————— niv.-Bibi. Giessen PRACTICAL AGRLCUETURE; OR, A COMPLETE SYSTEM i OF MODERN HUSBANDRY: WITH THE METHODS OF PLANTING, AND THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCR. BY R. W. DICKSON, M.D. * BIBLYOTHEK sal uid tives eiatas Sie) ieilsta axe Pater ipse colendi| y an Ree LN Haud facilem esse viam voluit. VIRG. GEORG. LIB. 1.\DES a AN an ae ay kits.N 1 Soa UE wy ZU MOEGLIN IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. IL LONDON: PRINTED FOR RICHARD PHILLIPS, No. 71, ST. PAUL’s CHURCH-YARD; BY R. TAYLOR AND CO. BLACK-HORSE-COURT. =A oe 1805. C.O.Nck EN TS { OB sr En SECOND: VWGOL.UME, renee S*E-C°-F 1 ON XE CULTIVATION OF ARABLE LAND(continued), PAGE Pease: 5- 583 Manner of thrashing them out: Beans:;- 590‘By the flail Potatoes és C- 600 By the thrashing- machine Turnips::; 030 Advantages of each method Cabbages i:- 681 Preserving of grain: C Turnip cabbage. 4- 695 Restoring tillage lands to grass: Turnip- rooted cabbage: 5- 698 Lands most proper for this purpose, ex- Cole or rape:: LOZ, plained:‘: Carrots:“ 4 Ge Laying them down to grass Parsnips.‘ cane zhi) fodes of preparation necessary for Mangel wurzel 5 2. 723 Grasses most suitable, in different cases: Hemp:": a Natural grasses é; Flax° C 7/8 Of the artificial kinds a° Hops°©. 744 Clovers Woad:‘4: 765 Trefoil e Weld:: WD Saintfoin Madder 6 5 Hee GTS Lucern Teasel es: SL Tares Liquorice 780 Vetches Methods of harvesting the various kinds Chicory,&c. 5° 5 of grain crops Ae mes Buck- wheat. Of stacking- 5- 795 Proportion that ought to exist between arable Thatching of stacks: 799 and grass i° a SEC Tal ON XII. CULTIVATION OF GRASS LAND. PAGE. GRASS LANDS:- i903 Times proper for, in different cases‘ Kinds of Z. ibd. Removing obstructions to the scythe: Proper application of;. ibid. Coarse weeds and plants. Meadows, and other hay lands“. ibid Moss Difference of management;~ 904 Sticks Clearing from stock 6. ibid. Stones VOL. II. AD2 PAGE. 802 ibid. 803. 804 808 813 ibid. 815 821 823 824. 855 856 869 870 875 887 894 805 808 go PAGE, 905 go6 ibid. 908 909 ibid. SS CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.. PAGE, Cattle dung-hills és‘s« 909 Ant-hills 4:. ibid. Mole-hills. OE Catching and dest roying m moles. ibid, MANURING:: 5 3OS Proper times for::- gi4 Kinds of manure« O15 States in which zpplied with‘most each a O16: Proportion of, necessary i:. ibid. Repetition of senbids, Some sorts used as top- dressings cannot be often repeated f Oly, Chalk, marle, chopped woollen rags, ee. pelbids Capable of being more frequently used in composts?. ibid, Lime, with vegetable substances, often em- ployed as top-dressings°<« O18 Peat-ashes, coal-ashes, a soot: a Abide Best applicd after rain in March=) sible. Setting out manures;:. ibid. Attention necessary in:;. ibid. Mr. M‘Donald’s contrivance for oi ee oliells Spreading of, 0 0» O19 Bush-barrowing;, e ibid. Rolling: 4- 920 Proper times for;| bide Methods of restoring grass- fas ae+ 921 WATERED MEADOWS;. abid. Nature of ibid, Situations and soils proper for+. 5 922,923 Methods of forming° 4 924 Spirit level useful in:.£4925 Irrigation or watering:. ibid. Modes of conducting the process Sg“bck Catch-work watering r- 930 Where capable of application~ abide Circumstances to be attended to in eabids Utility often derived in watering from stirr~ ing mud in bottoms of mains, and the PAGE@ Methods of performing i i- 039 HAY-MAKING:<- gA0 Best methods of 4. ibid. Stacking and thatching hay é» O44 Best methods of performing;._ ibid. Modes of preventing stacks from heating. 645 Stacking-stages°:. ibid. Hay-sweeps.:- OAT: AFTER-GRASS:‘«046 Modes of management of c aiid. Best application of produce of:. ibid. Pasturing of:“+ GAG Utility of in this view.-, abide PASTURE LANDS* i O51 Modes of management in‘ Removal of obstacles to pasturage. ibid. Methods of improvement of:*8 O53 Different modes of application of« Q54 Modes of stocking and feeding down a abide Circumstances to be attended to in+ Q55 DRINKING-PONDS:: abe Utility of for cattle.“« ibid Methods of forming of 064: Mr. Marshall’s calculation of expences of 965 Construction of, by Mr. asses« 966 COW KEEPING: 3 ODT, Modes of management in°- ibid. Cows proper for°.- 968 Manner of foddering of.“*), OF} MILk.. Ree 12,074: Times of milking 2:- O76: Method of selling milk a 2) abies Profit of°:: alibi SUCKLING OF CALVES.:- 978 Methods of management in°- O7% Advantages of..=< 982; REARING OF CALVES 983 Attention necessary in, to ie good me stock ibid. use of lime or other substances. ibid. Best methods of practice in different districts 984 Causes of the beneficial effects of watering. 931 WEANING OF CALVES- gs6. Vast utility of: é. ibid. Attention necessary to wean early See glbid.. Proper seasons for.:. 933 Best methods of- ibid, Lengths of time for continuing it°. ibid. Young stock should always be well fed- 990: Mr. Wright’s opinion of Fi+ ibid: DAIRYING« ibid. Mr. Boswell’s;. ibid. L.ands proper for different kinds of ¢. ks) abiae Circumstances to be regarded in eatingdown Proper modes of conducting of a« ibid, watered!ands 5;- 934 Convenient dairy-houses useful°« 992° Useful in producing early grass c ibid. Proper sorts of cows for E+». 003: Mr.Templer’s improvements by watering 936 note Must always be well foddered:- 904 Improvements by, in Yorkshire. 937 note Kinds of food proper for winter andisummer 996: In Cheshire, by Mr. Fenna. 938 Times-of milking:.. 998 WARPING, a practice in Lincolnshire. ibid. Proper management of milk‘. 999 Only slightly useful on grass-lands).. ibid, Churning 5. 1006: MOWING- 3 ibid, Making butter.. 1007: Proper periods for:.. ibid. What necessary in these operations» ibid, ee CONTENTS OF THE SECOND YOLUME, PAGE, Quantity of produce in:; 1008 Cheese- 1009 Processes in making Li: 2 ibid: What necessary in the various operations of- 1010,&e. Advantage of dairying in genera:- 1022 GRAZING- 1024 Lands most proper for<. ibid. Methods of stocking of. ibid. Sorts of aniinals for, in di fferent cases. 1025 Neat cattle 2- 1027 Sheep:> 1028- Lambs 7 Ogi Systems of management in each= 1032 Horses.» 1037 Hogs é. ibid. Advantages of each» 1039 SOILING AND STALL-FEEDING Sibids Soiling- ibid. Vast gavantage of, in saving of food- 1041 What necessary to regard in. 1042 Methods of foddering oHRIPY yed in- 1043 Stall-feeding» 1045 Kinds of food employed in» 1046 Methods of feeding. 1047 Proportions of food consumed-+» 1049 Advantages of different sorts of food. ibid. HOUSE-LAMB SUCKLING- 1054 Convenient lamb-houses necessary for- 1056 Breedsof ewes proper in.= 1097) Manner of feeding ewes in-. ibid. Management in suckling--houses.. ibid. Advantages of this practice- L058 PLANTING 5. 1059 Eases in which useful S. ibid. Soils adapted to“. ibid. Kinds of trees proper for, in different cases. 1060 Fruit KIND e ibid. Apple... 106t Pear°- E» 1064 Soils suited to;-. ibid. Aspects most favourable for.. ibid. Sorts proper for cyder and perry- 1005 Methods of planting:.. ibid. Proper distances for*:, 1066 PAGE. Should not be planted too deep 5. 1068 Best seasons for C... Jord Methods of pruning- 1069 Causes of blights,&c.:. ibid. Manner of keeping the fiuit for cyder. 1070 Process of making it note ibid. Preduce in the apple and pear E> 1072 A dvantages of the culture of apples and pears 1073 TIMBER KIND i c Hy lbias Soils proper for. 1074 Kinds of trees suitable for different cases of. 1070 Oak; ash; elm; mountain ash; beech; sycamore; fir; larch;” poplar; willow; osier,&c.-=) Abid. Best siz’s of, for planting 2- L077. Manner of raising in the nursery°- ibid. Distances at which planted:- 1079 Preparation of land for.- ibid. Manner of planting in different situations 1081 In belts, stripes, clumps,&c..- ibid. Method of mixing the plants-- 1082 Warmth necessary in raising‘= abide Methods of planting out.. 1083 Should be kept clean afterwards.. 1086 Filling up vacancies°:» ibid. HEDGE-ROW TIMBER°. ibid. ‘Trecs larger in these cases.- 1087 Proper pruning of- 1088 Methods of thinning in plantations:. 1089 In underwoods 5*» ibid. Osiers. 1090 Methods ce planting oe culture i in. ibid. Profits of- ibid. Willow advantageous in some situations- 1091 WOODS:.. ibid. Management necessary in.:= bids Causes of decay of. ombids Modes of filling up 2:- 1093 Times and methods of cutting osier. 1094 In Buckinghamshire“. 1095 In Worcestershire;. ibid. In Herefordshire a:. ibid. In Staffordshire A». ibid. Time of cutting over in underwoods- 1096 Manner of performing the work. 1007 a nee CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME: S:E°@:2: 200 Mw XII. LIVE STOCK. LIVE STOCK, Importance of Great attention to Further:improvement of, necessary Additional facts and experiments wanting ’ for 4: Circumstances to be attended to in: Shelter and warmth, with a high degree of fertility of pasture, useful Systems of practice pursued in, different Crossing the breeds é i i Supposed advantages and disadvantages of this method: 3 Though useful, should be practised with cautiom% 6: A Injury easily done by it when injudiciously performed,:= Various proofs of i; Breeding in-and-in; Advantages of this method - What necessary to be regarded in Principal object of the farmer:—profit Form of animal most proper for‘ Properties to be regarded in Shape: What necessary in Most perfect kind of ij Which most advantageous in the view of the grazier:: The most perfect probably best Size A 5 5 Question concerning, not fully settled Opinions differ, from the quantity of food consumed not being well ascer- taincd 5 j A number of small animals consume less than of large ones 7; Mr. Knight's opinion favourable to large size for fattening:. 4 ‘Consumption of food not in proportion to size.. Advantages of small-sized animals Smaller sizes best for milk: A Sizes must be much regulated by pasture or herbage 4 On rich pastures, larg e breeds most pr fitable 4 A i On inferior ones, the smaller sorts Tameness of di on; great utility of, in domestic animals.; Hardiness, a desirable property in Marks of:: 3) PAGE. 1100 ibid. ibid. 1101 ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. 1103 ibid.| ibid. ibid. 1104 ibid. ibid. ibid. 1105 ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. 1106 ibid. ibid. ibid. 1107 ibid. ibid. 1108 1109 Early maturity: advantages of, to the farmer Circumstances most tavourable to Good feeding and warmth while young Quality of flesh probably depends on breed, and not on size of animal 4 A Goodness of flavour, in some measure, on food E é* Badness of colour, perhaps morbid f Appearances of good meat A Effects of difference of age on the appear- ance: 5 Disposition to fatten, highly necessary to be attended to A i Principle of, not fully investigated° Much influenced by form of breed, in Mr. Bakewell’s practice:‘ Advantage and disadvantage of too much fattening: 5, Fattening the only means of procuring good lean meat é i“ Much attention to this property necessary in raising live stock* 3 Hide 5< i Necessary feel of° i: Utility of, in exposed situations: Property of supplying milk largely Nature of anima! for j Should probably be an exclusive breed for Sir John Sinclair’s opinion of a breed suited for this purpose, and for that of the grazier. i Aptitude for labour, a property necessary in certain circumstances 5 What proper to be considered in Blood, or inherent quality of a breed: Utility and advantages of, in breeding animals‘ uch regard necessary to these properties in breeding Modes of conducting the business na Success of, on what depends:‘ Choice of live stock 6 Various circumstances to be considered in Vast advantage of improving live stock, shown NEAT CATTLE Breeds of, very numerous No perfect arrangement of: Methods that have been attempted in A By the horns+ note By the names of the counties or districts where they prevail most . a. ... e° PAGE. 1110 ibid. ibid, TENE bf ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. Lid ibid. ibid. ibid. LyI3 ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid« ibid. 1il4 ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. 1116 1117 ibid. ibid, ibid, ibid. ibid. .* ————————————— epee aie CONTENTS OF THE PAGE. Different breeds described: long-horned 18. Middle-horned°. ive) Short-horned’. ea Welsh breed 5‘. bid. Suffolk loun breed>: By) Polled or Galloway breed 5 2 ¢ ibid’ Kyloe breed: L123 Fifeshire breed--. 1124 Alderney breed:‘ s4,lbad. Wild breed ibid. Different breeds proper for different purposes of the farmer 1125 Circumstances to be esac in this i in- tention‘» illest Cow stock 4 AQF Means of providing good sort of ibid. Breeding and rearing young soaks 3 what necessary in 3) albid). Farms proper for;;.- ibid. Best methods. of, in different» circum- stances. ibid. Kinds of food most advantageous for»‘abidt Winter management of:- 1228 Manner of‘oddering of ibid. Question of being tied up, or dose, con- sidered sabid. Proper age-of putting heifers to the bull 20 Best season for calving 3 i L130 In-calf stock should be well fed 4- ibid. Bulls-:- ibid. Duration of vigour af ibid. Should be well supplied with Facell in rear- ing 5 E34 Mr. Bakewell’s ere in E. ibid, Oxen for labour ibid. Proper management of in Herefordshire. and Devonshire.:. ibid. Time of bringing into work;. ibid. Best modes of shoeing: Sods 2, Age-of cattle, how ascertained. sabid:. Diseases of cattle, and remedies properfor. 1133 Scourings 5‘. ibid. Yellows A ¢-+ abid. Bloody urine 5:. ibid. Foul:.. ibid. Garget;:. ibid, ‘Wounds E::. ibid. SHEEP’.> ibid. Importance of, in different views. ibid. Nature of, in different kinds;- 1134 Distinguished into different classes or breeds in different ways ibid. _According to the nature of their wool, the situations in which they are chadily found, or their particular proper- ties j. ibid, Standard form of, in‘ke ram‘. ibid, SECOND VOLUME. PAGE, Attention necessary to this and other pro- perties in improvement ere breeds 1135 Different breeds described Ss ibids New Leicester and Dishley fecal 5 stostele Lincolnshire breed F- 1136 Tees-water breed; q 7 117 Romney-marsh breed. pe hile ye? Dartmoor breed: C. ibid, Exmoor breed 1139 Dorsetshire breed.‘ ibid. Herefordshire breed ibid. South-Down breed“ oe 1 Ke Norfolk breed.: PALIAL Heath breed-: dA, Herdwick breed fi ibid. Cheviot breed‘‘ a. 1143 Dun-faced breed; ibid. Shetland breed ibid. Merino or Spanish breed 4. 1144 What breeds most suitable under different circumstances of soil, climate, and situation ibid. With the intention of profit fone the carcase ibid. From the wool ibid. Mr. Marshall’s opinion of difie ent breeds in respect to different manufactures ibid. Circumstances. to be regarded in intro- duetion of ibid. Fine wool may be obtained without i injury to the mutton 1145 Putting rams to ewes 6 c. 1146 Proper selection of ewes for 2- ibid. Proper time for 3 5- ibid: Late duke of Bedford’s practice in. ibid. Best age for:- ibid. Necessary system| of man agement of sheep in different circumstances ibid. In winter x; ibid. Proper keep while in lamb Ay- 1147 Great attention to, necessary at lambing- time. rhid; Necessary provision of food rae ibid. Utility of turnips in this way. ibid, Modes of eating of, Ts most advantage 1148 Lands much improved by. ibid. In good breeds, bran and oil-cake useful. ibide Baiting with hay necessary< ibid. Cotting, great utility of-wipid, Brought through winter well in‘this way 1149 Recsceved grass; vast benefit of ior this use in‘aul spring ibid. Watered meadows may be depended on, where sufliciently extensive ibid. Other means of support. ibid. Turnip-shoots A ri. 1150 Ray-grass- and clover; Mr. Young’s ae ibid. opinion of these F PAGE. Cabbages better in April: P1150 ‘Yurnip-cabbage:: ibid? Ruta baga: ard bit Boorcole, importance of:~ ibid. Burnet, great use of. ibid. Turning upon the pastures: i ibid. What necessary in:‘= mibide Best methods of 4°. ibid. Attention to the fly necessary: Se et boy E Weaning the lambs j= ibid: Best modes of ibid. Proper feed should be provided eal. ibid. Ewes to be kept at a distance ibid. Advantages of dividing flocks into different parcels:-. ibid. Management in down and mountain sheep. ibid. Salving;; smearing:+ 1154 Inutility of the practice s- 1155, note Profit of sheep in various cases«1156 In Mr. Macro’s estimate ig~ Abid; In Mr. Ellman’s; be ibid: In the duke of Grafton’s A. ibid. Folding 1157 Mr. Young's objection to, in certain cases ibid. Cause of practice of 5- 1158 Advantage of, in sheep-yards:= 1150 On tillage lands 5- 1161 SHEARING SHEEP“% ibid. Best method of washing. 1162 Circular method of clipping, an improvement 1163 Origin of. ibid. Introduction of, by the earl of Egremont, late duke of Bedford, and Mr. Coke ibid. Management of 3“. ibid. Expences of z 2. ibid. Winding the wool z,. ibid. Frequent clipping*:- 1164 Effects of A+- ibid, Clothing sheep. ibid. Effects of, not fully shown 2. ibid. Time of clipping lambs 2 OD Of castrating them- ibid. Produce in wool different in defecent breeds ibid. Qualities of, adjusted by wool-staplers._ ibid. Qualities necessary for shepherds:- 1166 Modes of determining age of sheep« ibid. Diseases of sheep‘* ibid. Fly°°° e ibid. Foot-rot 5 5 S107. Scab 5 5.= ibid. Rubbers 8>) ibid. Blindness 5 i. ibid, Bot:. 4- 1168 Turn, or giddy::. ibid. Resp, or red-water°.- 1169 Braxy fe 5- ibid, Black-water A.> Ibis CONTENTS OF'THE SECOND VOLUME. PAGE. Skit;. 1169 Commnon salt, its uses in preventing diseases in sheep i 6- 1170 HORSES A. ibid. Utility and advantages of, in different views ibid. Breeds employed in the business of hus- bandry A. ibid. Different breeds dexcruel:- ibid. Blood-horse, too fine 3. ibid. Cleveland bays‘.« 1171 Suffolk punches A.- ibid. Clydesdale horses:: ibid. Heavy blacks:» ibid. Welsh and Scotch bivipsas oe LIZZ Farm horses should be selected ies the first three kinds ibid. Heavy kinds less used from the intvoldakien of the blood sort ibid. Breeding can only be attempted“under cer- tain circumstances-. ibid. Method of management in 4. ibid. Time of putting mares to the horse- 1173 Importance of having foals early a ibid. Time of going with foal;- ibid. Should be well kept during. ibid. Care to be taken in working of- ibid. Modes of rearing the foals 3 ibid. System pursued when breeding is not prac- tised.:- 1174 Time and method of castrating«1175 Practice in Yorkshire 4- ibid. Mode of breaking of c:- ibid. Making up young horses for sale 1176 Question of the comparative utility of inde or oxen as teams. ibid. Cases in which cach kind may be useful 1177 Best method of feeding teams°- ibid. Various estimates A- 1177 note Meaus of lessening expence of keeping of. 1180 Utility of bruising the oats: lsh Barley may be employed with oo ibid. Feeding ox-teams e ibid. Working of teams‘< ATS2 What useful in» ibid. Different utility of the aticana the shed sy stem 1184 Expences of different teams differ much- 1185 Necessary proportion of teams to the extent of land in different sorts of farms- ibid. Ass and mule teains, where useful- 1186 Diseases of horses 5.« 1467 Wounds::- ibid, Bruises‘ 4: ibid. Strains:. ibid. Warble tumours 7- 1188 Colds, 4 5 ibid. Colics A 4- bids Staggers;:- ibid. CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. Pigs pay for keep equally well as other sorts of stock 3 Modes of curing bacon, pork, and hams VOL. Il. PAGE. Strangles.. 5 USUSS) Yellows: 7= 1089 Worms‘ A of bid. Bots- e+) bide Glanders“ i Pe ibide Farcy 5 ibid. Grease- i. 1190 Mange:. bide SWINE,;- LIQ -Proper form of°:=| bide Large breeds of arbi 3erkshire ibid. Hampshire ibid. Shropshire ibid, Gloucestershire: ibid. Herefordshire:. ibid. Largest breed of;. ibid. Small breeds of. é- 1192 Chinese: ibid. White 5 ibid. Swing-tailed ibid. What necessary in the breeding of ibid. Utility of convenient sties ibid. Circular form of, advised by Mr. Young ibid. Advantages of: 1193 Expence of building of note ibid. Age of putting to boar“. 1194 Produce of A- abid. Best seasons for rearing. ibid. Different sorts should be kept separate- 1195 Proper sorts of food to be provided in abun- dance. ibid. Crops proper for, in in view 2 ibid: Proper proportions of ibid. Modes of feeding different sorts of. ibid. With dairy-wash:. ibid. Other sorts of wash:. ibid. Pea-soup- 1196 Boiled and other roots, cabbages,‘&e.. bid. Soiling hogs more beneficial- 1100) Lettuces useful for sows with pigs 5 MUNG: Mode of cultivating them for ibid, More sows capable of being kept in this management than under the dairy system.- 1198 Best periods of selling in this management_ ibid. Expence of store-keeping of, various ibid. Advantages of breeding and rearing pigs ibid. Fattening é ibid. Seasons for ibid. Substances used in. ibid. Best means of employing them 1199 Advantage of different sorts of food in the production of pork ibid. 1201 . ibid. PAGE, Diseases of hogs 5 ASO, Mange= bide Crack in ears. 1203 Swellings in udders ibid, RABBITS ibid. Where kept with adv antage ibd. Proper breeds of for warrens ibid, Methods of managing of; ceeatoiele Statements of profit of. 1204 Nodes of taking by nets and traps.£205 POWER:: 1206 Where usefully kept.. ibid. Fow!}s‘ ibid. Different Liteds of Fs. ibid. Proper conveniences for ibid. Management of in setting, breeding, rearing, and fattening of 1207, Expences of. 1209 Mr. Boys’s system of management Be ibid. Diseases of:. 1210 Guinea fowl 4:. ibid. Uses of p ibid. Turkey 3 4 ibid. Breeds of= abiGs. Proper management of. ibid. Reason of fineness of in Norfolk| a DIY Living and dead weights of« ibid. WATER FOWL“. ibid. Ducks 4 2» Ibid. Kinds of a F~ Abid. Best modes of management of 1212 Utility of in destroying worms, slugs,&c. on grain crops)~.- 1213 GEFSsE“. ibid. Kinds of. ibid. Proper modes of hatching and rearing of.= ibid. Manner of plucking of AIA. Methods of fattening of 6, UP PIGEONS:. ibid. Where kept with sions:. ibid. Best management of 4 eo Dovecotes should be kept clean a free fiom vermin 4 5 We BEES ibid. May be kept with advantage i in Bame cases 1218 Most proper situations for:- ibid. Methods of purchasing stocks of» 1219 Best construetion of hives for= 1220 Profits of- 1221 FISH-PONDS: bic. Advantageous in some cases. ibid. Methods of constructing of' 2 1222 Expences of ibid. Manner of stocking a in different cases» 1223 With carp 4. ibid. Tench, perch,&c.;- 1224 Profit of, under different circumstances» 1225 AE LIST OF PLATES IN THE SECOND VOLUME. Plate J, HerefordshwesBallie cnceises.). EEE a. i eie Sree a to face the Title. LT Bean Drill hae et eee ier ree ites iwtere to face Page 594 TH:“Potatég Marton: ae eats ee. ee ee oe eee 630 INL AM hb by INCI MR Se Som kece noon ¢ Vastu eed unOo de Toaneoe- 670 WV. Sweet-scenited WermalGrass= Soe) veut ss as wc so See oe Wi Meadow Roxtail(Grasseevc.'. sige. cate tae ete Sica eiae te sieicrs 825 VII. Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass........... Seay ee eteee 826 VIII. Rough-stalked Meadow Grass. 00.00. te teenies eee. 827 TX. Meadow Fescue Grasso 76.5.0.: 5 cts sew er Cre UE: 827 Xi Sheep's PeseneGrassc a tcias octet a ree cliretme nis«ciate 828 XI. Hard Feseue Grass........ tied HOAs wacevenuiere cbea hi cteanmatone yd ibid. XII.‘Crested‘Dog'sxtail Grow 22. 202.2 assists io: ottes) wee ce ibid. MAMI,(Common Ray Moraceae oie eiccne abeas(c liege eter.-, 829 MGV 7 Rough Cocksfoot Grasses. av sc gues shore cls te etee 833 SOV... Wihitel@lo vert: Cer een. or tonne ete eter ocs sc Sick els lohcre gene 835 KV,“Erefoilor(Nonstich= 6 7 cca. nus marion,> cl oeaetates state oer 836 SV 11. BirdisefootsTrefoilie, skye ba: ct tener eee ibid. K VIEL, Med’Clovert. 2%, Kees Mes sc sass eon Me, eer eer ees Pks3856: VAD Shiilionr ee VA haha ans on HiBb edgy o cdc con oe boudbeeGse 870 DO Ges UTS Oat RN etl AE aa tepreC rage PoIaomad= diowmoun odo ot 876 MOR, Unnipation:. 2s eect insists« We tenis+ shee«tis anaebe icin) oaks 928 XXIT.“Watering of Land). Fine. ie cave ee- mea 930. SXONMII; Waterimp, ofslandi cy.« ac econ ease eUeSign sewn nee DIGS SOMLV. SussexBull ie oo oo Sitio eos, 00 I a en ean 1120 KV: Sussexc@xen sch. cette oc etn larecelese oorars vate a eer enerese te ibid. XXVI. Herefordshire Oxen Meares Galt iS aaetatia eee 6 ate eae ile ibid. KXVIT.. Dishley Rams... 60. 6<2 ln eln sole Sb sin le heamiese sie aie reals- 1135 MXVII. Dishley Ewe... 0.50 ee ce ees cc eee cect eens ibid. OKC ING Solth Wowmelamrer.© batas tem sicucso tera sracie waters axcieinye 1140 WK eSouth Down we is actin a cshtd> oe wie sire eh nin anal cipiehauafenela ibid. XXXI. Suffolk Punches........ cece cere cece eee eee ence oe 1171 KK RTL Osage a eee osa abi p ecalne es ccelb) Wretaavoreshyare cueileu cists!’ 1172 DO OOiEr eit oh wm a a oioo cont enreG mE oro O0 apes 119] XXXIV. Machine for weighing Live Stocks. 233 saead§ Sotwdwass 1192 * The Descriptions must face the Plates to which their Numbers refer. PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. SECTION‘XI. Cultivation of Arable Land(continued). PEAS.—This is a crop which is lefs certain than moft others, and even when productive moftly inferior in value, except in particular fituations, as near large towns, when produced early for the table, to thofe of the grain kind. Yet from ‘fach crops when full, having much tendency to improve the lands on which they are cultivated, as well as to render them clean and free from weeds, they are cultivated to a confiderable extent in many diftriéts of the kingdom. The varieties of peas employed in cultivation are extremely numerous; but thofe adapted to field culture are generally diftinguifhed into two kinds, the early and the late: of the former are the early Chariton, the golden hot/pur, and the common white; of the latter all thofe of the gray kind, as the Marlborough gray, the horn gray, the maple gray,&c.: the firft of thefe forts is generdlly confidered the beft for field hufbandry.; This crop may be grown upon almoft any fort of foil, but fucceeds beft on fuch as are dry and poflefs a middling degree of lightnefs, with a tolerably mellow con- dition, having a portion of calcareous matter in their compofition, as without this ingredient peas are faid not to fill or ripen fo perfectly. Pea crops are mofily put in after wheat, oats, or other kinds of grain. They may likewife fucceed clover or faintfoin in many cafes with advantage; and on old ley grounds, when newly broken up, where danger is apprehended from the worm, they may often be found a beneficial crop. But after whatever fort of crop peas may be cultivated, it will generally be neceflary to have the foil reduced into a tolerable ftate of pulverifation before they are put in, and, where it can be fpared, a portion of manure applied. For this purpofe, a compoft of earth, dung and lime may be the moft ufeful, efpecially where there is little or no calcareous matter in the foil. Pea crops may thus be rendered not only more abundant but better filled, and ripened at an earlier period. 584 Cultivation of Arable Land—Peas. Time of fowing.—In fowing this kind of crop, much muft depend upon the inten- tions of the cultivator: when the peas are intended for podding, in order to be fent green to the market, which may be the moft advantageous appropriation of the crop near large towns, where they can be readily difpofed of, they fhould be put in fucceffion at the diftance of ten days or a fortnight frora about the middle of January to the latter end of March, beginning with the lands that are moft dry and mellow, and proceeding to fuch as are more moift and heavy. In this mode of culture regular fupplies may be kept up for the daily confumption of the markets. The white early forts are in thefe cafes to be employed. It is however the practice in fome of the fouthern difiriéts, in order to have them more early, to fow the feed in the autumn, as a little after Michaelmas. This, from the frofts during the winter, is often, however, a dangerous method, and fhould perhaps never be attempted, except where the land lies extremely dry and warm, and is very rich in quality*. But for the general crops, when the cultivator bas no view of the above kind, they may be fown as early in March as the foil can be put into a proper flate of preparation. In thefe cafes the gray forts are moftly employed. When the feed is put in at a later period, as in April, the white or more early kind fhould conftantly be preferred, as the produce becomes ripe more early, which isa matter of importance in pea crops. Seed.—‘The proportion of feed muft vary according to the difference of the circumftances under which the crop is cultivated, the manner in which it is put in, and the intention with which it is grown. When the feed is put in on rich ground in-the autumn, with the defign of pulling the pods green, it may be in the quantity of three buthels and a half or four bufhels to the acre; a larger proportion than in other cafes being generally allowed.‘The peas in thofe cafes fhould be put in in rows, at the diftance of about three feet from each other, in order that proper culti- vation may be applied afterwards. This mode of practice is common about Dartford in Kent, where the green pea fyftem of hufbandry is carried on extenfively and with much profit to the farmer. But for the general fowings, when the land is in tolerable condition, from three to three bufhels and a half is the common allowance, the earlier fowings requiring rather the moft feed. If the view of the cultivator in the growth of pea crops be chiefly that of cleaning and ameliorating the land for the reception of other forts of crops, as thofe of grain, turnips, 8c. or the producing much ftraw, a larger quantity of feed may be ufeful,eas by that means the furface of the foil may be more perfectly * Synopfis of Hufbandry, p. 118. 4 1% Cultivation of Arable Land.—Peas. 585 covered, and a more clofe and ftagnated ftate of the air produced upon it m confequence; at the fame time that the plants are drawn upto a greater length of{tem or ftraw, by which the land will be greatly mellowed and enriched, and the fmall weeds fmothered and deftroyed at the time that a larger proportion of fodder is produced. But in cafes where the principal objeét is that of the crop of corn that is to follow, the proportion of feed may be lefs, as in that way there will be a more free circulation of air, and a more perfe€t admiffion of light and heat from the fun, for the growth and maturation of the pea crop, and at the fame time lefs exhauftion of the foil. It is ufual in thefe cafes, in many diftricls, to put the feed into the ground in the broadcatt method; but the drill or row fyftem is moftly to be preferred, as being more regular, faving con- fiderably in the proportion of feed, and admitting of cultivation afterwards with more eafe and advantage. In this laft method two bufhels, or two bufhels and a half, may often be a fufficient allowance of feed. Different implements have been contrived for this ufe, but the moft convenient is probably a fmall light fort of wheel-plough, to the body of which a fort of feed-box is attached, through the bottom of which the axis of a light wheel paffes, by which the fowing is regulated, and which is pulled up and prevented from letting the peas be depofited at the ends of the ridges, or other places, as in turning, bya ftring attached to the handle. It may be conveniently employed with one or two horfes. The proper diftance of drilling this kind of crop is moftly about twelve or fix. teen inches for hand-hoeing; but where the horfe-hoe is employed, from two to three feet; and the depth to which the feed is depofited, from two to three inches. In fome diftri€ts the feed is put by the hand into drills moftly made croff- ways of the ridges, but occafionally in the direGtion of them, at the diftance of about fifteen inches from each other, and afterwards covered in by means of hoes. In fome inftances alfo a buth-harrow is drawn over the furface, by which the land is rendered fmooth and even*. Where this fort of crop is cultivated on a ley preparation, the beft method is probably to dibble the feed in. This is the praétice conftantly followed by the beft cultivators in fome diftriéts+. Though the praétice of fteeping this fort of feed is feldom had recourfe to by the cultivators of peas, it is probable that the later fown crops may be greatly * Corrected Report of Middlefex, p. 194.+ Corrected Report of Suffolk. AF 586 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Peas. benefited by it, as the vegetation of the plants may be rendered more quick, regular, and uniform. It is the cuftom in Hertfordfhire, and fome other diftri€ts, to fow beans, or even oats, fometimes with the peas, with a view of keeping them up. Thefe mixtures are, however, pra€étices that can never be adopted with advantage, as the different crops, from their being of unequal growth, muft conftantly be liable to injure each other. After-culture.—The ufe of the hoe in ftirring the intervals, and earthing up the young plants where the crop is put in in rows by the drill or dibble, is of effential advantage in promoting their growth, and proteéting them from the injuries of the feafon. Where the method of hand-culture prevails, it is the general cuftom to have recourfe to two hoeings; the firft when the plants are about two or three inches in height, and again juft before the period in which they come into bloffom. In this way the vigorous vegetation of the young crop is fecured, and a frefh fupply of nourifhment afforded for the fetting of the pods and the filling of the peas. At the laft of thefe operations, the rows fhould be laid down, and the earth well placed up to them, the weeds being previoufly extirpated by hand labour*. In fome parts of Kent, where this fort of crop is much grown, it is the prac- tice, when the diftance of the rows is fufficiently great, to prevent the vegeta- tion of weeds, and forward the growth of the pea crops, by occafional edge-hoe- ing, and the ufe of the brake-harrow, the mold being laid up to the roots of the plants at the laft operation, by fixing a piece of wood to the harrow. This fhould however only be laid up on one fide, the peas being always placed to that which is the moft fully expofed to the effefts of the fun. The edge-hoeing is performed at the rate of from two to three fhillings the acre, according to the nature of the land. There are many inducements to the cultivation of this crop, on fuitable foils, in the vicinity of large towns, where the demand for green peas is cone fiderable; fuch as the ready fupply of money that is thus provided for the other expenfive operations during the fummer months, the facility of thus ren- dering the land proper for the growth of turnips, and the large fupply of fodder that is afforded by the ftems of the plants when properly fecured; notwithftand~ ing the danger, of fuch crops during the winter, and even in the{pring months, when the feafons prove unfavourable, and the heavy expences incurred in the gathering and difpofal of them. * Corrected Report of Middlefex. