application, with every opportunity of vifiting botanic gar- dens, or examining dry colle@ions, and infpe@ting prints and draw- ings of vesetables; and would demand a genius, which few poflefs, capable of reducing the complex and intricate to the fimple and ex- plicit. But 1f the fyftem of the great Linnæus can ever be intrinfically improved, I am perfuaded, that the plan here propofed of ufing the fituations, proportions, or forms, with or without the numbers of à À the ET à 1 Ÿ ? Hi 575 NATURAL CLASSES, SECR, XX: 7 the fexual organs, as criterions of the orders and clafles, muft lay the foundation; but that it muft require a great architeét to ereét the fuperftruëéture. And my principal defign in adjoining this imperfe& fketch at the end of this work was to warn thof botanifts, who have began to interweave fome of the Linnæan claffes deduced from fitu- ation or proportion of the fexual organs into thofe diftinguifhed fim- ply by number, that they fo far contribute to deteriority the great {yftem, which they mean to amend.—At the fame time I much ap- plaud, and beg leave to recommend to the attention of the public, the fuperb piétorefque botanical coloured plates now publifhing by Dr. FHoRNTON, which I fuppofe have no equal. ADDITIOTÂE Ro mo mor or men rpm amener mp*=. : ne pate= per BE De PTE muse D om ADDITIONAL NOTES. om 1. To be infertéd before the laff paragraph of Seët. IV. 2. 1. at FPE line 22. IN the prefent year 1799, Auguft 18, there was an uncommon fummer-flood on the Derwent, which covered my garden above three feet deep with muddy water. Many plants of the rheum hy- bridum, mule rhubarb, which were tranfplanted in the fpring, and had not flowered, had their large pointed leaves covered with mud, fo as to render the green colour totally invifible after the water fub- fided. They appeared ftrong as before for a day or two, and then every one withered and dropped down. The fame happened to _the leaves of many other vegetables, and to efpallier apple-trees, as high as they were immerfed; which was doubtlefs owins to their refpiration being precluded by the veil over them of a fine tenacious mud. See Se. VIL 2. 6. 2. To be infèrted in Se, VAL 2. 6. af p. 118, after line 20. The rheum hybridum, mule rhubarb, defcribed in Murray’s Syf- tema Vegetabilium, edition the fourteenth, 1 believe to be produced between the palmated rhubarb, and the common rhubarb of our gar- dens, or rheum rhaphonticum; as it appeared both in my garden 4 E 2 and ——— 580 ADDITIONAL NOTES. and my neighbours amongft a mixture of thofe two kinds of rhu- barb, without being previoufly placed or fown there. The leaf is very large and pointed, without being palmated, and is a week or two forwarder in the fpring than either of the other rhubarbs, and the peeled ftalks are afferted by conuoïfleurs in eating to make the beft poffible of all tarts, much fuperior to thofe of the palmated or raphontic rhubarb; and are fo much more valuable as a luxury, as they precede by a month the goofeberry and early apple; and may be well propagated by dividing the roots, as they do not produce feed in all fammers. See Sect. IV. 2. 1. 3. To be infèrted at the end of Set. X. 4e 9. p.207 Mr. Ruckert planted two beans in pots of equal fize filled witn garden-mould; the one was watered almoft daily with diftilled wa- ter, and the other with water impregnated with carbonic acid gas, in the proportion of half a cubic inch to an ounce of water; and both of them were expofed to all the influence of the atmofphere except to the rain. The bean treated with the carbonic acid Water appeared above ground nine days fooner than that moiftened with diftilled wa- ter, and produced twenty-five beans; whereas the other pot pro- duced only fifteen. The fame experiment was made on ftock-july flowers, and other plants with equal fuccefs. An. Chym. 1788, 4. To be inferted at the end of Seïl. X. 7.7. p: 228: Befdes which the vitriolic acid abounding in many clays, when: brought into contaét with mild calcareous earth, by the various ope- rations of agriculture, muft unite withit, and fet at liberty the car- bonic acid either in a fluid form, or a gafleous form beneath the foil; 4 which ADDITIONAL NOTES. 531 wbich is known to be fo friendly to vegetation, when applied to the roots of plants; and at the fame time a gypfum will be produced, which is now alfo believed to be ufeful in agriculture. Mr. Kirwan afferts,‘ That the gypfum ufed with fuccefs in agri- culture is of a fibrous texture; and that clay lands, he believes, to be more improved by it than calcareous ones. The time of fpread- ing it is in February or March, and it is then to be thinly ftrewed on grafs-land at the rate of about eight bufhels to an acre; as more he fays would be hurtful. He further adds that the theory of its effets is to be deduced from its extraordinary fceptic power; as it is found to accelerate putrefaction. in a higher degree than any other fubftance,(Hiftoire de Putrefaétion, p. 36), whence it is not to be plouched in, but barely to be ftrewed on the furface of the land in the month of February, to convert the old grafs quickly into coal to nourifh the young growths.” I have tranfcribed the above from Mr. Kirwan’s Treatife on Ma2- nures, but am liable to doubt the experiments concerning bodies promoting putrefaétion; as the progrefs of that procefs has generally been only judged of by the odour; which may poffibly be altered or deftroyed by many bodies, by their uniting with it without other- wife affe&ing the tendency to diflolution. Add to this another cir- cumftance, fhewing the uncertainty of thefe deduétions, that fome of thefe antifeptic materials, as fea-falt, and lime, are faid to pro- mote putrefaction, when ufed in fmall quantities; and to fupprefs it, when ufed in larce ones, ç. To be inferted in Set. XIH. 2. 2. at the end of the paragraph which mentions Mr. Lanwrence’s letter to Mr. Bradley. . e« sic 7,= Another thing, which renders low fituations lefs proper for gar dens, is, that L believe them to be much more liable to be infefted + D: 592 ADDITIONAL NOTES, by the aphis; as leaves of the nut-trees in my garden on the banks of the Derwent are every year crowded with innumerable aphifes on their inferior furfaces, and yet I have feen few, if any of them, on nut-trees in fome higher fituations, which I happened to infpeët. Add to this, that the great honey-dew, mentioned in Seét. XIV. r. 7. was produced on a row of willows by the fide of water. This may neverthelefs be in part afcribed to fome other local circumftance; as I this year obferved numerous large black aphides round the ftalks of garden-beans on a clayey foil, which did not exift in my garden, which may be called a carbonic foil. Though on the peach and nec- tarine trees, againit the walls in my low garden, and on fome plum- trees, the aphides exift almoft every year in fuch deftruétive mul- titudes as to prevent the fruit from fucceeding, and thence to render them not worth cultivation; and to render the leaves of the nut- trees lefs in fize, and lefs prolific than other nut-trees on a more ele- vated and clayey foil, with which I this year compared them. Why the aphis fhould be fo much more numerous in moift fitua- tions is a curious fubject of inquiry, but is fo fimilar to another ani- mal fa&, that they may illuftrate each other."The cough and con- fequent confumption of fheep, which occurs annually in moift fitua- tions, is owing to an infect called a fleuk-worm, about the fize and fhape of a child’s finger-nail, which creeps up the gall-duéts from the inteftines, and preys upon the livers of fheep; as may be feen in moift feafons in our fhambles.. This feems to occur from the bile becoming too dilute from fo much watery nourifhment in thofe ani- mals, and that thence it does not poñlefs fufficient bitternefs or acri- mony to prevent the depredation of thefe infeëts, as in drier feafons. On'the fame account I fufpeét the juices of nut-trees and of willows planted in very moift fituations may be rendered too dilute; but that in higher fituations they may poñlefs fufficient acrimony or bitternefs mixed with the fap-juice to prevent the depredations of the: aphis. See Sect, XIV. 2,8. 6. To mn ADDITIONAL NOTES. 583 6. To be inferted at the end sf Sett: M5.% Phofphorated lime is faid to be found in the greateft quantity in Wheat, where it contributes to the formation of the gluten, which is thence not improperly denominated by fome writers animal glu ten; which in rainy years has been obferved by Witwer to be in fmaller quantity: Differt, IL. p.103. Hence the ufe of bone-afhes as. a manure for wheat, as obferved by Mr. Kirwan. Effay on Manures, Press 7. To be inferted at the end of Seë. VX. 10. Befides the various fecretions above defcribed Brugmanns is faid by Humbolt to have fhewn, that plants void an excrement like ani- mals, which might be noxious to them, if retained; that he put the plant, lolium, ray-grafs, into a glafs-of water, and obferved daily at the extremities of the roots à{mall drop-of à vifcous material: which he detached and found to be renewed on the next day.. But this I fufpeét to have been produced by’the death and confequent decompofition of the extremities of the roots in their unnatural fitua- tion. Journ. de Phyfique Delametherie, T. IV. p. 388. 8. To be inferted at the end of Seët, XIV. 4. 2. In the Tranfaétions of the American Philofophical Society there i$ à paper fhewine, that the water-rats of that part of the country are lo liable to be affe&@ed. with tape-worm, as is fuppofed much to di- rinifh their numbers. In this country many animals, as I believe dogs, cats, and ceefe, as well as the human{pecies, are afliéted with- this imteftine enemvy. Could fome of thefe difeafed American rats be 6 imported 584 ADDITIONAL NOTES. _imported into this country, and propagate their malady amonoft the native rats of this climate? 9. To be inferted at the end of Seët. X. 7. 8. p. 228. Having now fpoken of carbon, of lime, and of clay, which with filiceous fand conftitute the principal ingredients of fertile foils, fome rules may be required for diftinguifhing the goodnefs of foils by the purchafer, as well as by the poffeflor. For this purpofe the chemical analyfis would firft prefent itfelf, as attempted by Fordyce, many years ago, and lately by Giobert, Bergmen, Kirwan, and others. M. Giobert found, that one pound of a fertile foil in the vicinity of Turin contained of carbonic matter, which would burn and flame, about twenty-five grains, of flinty fand about 4400 grains, of clay about 600 grains, of lime about 400 grains, and laftly, of water about 7o grains. The fame author found that one pound of fome barren {oils was compofed of filiceous earth about 3000 grains, of argillace- ous eatth about 600 grains, and of calcareous earth about 400 grains, and I fuppofe without any carbonic matter. Mr. Kirwan ingenioufly obferves, that the quantity of moifture, which fome countries are more liable to than others, fhould be nicely attended to, at the fame time that you eftimate the fertility of land by its analyfis, as moift climates or fituations may require more fand than drier ones; and therefore the fame component parts of foil would not be the moft fertile, on both the weftern and eaftern coafts of this ifland; as the former experiences more rain than the latter; nor on the fummit, declivity, and bafe of moft mountains, which differ in their degree of moifture. It appears from hence, that the chemical analyfis of foils is not yet arrived at fufficient accuracy to be depended upon with certanty to difcover their degrees of fertility. But as the carbonic part of foil probably ADDITIONAL NOTES. 585 probably contributes moft to the growth of vegetables, and next to that the calcareous part; there is reafon to conclude, that if a few: pounds of different foils are dried by the fame degree of heat, and then weighed, and afterwards expofed to a red heat in an open fire; that the foil, which lofes moft weight, 1s probably the moît fertile; becaufe the carbonic matter will almoft all efcape in flame, and almoft half the weight of the calcareous earth in carbonic acid.: Another method of giving fome conjecture concerning the fertility of a foil may be by examining its fpecific gravity; as the fpecific gra- vity of garden-mould is faid by Mufchenbroek to be 1,030, compar- ed to 1,000 of water. And Fabroni found the fpecific gravity of barren fandy land to be 2,210 to 1,000 of water. This experiment would not be difficult to try with fufficient accuracy by drying two different foils at an equal diftance from a fire, or in the fame oven, and then weïghing a pound of each in a thin bladder with apertures near its top or neck; and then letting the bladder fink fo low into water, as to admit the water through the apertures amongft the foil; and laftly, obferving the difference between their refpective weights in air, and in water, Neverthelefs the method moft in ufe by the purchafers of land to judge of its value is by attending to the growth and colour of the ve- getables, which cover it; which requires an experienced eye, and can- not be eafly defcribed in words. Add to this that vegetables, which grow wild on foils, will in fome meafure indicate the nature of them. As the digitalis, and arenarea, are found generally on fandy foils, the veronica becabunga, and crefles of fome kinds, belong to moift fitua- tions, and others to mountainous ones. À particular catalogue of fuch plants, as fpontaneoufly grew in different fituations, might affift in dif- covering the degree of fertility, and the nature of the foil; as other flowers by the time of their opening in each climate, which is term- ed the Calendar of Flora, may teach the temperature of the feafon. In fome parts of the country the fpontaneous production of many 4 FE docks, 586 ADDITIONAL NOTES. docks, rumex, has been reckoned the mark of an inferior foil, aid the produdtion of thiftles, ferratula arvenfis, to be a fign of a good one; which explains a ftory in a black letter book on hufbandry, which fays,‘ A blind man went to purchafe a farm, which was of- fered to fale, and riding over the pafture land, and hearing the good- nefs of the foil much applauded by the poffeflor, at length difmount- ed, and faid to his fervant,‘ T'ie my horfe to a thiftle!”* Here are no thiftles,” replies the fervant,© but I can tie him to a dock.” € Then I will not purchafe the land,” fays he, and mounting his horfe with a good morning to you, Sir, left the owner of the eftate e‘ L 39 in great furprife. ro. To be inferted at the end of Seët, XV, 3. 7. To difcover when the feeds of herbaceous plants are ripe, as of wheat, the drynefs or ftraw-colour of the ftem is in general a good criterion; as when the ftem dies, and becomes bleached by the oxy- gen of the atmofphere, no more nutriment can be conveyed to the mature feed. And to determine at what time to colle thofe fruits, which never ripen on the trees in this climate, as crab-apples, and baking-pears, change of colour or fall of the leaf fhews, that they can acquire no more nourifhment, and may receive injury from the ap- proaching froft.$ But to determine when our beft or earlieft apples and pears are ripe enough to gather, that is, when they will acquire no more nu- triment from the tree, depends on a very curious circumftance of the colour of the fKin of the feeds. During the infant ftate of the fecd there is no cavity round them, but the feed is in contact with the feed: veflel, as may be feen on cutting an unripe pear or applë; and the feed'therefore is perfeétly etiolated, as it cannot part with any of its oxygen: Afterwards when there is no more depofition of nutri-. tious A SR ADDITIONAL NOTES. 587 tious matter to enlarge the fruit, the cells, in which the feeds are contained, become hollow, producing an air-vefiél for the living embryon; of what purity the air may be, which is produced in thefe cells, has not I believe been tried, and may differ as the em bryon-feed grows older; but the oxygen, which it contains, feems to have been difengaged from the membranes, which cover the feeds, which thence become coloured; whence the dark colour of the feeds of apples and pears is a proper criterion of the time, when they fhould be gathered; as it indicates, that the fruit will no longer increafe in fize, as it now waftes and becomes hoïlow by abforbing fome of the mucilage from the central parts of it. 11. To be inferted at the end of Se. NI, 5. 5. Sugar is not only afforded by the fap-flow of trees, as the maple, birch, and vine, but alfo I fuppofe from that of herbaceous vegeta- bles, as heracleum fpondilium, cow parfnip, and ferratula arvendis, field thiftle; when the former of thefe plants has been cut off near the ground in the vernal months, the fap-juice from the ftumpl have obferved to flow in fuch quantity for many days, that I have doubted whether by a proper apparatus for catching it the plant might not be advantageoufly cultivated for the purpofe of making wine, or of extraéting the fugar as from the maple of America. This circumftance has been faid to fhew a proper time for deftroying the weeds, as they be mowed in the bleeding feafon, they are believ- ed to perifh by the lofs of fap-juice. As all fpirit is the fame, when nicely diftilled, whether it be found in wine, ale, cyder, brandy, rum, gin, and is the produét of fugar by the chemical procefs of fermentation; and as all fugar is the fame, when nicely cleaned, whether it be obtained from fruits, grains, roots, canes, or fap-juice; there is reafon to believe, that fugar as well as 4F2 fpirit 588. ADDITIONAL NOTES. fpirit may fome time or other be economically procured from the ve- getables of this climate, as Maroraff extraéted it from the beet-root, and from potatoes. For the ftrencth of common ale, which is pro- duced from the fugar contained in malt, is faid to be about the fame as that of fome domeftic wines, which owe their fpirit to prepared fugar. And as in the former a bufhel or ftrike of malt is ufed to about fix gallons of water, and in the latter about twenty pounds of fugar to fix gallons of water, it follows, that one firike of malt con- tains about twenty pounds of fugar; which if an eafÿ method of cleaning it from the mucilage and from the eflential oil of the feed could be difcovered, it may fome time be manufatured at home cheaper, than it can be procured from abroad. We may add, as all fugar is the fame, and all fpirit is the fame, from whatever plant they are procured; that the flavours of wines differ from each other folely in the effential oil, which they contain, or the quantity of acidity, or of fugar not yet fermented; and that in refpe& to wholefomenefs wines only differ from each other in their ftgength" or quantity of fpirit, unlefs where fome noxious material has been ufed to fine theim, or to countera@ their tendency to the acetous fermentation, as lead has been employed in fome of the cy- ders of our country, and in fome of the white wines of France, to correct their acidity; and it is faid that arfenic is occafonally em- ployed for the purpofe of fining white wines. The injurious methods of fining wines, and of ftopping their ten- dency to acidity having been mentioned, the innocuous ones ought to be fubjoined; for the former it has been propofed to filter muddy wine through fine fand laid on a fieve; but this Ï am told does not fucceed, as the mucilage of the foul wine foon fils up the interftices. of the grain of fands; but that an efficacious method is to fhower the fine fand on the wine through a fieve; which as it pañfes down by its own weight will carry the mucilaginous mud of the wine along with it, And laftly, if fome colouring particles cannot thus be made oo CE mg mm en one-m mg À ro Ferssres mr ns ae—… BIS RE ADDITIONAL NOTES. 589 made to fubfde, a little more fimple mucilage muft be added, as gum arabic or whites of eggs, and a fand-fhower be again pañled through it. In 1cfpeét to the tendency É wines to become vinegar, this I am informed may be prevented by not expoñfng the fermenting mate- rial to the air more than can be eafily prevented, as it is the union of the oxygen of the atmofphere with the fpirit that converts it into vinegar; and though the vinous fermentation proceeds flower, when: fecluded from the air, yet it finally becomes more perfe&; as the fugar in fweet wines continues to become fpirit, after it is corked up in bottles, though the procefs is flower, and the wine confequently becomes ftronger as it grows older, and the fiweetnefs vanifhes. Hence I obferve the pt of raifin-wines fet them to fer. ment in large cafks with only the bung-hole open, that they may not be too much expofed to the de and foon ftop them up or bottle them, before the fweetnefs vanifhes, which they judge of by the tafte. I was once told by a gentleman, who made a confiderable quan- tity of cyder on his own eftate, that he had procured veflels of ftronger conftruétion than ufual, and that he directed the apple- juice, as foon as it had fettled, to be bunged up clofe; and that though he had had one veffel or two occafionally burft by the ex- panfñon of the fermenting liquor, yet that this rarely occurred, and: that his cyder never failed to be ef the moft excellent quality, and: took a confiderably greater price at market. Nor fhould this account of fermentation be concluded without ob- ferving, that it converts fugar, which is a wholefome nutriment both to young and old, into re which is a poifonous material to all; as it ftimulates the whole fyftem into too violent exertion for a P. hours, and leaves it afterwards in confequence torpid and: inaétive 3: and hence that the ftrongeft wines are the moft pernicious, and that all of them fhould be diluted with water. As thofe in general, who drink 590 /_ ADDITIONAL NOTES. drink ale to excefs, acquire the gravel; thofe, who drink wine to excefs, acquire the gout; and the drinkers of fpirits die of the drop- {y!—but it is the cuftom of moft of the inebriates of this country to begin their unfortunate career with the firft, and terminate it with the laft.; 12. To be inferted at the end of Seët: X. 6. 