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Peas. 587 it is frequently a pra€tice with the large cultivators of early green pea crops, in the neighbourhood of London, to difpofe of them, by the acre, to inferior per- fons, who procure the podders; but the fmaller farmers for the moft part pro- vide this defcription of people themfelves, who generally apply at the proper feafon for the purpofe. The bufinefs of picking or podding the peas is ufually performed by the labourers at a fixed price for the fack, of four heaped bufhels. The number of this fort of perfons is generally in the proportion of about four to the acre, the labour proceeding on the Sundays as well as other days. It is fometimes the cuftom to pick the crops over twice, after which the reft are fuffered to ftand till they become ripe for the purpofe of feed. This, however, moftly arifes from the want of pickers, as it is confidered as a lofs, from the peas being lefs profitable in their ripe ftate than when green. Befides, they are often improper for the purpofe of feed, as being the worft part of the crop. It is therefore better to have them clear picked when hands can be procured. After this they are loaded into carts, and fent off at fuitable times, according to the diftance of fituation, fo as to be delivered to the falefmen in the different markets, from about three to five o’clock in the morning*. In many cafes in other parts the early gatherings are, however, fent to the markets in half-bufhel fieves, and are frequently difpofed of at the high price of five fhillings the fieve; but at the after periods they are ufually conveyed in facks of a narrow form, made for the purpofe, which contain about three buthels each, which, in the more early parts of the feafon, often fetch twelve or fourteen fhillings the fack, but after- wards moftly decline confiderably, in fome feafons fo muchas fcarcely to repay the expences. This fort of crop affords the moft profit in fuch pea feafons as are inclined to be cool, as under fuch circumftances the peas are moft retarded in their maturation or ripening, and of courfe the markets kept from being over- abundantly fupplied. The expence of gathering green peas is different, according to the difficulty of procuring podders, the bulk or abundance of the crops, and the kind of pea or fize of the pods. Thofe of the larger forts, fuch as the marrowfats, being in the county of Middlefex about one fhilling, and thofe of the fmaller kinds, as the Charlton, from fifteen to eighteen pence, the fack}. In Kent the ufual price is about.fourteen pence the fack for podding, one fhilling for conyeying them to the market, and three pence the fack for the falefman f. %* Middleton’s Report of Middlefex. + Ibid. t Synopfis of Hufbandry: 3588 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Peas. . The produce of both the early and late pea crops vary much according to the nature of the feafon, and many other circumftances. The average of the early crops in Middlefex is fuppofed, by the author of the Report of that diftri€t, to be from about twenty-five to thirty facks the acre, which, felling at from eight to eighteen fhillings the fack, afford about eighteen pounds the acre. The author of the Synopfis of Hufbandry, however, ftates the produce about Dart- ford, in the county of Kent, at about forty facks the acre, though he fays fifty have fometimes been gathered from that fpace of land*. But for the later crops that ftand to ripen, it is fuppofed by fome to be from three and a half to four quarters the acre; others however imagine the average of any two crops together not more than about twelve bufhels t+. And that on the whole, if the value of the produce be merely attended to, it may be confi- dered as a lefs profitable crop than moft others. As a means of ameliorating and improving the foil, at the fame time it is, however, to be efteemed as of great value. The greateft danger to the early pea crops is to be apprehended when thé weather during the more early{pring months is hot and funny in the day-time, attended with fharp frofts in the nights, as in this way great mifchief is often done, the crops becoming attacked with the mildew, and not ripening in a pro- per manner. While the peas are proceeding in their growth, and ftill more particularly at * The produce and expence of cultivation of a field of fix acres, in June, 1796, that was not at all remarkable for more than a common crop, are thus ftated by Mr, Middleton in his Survey of the Agriculture of Middlefex: Number, 40 facks, of four bufhels each, of pods fent to market, and fold from 6s. to 13s. average 7s. 6d. each--=---= orlig 01 O Haulm, ftacked, and given to draught horfes, one ton per acre, worth two-thirds as much as hay, but fay only e“===< 3‘oO'o Produce----= 6, 157 OO Expences.—Ploughing once from clover ley--- PAO VE) Seed, four bufhels, at 12s.---- z*3.© Drilling, covering,&c.---. O70 Hoeing twice-----° OM100 Podding at 18d. per fack, on 40--- 3 ayOh nO Marketing, diftance ten miles, land carriage= 1, 5.0 8 0 Oo Remains.=.= 7 foie O- Oo + Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Peas. 589 the periods when they come into bloffom and begin to fet their pods, itis of great importance to have rather moift weather, as by that means the vegetation of the crop is promoted in a more perfect manner, and there is a greater chance cf the peas being well podded. The chief figns of the healthy and vigorous vegeta- tion of pea crops are thofe of their leaves poffeffing a fine bloom of a bluith caft, and having the outermoft large leaves of the bloffom extending backwards*. In the late or general pea crops, after they are reaped or rather cut up by means of a hook, it is the ufual pra€tice to put them up into fmall heaps, termed wads, which are formed by fetting fmall parcels againft each other, in order that they may be more perfeétly dried both in the feed and ftem, and be kept from being injured by the moifture of the ground. But in the early crops the haulm is hooked up into loofe open heaps, which, as foon as they are perfeétly dry, are removed from the ground and put into ftacks for the purpofe of being converted to the food of animals, on which they are faid to thrive nearly as well as on hay t. When intended for horfes, the beft method would feem to be that of having them cut into chaff and mixed with their other food. It is the praétice in fome diftri&ts to remove the haulm as foon as it has been cut up, by hooks conftru&ted with fharp edges for the purpofe, to every fifth ridge, or even into an adjoining grafs field, in order that it may be the better cured for ufe as cattle food, and at the fame time allow of the land being imme- diately prepared for the fucceeding crop. What are ufually termed winter peas, or fuch crops as have been fown in the autumn, generally afford the largeft proportion of cattle fodder. It is of confiderable importance in the economy of a farm, when the nature of the foil is fuitable, to have recourfe to the early forts; as by fuch means the crops may in many cafes be cut and fecured while there is leifure, before the commencement of the wheat harvetft. Where the nature of the foil is dry and warm, and the pea crop of a fuffi- ciently forward kind, it may be eafy to obtain a crop of turnips from the fame land in the fame year. But in this view it is the beft praftice to put the crops in in the row method, and keep them perfe@ly clean by means of attentive hand and horfe hoeing; as in that way the land will be in fuch a ftate of preparation for the turnips, as only to require a flight ploughing, which may be done as faft as the pea crop is removed, and the turnip feed harrowed in as quickly as poflible upon the newly turned up earth. In fome particular diftricts a third * Englith Encyclopedia, art. Husbandry.+ Corrected Report of Middlefex, p. 285. 590' Cultivation of Arable Land—Beans. crop is even put into the fame land, the turnips being fold off in the atttunin and replaced by col/ards, for the purpofe of greens in the following fpring. This, according to Mr. Middleton, is the pra€tice in fome places in Middlefex. It is a method of cultivation that can, however, only be attempted on the warn and fertile kinds of turnip foil, and where the pea crops are early; on the cold heavy and wet defcriptions of land, it is obviocufly impraGicable. With the marrowfat and other late forts of peas, the ufual practice is to either prepare the land for wheat, or to put in crops of favoys or ether late forts of cabbages, which are methods of hufbandry that may often be had recourfe to, even on the more heavy forts‘of land, with fuccefs. From pea crops rendering the lands on which they are cultivated’more light, open, and porous, they are fuppofed to be lefs proper for preceding wheat than thofe of beans; on the more ftiff forts‘of ground this cannot, however, be an objection of any great confequence, and even on the lighter kinds it may often be obviated, by giving the feed earth early, fo that the crop may be put in upon a ftale furrow, by the ufe of the fheep-fold, either immediately before or after the grain is depofited in the foil, and by repeating the fame prattice occafionally afterwards, as well as by rolling. The portion of peas that is not confumed as human food is moftly appro- priated to the purpofes of fattening hogs and other forts of domeftic animals; and, in particular inftances, fupplies the place of beans as the provender of la- bouring horfes; but care fhould be taken, when ufed in this way, that they be fufficiently dry, az, when given in their green ftate, they are faid to be apt to produce the gripes. ‘Beans.—This is a fpecies of crop that may be cultivated to much advantage .on the more heavy wet kinds of land, which are improper for moft other forts of crops, both on account of the utility of the produce, and the improvement that is effected in the nature of fuch foils; as by this means, as has been al- ready feen, the ground may in many cafes be rendered proper for the growth of wheat, without having recourfe, as has been ufually done, to the unecono- mical pra€lice of preparing it by a naked fallow. ‘There are different kinds of beans cultivated in different diftrifts, according to the intentions of the farmers, and the nature of the foils; but they may be fufficiently diftinguifhed by dividing them into field and garden beans. Of the firft fort the common horfe-bean is the moft generally cultivated on the ftrong Jands, as it is found to grow to a greater height in the ftem, and of courfe to cover the furface of the land more effeCtually. The tick bean is, however, fup- Cultivation of Arabie Land.— Beans. 591 pofed by fome cultivators to afford a larger produce. The large ticks are the fort moftly grown in the county of Kent, where the bean hufbandry is praétifed to fome extent; but in Effex, where the fyitem of cultivating beans alfo pre- vails in a confiderable degree, the fmall ticks are held in the higheft eftimation, as on the ftrong lands of that diftrict they are moftly found to afford an abund- ant produce. And in the market this is the fort of. bean that generally fetches the beft price. Some of the latter or garden kinds have lately been introduced into the field with confiderable advantage in particular diftritts. Of thefe the mazagan and Mumford, the long-pod, and the Windfor, are the forts that are in general culti- vated. The firft is an early kind that does not grow to any great height, feldom more than about two feet. The ftem is flender, but moftly well befet with pods, which contain beans of rather a finall fize. This fort of bean, from its not grow- ing tall, and having but a flender ftem, may probably be grown with profit on the lefs ftrong and heavy forts of ground. It has alfo the property of becoming ripe more early than any of the other garden beans. The Mumford bean is alfo proper on the fame fort of land. But the long-pod is of a much taller growth, and confiderably more ftrength of ftem; it confequently requires greater depth and ftrength of foil for its advantageous culture. It is a fort of bean that affords a large produce where the land is fuitable to its growth. The Windfor bean is of a ftill larger kind than the long-pod, the feed approaching to fomewhat the fquare form. It grows ftrong and tall like the long-pod kind, but feldom yields fo large a produce. Thefe large kinds of beans are rarely, however, cultivated in the field, except in the vicinity of large towns, where they can be fold in the pods green. This is a fort of crop that may be cultivated with fuccefs, as has been feen, on almoft any of the ftronger kinds of moift foils. It thrives equally well in the {tiff clayey lands, and thofe of the firong loamy kinds. The ftaple of the lands, where bean crops fucceed to the greateft advantage, is generally of a good depth; as in fuch the roots are enabled to get down fo as to be capable of fupplying themfelves with a fuitable proportion of nourifhment, which cannot be the cafe where the ground has a thin ftaple. Bean crops are grown after wheat and oats, as well as on fuch lands as have been newly broken up from the ftate of ley. On-the laft they may be culti- vated with great propriety and advantage where danger is apprehended of corn crops being injured by the attacks of the grub or other infegts. And, befides their utility in this way, they may be of great benefit in cafes where the fward is tough, by breaking down and reducing the parts of the foil, as well as«in 592 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Beans. promoting the putrefaétion and decay of the turfy or grafly material, and the defiruétion of weeds, by the fhade and‘fmothering clofenefs which they pro- duce on the furface of the ground. Though this fort of crop is capable of being cultivated after moft forts of vegetable produ@tions, it feems probable, from its poffefling a tap root, and ftriking deeply into the earth, that it may be grown to the moft benefit in fucceflion to fuch forts of plants as are of the fibrous-rooted kind. The common method of preparing the foil for the reception of bean crops is merely by giving one ploughing at the period when the feed is put into the ground in the fpring months. But it is a better pra€tice probably to plough the land into ridglets of about two feet fix inches in width, as early as poflible in the autumn, after the manure has been applied, which fhould conftantly be laid on when beans are fown after grain crops; in which ftate it fhould remain until the period at which the beans are to be put in. By the ufe of a portion of manure in this manner, the crops are rendered more ftrong and vigorous in their growth, at the fame time that the branching of their lateral fhoots is confider- ably promoted. By this method of ridging up the land in the autumn, and manuring it, on the moift kinds of heavy foils much advantage is produced. This’ form of ridge preferves the ground dry, and in a healthy condition, during the winter months, and at the fame time prevents the manure that is included in the middle of them from being diffolved and wafhed away by heavy rains; and, in addition, the land is kept in fo dry a ftate at the feed-time, as to afford the cultivator an opportunity of putting in the beans whenever the weather is fair*. Where the drill culture is praétifed, more frequent ploughings will be requi- fite, in order that the land may be brought into fuch a ftate of tilth as that the drill machine may diftribute the feed with uniformity. Time of fowing.—The feafon of putting this crop into the ground muft de- pend in fome meafure upon the nature of the climate and fituation. In the more mild and lefs expofed places in the fouthern diftri€ts, they may be put into the earth with propriety during the whole of the month of January; and in fuch as are more expofed, as early in February as the bufinefs can be accom- plifhed with propriety. But in the more northern parts of the kingdom, a later period may be more fuitable, as in March. When the period of planting is delayed too long, there may often be danger of the crops not being fufficiently * Correéted Report of Middlefex. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Beans. 593 eftablifhed in the foil before the weather becomes too hot and parching. And, on the contrary, when they are fet too early there may be danger from the frofts, which, when fevere, are known to injure them greatly at the time they firft fhew themfelves above the furface of the ground, and when accompanied by fudden thaws to be capable of wholly deftroying them*. Seed.—The proportion of feed that may be neceffary, muft, of courfe, be dif- ferent, according to the nature of the foil, the period of putting the crop into the ground, and the manner in which the bufinefs is performed. Where the broadcaft method is purfued, and the land is of the medium bean kind, from three and a half to four bufhels is the quantity that is moft commonly allowed to the acre. This mode of practice fhould, however, never be attempted when the others can be had recourfe to. Under other methods of putting in the beans, a much lefs proportion of feed is, however, required, the quantity varying according to the diftance of planting from two to three buthels anda half to the acre, or in fome cafes perhaps rather more. When planted in rows at the diftance of two anda half feet, the quantity of feed that is moft proper has been found to be about two bufhels to the acre; but when put in rows at the diftance of only fifteen inches, it will be three and a half bufhels, or per- haps rather more f. The manner of putting this crop into the foil differs confiderably in different diftri€ts. In fome the method of fowing broadcaft is ftill in ufe; but in this the feed is liable to be left uncovered on the furface of the land, or covered fo lightly that the bean plants are incapable of vegetating in a proper manner, from which the crop often becomes weak and feeble in its early. growth, and feldom acquires proper ftrength afterwards. Befides, in this method, from the irregularity of the erop, there is great danger of its being injured by the growth of weeds, as they cannot be conveniently deftroyed by the hoe. It is the cuftom in fome of the more fouthern diftrifts to plant this kind of crop in rows, by means of a line and dibble, which, though an expentfive practice, is greatly preferable to the above, both in admitting of the land being kept clean, and in the economy of feed. In this way the rows are ufually marked out to the diftance of a foot from each other, and the beans depofited in holes about two inches apart, the lines being ftretched acrofs the ridges, which are formed of different breadths, according to the circumftances of the Jand, but in many cafes about fix feet over. In this mode, after one row is * Corrected Report of Middlefex.+ Ibid. 4G 504A Cultivation of Arable Land.—Beans. planted, the pegs to which the Imes are attached are moved exaétly to the diftance that is requifite until the whole field is finithed. The expence of this mode of fetting beans is generally about nine pence or a fhilling the peck. In fome places: it is done by the gallon at the rate of about four pence. In per- forming this bufinefs care mutt conftantly be taken by the employer to fee that the beans are regularly depofited in the holes, and not thrown away or otherwife waited, in order to obtain greater wages. After the beans are thus depofited, a bufh-harrow, drawn by horfes in the furrows, is generally paffed over the ground in order to cover them. The Kentifh farmers have however a much neater and more expeditious method of fowing beans, which is, to ftrike out furrows in the proportion of about eleven to a rod in breadth, in which the feed is thinly depo- fited by means of a fowing-box, which is held by a perfon following the ftrik- ing plough, and who, by flightly agitating it when filled with beans, drops them with regularity into the furrows as they are formed. The feed is then covered by harrowing down the inequalities of the ground. It is ftated that in this method, with two men and two or three horfes to the plough, a perfon to ma- nage the box, and a boy with two horfes to perform the bufinefs of harrowing, the fpace of three acres may be completed in the courfe of a day*. In accomplifhing this bufinefs, it is, however, the cuftom of fome agricultors to make ufe of a drill plough; but as beans are liable to confiderable inequality of fize, they are feldom delivered in a fufficiently regular manner from the hop- per, large beans occafionally interrupting the fowing in fuch a way as to ren- der the crop vacant or uneven in different places, defe&ts which the picking of the feed over is not even capable of removing. In{peaking of Implements, drills have however been defcribed that feem to depofit the beans with much correctnefs. In the fowing of this fort of crop, experiment has fhewn that, on the poor and more moift kinds of loamy foils broken up from the ftate of ley, it may fre- quently be more advantageous to put the beans into the ground in rows at nine inches, or on every furrow, than at eighteen inches or every other furrow, though on rich fertile tillage lands the latter may often be the moft proper, or even ftill larger diftances in fome cafes f. From the nature of the-root of the bean-plant, it has-been inferred,’ that it: fhould conftantly be planted te a good depth in the foil, not lefs than five or fik.. inches below the fettled furface of the Jand, as-by the lateral fibres which con-.- ® Synopfis of Hufbandry, p. 110,+ Young’s Annals of Agriculture, vol. VII. p. 2044 BEAN DRILL. ‘ae 4 PLATE I. ce“<** Bean Drill. - ET face Page 594; Vol. IL} Tuts drill is the invention of Mr. Amos, and which Mr. Young has recommended as having much merit, It delivers the beans in a different manner from many others, as it {catters the feed on the flice of the preceding furrow, while they moftly drop it into the furrow. It has been extenfively employed by the inventor; and on wet lands mutt be highly ufeful, by depofiting the feed while the land is ploughing, and thereby preventing the eee of going a fecond time upon it, which is often i injurious. Cultivation of Arable Land=—Beuns. 595 ftantly pafs off from the portion of root above the feed to the upper part of the ground, large fupplies of nousifhment may be conveyed to the plants, which could not be the cafe when put in more fuperficially, as that part of the root below the feed is not furnifhed saith fuch fibres*. The putting in of this kind of feed by the drill is a praCtice that may be per- formed with the moft benefit and fuccefs on the drier and more mellow kinds of bean lands that have been fome time in a ftate of cultivation; but on the wet and{trong grounds it is frequently a difficult and troublefome procefs: it is therefore probably a better method to dibble them in upon the feed earth, efpe- cially in breaking them up from a ley, as where they have been previoufly ploughed, early tillage in the fpring, however neceflary, is impoffible, it being only capable of being accomplifhed ona ley. In thefe cafes a row may be put in by the dibble on every fecond furrow, by which they will be equidiftant eighteen inches, or by dibbling two furrows together and miffing one they will be in double rows at nine inches, with intervals of eighteen, which is equal to one row at every thirteen and a half inches f. After-culture.—W here the broadcaft method of putting in the crop prevails, little or no advantage can be afforded to it afterwards, which is a circumftance that renders that pra€tice improper in moft cafes, as few crops derive more benefit from after-management than thofe of beans. In fome inftances, indeed, the large weeds are removed by a hoe or hook, and in others fheep have been turned in for the fame purpofe, as from their diflike to the bean plant they are faid not to injure the crop either by eating the young plants or breaking them off{. The praétice is however too hazardous to be attempted except in particular cafes. But where the crop is planted in rows, either by the drill, dib- ble, or other methods, the ground admits of being frequently ftirred and laid to the roots of the plants by the hand or horfe hoe, and of being kept perfectly clean by weeding; upon the proper performance of all which the perfection of the bean hufbandry confifts. It has indeed been well obferved by a corre&t and attentive cultivator, that thefe different operations are abfolutely effential, and that where a wheat crop is to follow, the more money there is beftowed in this way, the better it is for the farmer; thofe of Kent being diffatisfied if it does not amount to from feven- teen to twenty fhillings the acre, as their wheat crop is fure to fuffer where * Vancouver, in Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. p. 65. + Young’s Correéted Report of Lincolnfhire. ¢ Mufeum Bufticum, vol. III.; Synopfis of Hufbandry; and Modern Agriculture. Cultivation of Arable Land.— Beans. _ there has been any negleét in thefe proceffes, beans well managed by the hoe being an excellent preparation for wheat crops*. In the methods of planting in rows, at the diftances of fifteen or twenty-four, as well as on ridges at thirty inches, the horfe-hoe may be moft conveniently employed, but for narrower{paces the hand-hoe can only be made ufe of. The practice in Middlefex is, when the crops are about five or fix inches high, to conftantly hand-hoe the intervals, and clean the rows by weeding, and to re- peat the fame operations about the time of their coming into bloffom, in which the earth fhould be carefully brought up to the roots of the plants, which has much effect, by the quantity of nourifhment thus provided, in promoting the fetting as well as filling of the pods. It has alfo been remarked, that, where the ground is in a fituation to admit of the aétion of a fmall light plough, ora horfe-hoe, to earth up the rows, great benefit may be thus produced, but that on the clayey loams this is only capable of bemg performed for a little time after they have been well moiftened with rain f. In the county of Kent it is frequently the cuftom to apply the roller and the harrow to the bean crops about the middle or latter end of March, by the firft of which the cloddy parts are broken down and reduced, while the latter im- mediately following renders the baked furface-mold fine and powdery, by which means new fupplies of nourifhment are provided, and the advancement of the young plants greatly promoted. At no diftant period after this the beans are edge-hoed, and then braked, the latter of which is a method of pra€tice chiefly confined to that diftri€t, and which is confidered by fome cultivators as much preferable to the application of the hoe to the whole furface of the{paces be- tween. the rows, not only as being performed at a much lefs expence, but on account of its being more effeétual in the removal of weeds, and providing more abundant fupplies of fuch fubftances as contribute to the nutrition of plants, by loofening and newly aerating the furface-mold of the foil, as well as throwing it up to the roots of the beans. It is cuftomary in many parts to re- peat this procefs every fortnight or three weeks, from the early part of May till the feafon at which the crop blooms}. And it is obferved, that the earthing up may be-accomplithed with facility by the above implement, merely by fixing a fmall piece of wood on the frig of it, the diameter of which regulates the height, of earthing up the ftems of the beans as they advance in growth|, * Young’s Corrected Report of Lincolnfhire.+ Corrected Report of Middlefex, + Annals of Agriculture, vol. 1X# Synopfis of Hufbandry.. Cultivation of Arable Land.— Beans. 597 In other bean diftri€ts, as in Berkffire, where they fow triple rows at eight or nine inches, and leave intervals of two furrows width, it is the praCtice to plough two furrows up each interval from the beans, making a ridge in the middle, by a fmall light plough contrived for the purpofe, which is drawn by one horfe, a moift feafon being chofen for the bufinefs. After this the ridges are to be har- rowed by means of a triangular harrow, by which the fuperficial parts of the foil are rendered light and mellow, fo as to admit the lateral fibres to{hoot in it with facility, and draw forth fupport for the crop more effectually. The manuring of the land is found from a€tual trials to be of very great ad- vantage in the culture of this fort of crop; as even a very fmall portion of it, as from thirty to forty loads, of about eighteen bufhels each, has been found of fervice both in promoting the crop and preventing the beans from becoming what is termed rofée-headed*. It has likewife been found, that by preparing the ridges in the manner that has been defcribed above, and including manure in the middle of them, the feed may be put in much fooner than when they are flat and broad; and that by the ufe of the horfe-hoe, the plants tiller more,, the crops are forwarder, and fubje& to lefs injury from the attacks of infects+. In fome diftri€ts it is the praétice to fow beans and peas together, or what is termed blexdings; but this is moftly an improper method, as plants of different forts never ripen well or equally together. In fuch fummers as are dry, beans are frequently liable to be much injured by the attacks of the black fly, or what is often termed the dolphin, the whole field in particular cafes being in danger of being deftroyed in the courfe of a few days. In order to prevent this mifchief, it is the pra€tice in fome places to cut off the tops by means of a fcythe or other fharp implement, as it is moftly on the tops of the plants that the infe&t firft appears. When this method is adopted, it fhould be performed on the very firft appearance of the fly, other wife little benefit can be produced; as perhaps by removing the firft, infects that: fhew themfelves, their propagation may in fome degree be prevented. The blight likewife fometimes proves deftruétive to the bean: crops about June or July, when the weather is hot and. foggy in. the day with cold nights. In this cafe the bloffoms fall off, and no pods are formed. But though much injury may often be done in this way, the crops fometimes turn out better than was expeCted; they fhould not therefore be given up too haftily. The ripening of the beans is fhewn by the pods.or hids. turning of a black co- * Annals of Agriculture, vol. 1X.+ Correéted Report of Middlefex. 598 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Beans. Jour, which moftly happens about the latter end of Auguft, after which they begin to open at the ends; but they fhould always be cut or drawn up a week or ten days before this would happen, for though in fome parts of the crop the kids may not be perfeétly turned, this fhould not delay the bufinefs, as they will become ripe and hard after being cut or drawn up by the roots, by fetting the fheaves upright, and leaving them expofed to the influence of the fun and air for feven or eight days. When cut or drawn up fome time before they are in a fuitable ftate of maturation, they fhrink and become wrinkled; and if it be done when they are too ripe, they are liable to be loft by being fhed in the field: it is a better practice, however, to reap them before they are fully ripe, than to let them ftand until they are over-maturated. When they have be- come too much ripened, it is recommended to cut or draw them up while the dew is upon them, and to convey them in the fame ftate to the ftack, The parts of the crop that are not fo perfetly ripened may be cut or pulled during the dry part of the day. When the feafon is moift, and the land of a good quality, bean crops conti- nue to proceed in their growth to a late period, and the pods formed on the upper parts of the ftems remain green when thofe on the lower parts are in a perfeétly ripe ftate. In fuch cafes it is not neceffary to delay the bufinefs of re- moving the crop, as by their remaining a little longer in the field no injury will be done either in the ftack or to the fample. Indeed, as this fort of vegetable is extremely fucculent, it is proper in moft cafes to let it remain out after being cut for a confiderable length of time, in order that the exceflive moifture may be fully diflipated, otherwife the fample may fuftain great injury from moldi- nefs, and taking on too great a heat in the ftack. It may alfo on thefe ac- counts be neceflary for them to remain in the ftack for fome time before they are threfhed out. There are different methods of removing this fort of crop from the land: in {ome diftrits it is the praétice to reap or cut it clofe to the ground with a fharp hook contrived for the purpofe; in others it is mown; and in a few it is pull- ed up by the roots, being afterwards bound up into pretty large fheaves by woollen yarn, old ropes, tarred cord or ftraw ropes, and fet up three or four together. In cafes where wheat, tares, or other fimilar crops, are to be’ fown after beans, they fhould be fet up in fuch a manner as to cover as little ground as poflible, in order that the cleared ground may immediately undergo a fuitable preparation for fuch fucceeding crops. Cultication of Arable Land.—Beans. 599 : The quantity of produce of beans is different according to the nature of the foil, the kind of feed, the method of planting, and the exa¢tnefs with which the after-culture of the crop is conduéted. In Middlefex it is tiated to be from three and a half to four quarters the acre. And in Yorkfhire, when cultivated as a preparation for wheat, from four to fix quarters the acre; but where the crop precedes a fallow, only from two to three quarters. In other diftricis, as in Kent, where the bean hufbandry is. more perfe&t, the common tick beans are faid to afford from two to fix quarters, according to circumftances; the maza- gan, and other fmall beans of the fame fort, from three to five quarters, and fometimes confiderably more; and the Windfor, long-pod, and other large forts of beans, from three or four to ten quarters the acre*.