8. An important paper concerning lime is this year publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfa@ions by Mr.Tennant, who having been inform- ed, that two kinds of lime were ufed in agriculture, which differed greatly in their effeéts, one of which it was neceffary to ufe fparing- ly, and to fpread very evenly over the land; for it was faid, that a large proportion of it diminifhed the fertility of the foil; and that wherever a heap of it had been left on one fpot, all vegetation was prevented for many years. And that of this kind of lime fifty or fixty bufhels on an acre were as much as could be ufed with advantage; while of the other fort of lime a large quantity was never found to be injurious; and that the fpots, which were entirely covered with it, became remarkably fertile, inftead of being rendered barren. Mr. T'ennant having analyfed thofe two kinds of lime found, that the latter conffted folely of calcareous earth; but that the former contained two parts of magnefa with three parts of calcareous earth. He afterwards obferved, that though vegetable feeds would grow equally well in both thefe kinds of limeftone, when fimply reduced to powder; yet that, when they were calcined fo as to become lime, and both of them ftrewed about the tenth of an inch thick on gar- den mould, that the magnefan lime prevented nearly all the feeds, which had been fowed, from coming up; while no injury was occa- fioned by the calcareous lime ufed in the fame manner. This important difcovery feems to explain the caufe of fuch variety ofopinion about the ufe of lime, which fome have believed to be of no ps. GE; La: RER A”> EE ADDITIONAL NOTES. sg no advantage, and even injurious to land: which has probably been owing to their having ufed the magnefian lime, and having laid on too much ofit. a Mr. Tennant firft found maonefan lime near the town of Don- cafter, and afterwards at York, at Matlock in Derbyfhire, and at Breeden in Leicefterfhire, and at Workfop in Nottinghamfhire. He obferves, that the cathedral and walls of York are built with this magnefan limeftone; and that at Matlock the magnefian and cal- careous limeftones are contiguous to each other; the rocks on the fide of the river Derwent, where the houfes are built, being magnefan, and on the other fide calcareous. He obferved alfo here, that the magnefian limeftone was incumbent on the calcareous: for in des {cending into a cave formed in that rock, he found a feparate vein of calcareous limeftone, which was full of fhells, but contained no mag- nefia; and obferves in general, that magnefian limeftone may be rear dily diftinguifhed from the calcareous by its fo much flower folution in acids, and that it contains generally very few fhells, but that thofe alfo are impregnated with magnefa. As all imeftone may be divided into three kinds; the rocks, which remain, where they were formed from fhells beneath the ocean, ex- cept that they were afterwards elevated by fubmarine fires; and fe- condly into alluvial limeftone, as thofe which have been diflolved in water, and fimply precipitated, as the beds of chalk, which contain only the moft infojuble remains of fea-animals, as the: teeth of fharks; and thirdly thofe which after having been diflolved and precipitated, have been long agitated beneath. the fea, till the par- ticles have been rolled fo againft each other, as to acauire a globular form, which is faid:to refemble the roe, or fpawn, of ffh, and which contain very few fhells or none, as the Ketton ftone, and that which L'have feen on Lincoln Heath extending almoft from Sleaford to Jancoln. Now. as the falts of the fea confift of only two kinds,. common: {al ia Co: "” 592 ADDITIONAL NOTES. falt, or muriate of foda, and vitriolated magnefia, commonly called Epfom falt, which in the fea-waters furrounding this ifland were found at a medium to exift in the proportion of one thirtieth part of common falt, and one eightieth part of vitriolated magnefia compared to the quantity of water. And fecondly as thefe falts are believed by many philofophers to have been formed by vegetable and animal matters, which principally grew upon the furface of-the dry land, after it was raifed out of the primeval ocean; and that in confe- “quence the faltnefs of the fea was poñterior to the formation of the primeval rocks of limeftone; and from hence we underftand, why * thofe limeftone ftrata, which have not been diflolved or wafhed in fea-water fiñce the fea became falt, are not mixed with mag- nefia. The chalk muft have been diflolved and precipitated from water, as it exa@ly refembles the internal part of fome calcareous ftalactites, which I have in my poffeflion; yet there is no appearance of its component particles having been rubbed together mto fmall globules, and may not therefore have been removed from the fituation, where it was produced, except by its elevation above the furface of the ocean.| But that alluvial limeftone, which confifts of fmall globules adher- ing together, called Ketton limeftone, and of which there appears to be a bed ten miles broad from Beckingham to Sleaford in Lincoln- fhire, and twenty miles long from Sleaford to Lincoln, I fufpect may probably confift of magnefian limeftone; which is alfo faid in that country to do no fervice to vegetation; for this alluvial lime- ftone by having evidently been long rolled together beneath the fea, by which the fmall cryftallifed parts of it have had their angles rub- bed off, is moft likely to have thus been mixed with the magnefa of the fea-water, which is faid to contain one eightieth part of its weight of vitriolated magnefña, as above mentioned, At the lime-works at Ticknal near Derby there appears a ftratum of an the fields, ADDITIONAL NOTES. 593 Of alluvial limeftone, like Ketton limeftone, which they do not burn for fale, over the bed of the calcareous limeftone, which they get from beneath the former, and calcine for fale.‘It is probable, that the fuperior bed may contain magnefña, which hâs rendered it not fo ufeful in agriculture.| It is more probable, that alluvial limeftone has acquired its mixture of magnefia from the fea-water; as magnefia in its uncalcined ftate will precipitate lime from water, as obferved by Dr. Alfton; who thence propoles to render water pure and potable, which has been long kept at fea free from putridity by having lime mixed with it, by precipitating the lime by the addition of mild magnefa; which is a fubject now perhaps worthy the attention of the court of admiralty, fnce magnefian limeftone appears to be fo plentifully diffufed over the earth. See Dr. Black’s Exper. on Magnefa in the Eflay Philof. and Literary, Edinb. The lime from Breedon is magnefan,£hat from Ticknal(which is fold) 1 calcareous lime I believe; and fome farmers in the vicinity of Derbÿ affert, that two loads of Breedon lime will go as far, that is will apparently do as much fervice to their land as three loads of Ticknal lime. Breedon lime, I am alfo informed, is préferred in ar- chiteëture, and is faid to go further in making mortar; which I fup- pofe means, that it requires more fand to be mixed with it. Mr. Marfhall in his account of the agriculture of the Midland eounties fpeaks of lime made at Breedon near Derby as deftruétive to vegeta- bles when ufed in large quantities. And in Nottinghamfhire it is af- ferted, that the lime from Critch in Derbyfhire is fo mild, that thiftles and grafs fpring up through the edges of large heaps of it, when laid Dr. Fenwick of Newcañftle obferves, that the farmers in that country divide lime into hot and mild; which Mr. Tennant __believes to mean magnefian and calcareous lime. By experiments which were made by Mr.Tennant by fowing feeds TC A À Axe of colewort on various mixtures of calcined magnefña with foil, and 4 G of 594 ADDITIONAL NOTES. of calcareous lime with foil, he found that thirty or forty grains of lime did not retard the growth of feeds more than three or four of calcined magnefa; from hence what can we conclude? but that, as they both injure vegetation in large quantities, they may both afkft vegetation in fmall ones? and that this is more probable, as the far- mers believe, that they find both of them ufeful, though in different quantities; and as the magnefia would form Epfom falt, if it meets with vitriolic acid, which Dr. Home found from his experiments to be friendly to vegetation, when ufed in very fmall quantities. More accurate obfervations and more numeérous experiments on this fub- “ca are required, which this important difcovery of Mr. T'ennant’s will I hope foon occafion. 13. To be inferted at p. 286, 1. 16, at the end of No. 2 of Seët. XI. Another method has been attempted by fome for the purpofe of ameliorating clayey lands, which were unfit to be turned up deeper than they had been accuftomed to be ploughed, on account of their acidity or tenacity being very injurious to vecetation; as the wbite faggar clays over many coal countries; or fome very tenacious red clays, which may contain à vitriol of iron; not an oxyde, or oxy- senated calx of it. The method 1 allude to confifis in firft turning over a ridge of earth, as in common ploughing; and then with a plough, made on purpofe, to peunetrate{orne inches deeper into the clay fo injurious to vegetatiOn; this plough 1s to be fo contrived, as to raife up the clayey foil about the bréadth of the furrow recently made, and three or four inches deep, or more; but not to turn it ovér, fo that it may {till lie under the fertile foil, which is to be turned over it with the common plough, in making the adjoining furrow,. So that this plouoh QU nn— er eee GES. FAN crane ae ADDITIONAL NOTES. 595 plough is only to pafs under the foil, and thus loofen it, and mix it With atmofpheric air without turning it over. By this manœuvre the clay a few inches deep beneath the fertile foil becomes broken in its texture, and obtains fome air intercepted in its pores; from the former circumftance it may contribute to retain the vernal fhowers, which would otherwife run off over the clayey furface beneath the more fertile one, and might thus in drier feafons prevent the upper furface from being fo much indurated, and mioht gradually become lefs injurious by the frequent admixture of atmo- fpheric air, and at length even falubrious to the roots of vegetables. 462: APPENDIX: RS SR 2 mi 2 p——… es em m4 masses 5 ris PAR> qe mg ———— Vo PE { | | APPBRENDIX. IMPROVEMENT OF THE DRILL PLOUGH. | TE firft expefiment I tried to improve this valuable machine was | that mentioned in Sec. XII. 5. of this work, by enlarging the axis | of Mr. Tull’s feed-box into a wheel of fixteen inches diameter, with excavations in the rim to raife portions of the: corn.above the furface of that in the feed-box. But I found to my furprife the friction of the corn to be fo much greater than expected, when fix fuch large wheels were immerfed in it, that an additional hopper became ne- ceffary to deliver the feed flowly into the feed-box, as in Mr. Cook’s drill plough; which, as it would add much to the intricacy and ex- pence of the machinery, and to the inaccuracy of the quantity of feed delivéred, occafioned me to relinquifh that idea, and after many de- figas and many experiments to conftruét the following machine, which E believe to be more fimple, and confequently lefs expenfive to conftruét, and lefs liable to be out of order, and to deliver the feeds of all kinds with greater accuracy than any drill plough at prefent in ufe; and that it poñfefles every other advantage that they can boaff.. The fcale of the three following plates is half an inch to ten inches. Confiruétion of the Carriage Part. to the center of the axle-tree by a fimple univerfal joint at x, whence, 14 | Plate X. Fig, 1. a a, are the fhafts for the horfe, which are fixed: | 4 598 IMPROVEMENT OF if the horfe fwerve from a ftraight line, or is purpofely made to pafs obliquely to avoid treading on the rows of corn in hoeing; the per- fon, who guides the plough behind, may keep the coulters of the ploush or hoe in any line he pleafes; which is thus performed with much fimpler mechanifm, than that ufed in Mr. Cook’s patent plough for the fame purpole, whach has many joints like a parallel rue: bb are the horns or fhafts behind, for the perfon who guides the drill coulters or hoëes; they are fixed to the axle-tree before, and have a crofs piece about fix inches from it at g g for the purpofe of fupporting the feed-box defcribed below. Behind this about à foot diftant from it is another crofs piece at cc, called the coulter-beam, which is fifty inches lons, fix inches wide, and two inches thick; it is perforated with two fets of fquare holes, fix in each fet, to re- ceive the coulters in drill-ploughing, and the hoes in horfe-hoeinc. The fix light fquare holes are nine inches from each other, and are to receive the coulters or hoes in the cultivation of wheat, the rows of which are defigned to be nine inches from each other, and the fix dark fquare holes are placed feven inches from each other to réceive the coulters or hoes for the cultivation of barley, the rows of which are defigned to be but feven inches diftant from each other. Befides thefe there are fix round holes through this coulter-beam “at one part ofit, and fix iron circular ftaples fixed into the edge of the other part of it; thefe are to receive the ends of the tin flues, which crofs each other, and convey the feed from the bottom of the feed-box into the drills or furrows, when the coulters are difpofed in the fquare perforations before them. Thefe coulters or hoes the perfon, who guides the machine, can raife out of the ground'in turning at the ends of the lands, or in paf- ing to or from the field, and can fufpend them fo raifed on the iron fprings dd, which at-the fame time fo fixes the fhafts to the axle- tree me. 4 4 THE DRIEL PLOUGEH. 890$ tree that the wheels will then follow in the fame line with the horfe. ee are wheels of four feet in diameter, the nave of one of which has on it a caft-iron wheel at ff, for the purpofe of turning the axis of the feed-box, which has a fimilar wheel of one fourth its diame- ter; whence the axis of the feed-box revolves four times to one re- volution of the wheel. Confiruchon of the Jeed-box. Plate XI. Fig. 2. This confifts of boards about an inch in thicknefs, is forty-eight inches long within, twelve inches deep, twelve inches wide at top, and fix inches wide at bottom: it is divided into fix cells, in which the corn is to be put, as reprefented in Plate XL. Fig. 2. and fhould alfo have a cover with hinges to keep out the rain, and is to be plac- ed in part over, and in part before, the axle-tree of the carriage, at L£- Plate X. Fic..r; Beneath the bottom of the feed-box pafles a wooden cylinder, at- bb, Plate XI. Fig, 2. with excavations in its periphery to receive Fa crain from the fix cells of the feed-box,/"12 0 p 4, and to'deliver it into the fix oblique flues 77, which are made of tin, anë crofs each other, as reprefented in the plate. The ufe of the feed-flues thus in- terfe&ing€ F1“other is to increafe the length of the inclined furface, on which the feed defcend$, that if fix-or eight grains be delivered together, they might fo feparate by their friction in defcending, as not to be fown tog ether in one point, which might be lable to pro- duce tuflocks of corn. As thefe feed-flues crofs each other, before they pañfs thi Quee the coultér-beam at cc, Plate X. 1. it was neceflary to make three of the round holes of the coulter-beam at one end I ackwardenth an thofe at the other end; and on that account to ufe iron ftaples or 9 rings 600 IMPROVEMENT OF rings at one end inftead of perforations, as at ww, Plate X. Fig. 1. Thefe tin flues deliver the feed at the time of fowing into the ai furrows or drills, which are made by the coulters before them. ° Thefe feed-flues have a joint at x, where one part of the tin tubes flides into the other part, and they by thefe means can be occa- fionally fhortened or lengthened to accomodate them to the coulters, when placed at feven inches diftance for fowing barley, or at nine for ‘{owing wheat. At the bottom of this feed-box are fix holes, one in each cell, to deliver the corn into the excavations of the cylinder, which revolves beneath them. Thefe holes are furnifhed on the defcending fide, as the cylinder revolves, with a ftrong brufh of briftles about three fourths of an inch long, which Et hard on the tin cylinder. On the afcending fide of the revolving cylinder the holes at the bottom of the feed-box are furnifhed with a piece of ftrong fhoe-foal leather, which rubs upon the afcending fide of the cylinder. By thefe means the corn, whether beans or wheat, is nicely delivered, as the axis re- volves, without any of them being cut or bruifed. Confiru£tion of the iron axis and wooden cylinder beneath the[red-box. Phte XI: Fig. 3: An iron bar is firft made about four feet fix inches in length, and an inch fquare, which ought to weigh about fifteen pounds; this bar is covered with wood, É. as to make a cylinder four feet long, and two inches in diameter, as at£#£, Plate XI. Fig. 3. The ufe Gf the iron bar in the centre of the wood is to prevent it from warping, which is a matter of great confequence, This wooden cylinder pafles beneath the bottom of the feed-box, and Ras a caft-iron cog-wheel at one end of its axis, as at 77, which is one fourth of the diameter of the correfpondent caft-iron wheel, which FRE DRIL:PLOUEFT. 6or which is fixed on the nave of the carriage-wheel, as in Plate X. Fig. 1. ff, fo that the axis of the feed-box revolves four times dur- ing every revolution of the wheels of the carriage.| In the periphery of this wooden cylinder are excavated four lines of holes, fix in each line, asat##nnnn. A fecond line of excava- tions is made oppoñte to thefe on the other fide of the cylinder, and two other lines of excavations between thefe; fo that there are in all twenty-four excavations in the wooden part of this axis beneath the feed-box, which excavations receive the corn from the feed-ceils, as the axis revolves, and deliver it into the flues fhewn in Plate XI. Fig. 2. 0071, not unfimilar to the original defign of the ingenious Mr. Tull. s The fize of thefe excavations in the wooden cylinder to receive the feed are an inch long, half an inch wide, and three eighths of an inch deep; which are too large for any feeds at prefent employed in large quantities except beans, but have a method to contraét them to any dimenfions required, by moving the tin cylinder over the wooden one, as explained below in Plate XI. Fig. 4. Confiruëtion of the Tin-cylinder. Plate XI. À Bat Fig. 4. reprefents a cylin@er of tin an inch longer within than the wooden cylinder on the iron axis at Fig. 3. and is of two inches diameter within, fo as exaétly to receive the wooden cylinder, which may flide about an inch backwards or forwards within it, CD are two fquare tin fockets fixed on the ends of the tin cylinder to fit on the fquare part of the iron axis, which pañles through the wooden cylinder at //, Fig. 3. on which they flide one inch backwards or forwards.| The following dire@tions in making the holes in this tiu cylinder, x Hi and : æ ml té à ta D se RS è EE- 602 IMPROVEMENT OF and thofe in the wooden cylinder, which are to correfpond with them, muft be nicely attended to. Firft, when the tin-cylinder is foldered longitudinally, and one end of it foldered on, as at A, fix holes through it muft be made lonoi- tudinally on four oppofite fides of it, each hole muft be exaétly half an inch wide, and five eighths of an inch long, the length to be parallel to the length of the cylinder. The centre of the firft of thefe holes muft be five inches diftant from the clofed end A, the centre of the fecond hole muft be eight inches diftant from the centre of the firft, and{o on till fix holes are made longitudinally along the cylinder, Then another{uch line of. fix fimilar holes is to be made on the oppofite fide of the cylinder, and then two other fuch lines between the former, in all twenty-four; and the fize of all thefe holes muft be nicely obferved, as well as their diftances. Second}y. The wooden cylinder fixed on the axis is now to be in- troduced into the tin cylinder, but not quite to the end ofit, but fo as to leave exa@tly one inch of void fpace at the clofed end A, aud then the fize of all thefe apertures through the tin cylinder, each of which is exa@ly half an inch wide, and five eighths of an inch long, are to be nicely marked with a fine point on the wooden cylinder, which muft not previoufly have any excavations made in it. Thirdly. The twenty-four holes thus marked on the wooden cy- linder are now to be excavated exa@tly three eighths of an inch deep, but with an addition alfo of three eighths of an inch at that end of every one of them which is next to À; fo that, when the wooden cylinder 1s again replaced in the tin cylinder as before, with one inch of void fpace at the clofed extremity of it, the excavations in the wooden cylinder will be three eights of an inch longer, than the per- forations in the tin cylinder over them. Thefe excavations in the wooden cylinder muft alfo be rather narrower at the bottom than at the ae is THE DRILL PLOUGH. 693 the top, to prevent with certainty any of the grain from fticking in them, as they revolve. Fourtbly. À fcrew of iron about three inches long, with a fquare head to receive a{crew-driver, is to pafs through the end A of the tin cylinder on one fide of the axis, as at x, Fig. 4. The fcrew part of this is to lie in a hollow groove of the wooden cylinder, and to be received into a put, or female fcrew, which 1s fixed to the wooden cylinder. The head part of the fcrew, which pañles through the end A of the tin cylinder at x, muft have a fhoulder within the tin cy- linder, that it may not come forwards through the end ofit; and a brafs rirg muft be put over the fquare end of the fcrew on the out- fide of the tin cylinder, with a pin through that fquare end of the {crew to hold on the brafs ring. Thus when the fquare head of the fcrew is turned by a fcrew-. driver, it gradually moves the tin cylinder backwards and forwards one inch on the wooden one, fo as either to prefs the end A of the tin cylinder into contaét with the end of the wooden cylinder within it, or to removeit to the diftance of one inch from it, and leave a void fpace at the end A. Fifthly. The ends of all the holes of the tin cylinder, which are next to the end A ofit, are now to be enlarged, by flitting the tin three eighths of an inch towards À, on each fide of the hole; and then that part of the tin, included between thefe two flits, which will be half an inch wide, and three eighths of an inch lengthways in re- fpect to the cylinder, is not to be cut out, but to be bent down into the excavations of the wooden cylinder beneath, fo as to lie againft that end of the excavation which is next to A. But thefe proje“ting bits of tin, before they are bent down into the excavations of the wooden cylinder,. muft be filed a little lefs at the projeting end, which is to be bent down, than at the other end;: as the excavations of the wooden cylinder are to be rather narrower 4 H 2 at 604. IMPROVEMENT OF k at the bottom than at the top, and thefe pieces of tin, when bent down, muft exa@ly fit them. Lafily. When all thefe holes through the tin-cylinder are thus en- larged, and the bits of tin filed rather narrower at their projeétino ends, and then bent down into the excavations of the wooden cylin- der, the other end ofthe tin cylhnder with its fquare focket may be {oldered on. And now when the end of the tin cylinder at A is prefled forwards upon the wooden cylinder towards B, by turning the fcrew at x above defcribed; every excavation of the wooden cylinder will be gradually leflened, and finally quite clofed; by which eafy means they may be adäpted to receive and deliver feeds of any fize from horie-beans and peas to wheat, barleÿ, and to turnip-feed, with the greateit accuracy, fo as to fow four, five, or fix pecks on an acre, or more or lefs, as the agricultor pleafes, by only turning the fcrew a few revolutions one way or the other. Obfervations. 