‘Taking it through- out the whole kingdom, it is afferted by an able writer to vary from fixteen to forty bufhels the acre, but that.a good average crop can feldom be ftated at more than twenty f. The ftraw of this crop is ufeful for various purpofes. When well broken by. threfhing, it forms.a durable litter for working horfes, as well as hogs and otheranimals. It’is alfo afferted to be a hearty and nutritious food for cattle during the winter feafon; and that both oxen and horfes, when not wrought, thrive well upon it. And as the reduced parts, or what is termed the caving- chaff, have been found valuable as a manger food for the labouring teams when blended with other fubftances, it is probable that in particular cafes the{tems might be cut into chaff with advantage. But when made ufe.of in thefe me- thods, it fhould be taken as frefh as poflible from the flail.. The{maller kinds of beans are principally employed in the feeding of horfes, hogs, and other animals; and as they contain a. third more meal in a given por- tion than oats, and at. the fame time probably afford a more durable nourith- ment, it muft be economical to make ufe of them in the feeding of labouring horfes. Andon the fame principles they muft be advantageous when ufed in the fattening of cattle,&c. But when hogs are fed. with this fort of food, it is afferted that: the pork is indifferent from the meat becoming hard, though for bacon it is extremely good. Where the beans are to prepare the land for wheat, it is effentially neceffary that the ftubble, with fuch weeds-as may have been left, fhould be removed as expeditionfly as. poflible after the. beans are taken off.‘This purpofe is well *-Correéted Reports of Middlefex, North Riding Yorkthire, and Kent, ¢-Donaldfan’s Modern Agriculture, yol, II. 600 Cultivation of Arable Land.— Beans. accomplifhed in fome bean diftrifts, and at the fame time a great degree of pul- verifation effected, by /puddling the land with a kind of plough, to the fhare of which an iron plate is attached crofsways, at the diftance of about four or five inches from the point, the fame axle-tree and wheels being employed as were ufed in ftriking the furrows. By this implement, with two horfes and a man, it is afferted three acres of land may be finifhed in a day, by fetting the point of the fhare in the intervals in fuch a manner as that the plate or fin may extend to a row on each fide. After this operation has been performed, by paffing the hharrows and the roller over the land, the whole is cleared with little expence, and left ready for the feed earth*. On the more thin and light kinds of foils, whether of the chalky or gravelly fort, fuch a procefs may, however, be improper, as fuch lands may be rendered too open and porous for wheat crops by it. Potatoes.—The cultivation of this highly valuable vegetable has rapidly in- creafed within thefe laft twenty years, fo that it may now be confidered as{tand- ing next to wheat in refpe& to human food. Though the varieties of this plant that are cultivated are extremely numerous on account of their being raifed continually from feed, there does not appear to be more than two diftinét{pecies; the red-rooted, or that which bears a pur- ple blofiom or flower, and the white-rooted, or that which has a white flower. It is fuggefted by an intelligent pra@lical writer, that much ftill remains to be performed in refpe& to the improvement of the quality and produétivenefs of this plant, by raifing it from feed. The farmers in Yorkfhire, it is obferved, adopt this method.‘* In autumn when the apples are beginning to fall fpon- tancoufly, they are gathered by hand, and preferved among fand until the{pring, when they are mafhed among the fand, or among frefh mold, feparating the feeds, and mixing them evenly with the mold. So foon as the{pring frofts are judged to be over, they are fown in fine garden mold; and as faft as the plants get into rough leaf, and are ftrong enough to be handled without injury, they are tranfplanted into another bed of frefh mold in rows, which are kept clean during fummer. In autumn, bunches of fmall potatoes are found at the roots of thefe plants, varying in fize, the firft year from an hazel nut to that of a crab apple.‘Thefe being planted in the fucceeding fpring, produce potatoes of the middle fize; but they do not arrive at their full bulk until the third or fourth year. When the ufe of the ftove or the garden frame can be procured, this procefs may be fhortened; the feeds being fown within thefe early in the ipring, * Synopfis of Hufbandry. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. 601 the plants will be fit to be planted out as foon as the frofts are gone, by which« means the fize of the roots will be much increafed the firft year, and will, in the fecond year, rife nearly to perfection*.” It is alfo added, that, in fele€ting proper plants from feedling potatoes, two circumftances are neceffary to be at- tended to; which are, the quality of the potatoe, and its produttivenefs. In cafes where thefe different properties are combined in the fame plant, there can be no difficulty in deciding in its favour. The varieties of this root, that are at prefent in cultivation in different parts of the kingdom, are extremely numerous. In Lancafhire, where the potatoe hufbandry is well underftood and largely practifed; there are, according to the account of Mr. Kirkpatrick, upwards of twenty forts of the more early kinds, and more than half as many of thofe of the late f. The old winter red is an excellent variety for the table in the fpring, when moft other forts have loft their favour, and are become unfit for ufe by fprout- ing. It is faid likewife to have the property of not being liable to the curl. The blacks are likewife a late fort, which keep well till about Auguft; * Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture, vol. II. + Thefe different varieties are thus denominated in his tract on the culture of the potatoe. Early kinds. Smooth yellows, Mather’s feedlings, Red champions, Kerkham marbles, White ditto, Donbobin’s feedlings, Lady queens, Poor man’s profit, Drunken landlord, Golden gulleons, Birchal’s golden yellows, Invincible, Smith’s feedlings, Broughton’s dwarfs, Foxe’s ditto, Hatley’s nonefuch, Bofkow’s kidneys, Early perrins, Englifh champions, Forcing dwarfs, Brition’s dwarfs, Early Manleys. Bates’s ditto, Late kinds. American white rangers, Ox noble, Ditto red ditto, Lords, Derbythire reds, Seedling varieties, Late champions, Balmer’s feedlings, Ditto kidneys, Budworth’s difters, Pink eyes, Irifh apples, Pink-nofed kidneys, Winter kidneys. 4H 602 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. As cattle potatoes, the or noble and the clu/ter are the varieties principally cultivated, as they are both large in fize and very produétive. The white and apple forts are however moft proper for being made ufe of in the early part of the feafon. And the pink-eyes and copper-plates are of a hardy nature, and probably capable of being grown with lefs perfect culture than moft of the other varieties. But though a number of trials have been made in order to determine the differences in the produdtivenefs of the different varieties, yet from the effets which the differences of foil, climate, culture, and other caufes produce, the matter has not been decided with much corre€tnefs*. The royal or Cumberland early is very productive and of a large fize, with a good flavour, and befides, it ripens early. The foil in which this root is capable of being produced to the greateft ad- vantage isa rich loam of the light fandy kind, that poffeffes a medium degree of moifture. They may, howeyer, be grown with fuccefs on lands that are * The produéts in the experiments of Mr. Young, with the three following forts, under the fame management, in the drill method, were thefe: Kinds. Produce. Clufter‘.:°: 360 buthels. Red-nofed kidney.-:‘ 144 Golden tags. 2‘ 5: 207 And the refults of Mr. Baker’s trials in Ireland, in comparing different forts, are thus ftated: Sorts. Produce. Commonwife é>:$ a1 lb. 6 oz. Apple:. Q c 5 Zoe, Red French 5::: 12 Munfter white 6:;. 16 0 Cronés°< 5; a 16 66 Spanifh.:::: 15 0 On repeating the experiment, the refult was: Sorts. Produce. Black é:‘:‘ 111 barrels per acre. Quakerwife F P 3 js 108 Red French‘. c°° 88 White ditto j j:‘ 85 Commonwife j:°° 103 Apple°. F.. 76 Englith whice,‘; F 83 White Munfter‘‘ s 79 Spanifh-°<°; 70 Crones F? P. C 60 Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. 603 much ftronger, where proper attention is beftowed in their culture. On grounds of the peat-mofs kind they have likewife been found to fucceed in a high de- gree. In Mr. Townley’s experiments, though the more{tiff and tenacious forts of lands do not feem to have been tried, the produce appears to have been the largeft on the ftrong kinds of foil; but, in every cafe, it is effential that they be dry, the ftagnation of moifture being highly detrimental to the growth of this taot*. The potatoe, though it is found to fucceed to advantage in the more open and porous forts of land,.is not well fuited to thofe of the perfe€tly fandy kinds, as they feldom retain a fufficient degree of moifture to enable the tubrous roots of the plants to fwell out and become of a good fize, nor is there, in general, a {ufficient proportion of vegetable mold in fuch foils to promote the moft perfect growth of the crop. It is only in fuch as poffefs a confiderable degree of light- nefs and good carbonic earthy matter, that they are enabled to propagate their fubterraneous wires or root-buds, become fully diftended, and attain their utmoft fize and increafe. This is fully fhewn by the experiments of Mr. Somerville, in cultivating po- tatoes with good earth alone inftead of manure; as, where that was employed, the produce was much more abundant than in other cafes+. In order that this ftate or condition of the ground may prevail in as high a degree as the nature of the land will admit, it may be the moft advantageous practice in the field culture of this plant to put in crops of this kind in the mote heavy adhefive foils, after bean, cabbage, or other vegetables of the fame nature, that require manure; and in thofe of the more light defcriptions, after peas, fuch grain crops as demand a finenefs of tilth, and on fuch lands as are under the ftate of fallow. It is a praGtice in fome diftri€ts to raife potatoes on the Jey grounds when firft broken up; but this can feldom be an advantageous method, except where they are planted in what is termed the /azy bed manner, or by the dibble in the middle of the furrow flice, in which, from the large quantity of loofe mold by which the fets are covered, good crops may be produced, as is often the cafe * The refults on planting four eyes of the clufter potatoe, on four different forts of foil, were thefe< Kind of Soil. Produce. On a ftrong rich loam::;° 34 lb. Qn a light rich loam:: é‘ 29 On a good gravel:°:°: 19 On a fand 5;‘:‘ é 15 + Report of the Board of Agriculture. 604 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. j in Lancafhire, where this mode of planting was formerly much in ufe. It has : likewife been fuggefted, that potatoes may be grown in a very beneficial man- ner on{ward lands, by ploughing them very thin, and putting the fets in under i!| furrow*. And in thefe cafes Mr. Somerville advifes, that a plough be made ufe of that only juft pares off the fward, and depofits it flat in the bottom of the | furrow, the root fide uppermoft; the fets being placed by the planter on the in- | verted fod immediately after this plough, and then covered with the fine mold from below by a common plough. But whatever may be the nature of the foil on which the potatoe is planted, it fhould be reduced by the operation of the plough,{pade, or harrow, into as fine and mellow a condition as poffible, in order that the earth may lie fo light | and porous as to admit of the proper{welling of its knobby roots. In moft diftri€ts where this root is much cultivated it is the cuftom to give the land that is intended for this crop one or two ploughings in the latter part of the autumn, and, after it has been thus expofed to the influence of the atmofphere during the winter, in the fpring at the time of planting to reduce the cloddy fur- face well by means of harrowing, after which the ground will be in a fuitable condition for receiving the fets. On the marfh lands in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, where the cultivation of the potatoe in the field is carried on to a con- | fiderable extent, the lands that are intended to be cropped with this root, whe- WW ther the preceding crops have been wheat, beans, or oats, are ploughed up at Chriftmas, or as foon after as the work can be done; and in the middle of i April, if the foil has become fufficiently dry, it is harrowed well at intervals, Wie occafionally ufing the roller, until the whole has been brought into a perfe€tly it fine ftate. After this the Jand is to be ridged up, in order to be planted. i) As the potatoe forms its produce below the ground, and is of very luxuriant growth as well as confiderable increafe, it can but in few cafes be cultivated to advantage without the affiftance of manure. And as it requires that the foil fhould be kept free from the ftagnation of moifture, as well as light and open, it Ki| may be the moft advantageous method to make ufe of the ftable kind in its long or more littery condition, as by this means the ground, efpecially when of the wet kind, may be kept more light and open, as well as more free from injurious i} moifture, and at the fame time a more durable fupply of nourifhment be pro- Nia vided for the crop, by its more gradual decay. Where this fort of manure can- i| not be provided in fufficient quantity, old thatch, the ftrawy litter from the fold- Wr yard, or any fimilar material, may be employed. * Experienced Farmer, vol, I. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. 605 But in the light forts of foil, dung in its more putrid reduced condition may be made ufe of with much propriety, as infuch cafes the mold is moftly in a fufficiently porous and open ftate, and they have rarely too much moifture re- maining upon them. A great variety of different forts of manure have been tried by experimenters in the culture of the potatoe; but thofe which have been juft defcribed feem to be the beft adapted to the crop*. Mr. Billingfly, how- * The following comparative ftatement of the effeéts of different kinds of manure in the culture of this valuable root, has been given in a very able Report on the Cultivation of the Potatoe, drawn up by a committee of the Board of Agriculture. Manure per Acre. Crop: Bufhels. Experiment, No. I. 53 Loads(cubical yards) farm-yard dung: a 400 160 Bufhels, foot. 360 160 Ditto, wood-afhes. é é c 9 240 32 Loads of dung c:°°. 280 42 Ditto:°=. C. 360 No manure 5 E:. 180 ExpreriMENT, No.II. 32 Loads of dung, and 40 bufhels of wood-afhes c 400 No manure ¢.‘ é° 280 160 Bufhels of flaked lime h é i i 380 14 Ton of barley ftraw:“:: 300 340 Buthels of pot-afh: 7 é c 380 32 Loads of dung: 2::: 400 32 Ditto, and 160lb. falt added at time of{preading c 400 32 Ditto, and 160 bufhels lime:‘: 480 32 Ditto, and 480 gallons urine. F. 520 In Mr. Young’s trials, the refults were thefe: Firft Year. Second Year, No, 1. No manure, 2: G produced 120 bufhels per acre, 140 2. Night-foil, 10 waggon loads<:. 600.: 640 3. Ditto, 6 ditto‘: 9 i 650:: 500 4. Ditto, 2 ditto, 3 s= 500 A i 300 5. Bones, 10 ditto. 5° C 650 F. 640 6. Ditto, 6 ditto..°‘ 640.“ 560 4. Ditto, 2 ditto:< 560 E c 240 8. Hog dung, 60 one-horfe cart loads°‘ 480 A. 300 g. Ditto, 30 ditto A:-° 480;. 160 10. Yards compoft 60 ditto é°: 300:; 249 11. Ditto,| 120 ditto‘: F P 480:* 300 12, Ditto 30 ditto.;.; 140:° 140 To 606 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. ever, feems to recommend well-rotted horfe-dung, though the long dung is no- ticed as being the next in value*. The nature of the foil in which this was the cafe is not diftin&ly mentioned; it was probably of the fandy kind, in which there can be little doubt but that horfe-dung, in a highly reduced ftate, would be of the moft benefit, as a larger proportion of carbonaceous earthy matter would thereby be immediately provided for the growth of the crop, and the ground be more preferved from becoming too dry, light, or porous. The dung of hogs has alfo been found, by the experiments of the fame cul- tivators, to be nearly equal to that of the horfe, in raifing crops of this highly valuable root. When this fort of crop is cultivated on the ftiff and more heavy defcriptions In Lancafhire, Mr. Townley, on comparing different defcriptions of manures, found that Manures. Produce. No. 1. Coal afhes only,: A: 3 produced 2rrlb., rather fmall. 2. Stable dung and coal afhes mixed 5:- 344, very fine. 3. Stable dung alone: 3 5:. 315, ditto. 4. No manure::= 5 134, very{mall. 5. Compoft, dung lime, and foil c: 204, middling. 6. Stable dung covered with common yellow mafs 3 438, remarkably fine. 7. Soaper’s wafte° 2 3: 383, very fine. 8. Stable dung and lime a e s 268, tolerable. 9. Lime alone i°°.° 5 187, ditto. 10. Coal afhes and lime:. 5: 19, ditto. x1, Stable dung and foaper’s wafte 3:. 298, very good. 12. Soot, foil, and coal afhes 5-:. 271, ditto. 13. Salt and foil:.::. 200, ditto. 14. Saw-duft and coal afhes 2‘: 190,{maller. 15. Stable dung and faw-duft::> 307, very fine. 16. Dung of poultry and coal afhes::- 236, pretty fine, 17. Dung of poultry and fand.:;. 156, rather{mall. 18. Saw-duft and lime: 3*-: 197, ditto. 19. Decayed rufhes and lime R s 3< 208, very good, 20. Tanner’s bark and lime*; F 76, very poor. 21. Bark and ftable dung 4°:° 141, rather larger, 22. Bark alone 5-. 35» very poor. 23. Stable dung and lime fpread over the land C: 230, pretty fine. 24- Chopped whins, witha covering of limeoverthen. 256, very fine. In thefe trials the manure was placed in furrows of five-feet lands. * Billingfly’s Report of Somerfetthire; and Wimpey, in Bath Papers, vol. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. 607 of loamy foils, on the principle of keeping the earth light and open by their very gradual decay, in order that the roots may have room to extend them- felves, many other fubftances befides littery dung have been employed. Wheat ftraw, furz, broom, heath, and other fimilar matters, after having been in fome meafure reduced by chopping, are depofited in the drills, and, from their gra- dual decay, good crops are frequently produced. Clover, tares, vetches, and other fucculent vegetable produCtions, when en- clofed in the foil in their green ftate, at the time of planting, have alfo been found ufeful as manure in the growing of crops of this kind*. Peaty or turfy materials have likewife been made ufe of for the fame pur- pofe on different forts of land. On the light, thin, and open foils, they are afferted to have good effeéts, in contributing to the nourifhment and fupport of the crop, in rendering them more capable of retaining moifture, and by in- creafing their ftaple. And in the heavier foils they become of much ufe, by keeping them in a more open condition, and thereby allowing the moifture to pafs off more readily, and the roots of the plants to{well out in a proper manner. It is probable likewife that frefh vegetable earth, and decayed leaves collected from woods or other places, may be of fervice in this way, as well as in the manner that has been mentioned above. The trials that have been made with lime render it probable that it may be ufefully employed in the cultivation of the potatoe on the ftiffer forts of foils, when combined in a fmall proportion with rich earth and dung; but, in its fim- ple ftate, according to the experiments of Mr. Somerville, it has a tendency to induce the curl; and in the garden culture of this root, we have conftantly found it difadvantageous by producing the canker, whether employed in the effete or{tate of carbonat, or in its more active or cauftic one. But though lime in its uncombined ftate may not be capable of being made ufe of with much utility; where the pra“tice of paring and burning is had re- courfe to, and there is a confiderable portion of afhes from the combuttion of the fward and the coarfe vegetable produéts upon it, full crops of potatoes may be raifed by the ufe of the afhes alone. In this way, the coarfe unpro- du@tive pafture grounds in various parts of the kingdom, and extenfive tratts of ufelefs wafte lands, may be brought into a{tate of cultivation in an eafy and profitable manner; as after a crop of potatoes, put in in this method, the land will, in moft inftances, be in a proper condition for the growing of grain crops. * Billingfly, in Bath Papers, vol. VI. 608 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. On the fea coafts, in the northern parts of the ifland, fea-weed is faid to have been found ufeful in the growth of the potatoe*, Whatever fort of manure may be made ufe of in the growth of potatoes, it is neceflary that the quantity be fully fufficient for the purpofe of providing not only a fuitable bed for the eftablifhment of the roots of the plants, but alfo for affording a due fupply of nourifhment during the whole time of their growth, as upon thefe circumftances the fuccefs of the crop feems in a great meafure to depend. After a very full and extenfive experience in the cultivation of this vegeta- ble, an able and intelligent agricultor advifes, that not lefs than twenty cart- loads, of thirty bufhels each, fhould be applied, as the richer the. ground the more abundant the crop; and that, however ftrong the foil may be, the farmer fhould not depend upon it to the exclufion of manure t. Where the fets are put in in the drill method, the manure fhould be depofited as evenly as poffible at the bottoms of them; and in the other modes it mutt conftantly be fpread out in a regular manner, in order that the crops may be brought forward with as much uniformity as poffible. In raifing crops of the early kinds of potatoes, it may be a more advantageous prattice to apply the manure for the previous crop; as where the contrary is the cafe, the haulm or ftems of the plants are apt to become too luxuriant, and thereby prevent the roots from acquiring a proper fize. Befides, it is probable that the flavour of the potatoe may be better, and the fubftance lefs watery. Time of planting.—The putting of this fort of crop into the ground fhould always be performed in the early{pring months, as foon as poflible after the danger of froft is over, which, in the more fouthern diftricts, is generally from about the middle of March till the latter end of April; and, in the northern ones, it is moftly from about the middle of April until towards the clofe of May, according to the differences in the ftate of the climate. The earlier the crop can be got into the ground, the better it becomes, as the potatoes are faid to turn out more mealy, and of a finer flavour. Befides, they have a bet- ter chance of being taken up and removed from the land, while the feafon is dry; and there is lefs rifk of injury from moifture and frofts after they are fit for taking up. It may alfo be added, that the land will derive much advantage from being ploughed up while it is in a dry condition, after the potatoes have been removed, as in this way it is preferved in a lefs moift ftate during the win- * Englith Encyclopaedia, art. Hufbandry; and Bath Papers.+ Billingfly, in Bath Papers, vol. VI. Cultivation of Arable Land.— Potatoes. 609 ter, and the weeds are more effeftually deftroyed*. But at whatever period the crop may be put into the ground, the bufinefs fhould be performed as much as poflible when the weather is dry, and the land not too much foaked with moifture, as under fuch circumftances the early vegetation of the crop always proceeds in a more regular and expeditious manner, by which the pro- duce is generally rendered better in quality and more abundant. Seed.—In the choice of potatoe feed for the purpofe of planting, it is necef- fary to attend to the differences in the varieties, in refpet to forwardnefs, their qualities as food for man or animals, and the variation in their produ€tivenefs; as upon the properly adapting thefe to the nature of the foil and climate, as well as the views of the cultivator, much advantage may probably be obtained in the culture of the crop. It is generally recommended, that the fets fhould be taken from fuch potatoes as are the fineft and moft perfeé of their kinds, as by fuch means better crops may be produced, at the fame time that there will be lefs rifk of their being attacked by difeafe. And it is contended by fome, that, from the eyes being ftronger in fuch large-fized potatoes, ftronger and more vigorous plants are produced, and of courfe a larger produce afforded. The difference between the ufe of large and fmall potatoes, for the purpofe of feed, being in the proportion of thirty facks to the acre in favour of the former T. It may alfo be of great advantage in the culture of this root, to take the feed or fets from fuch varieties as have not been too long cultivated, as it has been found, that the continuing the cultivation of the fame forts for fome length of time has a tendency not only to injure the quality, but leflen the quantity of the produce}. It has likewife been fuggefted, that the potatoes intended for feed fhould be raifed without manure in fuch foils as are of the fertile kind; and on thofe that are of a poor quality, by a lefs proportion than is ufually the cafe, and without fo much earthing up in the after-culture of the crop, as, by fuch means, it is fuppofed there may be lefs danger of the crops becoming affe ted by difeafe|. In the fame intention, it has been recommended by different cultivators to change the feed every two years, carefully collecting fuch as is brought from a confiderable diftance. It would feem probable, however, that, in guarding againft accidents of this kind, much depends upon the ground be- ing well prepared for the reception of the crop, and on the after-culture being perfeétly performed. * Campbell, in Bath Papers, vol. IX.+ Experienced Farmer, vol. I. + Bath Papers, vol. IX, i) Correéted Report of Middlefex, and TranfaCtions of the Society of Arts,&Ce 7 de Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. In refpe€t to: the feed or fets, different modes have been advifed by. different cultivators, fome preferring whole potatoes, or large cuttings, w think fmall cuttings, fprouts, or even the eyes, the moft beneficial. hile others All thefe different forts of fets are, indeed, found in praétice to produce good crops’; though it feems probable, from the various experiments that have upon the fubjeét, that the middle-fized whole potatoes, and the lar been made ge cuttings of large ones, are in general more produétive than either the finaller fort of whole potatoes,{mall cuttings, or the eyes or fhoots alone*. If, indeed, the expence in feed, where whole potatoes are mad e ufe of, be taken into the account, it is probable that the large cuttings of middling-fized * The refults of the experiments made by the Rev. Mr. Campbell, as ftated in the B order to afcertain the fuperiority of the different kinds of fets, and the moft proper dift ing in refpeé to the rows, are thefe: ath Papers, in ance of plant- Rows, Inches difiant Value of produce per m rows. acre, feed deducted. Bie seid ExPERIMENTS IN 1790. 1. Small whole potatoes:: 6; 16 956,393, 2. Large pieces., 3: 15) 316.17 6 3. Large pieces hia Bite. 6 A rs 8) 16 4. Large pieces°.. 12‘ Hee eevee EXPERIMENTS IN 1791. 1. Large whole.: 6 18.£8: 1 2. Small whole. a 2; 18... 4 3. Small whole.:. 6. 7 10) Qs 4. Small whole:-: 12 173 a0 5. Small pieces° 6 161 i ExPERIMENTS IN 1792. 1. Small whole,.- 6: 19). Jeet 2. Large whole:°. 6: 10) i 3. Large whole:.. 12: 18 9g of 4: Large pieces:-. 6: 183) 0 §. Small whole::. 12: T8e Dae 6. Large pieces::: 12: xO 19770 EXPERIMENTS IN 1794. 1. Middle-fized whole. k 12 2 BFiy Bu oss 2. Middle-fized, confined to one eye and{tem::: 12: 3 12 Ise 3. Middle-fized whole;: 6. Bee One 4. Small pieces:;: 12 29 19 2rz 5. Small pieces:‘‘ 6‘ 28 17 634 6. Small whole.: Se, ee) ee aoe 7. Small whole a os G6‘«° 26 19“3% ExpRRIMENTS Cultivation of Arable Land.— Potatoes. 611 potatoes, where only one or two eyes are preferved, may be the moft proper and fuccefsful in producing crops; as where whole potatoes are employed, from the great number of eyes, and the confequent production of numerous ftems, the crops may be liable to be too thick or clofe on the ground, and in that way be rendered weak, and the produce of courfe fmall and deficient, the bulbs not being able to fwell out and diftend themfelves fufficiently. It is remarked by the ingenious. experimenter mentioned above, that“ the greater the number of ftrong fibres and roots, the more they fearch for food, and the more earth they difplace in the courfe of their growing, which divides the foil more minutely and gives it the advantage of better pulverifation; and the greater abundance there is of leaf, the more nourifhment is extra€ted from the air, and which are thus made to co-operate more with the vegetable paf- ture in the foil in bringing the plants to perfe€tion; and the thick foliage of the crop, by its umbrageous fhade, has the fame ameliorating qualities with a heavy crop of peas, or beans, in deftroying weeds, retaining the dews, and pre- venting the draught from penetrating and exhaufting the foil.” He adds, however, that“ it is to be obferved, that too many as well as too few ftems are unfavourable to the prevalence of fibres, and to the luxuriance of the leaves.” It is therefore concluded, that perhaps pieces about two ounces in weight are the moft proper for being planted, and whole potatoes from that weight to one ounce; thefe, fays he, may be called large pieces and {mall potatoes; and from them, it is probable, there will iffue a fufficient num- ber of ftems to produce as many roots as the immediately furrounding earth can bring to perfe&tion. To produce more, he thinks, would make the roots{mall; to produce fewer, would give a lefs quantity of root from the acre. On thefe accounts, therefore, as well as from large whole potatoes, and large cuttings, confuming fo much feed, it is evident that they can feldom be EXPERIMENTS IN 1795, without dung, after dunged potatoes. Rows. Inches diftant Value of produce per in TOWS. acre, Jeed dedusted. fe. Sid, 1. Shoots<-°> 12: 15) Lg os 2. Large pieces:;: 12: 96-1 Loy; 3. Large whole:.. 12. 23° 1O" or 4. Small whole::- 12: Df 5 Ne 5. Middle-fized whole F: 12= A 2a 6. Middle-fized whole:. 9: mpe 19) 5a 7. Middle-fized whole 6 Yo© a Be 612 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes, employed with advantage, efpecially as the refult of experiment has fhewn that fuch whole potatoes as are moderate in fize, and fuch cuttings as are not too large, are generally capable of producing the beft and moft abundant crops*, It is neceffary, however, where cuttings are made ufe of, to take care that they contain a fufficient proportion of matter about the eyes or root-buds, to afford nourifhment and{upport to the plant during the procefs of germination, and until it be perfeétly eftablifhed in the foil. On the principle of faving feed in fcarce and dear feafons, it has been advifed by fome to have recourfe to the fhoots+, and, by others f, to the eyes only; but the ufe of thefe, except under fuch circumftances, is liable to many objections. Where the fhoots are employed, the crops are found to be confiderably more backward in becoming ripe, confequently more expofed to the danger of cold winds and frofts about the period of their being taken up; befides, from their being more tender than fets taken from the cuttings of potatoes, they cannot be put into the ground at fo early a period. But the moft material objeétien is, in many of the plants being fo weak and imperfeét in their growth, as to afford little or no produce. Where the plough is made ufe of in planting them, there may likewife be danger of their being injured by the trampling of the horfes, except great care be taken to prevent it. Where the eye or root-bud of the potatoe is employed as feed, it is ufually cut out of it by a feoop or implement contrived for the purpofe, to the thick- nefs of about half a crown. But though this mode of fets is faid to have been made ufe of with fuccefs by fome cultivators, it is probably liable to moft of the inconveniences that attend the fetting of fhoots. Good crops are, however, afferted to have been obtained in this way by difs ferent cultivators, in particular defcriptions of foil; but others of equal credit affure us, that it is but in very few inftances, as where the foil is peculiarly adapted to potatoe crops, that fets of this kind fucceed in any tolerable man ner. It was found by an intelligent agricultor, in making an experiment with f{cooped fets, and fuch as were prepared by cutting with a knife, in the ordi- nary way, from potatoes of the fame kind, that on nine of the beft-looking fets of each kind being planted on the fame land, in alternate drills, the cuttings came up and proceeded in their growth without fuftaining the leaft injury; while the fcooped fets, though they grew, continued in a perfeétly dwarfifh ftate when * Bath Papers, vol. IX.+ Maunfell, in TranfaCtions of Dublin Society, vol. II. 1799+ } Stewart, in Ibid. Cultioation of Arable Land.—Potatoese 513 compared with them. And on being taken up and preferved in feparate bafkets for about a month, and then weighed, the produce of the former afforded by much the greateft weight; the cut fets giving one ftone and half a tron, while the{cooped ones yielded only three quarters of a ftone, the{mall fra€tions not being noticed. And in another trial, where one peck was cut with the knife, and the fame quantity prepared by the fcoop, and fet in the fame field, there was no perceptible difference in the growth of the crops while upon the ground; but, on taking them up, the difference of the produce in meafure was a peck and a half in favour of the cut fets*. It was, however, found on planting cut and differently feooped fets alter~ nately, on a light earthy foil, in the drill manner, at the diftance of twenty- four inches between the rows, the fcooped fets being prepared to three-fourths and feven-eighths of an inch, and the after-culture performed in the fame way in each; that on taking up the different drills, and meafuring them feparately, the quantity of produce was nearly equal in every cafe. Hence it is concluded, that“ fcooped feed, and even the fmallett of the fcooped feed, produce equal to large ones, or thofe cut in the ordinary way+.” Similar fuccefs feems likewife to have attended the planting of fcooped feed under the dire€tion of Mr. Ford, in Suffolk t. However, though fuch fort of fets may occafionally, under favour- able circumftances of foil and fituation, afford full crops, it is probably a me- thod of praétice that fhould feldom be had recourfe to but in cafes where there is a difficulty of procuring a proper fupply of other kinds of feed. On the whole, though there is reafon to fuppofe, from the various experi- ments that have been made on the nature of the feed, or fets of potatoes, that the quantity of produce is not, as has been fuppofed, exa€tly in proportion to the weight of them, yet that it is in fome meafure influenced by that circum- ftance, and their having a fuitable number of root-buds, as well as a due pro- portion of pulpy material furrounding them, to enfure the perfeé& evolution and {upport of the plants in the early ftages of their growth, and until they become completely eftablifhed in the ground. Methods of Planting.—In the putting of potatoe crops into the ground, dif- ferent modes are adopted in different circumftances of foil and fituation. On all the more dry and fandy defcriptions of land, the furface of the ground fhould not be raifed, but kept as much as poffible on the flat; but where the climate is * Farmer’s Magazine, vol. III. p. 103.+ Ibid. + Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, vol, II. 614 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. damp, and there is more moifture in the foils, and lefs danger of their becoming too dry for the perfect growth of the potatoe, and on all the thinner forts of foils, it may be the moft advifable method to raife the land into what is termed one-bout ridges; as, in this way, the depth of the ftaple is confiderably aug- mented, the manure is more concentrated for the fupport of the crop, a better bed is provided for the fibrous roots and wires of the plants to eftablith and ex- tend themfelves in, the danger of ftagnant moifture guarded againft, and the after- culture of the crops rendered more eafy, beneficial, and convenient, by which they may be kept more clean and free from weeds, and be earthed up atdifferent times, fo as to infure the moft full and perfeé&t extenfion of the roots in the fine mold that is thus conftantly laid up. And as the whole of the procefs is capable of being performed by means of the common plough and a horfe or two, it is pro- bably the moft advantageous where fuch crops are cultivated on land that has been fome time in the ftate of tillage. Where the ridges are only required to be {mall, the operation is completed in one bout of the plough, or by going up with one furrow and laying another up to it in returning, fo as to produce a ridge in the middle. This is the method that is the moft commonly purfued in thofe diftri€ts that are the moft engaged in the cultivation of this valuable root. It is the cuftom in the Lancafhire practice of planting, after the land has been harrowed fine and level on the furface, to make equidiftant drills the Jength of the field, in doing which, the plough, after making a furrow up the field, muft be drawn down again on the contrary fide clofe by the fame, throwing the foil equal heights on each fide. Thefe drills are made as wide and deep as will make them capable of containing the dung, which is to be laid in the bottom of each. The diftance of the drills is fuch, that when the horfes ftand in one, each wheel of the cart or tumbrill may be in the middle of the next drills on each fide. The next operation is to carry in the manure; and as the horfes ftand in one drill, and each wheel of the cart in a fimilar fituation, the neatnefs and order of the land is very little injured. The dung is then to be thrown out of the cart in fmall heaps, fufficient to fupply the three drills which the horfes and the wheels of the cart occupy, a moderate f{cattering of which is to be put into the bottom of each. This will be completed in a very fhort time by perfons with forks of two tines. Where long ftrawy dung, lately thrown out of the ftables or cow-houfes, or colleéted from the farm-yard, can be procured, it is employed. When the drills are thus prepared, the fets are put into them upon the dung about fix inches Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. 615 diftant from each other. The plough is then to be run on both fides of each drill, to throw the earth which was raifed-out of it upon the potatoes. This operation will elevate it in the middle, and caufe it to lie floping on each fide like the roof of a houfe. The bufinefs is thus complete until the fiems of the potatoes begin to make their appearance above ground. ‘But in the Weft Riding of Yorkthire, where the culture of the potatoe is well performed, according to the Report of that diftri&t, after the land has been properly prepared, the beft cultivators begin to ridge it up by ploughing a fur- row round it down, and then taking a fuitable diftance according to the nature and qualities of the foils, as from about two feet eight inches to three feet, fuch as are rich and fertile requiring more fpace of ridge than fuch as are poor and exhaufted.‘The manure, where neceffary, is difpofed with regularity in rows by means of a Jabourer with a fork, in the ridges, the potatoe fets being then placed at fuitable diftances upon it, and covered by the plough. The method recommended by other cultivators in the northern parts of the ifland, after much experience, is, after the ground has undergone a thorough preparation, and is made perfeétly level by repeated ploughing and harrowing in different direGlions, to draw ftraight parallel furrows by means of a double earth-boarded plough, drawn by a fingle horfe, at the diftance of two feet and an half from each other. This operation is performed in the moft corre&t man- ner, by pafling the plough twice in the fame tra€ét, which, when the land lies floping or uneven, fhould be down hill the firft time. The manure is then brought on in carts from the upper fides of the fields where they are hilly, the horfes paffing in one furrow, and each of the wheels in others on the different fides; they are then emptied by the drivers, who walk behind them with crooked three-pronged forks conftruéted for the purpofe, leaving it in fmall heaps in the furrows in which the horfes go, in fufhicient proportions for the three drills. It is then divided and fpread out in the different rows in as equal a manner as poflible by women and children, the fets being put in upon it at the diftances of about twelve inches from each other, the whole afterwards covered in by the plough, by fplitting the ridges betwixt the rows, pafling twice in the fame traé& as in opening the furrows for the rows. There is another method of planting this root, that prevails pretty generally in the more dry diftri€ts, which is that of fpreading the manure over the whole furface of the land in an equal manner after it has been well prepared by twice ploughing and harrowing; the fets are then planted in every third furrow, the dung and fine mold being turned upon them by the plough. This mode of fet- 616 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. ting potatoes is probably the mof adapted to thofe forts of foil and fituation ir| which the moifture is apt to be too readily diflipated, as by preferving a level furface it may be more fully preferved in the interftices of fuch porous foils. As the whole of the furface is in this way covered with dung, it is obvious, how- ever, that a confiderably larger proportion of manure will be neceffary, than where it is depofited in the drills only; it muft of courfe be an improper mode in fituations where that article is not eafily procured. And in the county of Chefter, where this ufeful root is extenfively cultivated, it is moft frequently the cuftom to form the land into narrow beds of about five feet in breadth by the plough, the manure, when neceflary, being previoufly fpread out evenly upon the ground, and turned down. The fets are then planted by means of a dibbling-ftick to the depth of about three inches in rows, ten inches apart, and alternately ten and twelve inches in them, fo as that the root-fhoots of the plants may occupy the ground as completely as poflible with- out interfering with or injuring each other. When the fhoots of the plants firft appear upon the furface, each of the furrows or divifions between the beds is dug out to the depth of about one fpit; the loofe earth thus raifed being caft as evenly as poflible over the plants in the beds, by which they, as well as any weeds that may have fprung up, are covered, and the growth of the former greatly promoted, while the latter are in a great meafure deftroyed. And in cafes where the ftaple of the land will admit of it, in about a week or ten days afterwards a fecond covering is dug out and thrown over the crop in the fame manner, by which its growth is ftill farther promoted. In this mode of plant- ing, as much frefh earth is from time to time applied to the plants, their vi- gorous vegetation is not only fecured, but the extenfion of the roots rendered more full and complete. As a quantity of frefh earth is thus annually furnifhed for the growth and fupport of the potatoe, it is aflerted that repeated crops may be taken from the fame land, even where manure is not made ufe of, with- out its being exhaufted in any great degree*. It may therefore be had ree courfe to with advantage where manure cannot be eafily procured. And from its being well fuited to the keeping of the foil dry, it may be well adapted to {uch lands as are inclined too much to the retention of moifture for the perfe& growth of potatoe crops. Where this fort of crop is planted upon fward-land, it has been recommended by an intelligent cultivator, after the land has been prepared by the ufe of a * Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, vol. I. p. 76 Cultivation of Arable Land—Potatoes. G17 plough that juft pares off the furface and depofits it in the furrow, to place the fets upon the inverted fod, and cover them with the loofe mold from be- low by means of a common plough*. In this cafe the fets may alfo be put in by a dibble where that method is preferred; but the former is probably the better praétice, as the turfy material on which the fets are put, in this method’ of planting, foon begins to decay, the purpofe of manure is in fome meafure anfwered. Itis therefore a plan that may be advantageous where manure is farce, as in bringing wafte and other coarfe grafs lands into the ftate of tillage. Thefe are the principal modes of planting that are employed where the’ plough is had recourfe to; but where labour is cheap, crops of this fort are fre- quently fet by the fpade. Where this is the cafe, after the lands have been once well dug over from the ftate of the fward, it is frequently a pra€tice to form a trench acrofs the end of the ridge to the width of about three feet, and from ten to fifteen inches in depth, according to the itaple of the land. After this another trench of the fame dimenfions is made on the fide of the former, the furface materials, to the depth of fix or feven inches, being thrown into the bottom of the preceding trench upon which the proper fupply of manure is laid, and the potatoe fets put in at the diftance of eight or ten inches from each other, after which the neceflary quantity of earth is raifed from the bottom of this trench to cover the fets in the firft, and bring it to its proper level. This, though a laborious me- thod of proceeding, and not by any means calculated for the extenfive culti- vator, provides an excellent bed for the reception of the feed, and leaves the land in a high ftate of preparation for fuch crops as may be afterwards grown. Befides, as the grafly material anfwers the purpofe of manure by its gradual decay, it may probably be had recourfe to where that article cannot be eafily obtained. There is ftill another mode of planting the potatoe by the fpade; which is that of forming the ground into beds of about fix or feven feet in width, ac- cording as the land may abound or be deficient in moifture, three or four feet on each fide being left to be dug for trenches. The furface of the bed is then to be dug over, anda fuitable proportion of manure applied equally over it. The fets are then planted upon it at fimilar diftances to thefe juft mentioned, and covered by means of the mold dug from the fide trenches, to the depth of three or four inches. In fertile good ftapled foils, from the roots of the plants hay- ing plenty of loofe mold to fix and extend themfelves in, in this method of * Mr. Somerville. 4% 618 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. planting good crops are often produced; but on the poor and thin forts of foil it is a mode that can feldom be attempted with fuccefs. It is perhaps the beft adapted to fuch lands as are inclined to the retention of moifture, as in fuch the largenefs of the trenches has the effeét of removing the injuries arif- ing from the ftagnation of water about the roots of the plants. This is gene- rally termed the /azy-bed method of planting. Where the fhoots of the potatoes are made ufe of as fets, it has been advifed to place them in half-drills, or fuch as are made by throwing the earth off on® one fide only, which may be formed by the fpade, or even by a very fmall plough contrived for the purpofe, at the diftance of eight or ten inches from each other, after being carefully picked from off the potatoes, and feven or eight inches apart in the rows, the root of the fhoot being put downwards. ‘This may be performed by children. A fmall proportion of dung is then to be laid thinly over them, and the earth from the fides of the drills lightly drawn over them, fo as to guard them againft any froft that may happen. When they have thrown out leaves, and are about four inches above the ground, an- other covering is to be given, fo as to leave about two inches above the furface; and as they advance in growth, continue to cover them in this manner, till the earth between the ridges raifes the drills at leaft twelve or fourteen inches in height. Shoots that are employed in this way fhould be ftrong and vigorous, about fix inches in length, and planted while frefh and in a ftate of perfeé& growth. The fhoots may be preferved for planting by taking them off from ithe potatoes, either all at once or occafionally as they are ufed, without bruif ing, and laying them croffways upon each other, a light covering of earth being placed over them. In this way they may be kept a month or fix weeks till the land is ready for their reception*. It has likewife been fuggefted, that crops of this fort may be raifed by tranf- planting fuch young plants as have come up by chance on grounds that have had potatoes, or been prepared for the purpofe in beds of rich earth and dung. And it is indeed afferted to have been found by experiments attentively made, that planting the feed on moderate-fized dunghills for about three weeks before they are put into the ground, renders them forwarder by five or fix weeks than in the ordinary manner, and that the heat afforded by the dung feems to communicate a healthy vigor to the plants that is maintained-_— the whole of their after-crowth ft. * Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, vol. VI. + Farmer’s Magazine, vol. Ill. p. 142. Cultivation of Arable Land.— Potatoes. 619 But as much injury muft conftantly be done to the fhoots of the plants in the operation of taking them up, and as roots’ of the potatoe kind feldom grow very well after being removed, it is probable that fuch a method of planting can {carcely ever be adopted with advantage,,except in filling up the rows when defective, or in procuring more early crops, whether in the field or garden culture of the root. In whatever method potatoe crops are put into the earth, experience fhews that it is neceflary that care be taken not to plant the fets to too great a depth, as the potatoe has a conftant tendency to rife towards the furface; four or five inches is moftly fufficient in all the drier forts of foil, and in thofe of the more moift and heavy nature lefs may be proper. There is another circumftance that deferves great attention in the planting of this moft ufeful vegetable; which is that of the fets, of whatever kind they may be, being depofited in or covered by fuch mold as is ina fine ftate of mellow- nefs and pulverifation: as, where the earth by which they are furrounded is ina lumpy and unbroken condition, the crops are never fo fine or produétive. In proof of this, a ftriking fa&t has been recorded by a correfpondent of the Board of Agriculture, who, on viewing a crop of about three quarters of an acre, planted by a gardener of the name of Watt, near Leicefter, remarked that an eighth-part of it was at leaft fix inches higher than the other part. On enquiry it was found that the land, which was of an equal quality throughout, was all prepared by digging in the fame manner, had an equal proportion of manure applied to it, the fets being of the fame fort, and moft of them planted the fame day; the only difference being, that on the part in which the crop was the moft full and luxuriant, the planting was performed in drills made by a hand-hoe about a foot afunder, while the other, by accident, were put in by the dibble at the fame diftance. The fuperiority of the drilled over the dibbled part was eafily perceptible during the whole of the fummer, and to the period of taking the crop up, when it was nearly a foot higher in the ftem, and about a month earlier, fome of the dibbled being taken up at the fame time, in order to fhew the difference. The whole was hoed three times in the fame manner,during the fummer; and when taken up, on comparing the different crops, the drilled was found to produce a quarter more than the dibbled. Befides, the potatoes were larger, and nearly a month earlier, both which are advantages of confider- able importance*. Jt has alfo been fuggefted as neceflary, where potatoes are planted in rows on ¥ Englith Encyclopedia, art, Husbandry. 620 Cultivation of A rable Land.—Potatoes. land without manure, or where the manure has been previoufly incorporated with the foil, to draw the furrows or drills much fhallower than when the ma- nure is to be placed below them, otherwife injury may be done by the crop being put in to too great a depth*. After-culture.—The proper management of the potatoe plant, after it begins to appear above the ground, is a point of great importance in its culture, as it is only by proper attention in this refpeét that full and abundant crops can be produced. As it has been already feen that the roots of this fort of plant rife towards the furface while they are in a ftate of growth and forming their knobby bulbs under the ground, it muft be obvioufly of great advantage to have the mold ina loofe mellow condition frequently applied to them, as by fuch means the branch- ing out of the ftringy root-fhoots or wires is not only greatly promoted, but the diftenfion of the bulbs more perfe€tly fecured, as well as the diligence of the cultivator fully repayed by the increafe of produce. In order to effect thefe pur- pofes, it is the general praétice in the beft-cultivated potatoe diftri€ts to have re- courfe occafionally, during almoft the whole growth of the crop, to fuch means as pulverife, clean, and bring up the fine mold thus provided to the roots of the plants. Thefe are the harrow, the hand and the horfe hoe; by the former, the furface mold is rendered fine and powdery, while the latter is beneficial in bring- ing it up to the rows of the plants. In performing thefe operations, it is the pra€tice of a cultivator who has had much experience in raifing potatoe crops, to harrow the land over when the growths from the fets under the furface are advanced about an inch; which is only to be afcertained hy infpeiion, as the germination of the fets varies confiderably according to the circumftances under. which it takes place.‘The above period is fuppofed the moft proper, from the more advanced growth of the weeds rendering their extirpation more complete, as well as from there being danger of injuring the young fhoots by breaking them off when delayed much longer. This procefs is conveniently performed by a fmaii folding harrow invented by the writer, which is drawn along the in- tervals by a fingle horfe, in which operation it applies mold to the oppofite fides of two contiguous rows, deftroys the weeds, and pulverifes the foil, without the inconveii<> of levelling the ridges, which would not only eradicate and break off many of‘ic reots and fhoots, but prevent the advantage of their being kept dry. After this, when the potatoes are wholly up, the earth and weeds are to be removed from iiem by going as clofe as poflible with an ebb furrow, and laid * Bath Papers. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. 621 into the middle of the intervals by a{mall plough with a very narrow earth- board. This is to be performed exa€tly under the above circumftances; as, when done earlier, there may be inconvenience from thofe plants that are not fully up being deftroyed, and, when delayed much longer, there will not be an equal degree of benefit derived from the operation. It is likewife recom- mended that, in a few days after the firft hoeing, the fame implement be paffed in the fame-traGt to a greater depth. By thus ftirring the earth in the intervals that had been trampled down by weeders or other means, it is rendered free, and the weeds that had been removed completely covered; and after the weeds, thus covered up in the intervals, are fully decayed and converted into new vegetable food, the earth is returned to the plants with a double-earth-boarded plough, by pafling twice in the fame traét, and turning a flight furrow to each fide, the firft being made down hill where the field is uneven, a perfon following the plough to remove the earth from fuch plants as may have been covered in the rows by the procefs, as, when left in that manner, their growth is either wholly pre- vented or very much reftri&ted. And in places where the plants are left with- out having the mold applied round them, it is to be brought into contaé with them by means of the hand-hoe. After the plants have advanced to the height of about fix inches, the earth is again laid up to them ftill higher by means of the double-earth-boarded plough, pafling twice in the lines of the former earthings, but ftill confiderably deeper than before. In this way the hoeing of the crop is completed*. By this method of conftantly keeping freth mold applied to the ftems of the plants during the period of their growth, the produce has been found to be greatly increafed, as it affords a facility to the wires for extending themfelves in the loofe earth thus laid up, as well as contributes to the perfeét growth of the plants. It has been afcertained by different trials inftituted for the purpofe, that each feparate hoeing or earthing up of the plants is ufeful in promoting a freth fet of runners, and that the potatoes are produced in tiers, according as the different hoeings have been performed; and it has alfo been found, that where the fecond and third earthings have not been attended to, the produce has been confiderably diminifhed f. In Lancafhire the potatoe crops are moftly kept free from weeds by means of the plough, by turning the earth in the intervals of the rows towards the young plants as foon as they prefent themfelves above the furface of the * Campbell in Bath Papers, vol. IX.+ Farmet’s Magazine, vol. IIL. p. 145. i i 622 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes, ground, and in a fhort time afterwards by turning it back again from each fide of them; and occafionally, when the land is very foul, by paffing a fmall tri- angular harrow between each of the rows. After the weeds have been re- moved in this way, the mold is again applied to the plants in the fame man- ner as before, or by means of a double-mold-boarded plough. In this way the crop is rendered clean, and the fine reduced mold well laid up to the ftems of the plants. It is, however, the cuftom in fome diftri€ts, where the planting of this ufeful root is performed on the plain furface without ridges, to depend upon repeated harrowing during the early growth of the crop, for keeping the lands free from weeds as well as for earthing up the plants; but it is evident, that by this method the ground, efpecially when inclined to be moift, is not only rendered too flat, but little affiftance afforded from the{mall portion of mold that can be brought to the root ftems of the plants. Befides, thefe operations can only be continued for a fhort time during the early growth of the crop. As it is at- tended with lefs expence, it may, however, be practifed where the foil is light, thin, and liable to become too dry. But, in general, the more perfe&t and the longer the ftirring of the ground between the rows can be continued, provided the implement does not prefs too deep in the latter ones, the more vigorous and abundant the crops will be. The earthing up of crops of potatoes by means of the plough has been ob-« jected to by fome cultivators, on the principle that it has a tendency to injure or deftroy the knotty wires of the plants that extend themfelves laterally; but this can feldom be the cafe when the plants are put in at proper diftances, and the operation carefully performed; but, in order to remove any danger in this way, the procefs may be well executed by means of a fort of cultivator termed a brake, which is much employed by the Kentifh farmers for this purpofe, as well as for cleaning and earthing up different forts of podded crops. Mr. Billingfley, however, on the authority of much experience, advifes that the hoe be never made ufe of after the potatoe plants have begun to throw out their wires or ftrings, and form their bulbs; as, fhould weeds afterwards arife, they may be removed by means of hand-labour, The expence of cultivating crops of this root, though it will vary much ac- cording to the nature and condition of the foil, the method of planting, and various other circumftances, yet, from the preparation and labour neceflary in bringing the ground into a fuitable ftate for the reception of the feed and in putting it in, it muft conftantly be high, It may in general be ftated to Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. 623 be from about five or fix to eight or nine pounds the acre, according to the differences of the land, and the difficulty of“obtaining labourers*. Crops of this fort are not, however, to be confidered merely in regard to the immediate profit they may afford, but alfo as the means of preparing and bringing the lands on which they are produced into a fuitable condition for the growth of grain. As the cultivation of roots of this nature anfwers the purpofe of an expenfive fummer fallow, the farmer has an advantage even where they only repay the ex- pences incurred in manure and other articles; but they will moftly, where proper attention is beftowed, do confiderably more, notwithftanding the heavy expence of preparing the ground, and planting fuch crops. It has been advifed by fome cultivators to cut away the parts of the potatoe plants which contain the flowers before the bloffoms begin to blow, in order to increafe the fize of the potatoes; but this is a praftice that has been fhewn to be too tedious to be generally adopted, though it feems probable that the pro- du@tion of the fruit or apple may be detrimental in drawing away the nourifh- ment of the bulbs below the ground at the period when they ftand moft in need of it. And, in the few trials that have been made in this view, fome have fup- pofed an advantage to be derived from it; as after planting different kinds in drills, and picking the flowers carefully from off the plants in fome of them as foon as they appeared, in others after they had expanded or even made fome progrefs towards fetting the fruit, and in others again after it was formed and half-grown, while other drills between them were left untouched, it was found % In the Weft Riding of Yorkthire, according to the Agricultural Report of that diftriG, the exe pence and profit on an acre of potatoes are thus ftated;: DR. Expences. fv sds Land rent-. 5 Ee 5.6 Produce. CR. Working and ridging Ee ag 0 RTO: Seed potatoes, fix facks, at 7s. sgh Ap eta. By 60 facks, at 5s. 6d. per fack. 16 10© Cutting ditto, and fetting so,(2150 6 1@ Manure and leading. zt ee O Hoeing, weeding, and takingup 1 5 9 Probe, 3) Sot 0 Sato Various eftimates of expence and produce on a large fale, under different modes of preparation and planting, may be feen in an ingenious paper by Mr, Billing ley, in the fixth volume.of thé Letters and Papers of the Bath Agricultural Society. ae 624 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Polatoes. that the crop, in the firft method of plucking the blofloms, was in moft cafes nearly double to that in which the apples were permitted to become ripe. Where the flowers were fuffered to wafte themfelves only, the crops were lefs produétive; and where the apples had made fome progrefs, it was ftill fmaller; but in both confiderably greater than in the untouched rows. It was likewife remarked, that the ftems of the plants, in the cafes where the bloffoms had been picked off, continued in a more full and vigorous ftate of growth much longer than where they were permitted to remain. And the fame circum- ftances took place where the apples were gathered early*. The trials of other experimenters feem, however, to contradiét thefe ftate- ments; as in plucking the blofloms from fome drills, and leaving others in their natural ftate, on taking up the crops not the leaft perceptible difference could be perceived in the producet. But though beneficial confequences may perhaps in fome inftances be produced by the pulling off the bloffoms of pota- toe plants, in order to prevent the feed from being formed, as is the prattice in particular cafes in gardening, the experiments of different writers have clearly fhown that the cutting over the haulm or flraw is invariably injurious to the fuccefs of the crops, the large produce and great luxuriance of the plants pro- bably requiring the afliftance of the leaves and ftems to perfect their growth. When cut at different ftages, in fome trials the deficiency of the produce was found to be exaétly in proportion to the earlinefs of the operations being per-~ formed; and that the potatoes were badly ripened, as well as of a bad quality, while thofe growing on the fame land clofe to them, but in which the haulm had been left uncut, were extremely good}. It has indeed been recommended by an experienced cultivator of this root, never to cut the ftems of potatoes at any period of their growth; as the roots not only continue to improve till the ftems have decayed fo as to be of no utility, but ceafe the inftant they are deprived of them||. Curl.—Befides the injury that may arife to crops of this fort from the above praétice, they are frequently liable to be much hurt by the curl; a difeafe in which the leaves of the plants are, as it were, fhrivelled or curled up, and the healthy appearance and vigor of the crop greatly impaired. The reafon of this pernicious vegetable affeCtion appears not yet fully inveftigated, as it has been afcribed to many different caufes by writers on hufbandry. Moft of early au- * Farmer’s Magazine, vol. II. p, 412.+ Ibid. vol. II, p. 412. } Ibid. vol. HI, p. 103,\ Campbell, in Bath Papers, vol. 1X. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. 625 thors confidered it in general as originating from diftempered feed, which caufed it to appear in the crops wherever it was made ufe of. But in an in- terefting paper in the fecond volume of Communications to the Board of Agri- culture, it is fuggefted as proceeding from imperfeét culture, or fuch circum- {tances as have a tendency to leffen and impair the vigor of the growth of the plants; as the improper nature of the foil, or the want of fufficient preparation of the land on which the crops are grown.’ It has likewife been fuppofed to owe its origin to the continued propagation of potatoes by fubterraneous buds, or root-wires, inftead of eed, as by fuch means they acquire hereditary dif- eafe; as happens in garaening, in the cafe of canker, to fuch apple-trees as have been a great length of time propagated by grafting the fcions. In oppofition to this, it has, however, been maintained by fome cultivators, that they have found the curl to prevail in the potatoe plants in fuch crops as had been raifed from feed of the fecond year. By others it has alfo been afferted, that infeéts at- tacking the leaves may be the caufe of the curl; and ftill others, that the pota- toe roots, the leaves of which are attacked with the curl, remain hard and lefs diffoluble in the foil*. And it has lately been contended, that this difeafe in potatoe crops proceeds from infe€ts beneath the ground deftroying the nutritive part of the fets after they are depofited in the foil; as it was found that, from a potatoe planted in a field as feed, there proceeded four ftems, two of which were weak and delicate, having their leaves attacked with this difeafe, while the other two were ina highly vigorous ftate, and their leaves frefh and free from the curl. On the root being taken up, it was difcovered, that all the part from which the curl- leaved{tems proceeded was excavated, the fubftance being wholly confumed by infe&ts. And on more frequently examining fuch roots as had their leaves affected, it has conftantly been found that they have been deftroyed by infeéts, either of the fnail, centipede, or beetle kind. Sometimes it is, indeed, fup- pofed, that the difeafe may be caufed by the leaves only becoming the prey of numerous minute animalcule, but that the general caufe is in the feed itfelf being confumed. On this account it is, therefore, that the difeafe abounds more in potatoe crops in the rich foils in the vicinity of cities, and in that of wellemanured gare dens; as in fuch, infeéts are the moft predominant. It is alfo fufpe€ted that fome forts of potatoes are more liable to be attacked * Phytologia, p. 475. 