1. In the conftru@ion of the tin and wooden cylinders beneath the feed-box another fmall improvement may be neceflary in fowing very fmall feeds, which is this: As the fcrew at the end À is turned,{o as to contra all the excavations of the wooden cylinder, the furface of the wooden cylinder for one inch from thé end of each excavation towards the end B, Plate XI. Fig. 4. will become bare without being covered by the tin cylinder; and on thefe bare parts of the wooden cylinder, which will be one inch long, and half an inch wide, fome fmall feeds may chance to ftick, and evade the brufhes, which fhould prevent them from pafling, as the cylinders revolve. To prevent this, when the wooden cylinder is fo placed within the tin cylinder, that all the holes are quite open, let à piece of the tin cylinder ES EE THE DRILL PLOUGH. Éos cylinder about an inch and a balf long, and half an inch wide, be cut out from the extremity of each hole next to the end B, and let this piece of the tin cylinder thus cut out be fixed by à few fprigs on the wooden cylinder exa@ly in the fame place, which it covered before it was cut out of the tin one, by which contrivance, when the tir: cylinder 1s afterwa:ds pufhed forwards by: turning the fcrew at its end, fo as to contract the excavations of the wooden cylinder be- neath, the bare parts of the wooden cylinder will exift an inch and. à half from the extremities of the excavations next to the end B, and thus will not pafs under the brufhes, and in confequence no fmalk feeds can lodge in them.: 2. Some kind of iron ftaple fhould be fixed at eaëh end of the feed. box on the outfide, which when the hinder part of the carriage is raifed up by the perfon who guides it, might catch hold of the two iron fprings at din Plate X. Fie. 1. for the purpofe of fufpending the coulters out of the ground, and conneëting the hinder part of the machine with the fhafts before; that in turning at the ends of the lands, or in pafling from or to the field, the wheels may not fwerve at the joint+, at the centre of the axle-tree,. but may follow in the fame line with the fhafts. 3. The feed-box muft alfo be fupported on upright iron pins pañi-- ing through iron ftaples, with a lever under the end of it next to the wheel 77, Plate XI. Fig. 3. for the purpofe of eafly lifting that end of the feed-box about am inch high, to raife the teeth of the iron cog-wheel on its axis out of the teeth of the correfpondent iron wheel on the nave of the carriage-wheel. 4 The conftruétion of the coulters, which make the drills, and of the rakes, which again fill them, after the feed is depofited, and alfo of the hoes, are not here delineated; as they are fimilar to thofe {o often defcribed or ufed by Mr.Tull and his followers. 5. When the lower ends of the feed-flues are placed through the holes in the coulter-beam, Plate I. Fig. 1. at nine inches diftance from 606 IMPROVEMENT OF from each other, the rows of wheat or beans will then be fown nine inches from each other; and as the wheels of the carriage are four feet in diameter, and therefore travel about twelve feet at each revo- lution; and as there are four excavations round the axis of the feed- box, which revolve four times for one revolution of the carriage- wheels; it follows, that the feeds contained in the excavations of the cylinder beneath the feed-box will be fown at nine inches dif- tance in each drill or furrow, as the plough proceeds; and as thefe rows are nine inches afunder, any defired number of feeds may be depoñted in every fquare of nine inches, which are contained in the furface of the field. 6. Mr. Coke of Norfolk acquainted me, that on his very exten- five farm the wheat fown'on an acre was fix or feven pecks by the Rev. Mr. Cook’s drill plough, which was about balf the quantity generally ufed in broad-caft fowing. Ifthe wheat was nicely depo- fited in the drills, I fufpeét one bufhel would be quite fufficient for an acre, as the rows are at nine inches diftant from each other; for there would in that cafe be about eight grains or nine grains depo- fited in every nine inches of the drill-furrow; that is, in every fquare of nine inches contained in the furface of the land fo cul- tivated. Which may be thus eftimated. Mr. Charles Miller, in the Philo- fophical Tranfa&ions, Vol. LVIIT. p. 203, has eftimated the num- ber of grains in a bufhel of wheat to amount to 620,000; and Mr, Swanwick of Derby has lately eftimated them to be 645,000. We may fuppofe therefore, that a bufhel may at an average contain 635,000 grains of wheat. Now as a ftatute acre contains 4840 fquare yards, and there are fixteen fquares of nine inches in every fquare yard, 4840 multiplied by 16 gives 77,440, which is the number of fquares of nine inches in fuch an acre. If 635,000 grains in a bufhel be divided by 77,440, the number of fquares of nine inches in an acre, the.quotient will fhew, that rather more than eight + À THE DRILEL: PLOUGH. 607 eight grains of wheat will thus be depoñted in every nine inches of the drills. 7. Now if eight or nine grains were dropped altogether in one inch of ground, they would be too numerous, if they be all fup- pofed to grow, and would form a tuflock; but by making them flide down an.inclined plane, as in the tin-flues, fromthe feed-box to the coulters, which are croffed for the purpofe of lengthening them, as feen.in Plate XI. fig. 2. fome of the feeds will be more de- layed by their friction in defcending than others, and the eight or nine feeds will thence be: difperfed over the whole nine inches of the drill; which renders drill-fowing fuperior to dibbling, as in the latter the feeds are dropped all together. 8. When the holes in the wooden cylinder are completely open, they are about a proper fize for fowing horfe-beans or peas: when they are completely clofed, there will remain a fmall niche at the end of the excavation in the wooden cylinder next to B, Plate XI. fig. 4. for turnip-feed, or other fmall feeds, For wheat and barley and oats, a wooden wedge fhould be made of the exaét fhape of the area of the hole, which the direétor of the plough requires; who will occafonally infert it into the holes, when he turns the fcrew at the end of the cylinder to enlarge or to leflen them to thefe exact dimenfions. Thefe wedges fhould be written upon with white paint,. wheat, barley, oats,&c. which will much facilitate the adapting the fize of the excavations to each kind of grain, and may be altered, if required, to fuit larger or lefs feeds of the fame denomination. o. In fome drill-ploughs, as in Mr. Cook’, there is an additional machinery to mark a line, as the plough proceeds, in which the wheel neareft the laft fown furrow may be directed to pafs at a pro- per diftance from it, and parallel to it. But in fowing wheat or peas and beans this may be done by making the wheels, as they run upon the ground, to be exa&ly fifty-four inches from each other; and 6 then | a Rs 608 IMPROVEMENT OF ‘ then at the time of fowing to guide the wheel next to the part laft fown exa@ly in the rut, which was laft made; by which guide the rows will all of them be accurately at nine inches diftant from each other. The Simplicity of this Drill-Plougb. 5. The fimplicity of this machine confifts firft in its having only a feed-box, and not both a hopper and a feed-box, as in the Rev. Mr. Cook’s patent drill-plough. 2. The flues, which conduét the feed from the bottém of the {eed-box into the drill-furrows, are not disjoined about the middle of them to permit the lower part to move to the right or left, when the horfe fwerves from the line, in which the coulters pafs, as in Mr. Cook’s patent drill-plough; which is done in this machine by the fimple univerfal joint at=, Plate I. fig. 1. 3. In this machine the horns or fhafts behind, between. whieh the perfon walks, who ouides the coulters, are fixed both to the coul- ter-beam, and to the axle-tree; whereas in Mr. Cook’s patent plough thefe are all of them moveable joints like a parallel rule, for the pur- pofe of counteraétins the fwerving of the horfe; which in this ma- chine is done by the fimple univerfal joint at=, fig. 1, Plate I. before mentioned,| 4. The altering the dimenfions of the holes in the axis of the fced-box by only turning a fcrew, fo as to adapt them to all kinds of feeds, which are ufually fown on field-lands. he frons brufh of briftles, which fwecp over the excavations of the cylinders beneath the feed-box, ftrickle them with fuch ex- a@nefs, that no fupernumerary feeds efcape, and yet none of them are J in nn 0 ge>", on ge ir Sms Se< FE PREÉLPEOUE. 6o9 in the leaft bruiféd or broken, as I believe is liable to occur in Mr. Tulls original machine. Laftly it fhould be obferved, that the lefs expence in the conftruc- tion, the lefs propenfity to be out of repair, and the greater eafe of 3 PE& Des 5 AN nant: Dre> D#7:\*: underftanding the management of this machine, correfpond with its greater fimplcity; and will, I hope, facilitate the ufe of the drill- hufbandrvy. Mr. Swanwick’s Seed-Box. As the dibbling of wheat, defcribed in Seét. XVI. 2. 2. is a very flow and laborious method of depofting the corn, and is yet coming, as Ï am informed, more and more into fafhion in fome counties, fufpeét this muft be owing to the expence of procuring, and the diffculty of managing the drill-ploughs now in ufe, or to the greater inaccuracy, With which they deliver the feed. I flatter myfelf there- fore, that I am doing a benefit to fociety in endeavouring to fimplify this machine, and to increafe its accuracy as much as pofhble: and fhall therefore here defcribe another method of delivering the feed from the feed-box, which was invented by Mr. Swanwick, an inge- nious teacher of writing and arithmetic, with fome branches of na- tural philofophy, in Derby; and who will not be averfe to fhew the working models of the feed-boxes, or to give affifance to any one, who wifhes to conftruét either this drill machine, or the pre- ceding one: Mr. Swanwick’s feed-box is forty-eight inches long within, is die vided into fix cells for the purpofe of fowing fix rows of feeds at the fame time, like that above defcribed. And at the bottom of each cell is a hole 4,4,&c. Fig. 1. Plate XII. for the feed to pas 41 through L/] 610 IMPROVEMENT OF through into the feed-flues, as in the machine before defcribed but in this there is no revolving axis, but a wooden or iron bar BB, ET _ 3. Plate XIL about two inches broad, and about four feet eigh inches long, and exaétly three eighths of an inch thick. T L this bar there are fix perforations, eee,&c. which are each of them 1 exa@ly one inch long, and half an inch wide; and three eighths of an inch deep, which is the thicknefs of the bar.‘The centres of thefe holes are exa@ly eight inches diftant from each other, corre- 4° di fpondent to the holes at the bottom of the feed-box; over which it is made to flide backward and forwards in agroove. By this fliding. motion it pafles under ff brufhes, whichare placed over it on each end of the holes at the bottom of the fecd-box, and ftrickle off the grain, as the holes in the fliding-bar pafs under them, which thus meafure out the quantity with confderable accuracy. In order to increafe or diminifh the quantity of grain delivered, the flider is covered with a cafe of tin CC, fig. 4, Plate XII. which has fix perforation s exactly correfponding with the holes in the:flider;: but inftead of the bit of tin being cut out the whole length of the Tes hole, part of it is left at the end;, fig. 6, equal to the taicknefs of the pige aud is bent down as at 4, after the flider is put into the cafe, like the tin cylinder in the ne dis machine. This cafe 1s P 8 hsresble about one inch backward and forward by turning the finger {crew s, fig. 4 and 5; and thus the holes are made larger or-lefs to fuit various forts of grain, or different es of the fame fort, ex-. aétly as im the wooden and tin cylinders irmPlate XL‘Lhe flider is moved forwards by a bent iron pin À attached to it, which pales: into a ferpentine groove Y, fig. 5, fixed to the nave of the wheel: and backwards by a fteel fpring at the other end of the feed-box, which is not reprefented i in the plate Fig. g is a bird’s eye view of the GS before defcribed: E E the feed-box divided into cells by the partitions dd,&e.