4 L Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. by animals of the above kinds than others, as they have fcarcely ever been ob- ferved to meddle with the yam. Such varieties of the potatoe as have been brought from backward diftriéts, and which have not been perfeétly ripened, are likewife, it is thought, feldom relifhed by thefe infe€ts. But fuch as have been made in any degree fweet and mellow by the aftion of froft, are fure to be attacked by them*. As the general experience of cultivators has fully fhewn that the crops of fuch potatoe fets as have been brought from high cold climates, where the potatoe fcarcely ever arrives at that ftate of perfe&t maturity in which feed is produced, is rarely if ever affe€ted with the curl for the firft year, this opinion is rendered extremely probable ft. And the trials of a very extenfive cultivator not only clearly demonftrated that there was not the leaft difference in refpeét to the produftion of this difeéafe, whether whole potatoes, large cuttings,{mall cuttings, or the eyes merely, were employed; but that fuch potatoes as were brought from the late diftritts about Dumfries in Scotland, were never‘known to afford curled crops the fir/t year. The cultivator is, however, cautioned againft ufing them in the third year, as, however rich the land or good the manure may be, they will almoft all be affe€ted with the curl if fet in the fame foil{. It is added by the former of thefe experimenters, that the produce of fuch potatoe plants as have once been under the influence of this difeafe will con- ftantly, if planted in the fame ground, continue to produce difeafed crops§. There is ftill another caufe to which this baneful difeafe in the leaf of the potatoe plant has been afcribed; which is, that of the feafon. It is remarked, that where the early part of the feafon is mild and warm, in fuch a degree as to permit the plants to vegetate and fpring up in a perfect manner and to efta- blith themfelves well in the ground, there will be little or none of the difeafe; but that where the crop has been planted at too early a period, or where the advance of warm weather is flow and late, the difeafe will fhew itfelf in a high degree. Thus, where the fpring is late, cold, and frofty, and the potatoes fet at an early period, the crop is moftly injured by the curl; while thofe that are planted at a Jater period, and which are not fo much expofed to the effeéts of cold and froft in their early growth, are more free from the difeafe. In proof of this, it is obferved, that potatoes planted on elevated, hilly, and moift fituations, * Farmer's Magazine, vol. III. p. 217.+ Ibid, t Billingfley, in Bath Papers, vol, VI. § Ibid. p. 218, ake Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. ao which cannot be fet fo early as in lower and more warm diftri€ts, and which feldom appear perfeétly above the ground before the latter end of May, are almoft wholly free from the curl, on which account they are generally had re- courfe to as feed. But though many of thefe different caufes may operate in producing a ten- dency to the produétion of the curl in potatoe crops, they do not any of them feem fully fufficient to account for the difeafe in a perfeétly fatisfaftory man- ner. Further inveftigation into the nature of the difeafe is ftill wanting, in order fully to elucidate its caufe. It appears probable, however, that imperfeé&t culture, too early planting, cold, froft, and backward feafons, or other caufes that have a tendency to diminith the vigor of the plants in the early ftages of their growth and bring on a ftate of debility, may render the ftems as well as leaves more{weet, and confequently more liable to be de- voured by the attacks of animalculz, at the fame time that, from the imperfect confumption of the fweet nutritious material elaborated in the fet for the fup- port of the young plant, in fuch cafes, the roots may be more expofed to be- come the prey of infeéts, and in this way the difeafe be produced. That fome- thing of this nature takes place feems evident, from the circumftance of only fome of the plants being difeafed, while others nearly adjoining them are in a healthy and luxuriant condition. But from whatever caufe this vegetable malady may take its origin, no ef- fe€iual remedy feems yet to have been difcovered, but that of a frequent change of feed, and having recourfe to fuch as is brought from a diftance, and from fuch diftri&ts as are later, and have foils different from that in which they are to be planted. Where the convenience of fhipping admits of it, the beft method is probably to havevthe feed potatoes from Scotland, or fome of the northern counties of England; as experience has fhewn, that feed potatoes from thefe parts of the ifland feldom produce many difeafed plants for the firft or fecond year*, Where infeéts or animalcule are confidered as the caufe of curl, the changing of the feed muft alfo be a principal mean of preventing the difeafe, as in this way we have juft feen that fuch kinds of potatoes may be employed as they are not difpofed to attack. But, befides this, it may be advifable to have this fort of crop planted as little as poflible on the rich field or garden foils that have been long in a ftate of tillage, and which of courfe abound moft with infects. * Billingfley, in Bath Papers, vol. VI. 628 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. And as it has been found that the produce of fuch potatoes as have been once affe€led with the curl will, when planted on the fame Jand, uniformly con- tinue to afford curled plants, a change of the feed of the potatoe may in all fituations be more effentially requifite than that of moft other forts of crops. It has likewife been remarked, that on taking up the potatoes in a field that had been partly planted with fuch feed as had been produced on the land, and partly by that from a colder climate, and confequently a later, that the produce in the former cafe was at leaft in the proportion of three to one lefs than in the latter*. In the idea that the difeafe is produced by the devouring attacks of infects on the fets, it feems not improbable but that advantage might alfo be derived from the impregnation of them with fuch liquid fubftances as they are found to avoid, or which are noxious to them, in the way of fteeps. In performing this, great care fhould, however, be taken that fuch materials be not employed as have a tendency to injure their vegetative quality. Befides thefe, it may be of great utility in guarding againft the difeafe to be particularly attentive to the preparation of the ground, the proper feafon of planting according to the nature and fituation of the land, and to the accurate after-culture of the crop; as there is reafon to fuppofe, that where thefe points are either wholly neglefted, or performed in an incomplete manner, the crops are more liable to be injured by the curl+. In Mr. Chapple’s experiments, confiderable advantage feemed likewife to be derived from fele€ting the beft and moft perfe&t potatoes for feed, from fuch as had been grown upon a piece of ground fet apart for the purpofe at a diftance from the others, and during the after-culture of the crop picking out the dif _ eafed plants f. It has alfo been lately fuggefted, that by ufing the dark brown-coloured ex- crefcence that grows to the fize of a large horfe-bean on the haulm or /fraw of the potatoe near to the ground, or what is termed in fome places the potatoe bean, for feed, the curl may be prevented. Thefe beans have the form of the potatoe, and prefent a number of eyes, from one of which two fmall leaves generally iffue. In an experiment made with thefe, in order to afcertain their vegetative property, it was found that they produced a large number of potatoes of the ordinary fize, but of inferior quality. Thefe, however, on being cut and planted * Farmer’s Magazine, vol. I1I.; and Bath Papers. + Communications te the Board of Agriculture, vol. II.+ Bath Paper‘. Cultivation of Arable Land.— Potatoes. 629 the following year, afforded potatoes of an excellent quality, and in great abund- ance. Encouraged by thefe trials, a fufficient proportion of this fort of fets has been annually colleéted and planted for the purpofe of fupplying feed for the enfuing year’s crop. It has been the invariable praétice of the cultivator to plant them at the fame diftance as in the ordinary method for thofe of common fets, ahd to manage the crops every way ina fimilar manner. The quantity of produce has moftly been equal to that with the common feed: and under this plan, it is afferted no other change in the feed has ever been found neceffary*. But how- ever effeétual fucha method may be in preventing the curl in potatoe crops, it is obvioufly too tedious and expenfive to be introducéd into the field culture of the root with advantage. Yet, if further experience fhould confirm the above, it feems not improbable but that it might be an ufeful praétice in the more limited fcale of garden culture. The produce of this fort of crop is fhewn to have attained the full fize, and to be in a proper ftate for being taken up, by the leaves beginning. to wither and fall off, and the ftems to decay; after fuch appearances, they fhould, therefore, as foonas poffible, be removed from the ground, in order that-they may be fecure from the danger of froft, which is fometimes apt to take place about the period when the late-planted crops become ripe. About the latter end of September, or beginning of O€tober, is the feafon in which the general crop is moftly taken up; but the garden and other early crops may be taken up at any time, fo as to fuit the particular views and convenience of the cultivator, after the ftems have attained their complete growth, which is known in moft cafes by the produttion of bloffom. The manner of performing this bufinefs is different, according to the extent of the crop, and the mode in which it has been planted. In the garden, and where the{pace of ground occupied by it is but fmall, digging the potatoes out by means of a broad three-pronged fork is probably the beft praétice; asin this way the ground may, at the time the potatoes are taken up, be dug over, and left in an even and regular ftate: but where the crop is of confiderable extent, and the land not of fo light and mellow a nature, but planted: in drills for the ufe of the horfe-hoe, the plough may be the moft economical, as the earth feldom digs well. For this purpofe, it will only, however, be neceflary to make ufe of a light plough without any coulter, turning up the earth of the rows by the fhare; as by * Farmer’s Magazine, vol. III. p. 13. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. that means the potatoes are lefs in danger of being injured. In this method, in fome cafes, it is the cuftom to fet the fhare againft the rows to a good depth, and at once turn them up; while in others it is the ordinary pratice firft to turn a furrow from each fide of the drills, and afterwards to plough up the middle part, in which moft of the potatoes are lodged. And in fome other cafes, after the fide furrows have been removed, it is ufual to turn over the part that princi-: pally contains the potatoes by hand labour with a three-pronged fork*. In whichever way the crop is taken up, the haulm or ftems fhould firft be cut off clofe by the furface of the ground, or pulled up and removed from the land. Where the crop is taken up by hand-labour, one perfon will generally be fufficient for picking up the potatoes; but in taking them up by means of the plough, the number muift be increafed according to the circumftances of the crop, always being fufficient to keep up with the plough, otherwife there will be great lofs in the economy of time from the team occafionally remaining un- employed. Some likewife recommend the land to be once or twice harrowed over after- wards, in order to bring fuch potatoes as may have efcaped the pickers to the furface f. In. accomplifhing this work, it is of much advantage to feparate the fmall and bruifed from the middling and large potatoes. It is likewife of confequence to choofe as dry a time as poflible for the bufinefs; as when this fort of crop is taken up wet, it is never found to keep well. After the whole of the crop has been raifed from the ground, it fhould be fpread thinly upon a dry floor, and be allowed fome days in order that it may become perfeétly dry before it is depofited in the fituation in which it is to remain during the winter. The produce in crops of this as well as other kinds muft vary much, accord- ing to the circumftances of foil, cultivation, and feafon. It has been ftated by Mr. Donaldfon to be from five to eight or ten tons, and on the average over the whole kingdom about fix tons, to the Englith ftatute acre. In Mr. Billing- fley’s extenfive experience in the growing of this vegetable, he appears. never to have had a greater produce than about a fack in a perch of ground, or one hundred and fixty facks on the acre, of the eating kinds of potatoes; but, he is aware that a much larger produce may be obtained of thofe forts employed in the feeding of cattle, though he feems to think them lefs nutritious... In York- fhire, according to the Agricultural Report of that diftriét, from three to four ® Modern Agriculture, vol. II.; and Lancafhire Report.+ Experienced Farmes, vol. I. POTATOE HARROW. : PLATE IIL Potatoe Harrow. [To face Page 630, Vol, II.) ConTatns the reprefentation of a Harrow contrived by Mr. Young, for the purpofe of pre- venting the great labour and expenfe of breaking the furrow flices in taking up potatoe crops by the plough: it is worked by a man and horfe. The curved iron flides againft the unploughed land, at the bottom of the open furrow, and thereby keeps the teeth diagonally placed, to avoid driving the earth in heaps in their work. In friable foils three teeth may be employed, butin ftiffer ones only two. Itis a tool that performs its work well, and which has faved in his practice from 17s. to 20s. an acre. Ft. In. The dimenfions in Fig. 1. are from 1 to2— 5 8 * 1to3—,4 6 4 to 5 p= 2, 6 4 to. 5— gas 4 to.6,-—- foe 5 7 to Ons 9 Plate 9—© 3 broad. Do.— o ob thick. toto1r— o 54 Do. breadth ofthe iron 0 3? Inthecurve—© 7 Breadth of curvediron—© 3 12 to 13 ftraight line acrofs. 4 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. 631 hundred buthels of thefe forts that are commonly made ufe of at the table, are confidered as a good produce; but thofe cultivated for cattle purpofes moftly yield from fifty to one hundred bufhels in addition*. In fome cafes, in the county of Kent, four buthels are faid to have been dug up from a fingle fquare rod of ground, which is at the rate of fix hundred and forty bufhels to the acre; which, at the price of only one thilling the bufhel, would afford thirty-two pounds as the value of the produce f. Crops do not in general, however, afford by any means fo large a profit. Still larger quantities have, indeed, been afferted to have been produced in particular cafes in the trials of different cultivators, as from feven hundred to a thoufand bufhels; but in fuch inftances the land muft have been very rich, and peculiarly fuitable for the purpofe, and the feafon unufually favourable to the crops. Many different methods of prefervation have been attempted in order to prevent the injurious effeéts of froft, moifture, and germination, on the potatoe, during the winter and early fpring feafons: as by the firft it is rendered wholly ufelefs as an article of food; dampnefs makes it quickly liable to become rotten 5 and by fprouting its flavour is confiderably impaired, confequently it is lefs proper for the purpofe of eating: but no perfeétly effectual and at the fame time con- venient mode feems yet to have been difeovered. As by too much humidity and heat the vegeiative procefs may be excited too expeditioufly, while on the con- trary the deftruétion of the vital principle may have atendency to haften the pu- trefa€tive fermentation, the great art of obviating fuch effe€ts in this as well as other roots, when removed from the earth, would feem to confift in preferving % The value of the grofs produce of potatoe crops under different methods of cultivation is thus ftated by Mr. Campbell, in the ninth volume of the Bath Papers: EXPERIMENTS IN 1794+ Rows. Value of grofs produce per acre, be AUR 1. Undunged potatoes after dunged turnips.:- 2519 85 2. Undunged after dunged fallow::. 27 10 23% 3. Undunged fubftituted for a fummer fallow d- 14 10 435 4- Parple-hearted dibbled in the top of a well-dunged row AS, Jia Ones §. White kidney planted in fame manner 2-. 27 2 Sy 6. Ditto, ditto on much dung in row:: 3 ay es OS, 4, Ditto, ditto on little dung in row z Fi°= 24 16 833 8. White flat potatoe on ditto, ditto:.: F 32 19 0 + Banifter’s Synopfis of Hufbandry. 632 Cultivation of Arable Land.— Potatoes. them in fuch a ftate of life, and in fuch fituations, as that they may not be liable to receive injury by too high degrees of either heat or cold, or.by exceffes of| moifture. This may be accomplifhed by keeping them perfettly dry, and as. much as poflible in a medium degree of temperature, between the extremes of about forty-eight and thirty-two of Fahrenheit’s thermometer; in the former of which the procefs of germination for the moft part takes place, and in the latter the deftru€tion of the vitality of the roots by the occurrence of froft*. Such a fteady temperature, under the conftantly varying circumftances of this cli- mate, is not however eafily attained, and the roots at the fame time preferved in a ftate of fufficient drynefs. It has, notwithftanding, been attempted by burying them in pits below the furface of the ground, by depofiting them in vaults and cellars or other fimilar fituations, and by placing them in houfes eonftruéted for the purpofe. The firft method, though practifed in many diftriéts, is feldom completely fuc-. cefsful, except where the foil is of a very dry and porous quality, and the inclofing of the potatoes conduéted with great care and attention. And, indeed, what- ever care may have been beftowed in the ftoring of them in this manner, there is moftly danger from their becoming too much impregnated with moifture from the furrounding earth, and from the clofenefs and warmth of fuch fituations dif- pofing them to vegetate too quickly in the early{pring months. Where it is employed, the beft means of guarding againft thefe effeéts is, however, to have recourfe to pretty thick linings, of fuch fubftances as, while they refilt the effecis of cold, have but little capacity for tranfmitting heat or abforbing moifture. In this view, all forts of coarfe, woolly, or hairy materials, ftraw, fine fhavings, faw-duft, and many other fimilar matters, may probably be made ufe of with ad- vantage. Andon the principle of abforbing or taking away fuch putrid exhala- tions as may be generated among bodies thus clofely packed together, as well as from its indeftruétible nature, the coarfe powder of charcoal has been advifed. This is firft to be applied over the roots to an inch or two in thicknefs, and after- wards layers of one or more of the other materials to fuch depths as may be fuf- ficient to preferve them in the proper ftate of temperature, and proteét them from froit+. The bufinefs of piecing potatoes is managed in fomewhat a different manner in different diftri€ts: in fome the ground is excavated or hollowed out to the depth of two, three, or more feet, and the potatoes depofited in the pit, as well as piled up confiderably above it, fo as to terminate in a fort of point or * Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 483.+ Ibid. Cultivation.of Arable Land.—Potatoes. 633 ‘ fidge; in others they are only, however, piled up on the level furface in the “Fiame forms; but whichever method is adopted, the cuftom is moftly to cover ® them with dry ftraw, about five or fix inches in thicknefs, and afterwards ap- ply over it a good thick covering of earth, raifed from a trench dug out all round the heap, and well beaten together by the back of the fpades over-the whole. It is likewife the praétice in fome inftances to perforate the crufts or coverings of thefe repofitories, both on the fides and about the tops, with fmall holes to the depth of the ftraw, and at the diftances of about two or three yards from each other, in order to let any noxious effluvia, that may have been extri- cated, efcape, but which are to be well clofed as foon as this purpofe has been fully accomplifhed*. This would, however, appear to be quite unneceflary where the potatoes have been put together in a perfe€tly dry ftate, and the bruifed or wounded ones have been carefully feparated from the reft; but when the contrary is the cafe, the fluid difcharged from them may have a tendency to bring on or run into fermentation, and thus injure fuch as come near or in conta& with them. This mode of prefervation is, however, only adapted to fituations where the foils are of a dry, gravelly, or fandy nature; as the retention of moifture in thofe that are of the more heavy kind muft conftantly endanger the fafety of the root. And as even the drieft defcriptions of foils are apt, in particular inftances and feafons, to become loaded with much humidity, it is probably the beft mode to fink the pits as little as poffible in all cafes, as in this way the rifk of injury may be lefs. “It has been recommended, that the fituation of thefe repofitories fhould be fuch, as that one of the ends may conftantly face the north, and that they be always thatched over upon the earthy coat with ftraw in the manner of corn ftacks, as by fuch means the danger of froft and moifture is more effeétually guarded againft+. In addition to thefe, where this method is followed, it is alfo probably ufeful to have recourfe to fome of the other materials befides ftraw for forming the internal coats or coverings to the potatoes. And as much inconvenience as well as rifk attends the opening the heaps, it may be advifable not to have them too large, as by attention in this refpeét the whole may be removed at once, and almoft immediately converted to ufe. But in whatever manner this method may be performed, it feems to be lefs convenient as well as lefs fecure than that of ftoring them in deep dry cellars or vaults of other kinds, where they can not only be eafily removed as occafion may * Corrected Report of Lancathire,+ Experienced Farmer, vol. I. 634 Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes: require, but be more perfeétly fafe againft moifture.‘In this mode, the fame at+ tention will, however, be requifite in the covering of them up in the winter Ly months as in the others. ae The moft perfe&t pra€tice is perhaps that of having houfes conftruéted of fuit-— able tnaterials exprefsly for the purpofe, as in this way the conftant trouble and expence of covering and uncovering may be avoided. Where the cultivation of this root is carried on toa confiderable extent, and the produce kept during the winter and early fpring months; it may, therefore, be advifable to have a houfe confirutted for the purpofe, fomewhat on the prin- ciple of the dairy-houfe, or fo as conftantly to préferve as much as poflible an uniform ftate of temperature between the extremes that have been mentioned, in which the potatoe is found to remain in a perfe€tly found and uninjured con- dition. For fuch a building a perfeétly dry fituation, and which is as little ex- pofed to the fun as poflible, fhould always be chofen. In very dry foils it may be the beft method to have it funk fomething below the furface of the ground, both for the convenience of preferving and ftoring the crops; but in fuch as are more retentive of moifture, it will be better to have it wholly above the level of the furface, in order more fully to guard againft the effects of dampnefs. The outfide walls may be of earth, well-wrought clay, or any other denfe mate- rial; but of whatever fubftances they may be formed, they fhould be conftruéted double, or in fuch a manner as that fome kind of light material, fuch as faw- duft, coarfe hair, fern, ftraw,&c., which has a tendency to refift the a€tion of fevere froft, may be lightly ftuffed in betwixt them: and the roof, after being well boarded over, fhould be covered with an extremely thick coat of good wheat or rye ftraw. The door may alfo be formed double in the fame way as the fide walls, and be fo contrived as, on being opened, to prevent the entrance of the air as much as poflible, being always placed in that part of the building that has a fouthern afpect. By this fort of houfe, and proper attention to the nature of the materials of which it is formed, it feems not improbable that potatoes may be equally guarded from the danger of intenfe froft and that de- gree of heat which is neceflary to their germination in the early fpring feafon. It has, indeed, been fuggefted, on the principle that clay or earth conftitutes the warmeft building for the‘winter feafon, and the cooleft for that of the fum- mer, that houfes made wholly of fuch materials might anfwer well for the pre- fervation of potatoes*. It is obvious, however, that where fuch fubftances are employed alone, they muft be lefs proper,on account of their difpofition to ® Farmer’s Magazine, vol. IH. p. 318. * Cultioation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. 635 sabforb and retain moifture, and the neceflity. of their being made ufe of toa ‘very great thicknefs, as well as from their being‘extremely liable to crack and form openings; inconveniences that are in a great meafure avoided in the method juft defcribed, and at the fame time the potatoes more perfeatly fecured. Befides thefe means of preferving potatoes from injury while in their perfect ftate, others have been fuggefted as capable of being employed with fuccefs without the great expence of fire, where they are reduced into lefs bulky forms. Thefe are chiefly by bringing the fubftance of the potatoes into a pulpy ftate, either by rafping, pounding, or grinding, by machines or mills conftruéted for the purpofe, and afterwards confining the pulp in a cloth, and reducing it into “othe form of a thin cake by means of preffure. The cakes, after this, are to be well dried, by placing them upon fhelves, and turning them frequently. In preparing potatoes in this manner, it was found, that fuch potatoes as were peeled‘thinly before they were reduced into pulp afforded more clean white cakes, and fuch as appeared to keep better, than where they were merely cleaned and formed into cakes without peeling. And that, though the fubftance of the root is compreffed into a fixth of its ordinary bulk, and lofes nearly two- thirds of its weight in the procefs, yet on being dreffed, either by fteam or in any other manner, it affords almoft the fame proportion of food. Befides, by the addition of water in an equal quantity to that of the juice, which is forced from the pulp during the time of its compreffion, a portion of fine white flour or ftarch proper for the better forts of paftry is depofited. It is conceived that, by a machine of confiderable power, the cakes might even be formed at once, by merely prefling the potatoes, without their having undergone the preparation mentioned above, the black fpecks and other im- purities only being firft removed; and that a common cyder or cheefe prefs, with the affiftance of a lever to increafe the power, might be employed for the purpofe*, This mode of preferving the fubftance of the potatoe may be highly beneficial in many inftances, but particularly where it is neceflary to be kept a long time, and ufed in large quantities, as it is faid to be capable of being packed in one- fixth the fpace that would be requifite under other circumftances, and to remain perfeétly good many years f. It feems probable likewife that potatoes might be rendered capable of keep- * Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, vol. II. p. 256.+ Ibid. 636 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potateces. ing{weet and good for a confiderable length of time without undergoing the above procefs, by being cut in thin flices, and expofed to heat in a gradual man- ner in an oven or upon a ftove or kiln until the whole of their moifture is ex- pelled and they become perfe€tly dry, when they fhould be inclofed in cafks or other veffels, and placed in dry fituations. And it is ftated by a late pratical writer, that this root may be kept perfeétly found for a long time, merely by fpreading them thinly on a dry floor early in the fpring, and carefully rubbing off the eyes or fprouts as they appear*; but the flavour of the potatoe appears to be confiderably altered as foon as the pro- cefs of germination takes place, the whole fubftance being rendered more foft and f{weet, confequently lefs palatable. This root, joined with hay, ftraw, chaff, and other fimilar matters, has been found ufeful in many cafes, efpecially in the later winter months, as a food for horfes and other forts of live ftock; and with thefe fubftances, as well as in combination with other materials, as bean or barley meal and pollard, in the fattening of neat cattle, fheep, and hogs: but as there is confiderable trouble and expence in preparing them, it being found that they are much more fafe and nutritious for fuch animals when boiled, they do not appear to have paid greatly when employed in this way. The refults of numerous trials detailed by different writers in the Annals of Agriculture do not fhew them to have been in this mode of application worth more in general than from four pence to five pence the bufhe!. When given to horfes, it may be fomething more, as there is more difficulty in afcertaining the favings in other articles of fodder that are thereby made, and the advantages that are gained by the animals. It has been ftated to be about ten pence the bufhei f. The mcft general as well as the moft ufeful application of this fort of crop is in that of human food, for which purpofe the roots are rendered mealy, nutri- tious, and fit for undergoing the different proceffes of digeftion, by means of heat, either in water or fteam, their acrid juices being in this way converted into mucilage, and probably fome portion of that into a fine farinaceous or ftarchy fubftance. Experience feems to prove, that where the heat is properly applied through the medium of fteam, the potatoes become more mealy and nourifhing than where water is made ufe of for the fame purpofe. But the differences in the mealinefs produced by the boiling of this root is fuppofed by * Donaldfoi’s Modern Agriculture, vol. II. + Avnals of Agriculture, vol. XXIX, p. 62. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. 637 fome to depend more upon the nature of the foil on which it is grown than on any other circumftance. And it has been{uggefted, that the mealinefs of fome potatoes that have undergone the operation of eviling, may be fometimes affe&ed by the acidity of the water in which they have been boiled: but it is believed to depend more generally upon the mucilagé¢ in fome of them being more coagulable than in others, a circumftance the caufe of which has not yet been ” fully inveftigated*.} The wathing of this root, where it is employed upon an extenfive feale, is frequently a troublefome operation; it may, however, be performed with great eafe and convenience, by having a veflel conftru€ted fomewhat in the form of a barrel, with fmall ftrong narrow laths on the fides, nailed to the folid boards, forming the ends at fuch diftances as may be fufficient for preventing the potatoes or other roots from falling through, and at the fame time for admitting the water to pafs freely. The potatoes are to be introduced and evacuated by means of a door fixed in one of the fides. The veflel being thus prepared, is to be hung upon a frame of wood over a large fquare tub containing water, in fuch a: man- ner as that about one half of it may be immerfed; a crooked handle proje¢ting at one of the ends, by quickly turning which, when the potatoes are put in, a Jarge quantity may be expeditioufly wathed. There fhould likewife be a con- trivance in the frame higher up and nearer the fide of the ciftern for lifting the barrel, from the place in which it turns, into, in order that, by opening the door and turning it round, the wafhed roots may be eafily delivered into a barrow or other veflel placed below and appropriated to their reception. There is ftill another circumftance in regard-to potatce crops that deferves to be noticed, which is the effets they produce on the foil. It feems_ pro- bable, both from the nature of the root and the large portion of manure that is neceflary to infure a good crop, except under particular circumftances. of the land, that the potatoe is a fort of plant that has a tendency to draw a large quantity of nourifhment from the foil on which it is grown, confe- quently to exhauft and impoveri{h it in a confiderable degree, though thefe injurious effe€is are in fome meafure counteraéted by the great abundance of ftem and the clofenefs of the foliage, producing a flagnated{tate of the: air, and a confiderable depofition of vegetable and other matter on the furface, as well as by the pulverifation and aration that is a orded in the culture and_.re- moval of the crop from the ground. It is perhaps in this way only that the 7 * Darwin’s Phytologia, p».459. 638 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Potatoes. contradidtory accounts of the effects of this fort of crop’on the foil, and the oc: calional fucceflive production of full crops on the fame land, can be well recon- ciled. The experience of potatoe cultivators in general appears, indeed, to fupport the conclufion; as upon the more ftrong and heavy forts of foil, where benefit can be produced in the above manner, full crops may often be taken in fucceflion without much injury being fuftained; while on the lighter kinds, where much lefs advantage is derived in this way, they become too open and ex- haufted for the fuccefsful repetition of this fort of crop, and even for the growth of wheat*. And in Mr. Young’s trials with the potatoe, introduced in a great many different courfes of crops, it was found that the ftate of deterioration of the foil was in proportion to the frequency of the occurrence of fuch crops in the rotations t. The experience and obfervation of the writer of the Agricul- tural Report of the North Riding of Yorkthire, however, incline him to the opinion that this kind of crop does not impair the fertility of the foil on which it is produced; as he has found the grain crops after the potatoes, and thofe of the grafs feeds in fucceffion to the grain, equal to fuch as fucceeded crops of turnips{. The nature of the land to which his pragtice and obfervation were confined is not, however, mentioned. On the whole, it may probably be concluded with fafety that, NE ing the property which crops of this nature poffefs of mellowing and rendering the foil more loofe and friable, they rob it of much fertility, and of courfe fhould not be often repeated, or have grain crops too frequently cultivated after them, without the ground being replenifhed either by an adequate proportion of manure, or by being laid down to the ftate of grafs|). It is alfo obvious from the circumftances that have been mentioned, that po- tatoe crops are only proper and advantageous as a preparation for wheat in the fliffer and more heavy forts of land, on the lighter affording a ftate of foil more fuitable for turnips, barley, and other crops that require the land to be loofe and porous. It has been ingenioufly fuggefted, that much of that wafte may be prevented which arifes from the digging up of potatoe crops before they arrive at a ftate of perfe& maturity, as is often done by fmall cultivators, by taking up fuch of the roots as prefent themfelves near the furface with care by the hand, as in * Young’s Annals of Agriculture, vols. XX.& XXIII.+ Ibid. vol. XXIII. } Tuke’s Corrected Report of the North Riding of Yorkshire. 4 Marhhall’s Rural Economy of Yorkthire. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. 639 that way the part of the crop that remains will be improved inftead of being ‘jnjured. Turnips.—The introdu€tion of this root into field culture has produced con- fiderable alterations and improvements in fhe management of arable land, as well as in the feeding and maintaining of different kinds of live ftock. It has contributed to leffen the neceffity, and remove thé lofs fuftained by the practice, of making naked fallows, and at the fame time provided an abundant fupply of food for the fupport and fattening of cattle, fheep, and other animals. In this combined view, it may of courfe be confidered as forming the bafis of the pre- fent improved hufbandry on all the more light and friable loamy foils, where its cultivation can be fuccefsfully carried on upon an extenfive feale; the nature of the plant and that of its culture retaining the land on which it is grown ina perfeétly clean condition, and under a ftate of admirable preparation for va~ rious crops, but particularly fuch as require a fine, mellow, and well-pulverifed bed of earth to grow in, as barley, grafs-feeds, and many others. The turnip has a roundifh flefhy root, which differs greatly in form and cos lour according to the circumftances of foil, fituation, and culture; but the va~ rieties that have been principally cultivated in the field in different parts of the kingdom are thofe of the round and long rooted kinds. The firft fort, which varies greatly in colour both in the root and top, has commonly a round flattith root, and is diftinguifhed by cultivators into the round red or purple topped, the green topped, the white topped, the yellow, the black or red rooted, the fione, and the Dutch turnip. The fecond fort, inftead of having a round fhape, and fpreading fomewhat flatly on the ground, as in the above kind, has a longifh cylindrical form, and is known to agricultors under the titles of the tankard, the tap rooted, and the pudding turnip. All the varieties of the firft kind, from their roots being formed more in the earth than thofe of the fecond, which often ftand naked above the furfece of the ground, are better adapted to the purpofe of being cultivated in the field, where there is danger of their being expofed to the feverity of froft; but in other cafes, as for providing food at an early period for the fupport of fuckling ewes, or the fattening of fuch fheep as are forward, the latter may be the moft advantageous and proper, as they are faid to be adopted with fuccefs in thefe intentions in the practice of Hertfordfhire*. * Bannifter’s Synopfis of Hufbandry- 640 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. ‘The cultivators in different diftrifts prefer different varieties of the firft fort; but where the fituation is open and expofed, thofe that root deep or ftand moft in the ground fhould probably be chofen, efpecially where they are to be ufed in the winter feafon without being previoufly drawn and preferved, as experience has fhewn that they are the moft fecure from the danger of froft. The green topped and white topped are generally efteemed more fweet and nutritious than the red topped, which poffeffes.a degree of bitternefs, and is apt foon to become ftringy.‘The white topped, on the better kinds of foil, is perhaps the moft proper and advantageous; as, while it has the property of being hardy, it grows to a large fize.‘This and one of the ftone or fmal! hard fort are the moft commonly cultivated, and held in the higheft eftimation in fome of the beft turnip diftricts in the northern parts of the kingdom. The latter is fuppofed by fome Northumberland cultivators to ftand the feverity of the winter feafon much better than moft of the other forts; but that the produce on the acre is con- fiderably lefs*. And by others it is believed to bulb quicker, have a greater {pecific gravity, a finer grain, a thinner fkin, and to be fmoother in the crown of the bulb, confequently lefs liable to injury from wetnefs and fevere froft. And that though it may not grow to quite fo large a fize, that defeét may be ob- viated by leaving the plants a little thicker on the ground at the time of fetting them out by the hoe+. The common white turnip is, however, much cul- tivated in this as well as moft of the fouthern diftriéts where the turnip huf- bandry prevails{. The green topped turnips have been much recommended by others, both on account of the qualities juft noticed, and their being of a large growth, and continuing long ina ftate fit for ufe||. The yellow or ftraw-co- loured turnip is firm and fweet tafted, but has not yet been fo much cultivated as the other varieties, fo that its properties are not fo perfe€ily known. The red fort was formerly much in efteem by farmers, but has now moftly given way to other forts: and the black rooted is very rarely cultivated. The early Dutch is but feldom grown, except in the garden. Where an early crop is re- quired it might, however, probably be employed with advantage. The foils that are moft adapted to the turnip hufbandry are thofe of the light loamy or deep medium fandy kinds; but it may be praétifed on thofe of a thin, gravelly, or chalky nature, and even on loamy clays, in fome cafes when not too * Corrected Agricultural Report of Northumberland, p. 81. + Corrected Agricultural Report of the North Riding of Yorkfhire, p. 146. $ Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture, vol. II. || Martyn’s Edition of Millar’s DiGtionary, art. Brafica Rapa. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips« 641 yetentive of moiiture, with advantage, provided proper atte tion be paid in the preparation and manuring of fuclf lands. It is evident, indeed, from the fuc- céfsful culture of this ufeful root upon lands that differ greatly in their qualities, that it admits of more latitude in regard to foil than many other plants; though the opinion feems to have been too general among farmers, that it is only capa- ble of being introduced with benefit on fuch as are of a very light and friable texture. This has probably had confiderable influence in preventing the cul+ tivation of the turnip root from becoming fo general, as from its great utility| and importance it ought to have been at this period. But though the turnip may be grown to advantage on foils that vary in a con- fiderable degree in refpeét to their natural friability and compofition, it is con- {tantly neceflary to the healthy vegetation and fuccefs of the crop, that at leaft the more fuperficial parts of the land, or the bed in which the feed is to be depofited, be brought into as fine a ftate of reduction or pulverifation as poffi- ble; as more is found from experience to depend upon this being effectually per- formed, than even on the richnefs of the foil*. This is ufeful in different ways: as, by its promoting the growth of the{mall feed weeds, they are capable of being more perfeétly eradicated, and the young turnip plants of courfe lefs en- dangered by them; while, at the fame time, a more fine and mellow bed is pro- vided for the reception of the feed, and its vegetation rendered more quick and vigorous in confequence of the more equal diffufion of moifture that muft thus take place. In order fully to effect thefe objeéts, it is the pra€tice in thofe diftri&ts where the turnip hufbandry is carried on in the moft complete and fuc- cefsful manner, when the feed is put in ona fallow, to have recourfe to four, and frequently five, ploughings, having the cloddy parts of the land well broken down in the intervals, by harrowing in different directions and the occafional idtinnsetinmemnnentiniceiil si SaaS é$ a tai aii i| ufe of the roller, as by thefe means almoft every particle of the foil becomes ex- pofed to the influence of the atmofphere, and is perfeftly aerated and faturated with moifture. The firft earth being given towards the clofe of the year in a fhallow manner, fo as merely to fkim off the rough furface, it may then remain in this fituation till about March, when it fhould be well reduced by harrowing, and crofs-ploughed to the full depth. If weedy, it is to be again broken down by the harrow in the courfe of about a fortnight; but, when clean, it is better to remain in its rough ftate. It may then be left in this condition till about the middle of May, when it fhould have another ploughing to the full depth; and, * Modern Agriculture, vol, II. 4AN 642 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. when the feafon is dry, and the foil of the more ftiff kind, immediately harrowed, but where it is light this may be deferred for a week or more. Thefe repeated operations, when well performed, generally bring the land into a perfeétly fine and clean condition; but if that be not the cafe, more muft be had recourfe to*, Other cultivators, however, advife the firft ploughing to be to the full depth, and that the after-ploughings and harrowings be continued to the middle of Junet. Thefe muft, however, in general be regulated by the nature of the’ foil, the circumftances of the feafon, and the convenience of the agricultor. But when the feed is put in after grain, early peas, tare, or other fimilar crops, the preparation is feldom extended to fo many ploughings. In fome diftri€ts two ploughings and harrowings, the ftubble and weeds being at each operation brought together and confumed_on the land, are found fufficient with the feed earth{. In others, where turnip crops are made to fucceed clover or grafs feeds, it is the pra€tice to pafture the land in the fpring with fheep to fo late a period as only to admit of ploughing two or three times. And the fowing of this fort of crop on old pafture land upon one earth, is likewife ftated as a fuccefsful prac- tice on the experience of feveral years; the method of management in which is to plough the land pretty deep in winter, eating any grafs that may arife from the edges of the flags clofe by sheep, and afterwards, before the feed is put in, reducing it well by harrowing||. Thefe are not, however, modes of pra€tice that are in general to be attempted, though they may fucceed in particular inftances. But in many cafes, after the furface of coarfe pafture and other old grafs lands have been reduced by means of paring and burning, good crops of this root may be grown on one earth, or by once ploughing over the land, the afhes be- ing previoufly fpread on the furface in as equal a manner as;poffible. The ploughing in thefe cafes fhould be performed to only a flight depth, in order that the crop may derive the fulleft advantage from the a€tion of the fire and the faline principles of the manure on the foil. The principal aim of the agricultor in the culture of this root fhould con- ftantly, however, be that of rendering the foil on which it is to be grown as fine and mellow as the nature of the Jand will admit; as without fuch cultivation his expectations muft be frequently difappointed. In regard to the application of manure for turnip crops, in the firft methods * Kent’s Hints, p. 110, ¢ Corrected Agricultural Report of the County of Suffolk. } Correfed Agricultural Report of the County of Middlefex. Corrected Agricultural Report of the North Riding of Yorkhhire. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. 643 of preparing the land, and where it is of the calcareous kind, as lime, marl, or other fimilar fubftances, it may be the beft pra€tice to apply it after the fecond or third ploughings, in the firft kind, in the proportion of from one and a half to about three chaldrons*; and in that of the latter, from eight to ten or fifteen ordinary cart-loads, according to the circumftances and nature of the land; as in this way fuch matters may become the moft perfe@tly blended and incorpo- rated with the mold of the foil. Lime is fuccefsfully made ufe of for this crop in York{hire, and moft other diftri&ts where it can be procured. And the ufe of marl has been attended with equal benefit in the county of Norfolk in England, and Angus in Scotlandt. The former would. feem to be the moft proper on fuch forts of land as are inclined to be in fome meafure ftiff and adhefive. When dung can be procured, the experience of different cultivators of the turnip, however, fhew that it is the moft fuited to the growth of the root. For fuch foils as poffefs a fufficient degree of lightnefs, and are in a fine mellow con- dition, that which is become confiderably reduced by fermentation, or in a more rotten and fhort ftate, may be the moft proper, as it can be the moft intimately incorporated with them; but where they have greater ftiffnefs and cohefion, the longer kinds may be more beneficial, as they will not only tend to preferve fuch lands in a more open and porous fituation, but, by their gradual decay in the earth, render them more mellow. Some, however, think it the moft pro- per when it is neither in a very fhort nor very long ftate, but in a medium condi- tion between fuch extremes{. Compofts confifting of dung and different forts of materials, as maiden earth, marl, and the mortary rubbifh from old walls, in the proportions of one-fifth, well mixed, by having the dung laid oyer them in the winter, and afterwards blended together more intimately by turning before they are made ufe of, have alfo been employed with fuccefs||. The duft of malt, or what is frequently termed combs, is likewife another fubftance that the fame writer has recommended as an ufeful application in the way of manure in thé culture of turnip crops. And the dung of rabbits, pigeons, and poultry, chop- ped rags, rape cake, river weeds, and other fimilar matters, may frequently be employed. Dung, when employed as manure for this fort of crop, fhould vary in fome mea- fare in the manner of its application, according to the nature of the land and * Thirty-two buthels. + Correéted Agricultural Report of the North Riding of Yorkfhire; and Donaldfon’s Modera Agriculture, vol. IT. ¢ Correéted Agricultural Report of Suftolk, 1\ Kent’s Hints, p, 112. 644 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turx'ps. the mode in which the root is cultivated: in general, however, it ought to be depofited in the foil as nearly as poffible to the period at which the feed is fown; as in this method, in confequence of the new fermentation that muft take place in the foil, the crop may receive the greateft benefit from it. Where the feed is to be fown in the broadcaft method, it may, therefore, be fpread equally over the land, and turned in with the feed furrow; though fome advife it to be lightly turned in by the ploughing that precedes the feed earth, and to be well incorporated with the foil by harrowing juft before that earth is given*, The former appears however to be the better praGtice when the dung is in a fuf- ficiently reduced ftate, as the plants will have the more full advantage of it. The quantity that is neceffary muft depend upon the different circumftances of the foil and the richnefs of the dung; but lefs than ten or twelve good three-horfe- cart loads can feldom be employed with advantage. If a compoft manure be made ufe of, the proportion fhould probably be much larger. In Norfolk, ac- cording to Mr. Kent, they employ ten cart-loads; but in other diftri€ts twelve are made ufe of, and in others«Jain it varies from fix to ten; each containing about thirty bufhelst. Where the crop is fown in the drill manner, as it is confined to the middle of the ridges, and does not occupy the whole furface of the land, a fomewhat lefs quantity may be fufficient.“A liberal allowance fhould, however, always be made, as the fafety and advantage of the crop depends much upon the rapidity and vigour with which the young plants are puthed forward by fuch means. When the lands have, however, been well manured for the preceding crop,,the turnip crop may frequently be put in without the ufe of any manure. In whatever method the dung is made ufe of, it fhould conftantly be fpread out evenly, and turned into the foil with as much expedition as poffible; as where this is neglected much lofs muft be fuftained by evaporation, efpecially when the feafon proves hot and droughty. When malt-duft or combs is had recourfe fo, the quantity that is commonly applied is about twenty facks, of three heaped bufhels each, to the acre t The dung of birds in its dry and reduced ftate, and other fubftances that have a powdery form, when ufed for this fort of crop, are moftly laid on in the pro- portion of from about twenty to thirty buthels to the acre§. * Kent's Hints, p. 112. + Corrected Agricultural Reports of the Counties of Suffolk and Yorkshire. + Kent’s Hints,§ Synopfis of Hufbandry, Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. 645 In applying fuch miaures, s they require only to be put into the foil to a flight depth, harr winv n many cafes may be fufficient for the purpofe; which fhould be done juft before the feed is fown, care being taken to have them firft difperfed in an equal manner over the land. Rape cake, when brought into a powdery form by mills* conftruéted for the purpofe, isftated to have been ufed in Norfolk by Mr. Styleman, an intelligent cultivator, with much fuccefs, in the proportion of a quarter of a ton to the acre+; the powder being placed over the feed in the drills by means of Mr. Cook’s drill machine, merely by fubftituting proper cups and funnels. When river weeds, which have been tried with fuccefs in the fame county by Mr. Coke and Mr. Branthwaite, are made ufe of, they are laid on the ground in their wet ftate immediately after being removed from the water, and as foon as poffible turned in by alight furrow. This fubftance, from the danger of the vegetation of the feeds, can probably only be ufed with propriety on fuch foils as are of a very dry quality{. There is ftill another method of providing and applying manure for this crop, praétifed in fome diftriéts|; which is that of folding fheep on the land after the firft ploughing of it up, until the feed earth is given. As the treading of the animals may often be apt to render the land fo hard and compaét as to be afterwards reduced to the proper ftate of pulverifation with difficulty, it may be the beft practice in fuch cafes only to ufe the fold in dry weather, always plough- ing the ground lightly over as foon as poflible after tlie fheep are removed. Quantity of Seed.—It is difficult to afcertain the proportion of feed that may be requifite in different cafes, as much muft depend on the nature of the foil, the period of fowing, and the methods and circumftances under which#t is put into the ground. In Norfolk, where this fort of hufbandry is carried to a con-= fiderable extent in the brdadcaft method, it is generally from about one pound to a pound and a half; while on the fandy lands in Suffolk, and thofe of the lighter kind in Yorkfhire, a pound or pint is found to be fufficient. But on the turnip foils in Middlefex nearly two pounds are employed. It is always, * The mills employed for this purpofe, according to Mr. Kent's Report, are conftituted each of two cylinders revolving towards each other: the firft breaking the cake into pieces of the fize of a walnut by means of cogged cylinders; while the other reduces it into powder by plain cylinders fimilar to thofe employed in reducing clay for the forming of bricks. + The expence in 1796 was not more than 11. 5. { Corrected Agricultural Reports of Suffolk. | Correéted Agricultural Reports of Norfolk and Hertfordfhire. 646 Cultivation of Arable Laidm—Turnips. however, a good praétice in fowing turnips not to be too{paring in the ufe of feed, as the unneceffary plants may be eafily thinned out at the time of firt hoeing over the crop. The calcareous or chalky foils, in general, require the largeft proportions of feed. But in cultivating the root in the drill method, as the feed is delivered with more correcinefs, and the whole of the ground is not to be occupied by plants, fome faving may be made in the quantity of feed made ufe of. As much of the fuccefs of turnip crops is found from experience to depend on the quick vegetation of the feed, and the plants pufhing expeditioufly into broad leaf, it may be a pra€tice of great utility in thefe views to have the feed fteeped a few hours in water or fome other liquid, before itis committed to the foil. When the feafon is dry, this will be particularly neceffary. In the trials we have made in the garden practice, the fteeped feed has conftantly fucceeded; while that which has been fown without immerfion has frequently failed. Lime and Methods of Sowing.—The periods of putting crops of this nature into the ground muft be principally regulated by the intentions of the culti« vator in regard to the difpofal of the produce. For the general more early confumption of the root, the moft proper feafon for performing this operation may be about the beginning of June; but when it is intended that the crop fhould ferve as food for animals in the early{pring months, it is a better prace tice to delay the fowing till towards the beginning or middle of July. When the root is, however, cultivated upon an extenfive fcale, it may be advantageous to vary the times of putting the feed into the ground more confiderably; as by fuch means the plants not only come more in fucceffion to the hoe, but like- wife for the,purpofes of confumption*. In fome diftriats, as thofe where the practice of lamb-fuckling is carried on, very early crops are occafionally required; in which Cafes the feed is generally put into the ground as early as poflible in the month of May; fuch land as is in a fine ftate of tilth, and perfeétly clean from weeds, being chofen for the purpofe. In general, however, the early-fown crops of turnips are not only lefs fweet and nutritious, but more expofed to injury from mildew and other caufes, than thofe that are put in later; but, notwithftanding this, the fowing fhould not be deferred fo long as that the plants cannot have time to cover and fix thems * Modern Agriculture, vol. II.; and Corrected Agricultural Report of the North Riding of ¥ orkfhire. Cultivation of Arable Land.——Turnips, 647 felves well in the foil before their growth is reftrained by the coldnefs of the autumn and winter feafons. There are different methods prattifed of putting this fort of crop into the foil in different diftrifts: in moft of the fouthern counties it is the more gene- ral praétice to fow turnips in the broadcaft manner on the level furface; while in the northern parts of the ifland, where this fort of hufbandry has been confi- derably, improved, it is the more ufual method to employ the drill machine, depofiting the feed in rows, either on ridges formed by one bout of the plough, or on the level furface; at the diftances of from twenty-four to thirty inches in the ridge method, according to the circumftances of the foil and the intentions of the cultivator, and from ten to twelve or thirteen when on the plain furface. It is probable that both thefe methods may be had recourfe to with advant- age under different circumftances of the land. On the very light, deep, fandy, or gravelly foils, that are apt to part with their moifture quickly, and of courfe become too dry and parched for the healthy growth of the turnip plant, it may be the moft fuccefsful pra€tice to put the feed in in the broadcaft method on the level furface, as by fuch means the neceffary proportion of moifture may be better preferved for the fupply of the crop. But where the foils are of a rather more heavy quality, and not fo liable to part with their moifture, the ridged drill method, by the pulverifation which it af- fords, as well as its tendency to preferve the plants from being injured by the ftagnation of too much moifture about their roots, may be the moft proper and ufeful. And befides being more beneficial in thefe ways, it poffefles advant- ages in other refpets; as on the thinner-ftapled foils the turnip, on account of its long tap-root moftly requiring a depth of mold of ten or twelve inches, can feldom be grown in a perfeé&t manner. The ridging up of the land may be of utility in providing a more fuitable depth of cultivated foil, and better bed for the reception of the feed, the operation having been found to more than double the ordinary depth of mold of fuch grounds. It may likewife be added, that the manure, from its being merely confined to the ridges, is lefs expofed to the weather, and need not be employed in fo large a proportion, confequently a greater extent of land be converted to the produétion of this crop; while, by its concentration, and the feed being placed immediately upon it, the nourifh- ment and fupport of the crop may be more effeftually promoted, and a larger produce afforded: and, for the purpofe of early fowing, and being eaten off in the winter months, fo late as January, it may alfo be preferable, as the turnips can 648 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. be more readily obtained for the cattle when there is a confiderable depth of fnow upon the ground*. There are alfo other circumftances in this mode of cultivating turnip crops, that appear of importance: the hoeing and cleaning of the rows can be more eafily performed, and in a more perfeét manner, women or children being capable of being employed in the bufinefs; while the weeds in the intervals are capable of being eradicated, and the mold laid up to the plants by the plough. And it has been even’ fuggefted by fome, that the danger of fheep, from being caft in the furrows, is confiderably leffened if not wholly ob- viated; as on one-bout ridges they cannot lie down on their fides, or roll on their backs, as is frequently the cafe. in the other methods+: though others think the contrary the cafe, and recommend conftant attention while the fheep are feeding upon them}. From the narrownefs of the furrows in fuch cafes, the firft conclufion would feem to be well founded. The only objeétions to the raifed drill method that appear to have much «weight are, that from the root being more elevated and expofed, it is not fo capa- ble of ftanding the feverity of the winter; and that larger{paces are allowed than are neceflary for the roots to attain a fufficient fize, confequently that the quantity of produce will not be fo great. It would feem probable, however, that from the pafture of the plants being greatly enlarged, and the crops theres by rendered more healthy and vigorous, the amount of produce muft be yather increafed than leffened|]. It has alfo been contended, that in the raifed method there is a difficulty of reducing the land to a level ftate again; and that the ground in the intervals becomes unproduétive from not having the advant- age of manure: it is obvious, however, that by making the ridges in a proper manner, according to the nature of the land, thefe inconveniences may eafily be avoided. # Jobfon in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. II. + Middleton’s Corrected Agricultural Report of Middlefex. + Tuke’s Corrected Agricultural Report of the North Riding of York fhire. || It is obferved by a cultivator in vol III. of the Farmer’s Magazine, who has long paid great attention to the difference in turnips raifed in drills with broad intervals and thofe produced in other modes, that they arrive at a much greater fize in the former than in any other method which he has feen. In judging of the weight of fuch crops by the acre, it is the opinion of many, that the largenefs of the turnips is not to be fo much attended to as the greatnefs of their number. This he fufpects may have led to erroneous conclufions.- But taking the intervals in the narrow method at about thirteen inches, and the diftance of the plants in the rows at about twelve, an acre will contain about 40,200 turnips: and in the raifed drill method, at the width of twenty-feven inches in the intervals, and the diftance of about eleven in the rows, the fame{pace of land will contain about 21,100. And thatin Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. 649 On dry level grounds it is advifed in this-view to have the drills in a diago- nal direGtion over the field; and where the ridges are high, direflly acrofs them, the plough being drawn down the furrows to difcharge the water. It has likewife been adduced as an additional inconvenience in the raifed drill method, that where the lands are of the more wet and heavy kinds, and have but little declination of furface, though larger crops of turnips may be pro- duced, the grounds are fo much injured by being pouched in conveying them off, that the grain crops which follow will be diminifhed in a Jarger proportion than can be compenfated by the extra value of the turnips. In fuch cafes it is, therefore, recommended as more advantageous to form the land into ridges, fuf- ficiently rounded to convey the water with facility into the furrows, and of -fuch breadths, as about fifteen feet, that a cart can be eafily conduéted along them without prefling the earth in and obftru€ting thefe furrows; the feed, where the land is difpofed to the throwing up of annual weeds, being put in drills on their furfaces, as by that means the bufinefs of hoeing may be ren- dered more eafy: but where this is not the cafe, and where the fowing is per- formed at a late period, or the land is infefted with the grub, the broadcaft me- thod may be preferable, as being more certain from the circumftance of the plants being left fo near to each other at the firft hceings as to admit of thin- ning and the removing of fuch as are weak and unhealthy at the fucceeding operations. Befides, they are fuppofed to have the advantage of growing more refpec to the real fize of the turnips, he has no doubt of being fupported by the generality of the moft experienced cultivators in maintaining, that when the various circumflances of foil, climate, ploughing, manuring, feed, time of fowing;&c. are equal, that where thofe in the drills with narrow in- tervals grow to fix inches diameter, thofe in the drills with broad intervals will grow to eight and a half inches upon an average. Now, fays he, as fimilar folids are in a triplicate ratio, the weights of the turnips willbe as the cubes of their diameters, or as 216 is to 6145 as caperiments in weighing will prove where the turnips are fpherical, which is mofitly the cafe in the beft kinds, Hence the weight of the 40,200 to that of the 21,100, is.as 86 to 129 nearly; and, confequently, when the laiter are worth 67. the acre, the former will only be worth 4/7. 5s. As it may be objcéted that he has taken the turnips in the former mode fmaller and in the latter larger than they really are, it is added, that, even fuppofing the latter had been taken at confiderably lefs than eight inches diameter, the 21,100 would have outweighed the 40,200 by about one-eighth part, which is, he fays, equal to fifteen fhillings the acre. He is perfe@ly conyinced, however, that the refults of properly conduéted experiments will fhew that he is right in taking the proportions upon which he firft calculated. The conclufion, therefore, is, he thinks, that, befides the faving of expence, and tne other import- ant advantages that have been mentioned, the method of cultivating turnips by the drill with wide in- tervals produces a weight of turnips on the acre greater by about one-third than where the narrow- fpaced drill plan is followed. 40 650 Cultivation of Arable Land—Turnips. vigoroufly from their fheltering each other more fully, as well as from the ground being lefs flirred about them in the early period of their growth, before their tap roots are fufficiently fixed to fupport them*, It would feem, however, from the fuccefs that has attended the putting in of this fort of crop by the drill in different diftriéts, and the greater eafe and cheapnefs with which the after-culture of the crop can be performed, that it is in general the moft advantageous method; but that at the fame time it may often be neceffary to vary the nature of the ridges and the diftance of the rows according to the quality and circumftances of the foil f. * Jobfon, in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. IT. + The following are the refults of an experiment on the weights of fix different parcels of turnips taken from a field of fifteem acres, which had been fown in June, 1797, with the view of determining the comparative value of the drill and broadcaft methods. The whole being in a ftate of equal tilth, and manured in as equal a manner as poffible, immediately before the feed was fown, with well-rotted fold-yard dung, in the proportion of about feventeen cart-loads to the acre, each containing twenty- cight Winchefter bufhels; and with the view of rendering the trial as fair and. accurate as poflible, different breadths of land, of twenty yards each, were fown in the drill and broadcaft methods alter- nately throughout the whole: part of the drills being on one-bout ridges of twenty-feven inches each, and the dung depofited immediately underneath the rows of feed; and the remainder in drills on the level furfaces at twenty-one inches diftance. The produce per acre being calculated on the weight of four fquare perches, or thé fortieth part of a ftatute acre, of each; the tails or fibrous parts of the roots being firft cut off and rejected, taking the weights of the tops and roots afterwards feparately. It is added, that though the crop, efpecially on the drilled part of the field, was not a very good one, being too much thinned and otherwife injured by the grub after the plants had been finally fet out, it was found that the turnips on the one-bout ridges exceeded the others in weight; the whole being taken from an inferior part of the field, in order to afford a fairer average. Number Average g Times of; jupsnfou Weight on four fquare Weight per|weight of|Average diftance weighing.| fquare Dees pais Jy flatute acre, each| of each turnip. perches. paueol aig cle. turnip. Roots. Tops. No. 1. Drilled on one-bout ridges, wt. gr. Ib.