—c c c the flider, o| with a ra ET À THE DRILL PLOUGH. 611 with a part of the apertures feen juft appearing from underthe brufhes, X, the’axis of the wheel. Fig. 6 is a drawing of part of the tin cafe, nearly of the full di- menfions as to breadth and thicknefs, but only à fmall portion of the length; and is intended to fhew more diftin@ly the conftruétion Of it. Fig. 2 reprefents a fide-view of one of the fix bridges lying over the holes at the‘bottom of the feed-box,:on each fide of which the brufhes are fixed, which ftrickle the holes, when they are full of corn, as the bar flides backwards and forwards. The fimplicity of this flider at the bottom of the feed-box may be in fome refpects greater, than‘that of wooden and tin cylinders in the former machine; as this has but fix holes to meafure out the corn, and the other has twenty-four. But perhaps in other refpects lefs fo; as in this twelve brufhes are ufed, one on each fide of each of the fix holes; whereas there are only fix brufhes rub upon the tin cylinder in the former machine. And the reciprocating motion of this Îlider muft be quick, as it muft aét once every time the pe- riphery of the wheel of the carriage has pañled nine inches forward; which may not be fo eafy to execute as the cog-wheel, and unin- terrupted movement of the axis and cylinder in the preceding machine. T have only to add, that the facility of adapting the holes to the dimenfions required in both thefe machines, and their not bruifing or breaking the grain in their operation of delivering it, as well 4s their not being encumbered with an additional hopper, which muft deliver the quantity of feed with great inaccuracy from the unequal fhakKing of the machine, adds much to the excellency and fimplicity of them both. And I hope will render more general the ufe of the drill hufbandry invented by the ingenious Mr. Fuzz; who was on 4 l 2 fnat 5 612 IMPROVEMENT, éec. that accoun t an honour to this country, and ought to have a ftatue erected to his memory, as a benefaétor of mankind, like Ceres and Triptolemus of old. Ille Ego, qui quondam gracili modulatus avena Carmen, et egreflus fylvis vicina coepi, Ut quamvis avido parerent arva colono. Sr EN DES À. ABsorBENT veffels of vegetables, 11. Se eee de: no AVE HP COAS, Ii. 9: es Tente à sr CON OË à IDIFAL HE; 15. an, 7e re sito AE EC LONTORONEAUE, 110. és es ae ce AIOIDDOÏANS: 1 0 os es ea does. ET SOICCIHOnSer Eliati the heart, v. 3. and 5. Acid muriatic oxygenated, XV: de Fe 2 0 …... Vepetable. VI. 10. Acrimony vegetable, xvil. 2. 5. ape ce, OÙ EWO LIDOS XVII. D Aix (TES ei ÂAdanfonia the lergeft trée, XVI. 2. 14. Adultery vepetable, vii. 8. Agriculture fuperior to pafturage, xvi, 0. I. Agroftis Canina, XvViil. 1. 1. Air atmofpheric, 2. . buried beneath the foil, xn. f. =. heats-hot bedse x. 02 XII. its furface over ridges and furrows, x. 2 7 Air-veffels of vegetables, 1i. 4. 1. 2. 6. Alburnum contains fugar, 111. 8: 3. ........ acts fometimes 2s capil Ïary tubes, 1x, 22 10 s....... fometimes as capillary fyphons, Nu. 2 7 Alum, ufe of it in bread, vi. 3. 1. ..+.. how detected in bi ER Me 222.: .... falutary in the bread of London, vi, Alum refñfts putrefaétion, x,%. 8. Amon; x, 5. 0x. 7.6: Animals diftinguifhed from vegetables, x.:. 4 5 12.4. Animalcules microfcopic, xiv. 3.2. Annuals converted into perennials, x1x. 3.1. Anñthers and fligmas live on honey, iv. 5.6. ...... Wénd to the ftigmas, vii. 2: 2. Aorta of plants, v. 1. ÂAppetencies and propenfities, vil. 3% euso.. formative and nutritive, vi. 37. Apluis, 1,2. 0 VIT: 5. It 0: 1 VE. 7. and 3. 2. add. note v. Apple four on one fide, xv. I. 1. xv. 1. 4. 40 1e LICE fpread horizontally, xv. 2. 2, Archil, Xvili. F. S- Armour of vegetables acquired, xiv. 3. 2. Arnotto, xvii. 2. 2. Artichoke Loue XVI 9: de XVII. 9e Arfenic to poifon flies and wafps, vi. 6. XIV. 3: 2 Aflociation vegetable, vit. 5. Afh-tree ufed'to feed filkworms, xviii. 1. 2, Afh-leaves ufed for tea, xviii. I. 4. Afhes of Rap contain phofphorus, x. 6.6. ..... Of bones, x. 5. 4. Afparagus, xviite 1. 2: Attractions and aptitudes, vil.-3. 6. Azote forms ammonia, x. 2. 6. Azotic gas, X. 2: 0. css. infpring water, X. 3. 6. [#2] 2 B e + 0> .. ulein-hakino Ro der, Vide [AJ À je D s- 7 ,.... unfriendiy to vegetation, X. 7. 0. Barks, xvil. 3. 4, F1, de+. Wwounds Of, xvir 310 Barks Re nr CE LS LR Ed__ RE SE eh; ee nRS ee a mn z M y ET nm- F2 1:N D / Barks veffeis of inofculate, ix. 2.10 .... exterior annually renewed, 11.4. .-. intenorofelm, xXvil: 2e .... fcratched longitudinally, xviti. 2. 7. .... unperifhab té XVII 2 6. Barley ie in dunghil} water, xvi: 8. 3. ..... three bufhels and an half on.an agre, XVI 0 Beans ufed for provendér, xvi. 6. 2, ee+ 10 jured by cold water, x1: 3. 4. A jured by tow much water, xvi. 1.4. = ...:. enrich clayey loss ox, 7 Bees injure vegetation, wi. 6.3. xiv. .... how to fave thém wherr atta es X1V. 3+ 7- .... how to place their hives, xiv.3. Beetles, xiv. 3.5. Bud-lume, xvai. 3. 3: Bitter juices of plants,‘vi. 9.—. XII, 3. I. Blofloms whiter as fruits become fweeter, Vs 1, 4e Bogbean ufed for hops, xviii. 1.5. xi..2. 5. re afhes, ufecf, x. 5. 4 Bounties on exportation of corn, xXvi.:9. I. Bows from yew, xvii. 2. 11. Brain of vegetables, vii. 1. and 9 Branches, lower ones firft in leaf, in.&. Bread and beer made from hay, x. 9. 4. Bredon-lime is half magnefa, x. 6. 8. Briftles on mofs-rofes, ufe of, xiv. 3. 2. -..... On young fhoots of nut-trees, XIVe 2. bride. cultivation of, xix. 4. 2. nee: DOEM OM XX 0 Broth from mufhrooms, xwii. 2.5. Buds, partsof, ix 2. 12: -... ofdiflerentmaturity, Xv. I. 3. ».:.‘lateral and'fummit ones, xv. 2. 5. .... converted into eachother, 1x. 2. II. Budding on roots, 1x, 3. 5. Bulbs, 1&. 3. ..... producerother-bulbs, ixc 4.5. . Bunium pignut, xvii. I. 3. Burying-grounds, x. 11. 3. Butomus flowering rufh, 25e VIE 2: 2, XL e] # «2 E 7%. Calcareous earth. See Lime, Fi Calender of Flora, xvi. 8. 1. add, eix. Cankct, 31:16. propofed cures of, xvii.'3. 10. Caoutchouc, vi. 8.5: xvii. 3: 3. Capillary attraétion in alburnum, 1x. 2. 10. XV. 203. [ea Caprification, xiv. 2. 0. Can ON, x 4. À ns-dillolved by Time,%.,4: 7. ssss....s.... by ammonia, x. 4.3 Carbonie acid, x-8 5. 1460 AICOMPARES hic earth, x, 4. À «ess. COMpofes MOUNtANS, X. 4 4. Caterpillars in apple-blofloms, xiv. 3. 3. des oses TO UEMSTe XIV: 2. 4. ........ efculent Fe poifonous, XIV: 3.0, ÆCaudex of a bud, hrs OP DUGS de. vii. AVS ONE. ...... multiplied by dividing, vi. 3. 4. RS bdd from every part of, vil. 1. 7. ne DID Vi 22 Charcoal injeéted with quickfilver, v. 4 nes re.» 10 preférve fecds m4 7: 6. Chick in fhe epp, Mi. 124. Vi. 1. 2. Chorion of the chick, iii.—. 4. Chyle of animals, x 1x. Circulation of vegetables, v. 1. xix. 2. 2. ie sos ce: MiMOUtA REatr v. 2 eee ID D de: Si. 7 10 the me ve ses sise e DY APIPIDAON and by fpiral vef- feis,- vs. Clavus or ergot, xiv. I. 4. Clay; 2x7. Add note zu. ne CHEAVOICER AA. 2 ...… has a frnellwhen:breathed on, x+: .... burnt for manure in coal countries,. 7+ 4: .. is condenfed by froff, 2. X4 7. TL. ere ACIOIYEOf, Imjurious, He 2,5 Coals, origin of, vi. 8. 2. Coke, his drill hufbandry, sui, 2-2. Colchicum autumnal, 1v. 5.4. Cold after heat more injurious, x. 2. 4. 1,7. MY. À. Ta AU 2 €. XIV, 2: 2. «14 EXC Of. NIV. 2. Æain and Abel, xvi. 9. 1. Colouring, matters of, xvill, I. 5 XVII. 2. C'alamine for manure, x. 7. 1, x. 0. 4. I:“KWIL 7.5 Colouring —_—_——" pe— IN 4 Colouring for cheefe, vit. 2. 1. Colours of flowers, xix, 1. 2. ...+.. how to change, xix. 3. 2. *..... White owing to compreflôn, 2.$ D..< Condiments, xiv. 2. 8. Congelation candenfes clay, xv: 4. 1. x. FT seven... feparates fliids, xv: 4. it x: 7 Le QE se 6.0 0 0©« XiK, répels mucitate;: xv. 4 Tr, Coping of ftone, x. 3. 8. ,xv.-3. 6 xiii. FE ...... temporary of boards, xv. 3. 6. Coralline rocks, xviii, 2.74. Corn ripened in froft, xvi. 3. 2. .... lipened fooner by lime; xv: 3.:2: . Ÿ.. Coroks are refpiratory organs, iv. 5: 1. vit. F} Cotyledons-of fceds, Je Couch- Drafss XVI TL. Fa Crambe fea-cale, xiv. 2. 4; +. Goo trees to ftraighten, xvili. 2. ft, Cuucle, or exterior ba FKs XVI 22 7: may. be{cratched, xviii.. 2: I. Cyder,. xiv. 2. 9. additional note ki: VTT TS URI, à D. ; nevolence of, xix. 7. 3. es cy of hs afted trees, vil. I. Be XVe ANS Le 0 Dew-drops, formof, xii. 1. g. Di nee wheat, xvi. 2. 2. Digeftion, experiment on, xvi, 6. 2: Dik ee of plan ts, bereditary, XV, T4. experiment on their diseftion, xv2. Fr + j WE AÏVe 45,0. Dogs, Double flowers, duration-of, xix. 1:27. sa 10" Proluee, Mi Di ATRe , Du Le- CIS OF XIV,:2. 7. raught, exc j nd SES ine improved, xii. 5, and'Ap- pendix. ...... pfibt of, Appendix at the end of the work, RE ee CN ee ne— Ye Lo Drill-hufbandry, Xi. Ç. sestsessssess Or tUrnIps, xiv. 3.54 1}:‘y-rot of timber, to prevent, xviti. 2,$° Danghill water, xvi, 8.2. Dwarf fruit(CES. AV. 1.9: AVS 20 Dyeing matters, xvil. 3. su D. La. advantage of, x, ÿ2. 2. Ear fungus,: xvii. 2. 5. Egypt, îts fertility from want of rain, x.. TI +5 2 Mhéat from AVI. 22: Elftic-refin, vi. 8. 5. ile eétricity, xiii. 3. Se CORTE plants, Vi. F, xiv. 2.> sss.se. points.to precipitate dew, xii. 24. ......... pendulüm doublerof, xiii. 3. 5: Elm-tree, bark of, xvii. 3. gi Ergot, clavus,-xiv. 1. 4. Eiyfphe, mildew, xiv..1. 2. Efpallier, horizontal, xv. 2, 1. Etiolation of.leaves, xiit. I. 3. x nn... Of HOWES XVIIR TS BE ........ Of Ridies; AVHE Th ss... Of TOOTS, XVII, I. 2. XVII. 2. 2. Evaporation of water injurious, x. 3: 8. Evergreens have no bleeding. fgafon, ix. 2. 2. a osé ce MAdebY ingrafément,-xix..2 DD Excrement of plants, add: note vii, Exportation of grain, xvi. 0. 1. Exfudatio miliaris, xiv. 1. 8. Fallowing,.ufe of, xii. 3.: Faft- days, ufe of, xvis 0. I. Fatnefs, how to produce, xiv. 2.8. Fermentations, x. 8. 2. xvi: 3. 4. Figs fall off in flower, xv. 3. 4. ... pinch off their-fummits, xvi, r. 4, «... comprefs them with wire:bel XV .... wound them with:a ftraw; xv. 3. 4, ne flues in garden walls, xv. 3. 6. Drillhufbandfÿ, ix. 3. 7. xvk 2: 2, Fifh propagated for manure, x, 10. 4. 7."4 FE ae Re per= rate: SE+ PSS re as _——#é 4- ROSE TER — Tama rs RC nan.©| ee——— np ER Dit ie. PES L'N D Fax, lingam, xvit 3.7. Flewk-worm in fheep, xiv. 2. 8. additional note v. rl es, how to poifon, vi. 6. 3. x1v. 3. 3. Floods injurious, Xe, 7 Flooding meadows, art of, TARCE Flower-buds terminal, 1x. 2. 11. ns ne et CONNECT leaf-buds, ix. DT Flowers eue lefs wäâter, x. 3.9. XVI. I. 4. ...... enlarged by deftroying the leaves, 1V, 5: 4. .:....-caufes of their colours,- xix. 1.2. 4. torender dogble, x1%. 3.1 ...... double.ones from-feeds, xix. 1.#. Fluor, cubic fpar, x. 55,3: ..... ufeful in agriculture, x. 5. 4. Fluxus:u imbilicalis, fap-fow, His 2 2e er. ss difeafe Of XIV UE 0: Fogs injurious, xv. 3. 6. _.. dafhed againft trees, xv. 3. 6. Food of plantsormanures, x. .... OP YOUNS vegetables, x. 1.3. .... of adult“vegetables, Kiel Fowls, how fatter nd. xXiv. 2. 8. Free-mafons, xvill. 2. 5. Froft ripens corn, x. 3. 9. \,…. black On TImy, Xili-2..2. ... deftroys by expanding fluids, Xli1, 2. 2. sc DE fepaating fluids, xiil. 2. 2, XV. 4 de + oDÿ decreafing irritability, NI 2.12. and 2. 3: Xi: 2. 2. ..,. ftops the fap juice, xi1. 2. 3. . deftroys the old and infirm, xui. 2. 2. _... and the children of the poor, xii. 2, De .... how to be faved in fnow, XL 27. _.… itseffect on folutions, xv. 4. I. Xiil. 2. 2.2: le .... how it deftroys dife, xv. 4. 1. Xi. 2, 3° .... taifes roots out of the ground, xyiite 1 CE .... raifes the fmall pebbles of gravel walks, XVII. I. I. .., inakes clay more{olid, xv. : à .... prevented from injuring meadows, x1, 9. Le 4 ax. = PES Fruit wounded, ripens fooner; x, 8. 1. x, Re Je xiv, 2.207: .... to preferve in ice-houfes, xvit. 2. 4: XVI 7. 3 .... to ratfe good from leds Xv- Le de ... to preferve by heat, xv..4- I. .... when-ripe, to difcover, Add. note x. deftroyed by hafty thawing, why? e e XVII. 2. De + BTOW without light, Di UEX 0 Te Xiil, J, 4e XVe 3e Ai J .... are of animal origin, xvii. 2. 5- .... are animals without Jocomotion, XV. D. 5: XSL. 4, are nutritious, xix. 6. I. and ridges, xvI. 2. 2. re. Ale Furrows _ Te Gangrena, canker, XIV. D. 0e Garden, beft fituation of, xii. 2. 2. XV» 20 Garden-walls with flues, xv. 3. 6. Garden-mould, x. 4. 3. Generation, vegetable, NiL.2. ne lateral, Viis LL. Vile 2, 0 ER Meeual, VI 2e TN de dE Glands ef vegetables, vi. GS, x.7-2- +.-+ fine(and for, x1. 1.2. Gluten cf wheat nutritious, xix. 6. I. ...... deftroyed by fermentation, on re Goofeberry-trees, to protect, xiv. 3: 3.. ne ce see ee CO IUCRIE, Ne 9400 Gout: ART. r. Granaries, xvi. 7. 1. Grain, prefervation of, xvi. 7. Grafts and ftocks fecrete from the fame blood,»xv. x.#4 Grafles a. rarded by flooding, xi. 3- se. preferved from froft by flooding, xi. il. 34 ...... when beft for hay, xi. 3. 1. . ftems and roots of, ix. 1. 6. 1x. 3. I. . have no neétary, 1x. 1. 6. . fix kinds for Fe WI, LL eee. three kinds for paftures, xvii. I. I. ,. feeds of, xvi. 2. 3 XVI, I, EL. Growth 0 ee e e e e FER T+ Growth of turnips does not impoverifh land, xl, 9: -..... Oftrees, its boundary, xvii. 2. 14. Gum, effufion of, to prevent, xiv. r, 10. Gyplum, x. 6. 3. x. 5. 4. ess... With magnefia, x. 6. 8. 6999000 how to be ufed, Add. note iv. H. Habits of plants, xiv. 1, I. xix. 2. 1. Hair-powder, vi. 3. Happinefs of organized nature, xix. 7. 1. Harrogate water as a manüre, x. 4. 7, Harrow to extract roots, xviii. 1. I. Harrowing wheat in fpring, xii. 7. Hawthorn-hedge from fcions, i. 1. xv, 1.2, Hay fhould be cut young, xi. 3. 2. xvili. °.. lofes two thirds ofits weight, xviti, 1. 1. +. injured by worms, xviii. I. 1. ... making, xviii. I. I. Heart-wood is lifelefs, ix. 2, 10. ..4..{mall force of, v. 3. Heat, ufe of in vegetation, ix, 1. 3. xii. 2. g: xiv:2. 24 °... internal of vegetables, xiii. 2. 3. TL&T. Inclofures if politicaily good? xvi. Q. 1. Indigo, xviti. r. Individuality of leaf-buds, i, r. ses... Of flower-buds, i. 4. Ingrafting, iii. 2.7. xv..r. 4. ces... Whyin fpring, iii. 2. 7. 2eresse ONTOOS, IX. 3. 5. ses... ftriped plants, v. r. xix. 2. 2: 0... Of different genera of plants, xv. Ë 4 Inoculation, i. 3. ix. 2. 10.; ses... Why in fummer? it. 2,#. ses... ON TOOS, IX. 3. S. se... ROt by flower-buds, i. 4. cesse... With mature buds, xv. r. 2. XVe le Infects propagated for manure, x. 10. 2» s.... depredations of, xiv. 3. es... generation of, ix. 3. I. .... to deitroy, xiv. 3. 3. Joints of graffes, ix. 3. 1. xvii, 3. 3. Jonquil, xix. 3, 2. frritability, vegetable, vii, 2: sado. ONCAES Of, SV.N E. * se. OM AUS, X. 25 L L: ... combined, xiii. 2..HF. .... variations of, wholefome, xiv. 1. 1. Land to eftimate. See Soil, .... above 212 preferves flefh, xvii. 2. 4 Hedgehogs ufeful in gardens, xiv. g: 6 Helianthus tuberofus, xvi. 3. 4. Hepar of carbon with lime, x. 4. 7. Lateral progeny, vii. r. 1. +... refembles the parent, vii. r.% se... depénèrates, vil. I,*, Lead corroded by oak-boards, xviii. 2. S Hereditary difeafes of plants, xix. 1. 1. xix.-buds converted into flower-buds, ix. 2,1. FT Hills ploughed horizontally, x. 11. r. x. Leaves are Jungs, . /° Hoeing after the cern has Moffomed, xv. eo ee: horfe-hoeing, ix. 3. 7. xii. 5. ...... hand-hoeing, xii. 5. xvi. 2,2. Honey, vi. 6. <..... differs from fugar, v. 6: 4. ...... food of anthers and ftigmas, vii. 2.4. sr... dew, ii 2:18., XIV: 1.7" XIV. 7 2, Hops, bogbean‘inftead of, xvii. 1. 5. Hotbeds turned over heat again, x..8, 2. Hydrocarbonate gas, x. 8. 3. ..... deftroyed to produce flowers, ix. 2 ETS -.... Withered ones firft eaten, xiv. 3. 2. -.... enrich foil by carbonic acid, x. 7 7. -.... turn red in autumn, xv. 1. 4. Lemon-trees ingrafted, xv. 1. 1. Lichen rangiferinus, xii. 2. 2. Light, ufe of in vegetation, xiüii, r. .... excefs ofinjurious, xiv: 2, 4. +... from rotten wood, x: 2, I. ..... from refpiration, x. 2.#. ..+.. defeët of, injurious, xiv, 2. 4. Ÿ.«- 4 K Lightning À # * Le A 1 £ pe= RE 7 CS PR LS. ee ë>:= pe D PE ne= ee . x a— M sta à ren me RE L—- ET un TE er dé s mn A PR: te Lightning injures wheat- fields, xiv. 2. 3. le ........ deftrovs bv excefs of ftimulus, xiv. J J 2.2 ie D brete RAR A te ......... by burfting vevetable vefiels, xiv. ®(ær)[=]? eine er NOWSNONPTEVENT, iV..2..3. Linie, ufes of.nx: 6x#Add.note xi- 5... promtes putrefac étron;{x 6.55 ... promotesithe ripeningof grain,. x. 6. me XV IRIS st sttdiflolves carbon; x" 4. 7.-. ..... contains phofphorus, x. 5. 5. x. 6 3. ..... ufe of burning if, x. 44 8. + emiés Meatinix:4524. flaked with boiling water,.x. 4. 4. LAS CALE into powder by fteam, x. 4. 4. re 3: OR a walls is long moift, why? x 4 5x 6. 5. Se--_.… plants, x. 4. 6. AE a to.fluidity,:x. 4. 8. x. ..... of Breedon is half magneña, x. 6. 8, Add. note xi. ..... decreafes thé cohefon of clay, x. 7. 7. Livers of geefe, xiv. 2. 8. Loamy foil,.x: 4.52: Lop nut trees early in fummer, ix. 2. 9. Lolium perenne, xviii. I.-I. Lycoperdon, puff-ball,, xix. 6. 1 Luxury in flefh-food and ale, xvi. 9 t. M. fachines for rafing water, xi..3. 6. sens ne DY: EHGrO SHountAINS Sec ........ by new horizontal windmill, xi. Ok Madder for GENRE Cheefe x vil.,2. 72 Magnefa with gypfum, x. é 8. Mai, its goodnefs difcovered, how? xvi. Or. Manganefe as a manure, x. 7. 2. Manures, fpontaneous, x. 8. 1. Léessadse CHÉIMICH MO mn Facerinee SP NNIÉCIS Xe LORS Er«See es dPPICAION O1. X 412. ss. WE 10.pe-aphlied,/X.12, 2: #7... economy, Of.itS-applicaHON, ,X. K2, 7: coss.se Which Mmoit.nutritive,;>X..12, 4 Se eq a pr sh seSité A EC EG= EF X. Marle,_. oduétion of, x, 4. 3. ne cell..x: 5: …., Crumbles in Marine:acid,.x::75-17: PTE plants project a liquid; vii. 2.12, Mafonry, whence the:myfteries of,.xvir. the air, why? x, ÿ..2x Meadons. flooding of, xi. 3. 1. cation fp ring, XVIH. EF. Ie Menyanthes ufed for hops, xviii. 1. 5. xk De Mice- ñeld, XV RAA© Michel’s method of raïfing vines, xv. r. 3: Mildew, to prevent, xiv. t. 2. Milery is notimmortal, xix. 7. 1. Milts injurious, xv..3. 6. .... dafhed agaiñft trees, xv: 2. 6. Moifture,. ufe of in vegetation, 1x, F. 3: ME,© LIEXCE(S DÉMO 102 T: Moles, to deftroy, KV Arte. Mole-plough, x1. 1.7. Add. note xiï. Monfters, vegetable, IX E XV TU, ….....… Vegetable and: anirmal, vii.#2.. 8: XIX. Foire Monuments of paît felicity, xix. Fe. essscsss.s Of paftanimal life, xviii. 2. 14. cesser Of. Palt Vepetable MÉer fit. 2. Ie. Morafles, x. 4. 3. Morels approach to animals, xvi. 2, 5. ss Cohvertédinto fat, xviii2ifst Mofs-rofe, its armour,: xiv. 3.2. Mould, xiv. 1. 2: See Mucor. Mucilage, vi. 1: Mucor, or mould, grows without fight, xiv P, XY.8.2: …….... poifoned by vinous fpirit, xv. 4. 3, XVIH..2, 4 Mulberry leaves, xviti. 1. 2 sea mes TUE by rhgrafting XV Mule-beans, vii. 2. 6. +.- CADDAPE-SNI..2t ie se e DES, PEU À. «triple Veuttable, VIL 2.3: Mules, aninffal,. vii: 2. 7. sais«ti VegetabICs NI 2206: Mufcles of vegetables, vil. r. Mufhrooms, of animal origin; xvii. 2.6, ses4% 0%. APREGAENO animal nature, XIXe Or Mufhrooms IN Muihrooms conduét Galvanifm, xvii. 2. 5. see sure LOTO ALVIT 24 5. NE Se of vegetables, viii. 1. evil-Holt water, x. 7. 8. Nit re, production of, x. 74e Nutritious parts of Vegetables, xix. 6. 1. Nut-tree twigs their armour, xiv. 3. 2. Nymphæa alba, ix. 2. Sub ARC ...... nelümboéatenin China, xi.2. 5. O. Oaks and willows why barked in fpring, üii. Se A VII-52.02. .... fhould be felled in winter, iii. 5. 1x. 2. Sr RUH.-2 RE .... barked produce more flower-buds,: ix. DD VE D Or planted with:pines, xviil. 2. 2, . …. 000:years-old,. xvii-8:16: Oats lefs profitable provender than beans, xVI- 0, 2, .... improve by keeping, xvi. 6. 4. Ochre:red, 4$ a manure, x: 7#r: Oils effential, agreeable or poifonous, vi. 8.1 2. . fixed in a boiling heat, xvii: 2 6. .... ufed to poifon weapons and pools‘of mater, vi. 8.2: ....exprefled, not-narcotic, vi. 4, 2. Old corn preferable to new, xvi. 6 4, Onions, roots of, 1x. 3. 2. =. magical, 142. 4 Orange bears by hernie XV. ITU TS Orchis for falep, 2-44 RORIRT US ++ LchoWw{0 en the feeds Ax091l0. xx DA Organs of reproduétion, vi. >. lateral in buts: vii.+T: ...... fexual in flowers; vii, 34 Owls fhould be encouraged, xiv. 4. 7. CCC . D-E XX, Oxygen in vegetable fluids, whence? x Â. 8. “ae sig decompofed carbonic acid, x. A. 0. XML NL. 52: ne fo decompofed water, x. 3. Mi. F2: loofely combined in nitre, x. 8. 4. promotes vegetation, x. 2. 8. abounds by criolation: X1X. Te deftroys plants by excefs, xiv. 2.#. ms. 25 à Caufe of irritability, XIV. I Je Oxygenated muriatic acid, x. 2.8. xiv. es. ss see pPelipirapie IMAtICT, XL Tr 24 Le 5: Xi. 1027 1 Papin’s digefter, x. 0. 3. Papyrus, xvii. 3 7. Paring and burning, x. 7.4. Pafturage compared to agriculture, xvi. 9. x, Paufe in vegetation at Midfummer, i IN, 219, 1x2. 9. Pear-tree in part decorticated, 1x. 2. 10. XV: 2. 3: ve 2e ee CONMPIEHEU DYWITE, AV. 2. 4 ....... beaïsat the extrernitiés, why?‘ix. D ....... ripens by baking, x. 8. 1. Peas grow in water, xi. 2. .... rows of from fouth- eat to nôrth-weft, Xi, 230% ,. Contain moré meal than oats, xvi. 6: 2. ,. boil foft, XVI 4 2: >. MUIE, VI. 2. 0. XVI. Aer. »*-.. their pods nutritious 2. 2. .... economical provender, xvi. 6.2. Penetrability of foils, x. 3. 6 Perfpiration vegetable oxygenatéd, xiii. Petals are refpirätory orpans, iv:&:°T 17 Viis Phofphorus in rotten wood, x. 5.1. SUR SE SAIT A VEPCIAUIES, 2e 5. 9 re de KA 020; suovs..e PIvES folidity tO THMDÉT, X. 9. 6 Oxydes of metals, x.!2. 3. x. 7. 1. Phofphate of lime, x. 5. 5:°x. 7.6. Oxygen, x. 2. x. 7.2. See s ice in the gluten of wh te Additional ....... abounds in rain water and in fnow, note vi. XI. 2 2. Pignut, bynium, xvi. 23. 4 K 92 Pine." Re Æ= das me D_ ne ë PE Re x ne D mp SEE APE A ce eme ———————————————— dé a——— Re REC=———"“— RES DE a ES cs? Rp A 2 1: Nu Dear 4x. Pine-apple cultivated in Water, xv, 3, 4. Piping buds, ix, 2. 1. Pith like brain or fpinal marrow, i, 8. ix. 2, %., XVII 22 12. Placental veffels of buds, ñ. 4, iii, 2, 6. sers ve Of IEEUSS HIT. Le 2. sr its OLENCS Ni, 1: 4, Plants live longer if prevented from flower- ing, Vil, I. Plant trees fhallow in the foil, xv. 2. 4. Plough for draining, xi. 1. 7. seine= END ME ss. DM, xi. 1.7. Add, note xit, Ploughing if in ridge and furrow, x, 3. 8, c..... Wheatin fpring, xil. 7. Plume of feed afcends, why? ix, 1. 3. Poems. See Verfes. Points liberate air from water, xiii, I. s. Poifon of yew leaves, xiv. 3. 2. -.... Of euphorbium, vi. 8. 3. ....« to vegetables, xiv. 2. 7: Poifonous exhalations, xiv. 2. 6. Polypus, ix. 3. I. Potatoes, early ones, xvii. r. 2. ss... Curled ones, ix. 3: 4..Xvii..1. 2. s See cs ACFAPONCS, XVI 1.4, +... increafed by tranfplanting, ix. 3. 7. es»... incfeafed by pinching off the flow- ÉTS; IX; 3-2. XVIe F2: s.... Detter fet in drills,#vi, 2: 2. ss... to ripen the feed, xvi. 3. 4. os ROW tO:IMpPrOvE, XVI. 5. I. e.....+. 16 boil in fleam, x. g. 2. 6... t0 boil mealy, xvi. 4. 2. +... Kiled by drying on.a kiln, x. 0. 2. AVAL, 2: 4e RL A URe> +... May be planted whole, xvii.. x. 2, Pottery, Breedon-lime for, x. 6. 8. Prefervation of fruits, xv. 4. 1. esssens Offecds, xvi. 7.1. +... Of roots by cold and by heat, XviI, 2: 4. Progrefs of nature to perfection, xx. 2. xiv. 9 2. Propagation af good trees, ix. 3. 7, Props for tranfplanted trees, xviii. 2, x2, Puberty of plants, ix. 3. 1. xv. 1. 2, Pulmonary organs, iv. Putrefaétion, x. 8. 