\cwwt. gr. Ib. tons, cwt.gr. Lb.) lb. oz. at 27 inches diflance January| 354[8 2 1 it 2 3119 F 0 203 OF 162 in. by 27 2. Drilled with Mr. Bailey’s machine on a level fur face,at 21 inches diftance|Ditto 428|7 xr rgtir x 5317 7 1 8 2 4ir7 in. by 2r 3. Broadeaft-- Ditto 568|7 2 t2g\t O I1Z)17 8 1 26) x 1144163 each way 4. Drilled on one-bout ridges, at 27 inches diftance March2| 334[8 3 0|f 4 22 20 7 3 12/3 63/17 by 27 5. Broadcaft(thefe and the preceding were round white turnips)~ Ditto 628|8 222\1 t 8|zo© 2 24| 1 123/16 each way 6. Broadcaft(red)=-|Ditto s6r1(6 3 2032 3§{19 1X 1 OF 153|16% ditto It Cultivation of Arable Landi—Turnips. 651 In cafes where the broadcaft method of fowing turnip feed is prattifed, it is of confiderable importance that the furface of the land be rendered as fine and even as poffible before the fowing is performed, and that the feed be delivered or difperfed over it in a perfeétly equal manner, and as foon as poffible after it has been ploughed up; as upon thefe operations and circum- ftances being properly conduéted and attended to, the fuccefs of the crop ina great meafure depends, The latter can feldom be executed by the hand ina proper manner*by perfons who have not been in the habit of fowing the fmaller kinds of feeds: but a fort of box, or machine conftrufted for the purpofe, is often made ufe of by thofe who have not been much accuftomed to the bufi- nefs; and, when proper care is taken to fee that the perforations do not become obfiruSted by two or more feeds being faftened in them, may be extremely ad- vantageous in delivering the feed in an uniform and regular manner. The feed, after it has been diftributed over the furface in fome of thefe me- thods, is moftly covered by means of harrowing; a light fhort-tined harrow be- ing the moft adapted to the purpofe, as, from the turnip plant forming its bulb ina great meafure above the ground, it fhould probably not be put in to too great a depth. It has been advifed in performing this operation to pafs the harrows over the land only twice in the fame dire€tion, walking the horfes in the firft, and trotting them gently in the laft, in order to give a neater finifh; the ridges hav- ing been laid out to the breadths of from four to ten yards, according as the foil may incline to moifture or drynefs*. In the drill method of putting in the crop, the land, after being prepared in the manner that has been dire€ted above, is either formed into ridges by the plough, or the drills are ftuck in the level furface, as has been already noticed. The manner of performing the firft operation is by a furrow being firft drawn as ftraight as poflible down the field, and in returning another furrow from the other fide being laid up againft it, by keeping the off-fide horfe in the firft made furrow; a fuitable proportion of land being given to the plough for forming a ridge of proper height, fomewhat in this way A. The work is then to be It is obferved, that by noting the average diftance of each turnip in the laft column, it is intended to fhew at one view how many plants there were wanting in the drills to have made them a full crop; for if 550 be ftated as a medium number ina full crop upon the fortieth-part of an acre, they will be found to occupy a fpace of 17 inches each way in broadcait, 101 by 27 inches on the one-bout ridges, and of 132 by 21 inches in thofe drilled on the level furface; whence it may be eafily feen how much thofe were wider in the rows than they ought to have been. * Kent’s Hints, p, 112. 652 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. continued in a fimilar method throughout the whole field, which when finally accomplifhed will have the appearance of alternate ridge and furrow, fomewhat in this manner AAAAAAAA. A diftance, as has been obferved above, of from about twenty-feven to thirty inches is preferved between the ridglets, in order to admit of the plough pafling between them in the after-culture of the crop, but which in lefs diftances cannot be the cafe. After the bufinefs has proceeded in this way, the manure is to be placed in the drills: which is the moft conveniently effe€ted by employing fmall carts, and having them to proceed along either every third or every fifth furrow, depofit- ing it in fmall heaps in them; proper perfons with fmall three-pronged forks being ftationed fo as to follow and place it in an even and regular manner in the bottoms of the three or five furrows, or thofe in which the manure is drop- ped from the carts and thofe on each fide of them. After this has been accom- plifhed, the fmall ridges before thrown up are f{plit down, the earth from each covering the manure up in the middle, fo as to form new ridges in the fame manner as before. The tops of thefe ridges are then to be flattened by fome means or other: the moft common is a{mall light roller, that pafles along two of them at once. The turnip feed is then put in exaétly in the middle of the flattened parts of the ridges, by means of a drill contrived for the purpofe, and which is frequently faftened to the flattening roller by a rope fix or feven feet in length, and dire&ted behind by a perfon for the purpote. The bufinefs, when finifhed, appearing in this way Ve’ eevee S reprefenting the feed, and D the manure immediately underneath it. Moft of the drill barrows are implements that may be attached to the ploughs in the fame manner.‘The rollers and drills are moftly drawn by a fingle horfe, driven by a boy; but the perfon that regulates the latter may alfo dire€t the horfe, when it is properly trained and accultomed to the work*. Sometimes, inftead of the roller, a kind of fled, made of wood or iron, is employed for flattening the furface of the one- bout ridges; but alight roller feems to be the neateft and moft convenient implement. The operations of forming the ridglets and inclofing the manure in them, are generally, in the northern diftri€ts, performed by a common light fwing-plough; but they may probably be accomplifhed with greater expedition and regularity by a light double-mold-boarded piough. * Corrected Agricultural Report of Northumberland, Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. 653 For the purpofe of putting in the feed, drill: machines of both the barrow and other kinds are employed; but thofe that are attached to the plough or roller, and of courfe perform the different operations of ploughing and fowing at the fame time, are, perhaps, in general to be recommended. Great attention is, however, conftantly neceffary, to fee that the feed be regularly difperfed and de- pofited in the foil; as, from the fmallnefs of the perforations in the revolving cylinders of moft of fuch machines, the feeds are liable to be obftructed, and the regularity of the fowing thereby prevented. But where the drills are formed upon the level furface without being raifed, which is the pra¢tice in fome diftricts, and efpecially when made at narrow diftances, as twelve or thirteen inches, the larger fort of drill machines, which fow a number of rows at a time, may be had recourfe to with advantage, as being more expeditious*. In whatever manner the turnip feed may be put into the eround, experience has{hewn it to be of much importance to have it depofited in the foil in fuch a way, and under fuch circumftances, as that its germination and early growth may be as expeditious as poflible, as upon this the fuccefs of the crop in a great meafure probably depends. It has been maintained by fome, that the feed, in order to fecure thefe effects +n the moft certain manner, fhould be placed in the foil to the depth of three or more inches: and they have contended, that the fuperiority of the drill method partly arifes from the feed being depofited to a greater depth, and growing more rapidly in confequence of having more moifture, fo as to become fooner out of danger from the fly or other infe€ts+; while others, from the circumflances that have been noticed above, think that it fhould be covered only ina light mannerf. As it has been already fhewn that air is neceflary as well as moifture to the vegetation of feeds when placed in the ground, it would feem probable that the quick vegetation of fuch crops may be the moft effeCtually fecured by only putting them in to a middling depth, and according to the particular nature of the land and flate of the feafon, as from an inch and a half to two or more inches, as the foil or feafon may be inclined to be dry or the contrary. In this way, the inconveniences arifing from the feed being too much exiiccated by its expofure near the furface, and from the want of the a€tion of the air on account * Section on Implements. + Exter, in Tranfactions of Society of Arts, vol. XVI. p. 1gt. t Correfted Report of the North Riding of Yorkthire. Ncete. 654 Cultivation of Arable Landy—~Turnits, : L of its tod‘great! depth, may be'equally obviated. i But /as; cropsoof this fort dre moftly put into the earth during the hotter: months, therdcisianother circum= flance that may be of equal confequence> in promoting the quick; growth of the young plants; which. is, that the feed, efpecially in dry hot;feafons, be inva great meafure faturated with moifture, and of courfe with thé ox¥genousprin=| ciple of the air, before it is committed:to the! ground; asrby futh means théfe will not«require‘to‘be drawn from! the furrounding mold, but:the proceis’ of; vegetation almoft immediately commence.» In the culture of this root)/in' the garden, by adopting fuch methods, we have not, even where the> feed-was fown in the hotteft feafons, failed having good crops; as the plants, fromthe quicknefs of their growth, are but little expofed to the attacks of; the fly, it being chiefly fuch-only as from their weak and imperfect growth become fweet and tender that are devoured by this deftru€tive infe@*. * It is obferved by the Rev. H. B. Stacey, in an ufeful pamphlet on the failure of turnip crops, that the firft procefs towards vegetation in this feed is its fwelling, by having imbibed a certain quantity of moifture; it is then able to exert its vital powers; and, in order to fecure its future increafe, when the demand for nourifhment is in proportion to its growth, it fends fortlr its radicle or little root, which as it lengthens begins to branch out, being covered with very fine hairs refembling down; which, by fowing a fingle feed clofe to the infide of a glafs veffel filled with moift earth, may be eafily obferved, And that when the radicle has proceeded about half an inch, it fends forth its germ, confifting of the ftem and feed-leaves, with the bud of the future plant in embryo. Thefe feed-leaves are fuppofed to contain proper nourifhment for the plant during the firft ftage of its growth; the radicle being then too fmall and weak to furnith food fufiiciently delicate. That every injury, therefore, done to thefe leaves, either from being punctured by infects or deprived of a fupply of moifture, muft affift in checking the growth of the plant,‘And further, after fufpeting heat and drynefs to be the principal caufes, that where the feed is fown in fuch feafons there is {carcely fufficient moifture to caufe it to fprout; and that unlefs it be depofited to fuch a depth as that it may be fcreened from the action of the fun, its vegetative powers may be deftroyed. But though a great part of it may imbibe fuflicient moifture from the dews and dampnefs of the furround- ing earth during the night feafon to render it capable of vegetating, its progrefs muft be retarded by the heat of the fucceeding days; and by being thus alternately moiftened and dried, its vital princi- ple be much impaired, if not entirely deftroyed. And even if, as is fometimes the cafe, the feed finds moifture fufficient to enable it to produce both its radicle and germ, and even to raife its feed-leaves above the furface of the ground, ftill the fame deftruétive effects may be ultimately produced; the heat then exerting its influence on the external parts of the plant, by evaporating its moifture fafter than it is fupplied by the radicle, by which it either withers away, or is fo much injured that it never com- pletely recovers itfelf; and that there is no doubt but that many acres of turnips are annually fpoiled in this way. In proof of the above, though it is admitted that turnip crops may be materially iojured by the ravages of infects, the following experiments were made: 2 In Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips.— 655 ‘The general fuccefs of agricultors in railing thefe crops; by putting the feed in immediately after the plough, while the foil is in a moift condition, not only proves the correétnefs of thefe principles, but fhews that great utility may be derived from fteeping the feed in fome watery liquid before it is committed to the ground whenever the feafon is hot, and the furface of the land ina very dry and parched ftate; as by fuch a praétice good crops of turnips may. fre- quently be produced, where they would. otherwife almoft wholly fail. The prefervation of the turnip crops in China have, indeed, lately been chiefly afcribed to this practice*. And in farther confirmation of the practice, it has been contended, that when the feed is fown in the time of rain, or when it quickly fucceeds the fowing, the plants grow fo rapidly as to receive no injury. On the fame principle, as has been already noticed, it has alfo been maintained, that, by putting the feed in deeper than in the ordinary broadcaft method, as by depofiting it in drills, a more certain crop is produced, from the circumftance of the plants proceeding in their growth with greater rapidity+ As it has, how- ever, been fhewn that the atmofpheric air has much effe@tin promoting the quick vegetation of moft forts of feeds when put into the ground, care fhould be taken, as has been fhewn above, not to place them at fuch a depth as that it may be prevented from affording its moft beneficial influence. After-Cultwre.—On this part of turnip hufbandry being performed in an ef- fe@tual manner, and at fuch periods as are the moft fuitable for promoting the In hot dry weather, in the year 1793, fome turnip feed was fown in fhallow drills, drawn by a hoe, on a light poor foil; and notwithftanding the fly was accufed of having deftroyed many crops in the adjoining grounds, the feed came up and produced a goodcrop. And in 1794 the fame experi- ment was repeated with fimilar fuccefs, although the fly was more general than in the former year. But in order to afcertain whether any advantage would be derived by fowing the feed deeper, under an idea that the germ would require more time to force its way to the furfacey and the radicle-at the fame time be increafing its power downwards; and confequently be more capable of withftanding the fun’s heat, thirty-two turnip feeds were{own at different depths, in glafs veffels filled with common garden mold, and plunged into the earth; on the fourth day after fowi the refults were as follow: ng they were examined, and The feed fown at 4 in. depth, had fhot forth a radicle, 3 in. long, a germ.r in. 3, ditto ditto 2 ditto ditto Z sie E ¢ ae Ae cieae on an averages 2 ditto ditto 2 ditto itto 3 1 ditto ditto 12 ditto ditto= * Sir George Staunton’s Embafly to China, vol. II]. p. 310, 8vo. edit.; and Gillet in Bath Papers; vol. II. + Exter, in Tranfactions of the Society of Arts, vol. XVI.; and Stacey’s Obfervations, p. 20+ 656 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnits, growth of the young turnip plants and preventing thofe of the weed kind fromine juring them by the obftru€tion and fhade which they produce, much of the fuccefs of the crops muft in general depend; as, without confiderable attention in this refpeét, the labour and expence that have been employed in preparing the foil and putting in the crops muft in a great meafure be thrown away, the produce being feldom fufficient to repay the cultivator in an adequate manner.‘This culture is to be accomplifhed by means of the hoe. Where the crop has been put into the ground in the broadcaft method, the hand-hoe only can be em- ployed; but where the feed is fown in rows by the drill, and a fufficient{pace of interval allowed, thofe of the horfe kind can be made ufe of, either alone, or in addition after the plants have been properly thinned out in the hand method. It is ufual when the plants have produced four or five leaves, or when they cover a circle of from three to four inches in diameter, which, in kindly feafons, will moftly happen in about a month or fix weeks from the time of fowing, to begin thefe operations. In the firft of which, fuch plants as ftand too clofe muft be thinned out toa fuitable diftance, according to the circumftances of the feafon, the nature of the foil, the period of fowing, and the ufe to which the crop is to be applied. When the feafon is hot and dry, the thinning in the firft hoeings fhould not be to too great a diftance; as by keeping the plants pretty clofe together the moifture of the land may be better preferved, and the crop rendered more fecure: but in rich foils, when early fown, and when intended to be confumed by cattle at an early period, more thinning may at firft be advantageous. The moft ufual cuftom is to leave the plants in the firft hoeings at the diftance of from fix to eight inches from each other; and fome cultivators prefer a{till greater diftance*. In the fecond hoeing, which fhould be performed in the courfe of about a fortnight or three weeks from the firft, according as there may be neceffity, the plants that are to remain for a crop may be left at the diftance of from ten to twelve or fourteen inches in the broadcaft praétice; and at thofe of from nine to fifteen, or fometimes more, in the rows where the drill fyftem is employed. In the fecond hoeings, the mold between the plants fhould always be well ftirred, in order that it may be perfe€tly aerated, and any weeds that may have rifen be effectually deftroyed. The future hoeings of crops of this kind muft be regulated by the particular circumftances of the cafes; but the mold fhould never be allowed to become too compa about the roots of the plants, or weeds ‘fuffered to interfere with the crops. * Kent's Hints. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Lurnips. 657 In the county of Northumberland, where the turnip culture is performed in a very perfect manner, it is the general pra€tice in the drilled crops, as they have fo much room laterally, to leave them at not more than eight or nine inches apart in the rows. In performing the operation, the labourers proceed fide- ways, pulling the furplus plants and weeds into the hollow intervals between the one-bout ridges, the plants being left perfe€ily regular in the rows.’ The work is accomplifhed with much eafe and facility by women or children. After this, when the turnip plants become perfe@ly eftablifhed again in the foil, which is'moftly the cafe in about eight or ten days, the earth is taken from the rows where the turnip plants ftand, by a light plough contrived for the pur- pofe, and turned upon the plants end weeds left by the hand-hoes in the inter- vals of the ridges. And when they have recovered themfelves from this opera- tion, and are become again in a vigorous condition, or when other circum- ftances render it neceflary, the mold, which was in the former procefs turned from the turnip rows, is now divided and laid up equally to the different rows by. the fame implement, or a fimilar one with a double mold-board. In this way, where the land is clean and free from weeds, the bufinefs is. completed; but when the contrary is the cafe, additional hoeings and ploughings muft be given according to the{tate of the land*. With fome cultivators it is a pra€tice to pafs a light harrow over the land once in a place, as foon as the plants are fufficiently ftrong, in order to render the firft hoeing more effe€tual; and even in particular cafes, where they pufh forward rapidly, it is made ufe of a fecond time in the contrary dire€tion}t. In performing this bufinefs, great care is, however, neceflary, efpecially where the plants are thin upon the ground; otherwife too many of them may be dragged up and deftroyed. It has been obferved, that, by having the feed put into the ground at different periods, great advantage may be obtained in the hoeing of the crops; it having been found that, by adopting fuch a praétice, fix labourers are capable of ac- complifhing the work twice over one hundred acres or more, while in the con- trary cafe a much larger number will be required f. It is obvious that the hand-method of hoeing turnip crops, which is the only method that can be employed where the broadcaft plan of fowing is purfued, is not only much more troublefome and expenfive, but more confined and lefs * Correfled Agricultural Report of the County of Northumberland, 4 Corrected Agricultural Repoit of the County of Suffolk. t Ibid. 4 P 658 Cultivation of Arable Land-—Turnips, beneficial in its effets than that by means of the-horfe-hoe or plough. In the former mode the expence of the two hand-hoeings are generally from fix to eight or nine fhillings the acre; while in the latter it rarely amounts to more than four or five. Befides, by the ufe of the horfe-hoe or plough in the inter- vals, the crops are not only kept more clean, but a more continued and more abundant fupply of nourifhment provided for the growth of the plants, on account of the repeated full aeration of the mold that muft take place. In performing the turnip culture in’ this way, many different implements have been recommended by different cultivators; but it would feem that the operation may be accomplifhed with fufficient exaétnefs by any fimall light plough. In many diftri€ts, the hoe-plough is employed in this bufinefs with fuccefs. The Northumberland farmers chiefly make ufe of a{mall light plough, about five inches in width at the bottom behind and eleven at the top, which is drawn by a fingle horfe, for the purpofe of ploughing the intervals between the rows, which is found to anfwer extremely well: but do€tor Anderfon con- tends that the work may be performed in the moft perfe& manner by the com- mon light fwing-plough. In earthing up the rows, the double-mold-boarded plough. may, however, be probably more expeditious and convenient. Im- proved double ploughs of this fort have been contrived for the purpofe of clean- ing turnip crops, and are faid to be employed with confiderable fuecefs and ad- vantage; as by their capability of being readily fet to different diftances, fo as to fuit the different widths of the rows, they not only perform the bufinefs of removing or paring off the earth from both fides of the rows at the fame time, but by being brought clofe together effeét the operation of earthing up the plants. In conduéting the procefs with this implement, there is obvioufly not only an advantage in double the quantity of work being performed, but the opera- tions are accomplifhed with more correCtnefs, both in refpeét to the ftirring of the earth in the intervals of the drills and the application of the mold to the ftems of the young plants*. Others, however, contend that thefe advantages may be equally attained by performing the bufinefs in a particular method by means of a fingle-mold+ boarded paring-plough, drawn by one horfe, while the danger and inconve- nience of being obftruéted by ftones or other matters is leflened or wholly re- moved.‘This is that of paring only one fide of the ridge at a time, leaving the other to be performed fome days afterwards. After the turnip plants have * Farmer’s Magazine, vol. I, p. 413. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. 659 been properly fet out, the work is faid to be begun and condufted in this mane ner: the ridges of the field lying in the dire€tion of eaft and weft, the operation is begun from the eaft end of them and the north fide of the field; the ploughman counting off to his right hand, on that fide, a certain number of ridges, as for inftance fix, enters upon the feventh, and, proceeding weft, pares a furrow- flice from the north fide of it, and turning to the left, in returning does the fame to the fouth fide of it*. Continuing in this way to go weft, the fame operation is performed on the north fides of each of the fix ridges that lie to the north of that from which he fet out; and in returning eaft, on the fouth fides of the fame number of ridges which lie to the fouth of it. After having completed in this manner one pitch of work, confifting of thirteen ridges, he is to begin again in a fimilar manner, and proceed in the fame way till the whole of the field is gone over. After the weeds turned in by this firft operation are fuppofed to be perfeétly decayed, the fame work is performed in the contrary dire€tion on the other fides of the ridges, or thofe left in the other operation, over the whole field f. This method of hoeing or cleaning turnip crops, which appears to have been practifed with much fuccefs on a light fandy foil, free from ftones, by Mr. James M‘Dougal, a farmer at Linton in Scotland, is, it is obferved, carried on as long as the ftems of the turnip plants will admit the plough to pafs. In this mode the plants are never earthed or fet up, it being the opinion of the above cultivator that they thrive better without that operation. And, befides that, in feeding them off with fheep, they get better at them, and have a mote eafy footing, as well as more comfortable lying.' In accomplifhing thefe operations, it is obferved that great care is neceflary to keep the plough as near as poflible to the plants on the ridges, as by that means different advantages are attained, fuch as the greateft poffible proportion of weeds being remeved from the plants ftanding onthe pared ridges; the large- nefs of the furrow flices thus raifed being fufficient to cover up all the weeds that grow in the intervals, between the drills of turnips on the pared ridges andithofe upon which the furrow flices are turned. Befides, the moifture may be better preferved in droughty feafons for the growth of the crop, and the foil more perfectly aerated, in confequence of being more frequently ftirred. It is abyious alfo, from one.fide of the ridge only being pared at a time, and the * This ridge is fometimes provincially denominated the fairing ridge. + Farmer’s Magazine, vol. II, p. 50- 660 Cultivation of Arable Land.—T urnips. other left firm and unpared, that the plough may be capable-of being brought nearer to the furnips without the rifk of loofening them too much, or turning over the earth on which they ftand, than could be the cafe if both fides were pared at the fame operation*. In whatever way the operation may be performed, or whatever plough or hoe may be made ufe of, it muft be of the greateft advantage to have the mold well loofened near to the plants, efpecially on the heavier deferiptions of turnip foils; and in thefe, as well as thofe of the more light kinds, the turnip plants fhould never be fuffered to be annoyed or incumbered by any fort of weeds growing near them. Turnip crops are expofed to danger from different caufes during the early ftages of the growth of the plants; but the chief are the attacks of the fly f, the flug, and the black caterpillar. The firft chiefly prey upon the tender faccharine feed-leaves of the young plants, and its prefence is rendered fuffi- ciently evident by its leaving many little brown fpots on them, and by eating away their flefhy green parts down to the fibres. They are faid to increafe both in number and fize until the plants are confumed. The ravages of the flug may be eafily traced, by obferving the edges of the leaves;‘as it is upon them it firft begins to feed, gradually proceeding from one part to another till each of them is more or lefs confumed, and the whole of the plants in many cafes deftroyed. It has been well remarked, that a field of young turnips, when attacked in this way, exhibits fome of the leaves as having loft a quarter, others one-half, fome three-fourths, and others the whole, the ftems only re- maining{; and in fome inftances thefe are alfo attacked. The depredations of the black caterpillar principally take place after the crops are in a more advanced{tate of growth, and the plants have formed confiderable tops, and are in what is ufually termed rough leaf; the green parts of the leaves being eaten through and deftroyed, and of courfe the growth of the plants prevented. Various means of preventing the young turnip plants from being deftroyed by ahimals of thefe kinds have been fuggefted at different times; but hitherto * Farmer’s Magazine, vol. Il. p. 56. } This highly mifchievous infe&t, according to Linneus, belongs to the Genus Coleoptera, and is defcribed under the titles of Cry/omela oleracea and Criujomela nemorum; the former being of a dark- blue colour tinged with green, and the latier black{triped with yellow on the different hells, and fomething larger than the other. + Corrected Agricultural Report of Middlefex, ps 2109 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. 661 probably without any of them being fully effectual. It would feem, however, from what has been’ already advanced, that their fafety and prefervation de- pends much both on the land being fo enriched by manure, and in fuch a con- dition in refpe€l to moifture, as that the germination of the feed and after- growth of the plants may be fuch as to render them quickly in the ftate of yough leaf. This, as has been feen, may likewife be further promoted, efpeci- ally in hot and dry feafons, by fteeping the feed in fome watery or other liquid before depofiting it in the foil. In thefe as well as, other views it has been recommended to make ufe of new feed and fuch as is one year old toge- ther, as in this way the crops, by coming up at different times, may be Jefs. in danger of being wholly deftroyed; or, what is probably a better practice, to fteep one-half the feed, after’being thus mixed, in water for twenty-four hours, and then blend the other half with it, fowing the whole in the ufual manner. In this management the plants, by rifing at many different periods, may have a greater chance of efcaping in fufficient quantity for the purpofe of a crop*. This method is indeed particularly inforced by the obfervation, that the infects frequently make their attacks fuddenly in large numbers, deftroying the plants as faft as they rife, and as fuddenly difappear, leaving fuch as come up a few days afterwards untouched. The fuccefs that has attended the fteeping of turnip feed in the juices of different kinds of vegetables, and alfo in train-oil, lin- feed-oil, or.other, oleaceous liquids, as has been advifed by different cultivators, feems to depend on the fame principle, and affords an additional proof. of.the advantages that may’be derived in this way+, Where fuch oily fubftances are employed, it is ufual to let the feed remain in them twenty-four hours or more; and, after it has been taken out, to drain them well from it by. means of a fine fieve, linen bag, or other contrivance; then mix with it finely-fifted earth or fand, depofiting it in the foil as quickly afterwards as poflible. In this method the ‘fame oil may ferve different times.. On the fuppofition that fome other forts of plants are more agreeable, and confequently more fubjeét to be fed upon by this devouring infe& than the turnip, the praétice of fowing other forts of feed with that of the turnip has been lately revived and recommended{. In this intention it has been advifed to mix and fow radifh feed with that of the turnip, in the proportion of about * Modern Agriculture, vol. IT. + Annals of Agriculture, vol. VI. pp. 90, 156, and vol. IX, p. 389; and Tranfactions of. the Society of Arts, vol. V. p. 38. }. Tranfactions of the Society of Arts,&c, and Commercial.and Agricultural Magazine, vol. VII, 662 Cultivation of Arable Land-—Turmps. two pounds to the acre. It is evident, however, that this plan muft be ex- tremely uncertain, as it cannot be fuccefsful except where the two kinds of plants rife exaftly at the fame time, which, from the great difference in the vegetative powers of the two feeds, will probably feldom be the cafe. If any advantage is to be gained in this way, it muft be by employing a plant which is preferred to that of the turnip, and the feed of which is fomewhat quicker in its germination and growth; as, where this is not the cafe, the turnips may frequently be deftroyed before the other plants be in a ftate to be fed upon*. It has been fuggefted that the ¢uta baga, or Swedith turnip, may be a more ufeful fabftitute in this view than the radith; as, by its being fteeped and the turnip feed fown dry, the plants would rife well together, and the fly is well known to be fo eager in feeding upon it, that it is with difficulty the cultivator can preferve a fufficient plant. In this cafe it is hinted as a further advantage, that when both forts of plants remain without fuftaining any material injury, the farmer may have the option of cutting out either of them, as he may find the moft convenient and beneficial f. * Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, vol: VII. p. go. + It is doubtful whether the radifh plants are always preferred by this infect or not; as we haye often remarked in the garden, that where turnip and radifh crops were cultivated adjoining each other, the leaves of the former were equally devoured with thofe of the latter. Mr. Marfhall, in the fecond volume of the Rural Economy of the Midland Counties, after remarking that the infect is not a_ fly, buta beetle of the latter of the kinds-defcribed above, gives the following very accurate defcription of it: The whole length of the body and head is, fays he, from one-twelfth to one-teath of an inch, and its width or breadth about half its length. The antenne confift of two points, and are about two-thirds of the length of the body. The wing-cafes are concave, and join by two ftraight edges, having the colour of dark chocolate, with a ftripe of yellow white along the middle; occupying about one-third of the furface, which is dimpled, polifhed, and fhell-like, both fides the fame, the tex- ture being brittle as egg-fhell, The wings are folded back under the cafes, being membranous and nearly twice their length, having two or three ftrong nerves running about half their length. Their colour a light brown or that of ftone, but that of the nerves a dark brown. The legs fix, and black; the two hind ones clubbed upwards. The head and breaft black and polifhed. The abdomen the fame, having four articulations. In taking this infect for the purpofe of examin number of foft infects on the under-fides of the feedling leaves, which led him to. examine them more carefully, and'to find that they were paved over with minute animals of the-appis kind, having dif- ferent colours, as yellow, green, black, and two or three long-winged flies. On ftill more minutely examining them, he found that both the animalcules and the flies were individuals of the fame infect in different ftates. He gives the following defcription of the flies:—The body and head are black, fhort, nearly ego- Shaped, and about-one-twentieth of an inch long, being fomewhat‘larger'tian-‘a grain of muftard~ ation, the author difcovered that he-had‘bruifed‘a Cultioation of Arable Land.