7, Putrid exhalations, x 4.3% 7: 8, K.. Raddle as a manure, x, 7, 1. Radifhes to procure early, xvii, 1.#. Rafts of hollow timber, xvii. 2, 10. Rain contains oxygen, xiii 2.2. -... injures the anther-duft, x, 3, 0. Rats to deftroy, xiv. 4. 2. .... are liable to the tape-worm, xiv, 4, 2, Red leaves in autumn, xv. 1. 4. Rein-deer mofs, xiii. 2. 2. Refin elaftic from bark of holly, xvii. 3. 3. .... OÙ wheat:flonué, vi S: CRUE TER Refpiration of animals, x. 2. 7. se... Of plants requires light, xiii. 1.4. o...... Of plantsnotin their fleep, iv. 5. 5 ANT UE ........ Ofglow-wormsis luminous,x.2.#. Rheuim hybridum; mule rhubarb, Additional notes 1. and li. Rhubarb roots when to be taken up, xvii. 2. ce... leaves deftroyed by mud, Additional: note 1. Rice in Valencia, xi. 3. 4. se. grounds, X. 8.09. Ridges and furrows, x. 3. 7. xvi. 2, 2, ..... advantages of, xvi. 2. 2. Rime perpendicular or lateral, xv. 3. 6. ..... frofts and black frofts, xüi 2.23 Rings of timber concentric, xviii. 2,#2. Ripening of fruit by wounding it, xiv. 2. 9, Xe 0e Le XVe De os... t0 difcover. Additional note x, Roil wheat in fpring, xii. 8.. Roots defcend, why? 1x. 1. 3, xv. 2. 4, ..... at Midfummer, ix.2. 0. ..... decay.internally,.1X 3: 5. “.... End-Ditten, 1%. 3-5 +... fhould be plucked up for tranfplants. ing, KV. 24: 4. ++... from wounds of the bark, ix, 3.7: Les EUOlATION Of, XVIL 22 TI, Root-grafting, 1x. 3. 5. «+. InoGulation, 1X. 3, 5.. ses Propagation,.iX, 3..5. +. fcions for planting, xvs I, 23. Rofe plaintain, 1x. 2. 11. KRofes to forward, xvi. 2. 5. e.. doublé ones,.xix. 2: 1: Rotof timber,. ii. 2, 3e iXs 2. 8 Xviii. Du, Rot RE à 7= EN Rot of fheep,«iv, 2, 8. Additional note v. Rubia tinétoria to colour cheefe, xvii, 2. 2, Rubigo, ruft, a difeafe, xiv. 1. 2: Rye-prafs, xvi. 6, 1, xviii. I, 1, S Saccharine procef in malt, x. 8. r. cs... May€exift beneath the foil, x. 8.—+. se... in baked péars, x: 8.+: ........ how haftened infruit, xiv. 2, 9, Sage-leaves for tea, xviii. 1. 4. Sagoe from the palm, xviii, 2. 12, .... from artichoke ftalks, xix. 4. 1. Salep, orchis, xvi. 3.4. xvii. I. ç, Salt marine as a manure, x. 7. 5. «. 4$S a condiment, xiv. 2. 8. Sand fine white near. Derby, xi. r. 3% Sap-flow, a difeafe of, xiv. 1. 0. °., Juice, great: force of, v. 3. …. flows in fpring, iii. 2. 2. ix. 2, 8: …. at Midfummer, ii. 2. 8 ... from herbaceous plants. Add. note x. e.. Component parts of, x, I. I. Scarcity, food in times of, x. 9. 4. Scarifier, Xviii. I. I, Scions from roots, xv: T..24 oc... FOT STASIHE; XVE 1: 4; ee(OT Plante, XV. TL. 2: Sea-cale, how to cultivate, xiv. 2. 4 Secretions of vegetables, vi: o,:+.+.. Of. the graft and ftock different, XV. I ss ss OF DU, 2 ONEAIC Of XIV. E, JO, Secret concerning fruit-trees, 1x, 3. 2, Seeds before impregnation, vit, 2, r. vi. 2-8 “o.. gTOWth-of; IX, Hi . plume grows upwards, why? ix, 1, 3. . root downwards, why? ix. 1. 3. . production of, xvi. - ftceped in dunghill:water, xvi. 8. 3. +... Of hay fpoiled by fermentation, x. 12.7: .. of wheat fpoiled by fermentation, xv. . Of wheat, how to preferve, xvi. 7. I. .... Of wheat, how improved, xvi. 5. 3. >». Of potatoes and orchis to ripen, xvi 3e 42 LE] a.» & e id . ° % e e ge DRE s Ro POS > ÉESRENT ONE SE de Seeds difperfion of, vii. 2.&- *... Change of not neceffary, xv. 6: 7. s... When ripe to difcover.‘Add. note x. +... how to preferve, xvi. 7, 6. .... fhould be fown foon after ploughing, x 7. 5.; ss, TEQUITE OXYPEN; XII I, Se Seedling trees, xv. I. I. Senfes of vegetables, viii, 6, Senfbility of vegetables, viii. 2 Sexual generation, vii. I. 7. ++... progeny, vil. 2.; se Of INfeËs, IX. 3: K. Sheep; flewk worm of, xiv. 2. 8. Showers injurious, x. II. I. Shepherd Kings, xvi. 0. 1. Shrubberies of mulberries, xviii. 1. 2. Silkworms fed with afh-leaves, xviii. 1. 2, Situation for a garden, xv. 2m MS. 25 Slaughter-houfe of nature, xix. 6. 5. Sleep of plants, iv.$, 5. Slugs, xiv. 3. 5. Smoke and fteam of poifonous plants, xiv, 202. Smut of wheat, vii: 2: 2, xiv. I. 5. Xvi. 2.2, Smyrna wheat;.xvi. 2. 2.. Snails and Slugs, xiv. 3. 5. Snow contains OXygen, Xlii, 2. 2, Soap-ftone fteatites, x..6. 8. Soils to analize. Add, note ix. +. by burning them. Add, note ix. ... by their fpecific gravity. Add. note ix, +. by their native plants. Add, note ix, +1. Cracks in them, to prewænt, xvi. 2, 2. Soup.lefs nutritive than the folid meat, x, Sour grafs, how to deftroy, xviii: 1, 1. Sow thick for herbage, xviii, 1. 1. «... Early on wet foils, x. 320, XVb Re. ke *... foon after the plough, x. 6. 5. + Wet, XVI: 0: 4- Spirituous liquors, xvi. 9. 1.. Add, note xi:. 6.0 0.-IFON TOGÏS, XVII. Æ. TL; sens es(TOM DARK. xl 233 M... from:léaves,:Xyai F0: Springs, origin of, x1. I. 2. s56°9+ Wall-fprings and. pipe-fprings,. xi.. x, 2 oveco, how to difcoyer, xi,—, 12. Spyur: 14 Nyx2D% Es Xe Spur of rye, ergot, xiv. 1. 4. Stacks of 1 hay, x. II. 7. XVÜI. I. I. Sr ONOPUD, to preferve, XVI. 72 4. Starch, vi. 3. xvi 4: IXS Es, 4° Steam, ufe of in cookery, xix. 4. 1. ..€tiolates fome vepgetables, XLR. AA teatites foap- fine, x. 6. 8. tigma bends to the anther, vi. 2. 2. Straw chopped with green food, xviii. I. 1. Strawberries, xv. 2. 4. barren, 1X. 3. 4. XV. I. 4. Sue mellita, done-dew, x1v. I. 7. SUpar, VI 6.<. 8.1. XIX.: 0.0: - fugar from de of herbs. tional note x1. “.... INayinjute the teeth, Vin 2. .... exitsinimalts Add: HOtE x. +... féparatéd HOMAMUCHarE Avi 2x 0 2 cn TOM DCAtS and CaTFO(S, XVII. L. TI. =>+<. CONVEFTCO INTO AICN, V5 .... prolerves fecds vi 7, 0 2: NUITITIOUS, XIX- 0. 1. Sweat miliary, xiv. I. 8. Swine-troughs moveable, x. 11. 6. Swilcar oak, xvii. 2. 16. r ee.... Addi- 1e Tennant on limes. Add. note xi Tanning, xvii. 3.5. Tape-worm in water-rats. Add. note vi. T'ar-water deftroys fome infects, xiv. 3. 5. Tea recommended, xviii. 1. 4. Tellure of tiller, xvi. 2. 2. 7. en fcorodonia, XVI De 22 wood-fage, xviil. 5- ie hifllés, to deftroy, xiv. I. 9. Additional note xi. Thunder fhowers, xiii. 3. 3. "Tiller: ortellure xi7. Xvi. 2, 2. Timber, concentrie rings of, xviii. 2. 12. 4:- HOULO!, TO PICVETT, EMI 2.5. ......-howdécompofed, XVII. 2. T4. ... political to cultivate, xviii. 2. 15. durability of, xviii. 2. 7. ER-FrvSte Pres. Tranfplantation of wheat, 1x. 3. 7. xii. 6. e+ D Tranfplantation of trees at Midfummer, ix: sers cs ce ONU TTCES XVe 4 AVE eee si sec- Of tIMDer(CES XVI 2° IT. not too deep, why? xv. e 0 . ° e ° e + e . ° of turnips, ix.-3. 5. Xii: 6. ane e Dire outte eNOPIBTOCONENX NEA. 4.:XIX. so. vs.+ Of ftrawbénties 24.2. 4; T rces crooked, how to ftraighten, xvii 2.1. -.... fmeared with pitch die, ii: 2. 6. .....“do not-bleedin fumer, tii.:2: 6. ..... triple by ingraftment, vii. 3. 1. their fize bounded, xviii. 2. 14. ...:. to make tall and firaight, xvii. DER ..... to make them crooked, xviii. 2. 2. ….. When to fell,ün:9202x0 26:xviu. 2.1 12€ .... tranfplanted when large, how, xviii. 2: ER: ... tranfplanted, how to prop, xvii. DATE Lrefoils SXvVile FE: TI. Trifolium pratenfe& repens, xviii. I. 1. Truffe, lycoperdon tuber, xvii. 2. 5. Tubpav en ..... feed is five years before it flowers, ix. 6x2 ..... lefs when coloured, xix. 1. 2. Tulls hufbandry, 9. 3. 7. xvi, 2. 2. sr advantapes Ris 35e Turnips fowed deep in drills, xiv. 3. 5. ..... do not impoverifh the foil, X11-: 98 “v..-tratfplanted, 14.23 shit 0e affected bythe fly,;xin 9h Turpentines, vi. 8. Tuflocks of grafs, how to deftroy, x. 6. 7 XVI Tee. ur:-mmnofawhéeateui ONE 4227 «« Le TOMOETFCES, XMI-22 2. Twitch-grafs, xvii. 1.1. o why, U. Umbilical DAT S RAS ES res FE EN RETXx Ü Umbilical veffels of vegetables, iii. in feeds, üt tr, 2e ons. 1 0g9S, ji. I. 3. LH a O0b buds,; 7. ss, Of the alburn um,.ix. 2.0. -......2 live after the arterial ones, ix. 2 LS Uredo frumenti, xive r. 3. Uftilago, fmut, xiv: 1.5. COR OPORCETSE TES Y W. Variegation by ingrafting, V: I. XV. I. 4. AUX 2 002 Vegetables differ from animals, i. 5. refemble animals, ï. D s....... how to boil them green, ,XIX:- FRE Vegetation, paufe of at Midfummer, ii. 2.8. IX. 2. 9. Verfes on ingrafting, xv. r.= °.... On producing flower-buds, xv. 2. 6. ..... On cultivation of brocoli, xix. 8. on pruning wall trees, xv. 5. +... ON pruning melons, XV: Svilesr oak, xviii: 2: 16. Vigorous and wéak trees, x. 2. 1. Vines, art of raifing, XV. I. ci ++... management of, xv. 2. 6. .... to ripen the grapes, xiv. 3. 3. -.... leaves to colour wine, xviii, r. 5- V Hero X:Ta2 Volition, vegetable, viii. Æ 2... . W. Wall-trees horizontal, xv. 2. tr. Le Jong in drying, why, x. 4. 4. Walnut BE ars byi ingrafting, VAT, Wafps, to poifon, vi. 6. 2 Water, ufes of in agricuituré, x. 3:, =...(olidified, xvüi, 1 1x. 4 4 RS is an acid, X:2-0 Water is decom pofed i in végetables, x 3. 3. MIO(ONE fprings contains limeftone, X. O2 x.#r “REY POPrain contaiss oxygen, Xi1i. 2.2. me by euphorbia, vi. 8. 4 W atering meadows, xi. 3. sers... plants, xv. 3.4. xviti. 2. 1. +. not in funfhine, why, xk 3.4. ses. NOr In froft, why, xv. 3. 4. nuft be repeated, Xi" 4. 10t fa as to cover them, xi. 2 e . e . . . Wax, wi, 7. Weeds, to del[roy. Add. note xi. Wet Bones injurious, x. 3. 9. es AIS se VI. 7. D. : foils, fow and reap early in, Xe 3. 6. Wheat, ix. 1.6. ix. DT. in Mes Witf branching ears, xvi. 2. 2. -..... number of grains from one, IX. ÉLTR SE ac a Al. O, XVI. 2 IX T, C.PIX MT. XIV. 4, St SO hd in fpring, XI1. 8. XVI. 2. 7 XV DL 0. -..... harrowed in fpring, xii, 7. se. CONHitS CG cparate plants; ix. 3. r. -..... gluten of, vi. 8. s. xvi. 7. 1. xvii. 2 ES: -...... has no neétary, ix. 1. 6. ..... Injured by wet feafons, vi.#. r. 7 *..... fowed but one inch deep, xiv .. how to difcover its goodnefs, xvi. ...... fow two kinds of, xvi. 8. 2: -...+. Caudex of produces other ftems, ix. -..+..‘Caudex injured by infects, xiv. …..... dibbling of, xvi. 2. 2. eaten down by fheep, ix. 3. 7. xvi, .,.s. died on Kkilneexvt. TE ...... hoarded by mice, xiv. 4% W Lite parts of flowers from com preffion, XX. 2: 2. Willow-bark, ix. 2. to. Winds, fouth-weft falubrious, xv. 2.6. *..,,. north-eaft injurious, xy. Lo 6. Wines, 6 = M_———— een PR ON ES = Le re ne: plate IN. 5% RVines, means to fine them. Add. note x, Worm of fheep, xiv. 2. 8. Add. note v. Woad, xviil. I. 5: Wounds of trees bleed in fpring, ii. 2. 2* Wood, to increale, xviii. 2. I. v.+ co... durability of, xviii. 2. 7. XViiie 2. 14 eee. imbibe fluids in fummer, v. 3. es... triturated for food, x. 9. 4. Nat. dthe bare AV:& 10.; Wood-fires impoverifh a country, X. II, Ge e+ssese UPPEr lip only grows, 1. 3. Wood-fage, teucrium fcorodonia, xviil. I.8e++... Of fruit by Infecis, XIV. 2. G. Woods fhould be planted on hills, xviii, 2.© oeecese by caprification, xiv. 2. Q. 15. THE END. ERR AT A. Page 139, line laft but one, read diftinguifhes, for diftinguifh. =—— 21, line 14, for from, read form. —— 528, line laft but two, for fo, read no. DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. Pleafe to put Plate I. and the Explanation of it, facing each other, at the end of Section I. between pages 8 and 9. Plate IL at the end of Seët. IL. between p. 18 and 19. ee.-| Plate IIL. at the end of Se@. III. between p. 38 and 30.| Plate IV. at the end of Se&t. IX. between p. 182 and 183. Plate V. VI. VIL at the end of Seét. XI. between p. 282 and 283. Plate VIIL at the end of Se&. XIII. between p. 314 and 315. Plate IX. at the end of Se&. XIV. between p. 372 and 373:| Plate X. XI. XII. at the end.| Printed by T, BENSLEY, Bolt Court, Fleet Street, London, ] li) == == | | l ( jJ ji | il LH :«ll Re mn 1) NI Aer suogagr ve“AIR M de= min+ M nn LE XIE. Plate = ONE nET |( 1 2 air\ _Æ === En is L Lies — EE——— NN I 4 CL SSS DT [fil| 2“ ji nn Lori don, Published Jan.”i“u800,by J Johnson, StPauts Chureh Yar«d # pe sp — — — — — — „ ¹ II G 9 3 1 4 4 8 Ap. 7 . 2 3 Se danes Siẽ 8 5 — ◻ 5 5 65 5 — 5 0 — 8— „ 5 —