—Turnips. 663 Remedies of this nature are probably, however, much lefs to be depended upon than thofe that have been mentioned above. As the effets of the flug, which is an animal of the white fnail kind, on turnip crops, are often equally, if not more, deftruétive than thofe of the fly, from its attacking them at a later period, and confuming not only the leaves, but the more folid parts of the plants, it is neceffary for the cultivator to guard againft them alfo as much as poflible. In this intention various means have been propofed, but probably without any of them being completely fuccefsful: from its having been remarked, that thefe flugs chiefly quit terreftrial habita- tions during the night-time, or early in the morning before the fun rifes, when the furface of the foil is moift from the dews, it has been advifed, by the older as well as the more modern writers on agriculture, to have recourfe to rolling in the night with a roller of confiderable weight, in order to crufh and deftroy them before the light or heat of the day induces them to retire into the foil*. The fecond of thefe writers feems indeed to believe that the prattice may be ufeful againft the fly; where thefe infects exift in great numbers, and the opera- tion is performed while, the furface is wet, by licking them up with the clammy eatth, and ,in that way wholly removing them. It may alfo be bene- ficial againfi fuch infe&ts, by confining the moifture more effeGtually-in the foil, or by preventing the germs of the young turnip plants from appearing before their roots are fully eftablifhed in the earth. The difperling of different fubftances, fuch as vegetable afhes, lime, and- foot, feed. The wings four: two very long, ftanding high above the tail, more than twice the length of the body; two very fhort, not fo long as the body; but both pairs tranfparent, and ftrengthened by a few opake ftraight nerves. The fhade coppery and elegant.“The antenne long, flender, and tapering, but the joints indifting; the former about three-fourths of that of the body. The colour black. The-legs fix, but of a lighter colour than the body. The probofcis large, long, cylindric, and jointed, ending in,a point, which the infect in either{tate inferts into the leaf. When the ani- mal couches at feed, this appears to iffue from the abdomen; but on being raifed upon the legs, it evidently paffes to the fnout. In walking it is carried under the belly, lying clofe to the thorax, and reaching about half the length of the body. The abdomen nearly globular; flatted at the apex; with a minute black club ftanding out on either fide, as in the fly and loufe. From thefe infeéts having been obferved to be extremely numerous on the feedling leaves of turnip plants, not eating, but, as it were, fucking their jnice or fap through long probofces, that ferve tu attach them to the leaves in the manner of leeches, the intelligent author is led to conclude that they may be the caufe of the very flow progrefs that is fometimes made by the young turnip plants to pufh into rough leaf. * Ellis’s Agriculture Improved, vol. II.; Reynolds in Tranfactions of the Society of Aris; Mil's's Practical Treatife on Hufbandry; and Vagg’s Letter. 664 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnipe, in the ftate of fine powder, over the turnip crops by the hand, may likewife be occafionally employed with advantage both againft the fly and flugs in’ the proportion of about ten or fifteen buthels of the firft, and twenty of the others: the former by the powers which they poffefs of deftroying fuch animals, their attracting humidity from the atmofphere, and their furnifhing more abundant fupplies of nourifhment to the young plants; the laft by its rendering the young plants naufeous and unfit to be fed upon, as well as the promoting of the more rapid growth of the plants. The fprinkling of water in which tobacco-leaves have been infufed over the plants, from the tail of a cart, has alfo been fuggefted as ufeful on the fame principle as foot againfi the flug*; or, what is pro- bably better, efpecially where the crop is not extenfive, as being found highly fuccefsful in garden pra€tice, the mixing of the tobacco-water with foap-fuds and urine. The ufe of this compofition is faid not only to bring them up from their holes and habitations, by which they quickly die, but deftroy the ova de- pofited in the foil+. There are ftill other methods recommended for the purpofe of preventing the depredations of this animal, one of which feems equally cheap, conve- nient, and effeétual; which is, that of fowing barley chaff over the whole of the crop immediately on its firft appearance, as by this means the flugs become dire€tly entangled and deftroyed. In the way of a palliative, it has likewife been fometimes a praétice to turn a flock of theep upon the turnip lands, keep- ing them conitantly in motion by means of a dog and perfon to attend them i. In this mode the flugs are fhaken from the young plants, and deftroyed by being trodden into the ground. Againft the ravages of the black caterpillar, which, as has been obferved, take place in the more advanced growth of the turnip plant, the ufe of the tobacco infufion or mixture juft mentioned may frequently be ferviceable, and even the application of the barley chaff over the crop on the caterpillars firft fhewing themfelves, taking care at the fame time to pafs a light buth-harrow over it in order to difplace the animals from the plants to the ground. It has alfo been hinted, that the fly, from which this fort of caterpillar is produced, might be prevented from fixing upon the plants, by caufing any thick offenfive {moke to pafs over the field, provided the period of its coming could be exa@lly * Correéted Agricultural Report of Middlefex, p. 210. + Forfyth on Fruit Trees, 8vo. edition, p. 395. ¢ Corrected Agricultural Report of Middlefex, p. 210. a7’ ig ag I ¥ y‘ Va Cultivation of Arable Land—Turnips. 665 known, and the ftate of the wind be at the fame time favourable*. From the great uncertainty of thefe circumftances, the practice can probably feldom be had recourfe to with fuccefs. Indeed, though an able and intelligent writer has prefented us with much valuable information concerning this deftruftive caterpillar t, we are probably ftill too imperfectly acquainted with its natural hiftory, economy, and habits of life, to dire€t the moft fpeedy and effectual method of deftroying it. Befides the difeafes arifing from thefe caufes, and which affeét the leaves of the plants, the turnip is fubje€&t to a difeafe in its root. This is a large ex- crefcence forming itfelf below the apple or bulb, which, after becoming in a ftate of maturity, takes on the putrid fermentation, and fends forth a moft of- fenfive{mell. It has obtained the title of anxbury. In feveral fpecimens exa-- mined by Mr. Marfhall, the apples of the turnips were found juft forming, as about the fize of walnuts in the fhell, while the anburies were as large as the egg of a goofe, being awkward and irregular in their form, with inferior ex- crefcences, fomewhat refembling races of ginger, depending from them. On being cut, their general afpe€t was that of a hard turnip; but.on being exa- mined with more minutenefs by means of a magnifier, veins or ftring-like veffels were obferved difperfed through the pulp: the fmell and tafte being in fome refpe& fimilar to that of the common turnip, but without its mildnefs, having an auftere difagreeable flavour, approaching to that of an old ftringy turnip. The tops in fuch as were much affeéted turned yellow and flagged by the heat of the fun, being eafily diftinguifhable in the day-time from the healthy plants. This difeafe has often been afcribed by farmers to the land being too long continued under this fort of crop; but the experience of the author firongly oppofes it, as he found the difeafe in turnips taken from land that had probably never borne that fort of crop before. The caufe has, perhaps, not yet been fully inveftigated; but Mr. Marfhall feems to fufpeé it to proceed from the wound or punéture of fome fort of grub in the veflels of the tap-root, by which the courfe of the fap is diverted, and, inftead of the natural apple or bulb being formed, this excrefcence takes place. This is further confirmed by the circumftance of the difeafe being much conneéted with the drynefs of the feafon. The only remedy that can be of much utility in cafes of this kind, is probably that of removing the difeafed plants as foon as poflible, and ftirring * Corrected Agricultural Report of Middlefex. + Marfhall’s Rural Economy of Norfolk, vol, II. 4Q Se ee as=———=-— SS SESS a 666 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. the earth about thofe that remain, in order to fupply them more abundantly with nourifhment. But in order to wholly avoid the difeafe in thofe diftri&ts where it is apt to occur, turnips fhould only be fown on fuch lands as have been fully prepared and well enriched by manure. On light thin foils, in dry feafons, the mildew is alfo.a difeafe that is fome- times apt to affect turnip crops, and do great injury to the young plants by reftriting their growth. The only remedy in this cafe is probably that of properly thinning the plants, and flirring the earth well about their roots, occa- fionally, by means of the hoe, in order to provide them more fully with nou- rifhment. Where it occurs in lands of a more retentive quality, advantage may likewife, perhaps, be obtained, by rendering them drier by deepening the ridge-furrows, or fome other fimilar method. It occafionally happens that turnip plants, inftead of{welling and forming bulbs, fend off numerous ftringy roots, which foon decay and.come to no ac- count*. It.occurs moft generally where the crop is fown on frefh land,, and no remedy is faid.yet to have been difcovered to prevent itt. More perfe& tillage and the ufe of fuch manures as have a tendency to render fuch lands more mellow and friable, may perhaps be beneficial. It is frequently a praftice in many places where turnip crops have been eaten off by the fly, or deftroyed in any of the ways that have been mentioned, to fow the, fame land over again, and harrow the feed in, without having re- courfe to the plough: this, however, is a method that fhould feldom or ever be adopted, as in fuch a mode of proceeding there muff conftantly be great danger of the plants of the fecond fowing being deftroyed.in a fimilar manner. It is perhaps always a better practice either to give the land a fhallow ploughing, by means of a light plough, before fuch fecond fowing is performed, or to leave it entirely for a crop of wheat{. The feafons moft fuitable for turnip, crops are thofe in which the weather is warm, with frequent. fhowers, but little continued rain. In the autumn and, winter periods, when frequent changes from. frofts to thaws and rain take place, turnips. commonly experience great injury, being rendered extremely fubjeé to decay, and become rotten; and even fuch as withftand, fuch feafons feldom afford a due proportion of nourifhment to the ftock that may be fed.upon-them,,. * This flate of the turnip plant is often provincially diftinguifhed by the terms fingers and toes. + Correéted Agricultural Report of Lincolnfhire, p. 1364 } Synopfis of Hufbandsy, p. 146. 7 ae EE A Cultication of Arable Land.—Turnipse 667 Rooks, if not prevented, often do confiderable mifchief to turnip crops in the winter time, by pickin& holes in the bulbs, admitting the wet, and thereby caufing them to decay*. The produce of turnip crops varies greatly according to the feafon, the nature of the foil, and the method of cultivation that is pra€tifed: but a medium crop, where the foil is good and fuitable for the purpofe, may afford fifteen tons, or fomething more, on the acre; in many inftances it will, however, be much lefs. ‘The value of thefe crops will depend upon various circumftances: as their “quality and abundance; the manner in which they are confumed, as on the land or in cribs of ftalls; in fattening or rearing different forts of live ftock; and the ftate of the markets in refpe& to the fale of fuch ftock. In general it may be fron: about three to fix or feven pounds the acre. It is found by experience that'an acre of good turnips will be fufficient to fatten a beaft of about forty ftone, or eight fheep+. In feeding off in the open field, they are found to pay from two fhillings and fix pence to four fhillings and fix pence the ton, a crop of twenty tons producing in beef or mutton from fifty fhillings to four pounds ten fhillings, befides the dung and urine, which may be equal to fifty fhillings more. When confumed by cattle in ftalls, they are itated, however, to afford one fhilling a ton more than when eaten by them in the field I. In cultivating turnips for feed fome attention is neceflary, as, where it is tol- leGted from fuch turnips as have been fown three or four years in fucceffion, the roots are apt to be numerous and long, and the necks or parts between the bulbs atid leaves coarfe and thick: and hel taken from fuch as have been tranfplanted every year, thefe parts are liable to become too fine, and the tap- roots to be diminithed in too great a proportion|. The moft certain method is to procure feed from turnips that are tranfplanted one year and fown the next; or, if they be tranfplanted once in three years, it is fuppofed by fome that the{tock may be preferved in a proper ftate§. The method of performing this bufinefs is to feleét fuch turnips as are of the beft kinds and of the moft perfeét forms, from the field crops, and, after cutting their tops off, to tranfplant them, about the month of November or December, into a piece of cround that has been put into a fine ftate of préparation by repeated ploughing or digging over, and which fhould be fituated as near the houfe as * Synopfis of Hufbandry, p. 148. + Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture, vol. II. p. 318. 2 Corrected Agricultural Report of Middlefex,-p, 208. ’s Hints,§ Ibid. and Experienced Farmer, vol. I. p. 56 668 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. pofible, in order that the birds may be better kept from it, The feed will, in general, be ready for gathering in the July or Auguft foliowing*. Some, however, recommend that the feed colleéted from a few turnips thus tranfplanted, fhould be preferved and fown in drills, in order to raife plants for feed for the general crop, drawing out all fuch as are weak and improper, leaving only thofe that are ftrong and which take the lead; and that when thefe have appled or formed bulbs, to again take out fuch as do not appear good and perfe€t, as by this means turnip feed may be procured, not only of a more vigorous nature, but which is capable of vegetating with lefs moifture, and which produces ftronger and more hardy plants. The pra€lice of tranfplant- ing the whole of the turnips for feed for the main crops being contended to be not only highly expenfive but injurious, by diminifhing the ftrength of the plants from the deftru€tion of their tap-rootst. Good feed may, however, be raifed in either of the methods. When the feed is become fully ripened, which is moftly about the times juft mentioned, it is in fome diftri€ts reaped by cutting part of the ftems, and after- wards tying them up into fheaves, which, when fufficiently dry, are built into long ftacks, and kept through the winter, in order to be threfhed out about the periods when it is wanted, as in April or May j. Butas in this way much feed is liable to be loft, by its readinefs to efcape from the pods or fheaths in which it is contained, it is perhaps a much better praétice to have it immediately thrafhed out either upon a cloth on the fpot where it grew, or in fome conve- nient place at home. It fhould then be.put into proper bags or veffels, and placed in a perfeétly dry fituation. As crops of this fort are fubje&t to much injury and lofs in various ways, the quantity of produce muft be variable; but it may in general be eftimated at not lefs than from twenty to twenty-four bufhels the ftatute acre. The price of turnip feed being feldom lefs than feven or eight fhillings the bufhel on account of the great demand for it, this fort of culture may at firft fight appear highly advantageous; but if the exhaufting nature of the crop, the lofs fuftained in that of a grain one, and the quantity of manure that muft afterwards be ap- plied, be confidered, it is probably only in particular fituations of foil and cli- mate that turnip feed can be grown to much advantage, * Corrected Agricultural Report of Northumberland, + Experienced Farmer, vol. I. p. 6, } Corrected Agricultural Report of Northumberland, Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. 669 In the application of turnips to the purpefes of feeding and fattening dif- ferent forts of live ftock, there is much variety in the prattices of different dif- tri€ts; but the moft economical and advantageous modes of confuming this highly ufeful root under different circumftances of foil, climate, fituation, and animals, have probably not yet been fufficiently inveftigated or afcertained by cultivators. Though few experiments appear to have been inftituted with a view of de- termining the particular ftate in which thefe roots afford the greateft propor- tion of nourifhment to the animals that feed upon them; it would feem, from their containing a much larger proportion of nutritious faccharine juicy matter while in their frefh or green ftate before being taken from the ground, than when taken from the land and preferved by being packed up in fheds or other places*, to be a more economical and beneficial pra€tice, efpecially where the nature and fituation of the ground and the ftate of the feafon will admit of it, as on the dry foils in moft of the fouthern diftri€ts, to confume them under the former than the latter circumftances; but in the more cold expofed fituations, as in many diftriéts in the northern parts of the kingdom, and wherever the lands are much inclined to moifture, as the roots may be greatly injured by the frofts, and the animals receive much injury from the coldnefs of fuch places, while feeding on them, as well as the lands be much damaged by their tread- ing, it may be better to eat them under the latter. There are likewife other fituations in which it may be particularly neceflary, as well as advantageous, to make ufe of turnips after being drawn and removed from the land to places of fecurity; as thofe where it is difficult or inconvenient to raife other forts of green cattle food for winter and fpring ufe. But wherever crops of this kind are taken from the ground to be confumed by animals in other places, as from their large growth and luxuriant nature they muft tend greatly to exhauft and draw away its fertility f, it will conftantly be neceflary to return an equivalent sn manure, otherwife the injury fuftained in this way may more than equal the advantages of the turnip crops. The tap-roots of the turnips fhould, like- wife, be broken off and left on the land, that neither foil nor manure may be ¢arried away by adhering to them j. % This is evident from their lofing their firmnefs, and becoming foft, wrinkled, and flabby, and diminifhing confiderably in weight. + Correéted Agricultural Report of the North Riding of Yorkhhire, p. 148; + Correéted Agricultural Report of Middlefex. 670 Cultivation of Arable Land.—T UI NEP Se -Where the lands are fufficiently dry, in a high ftate of fertility, and ¢on- ducted under a judicious fyftem of hufbandry, it may often, however, be an advantageous and economical pra€tice to have a partial recourfe to both the methods; by having one part of the crop drawn and removed to be eaten in fome convenient fituation off the land, according to the particular ftances of the cafe, and the other confumed in the field where they grow: as by fuch means a much larger quantity of ground may be benefited and improved, without injury being done to the crops that may be afterwards cultivated on the land*. This method of rendering arable grounds proper for the growth of turnip crops feems to have been tco much negleéted, confidering the great ad~ vantages that may be derived from it in the feeding and rearing of live ftock, as well as in the amelioration of the land t. The nature of the animals by which turnip crops are confumed mutt obvioufly introduce differences in the manner of their application. When they are ems ployed in the rearing or fattening of neat cattle, they are generally pulled up and eaten either after being conveyed to fome convenient dry piece of ground in the ftate of grafs or flubble, or fome place of fecurity contiguous to, the firaw-yards or feeding-houfes; in the latter methods, the turnips being given to the animals in bins or cribs, or placed before them in ftalls conftruGed for the purpofe, in which the cattle are tied up. The laft is probably the better practice, though not fo frequently employed; as there is the leaft poflible watte, at the fame time that the dung and urine of the animals are the mot effectually preferved. In the firft method the fat ftock are firft admitted, the lean follow- ing to eat up what may remain: they are often conftantly confined upon the turnips, except when prevented by the feverity of the feafon, in which cafe the firaw-yard is generally made the place of their confumption.. The lands to which alfo turnips are removed in this way of feeding, are, in fome diftrigts, thofe in- circum~ * Kent's Hints, p. 116. + Ibid. It is obferved by the fame writer, that where the crops are good“ twenty acres will-at leaft fatten fifteen bullocks, and fupport ten followers, or ftore cattle, for twenty-five weeks; or theep. in the proportion of eight to one bullock;” befides the advantages in preparing the land for other fuc- ceeding crops, which he confiders as far greater than the other“ in point of real profit.” For he thinks. it evident, that moft of the eftates in the county of Norfolk have been improved in the proportion of at leaft forty per cent. folely by marling and adopting. this mode of raifing turnips; as mauy thaufand acres now produce fine crops of grain and turnips, and fupport a, prodigious number. of theep iand other forts of ftock, which, were formerly covered with various kinds of. coaffe plants and unpro~ ductive. ‘PLATE IV. Turnip Slicers. [To face Page 671, Vol. ID] fig. 1, REPRESENTS an improved Turnip Slicer, invented by Mr. Martin of Clifton, Notting- ‘hambhire. 5 A. Fig. 2. Plan of the trough, fhowing the iron plate,&c. to receive the cutting-knives with the condu@ors,@ a, made of plate-iron faftened with bolts, nut, and{crew, b 6. B. Fig.3. A feGtion of the machine, fhowing the cutting-knives,&c.a a, edgeways, which are fuppofed to be drawn down: 3, the fpring with brafs wheels at the end: cis for the pur- pofe of raifing the knives with more eafe, and is kept in its place by two fmall pieces of iron plate faftened to the bottom of the knife-frame, fo as to allow for the different lengths of the {pring according to its fituation: d, an iron rod hooked into a fwivel in the knife-frame, and extending to the treadle ¢«. N. B. The treadle may only be ufed occafionally, when the handle is not found fufficient: f/f, iron braces for fteadying the legs and fupporting the{pout g. C. Fig. 4. Shows the frame through which the knives with their frame flide, grooves being made in the fides, a a, to receive the fame.‘The circular part at top, marked c, is bent back {as may be feen) in the fection B, to make room for the nut and fcrew which faften the handle to the knife-frame. This frame is faftened to the bottom, dd, by cheeks, as may be feen in the plan A. Inthe fe€tion of the bottom, dd, are fhown the holes through which the{mall knives pafs. D. Fig. 5.‘The cutting-knives and frame: a, the great knife which, when in adtion, finks into the long groove up to the fhoulders, 64: ecc, the{mall knives which are fixed at right angles with the large one, the tops of which are riveted into the large knife; the lower ends of the fame are kept at equal diftances, by being let through a{mall bar and faftened with a nut, a worm being made at the end of the knives. The frame which carries thefe knives is° fattened only to the great knife, bb: d, ahole in the frame to faften the handle to. The fides, ee, have a worm at the bottom, by which the bar/ is faftened to the fame with nuts: g the {wivel for the treadle bar: 44 the guides for the brafs wheels to the fpring. Tt will appear that the great knife being faftened to the frame, the{mall knives will neceflarily proje& before the fame. E. Fig. 6. The handle and-guide to the fame: at a the handle is fixed with a fcrew- bolt and nut to the knife-frame, fo as to move eafily: 4, a brafs wheel fixed in an iron itrap{crewed to the machine, fo contrived that‘the end of the handle will pafs through an opening below the wheel, the ufe of which is to act as a reft to the extremity of the handle, and to prevent fri€tion, its fituation varying confiderably with the motion of the knife-frame. F. fig.7.Plan of theiron{pring which raifes the knives, made two inches wide at one end and about one atthe other, and a quarter of an inch thick, faftened atthe end with a nut and ferew to the bottom of the trough with a ftrap near the end. -G. Fig. 8. Plan of the fpout. The turnips, when fmall, are put to the knives by a piece of board, the length of the knives, about four inches broad, with a’handle at the back. Great turnips may be put to the knives without this inftrument, but in fmall ones‘there is danger of cutting the fingers. The machine will cut turnips into pieces} inch by$ fquares and, of courfe,(if the turnip be large enough) 42 long. Fig. 9. Reprefents a Turnip Slicer upon a different principle: The turnips in this machine are cut by means of a knife fixed on the fly wheel a, being brought to it through the inclined trough or box 6, 5 TuRWwWeP§S RN@ rs) LICERS SS. WAI ek ¥ Wy Z Yj yey if UMMA Yi iin VY TT UU ) AAA CLL | y|| Hy Wy WD) Meera ES Y = SSS EI ———————=| ‘ SS. SS] SS SSS aS] ——————— he ¥ = | 4< il!— TT ae cm HU AKIN AK vo Z : a Ss A | A ga f:=, A a g A A Z Sz =!‘ees' |,‘ ., zw A : GA Sz || 0A A i B ‘i =| ae| yyy” Cultization of Arable Land——Turnips,* 671 tended to be ploughed up the enfuing year for wheat or other forts of grain; confequently each field, in its turn, has the advantage of having fuch crops confumed upon it, which is found more beneficial than feeding them on the Jand where they grow*. The turnips in thefe cafes fhould not be fcattered sover the ground in too thick a manner; as, where that is the pra€tice, much lofs muft be fuftained by their being crufhed and bruifed by the feet of the animals. ‘ All thefe different pra€tices are met with in the county of Norfolk, where great numbers of different breeds of cattle are annually fattened upon turnips. In moft of the turnip diftri€ts in the northern parts of the ifland, when con- verted to the purpofe of rearing. young ftock, they are generally confumed in - the ftraw-yards, when the farmers have the advantage of fuch conveniences; but in other cafes, in the fame manner as above. Near large towns, wheremilk is a principal objeét, turnips may likewife often be applied in the way of a rich fucculent food for milch cows; but in this mode of ufing them great care fhould be taken that all the putrid and decayed Jeaves or other parts of the turnips be removed, otherwife the milk may be liable to derive an unpleafant flavour from them t. The offal produced by thefe means may be made ufe of for the dry ftock, and of courfe little or no lofs be fuftained. ‘Turnips have alfo been found to be capable of being applied in the feeding of labouring horfes with much fuccefs;.as by their ufe the ufual quantity of corn— may be leffened in the proportion of nearly one+half, and the animals not only improve in condition, but perform their bufinefs. with greater eafe’ and be’ lefs fubje&t to complaints of the bowels than when fed in the ordinary way{. Where employed in large proportions in this mode of application, as they are extremely fucculent, it’ may be! advantageous to have them prepared by means of fire, as by fteaming; but in other cafes, where they are ufed in only a fmall quantity, they may be given raw; after being fliced or cut into fmall pieces by a-machine conftruéted for the purpofe, a proper proportion of dry food being given at the fame time. In the confuming of'turnips by fheep, which, where the moft valuable breeds #* Correéted Agricultural Report of Northumberland. + Corrected Agricultural Report of the County of Perth, p. 184. It is obferved in the fame work, that where fuch a tafte prevails, it may be completely removed by making ufe‘of'a very weak folution of nitre in water. 4 Farmer’s Magazine, vol. II. p. 249. eae aaa a oo oe SRG aR emer=o ARO sik 672 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Ty Ur NPS. are introduced, is the moft extenfive application of fuch crops, the moft gene~ ral practice, where the lands are light and fufficiently dry, is that of confining them upon a fuitable proportion of the crop, by means of nets or hurdles, removing them to frefh portions or breaks every eight or ten days, or oftener, according to circumftances; but if the grounds be of the more heavy kind and fomewhat retentive of moifture, it is a better and more economical method to have the turnips conveyed off the Jand to fome neighbouring field, as has been already noticed, as by this mode there is not only lefs injury and wafte by the treading of the turnips into the ground, but the fheep get a more regular fupply of frefh food, andthe fhells, by being left clean, are more completely eaten up by the ftore cattle that are to follow*. Where the cuftom of eating on the ground is employed, it is alfo fometimes, as when the land is poor, a pra€tice to draw every other ridge of turnips, and remove them from the field to be eaten in another place, while the remainder is confumed upon the land on which they grewt. In folding upon turnips it is moftly the cuftom to turn the fheep upon them while ftanding in the field; but, except where the bulbs are much expofed above the furface of the land, it is probably a much better praétice to have them drawn up before the hurdles are fixed or the fheep turned in, as the ani- mals are not only lefs apt to break and foil the turnips, but feed much better upon them. This is a method of proceeding not unfrequently had recourfe to in the county of Norfolk j. a Whatever method may be adopted in fixing the hurdles, attention fhould be paid to fet them in fuch direCtions as that expence and labour may be faved as much as poflible. It has been fuggefted by a late writer, that much lofs is often fuftained in thefe modes of folding theep upon turnips, efpecially where they are cultivated under the broadcaft fyftem, and it is the cuftom to give the fheep large folds or breaks at a time, from the occurrence of froft and fnow. In fuch cafes he thinks the drill or ridge methods far preferable; it being eafy to have fheep- penns or turnip-trays made and fixed in fuch a way as to conftitute a fort of moveable trough, the bars or trays being fet near the fide of the rows of turnips, and boards from ten to twelve inches in breadth, having * Correéted Agricultural Report of Northumberland. F Ibid. and Correéted Agricultural Report of Norfolk. ¢ Modern Agriculture, vol. II. p. 316. Cultioation of Arable Land—Turnips. 673 fakes of fuitable lengths, according to the depths of the foils; nailed to them, fattened on the fides from which the fheep feed: the narrower the fpaces the turnips are included in, the better. As it may be apprehended that the animals may get in among the turnips thus fenced off, it is remarked, that fuppofing they ocupy a regular fpace of about twelve inches, the troughs may be made little more than a foot in width at the bottom, having a floping direc- tion upwards. The trays or bars may likewife have an inclination towards the fheep, and hang over the troughs or partsin which the turnips are inclofed, and thus prevent them from getting in. In this way it is fuppofed the fheep will have their food quite clean, and, by etting off at a time only the quantity neceflary for a day, they may eat it with’ more avidity and without the-danger of fpoiling fo much by their ex- crement. If it fhould be cbjeéted that this method is only fuited to fmall concerns, he maintains that, on examination, it will be found even on a large{cale to be better in many refpeéts, as well as confiderably cheaper, as“‘ on the dowe/t calculation three fheep may be kept im this way to two by the old method—perhaps even double the number, and they will fatten much foorer*.” It is added, on the principle that animals do not feed fo well when a redundance of food is placed before them, that if the fheep in fuch cafes were driven into the ftraw-yards during the night, and even to eat ftraw in the morning, they would retain the turnips longer, and fatten quicker; and in the mean time the perfons em- ployed in looking after them might move the hurdles a row further, and thus little time be loft. If both feeding and ftore fheep fhould be kept in this way, * The advantages of this method are calculated by the author this way:—-Suppofe, fays he, two kundred fheep to employ one man and boy every day, and admitting the bey to be unneceflary in the common method, but allowing one fhilling per day for him; and eftimating the fame quantity ef turnips to keep three fheep that was employed for keeping only two; then three hundred fheep ray be kept where only two hundred were kept: and eftimating the profit on one hundred fheep at only two pence a-head per week, the amount will be 16s. 8d. for that length of time; and deduéting from it the extra expenee of 7s. for the boy, there will remain a clear profit of gs. 84. per week, But where the flock is larger, the profit will, itis obferved, increafe in proportion; as a man and boy are capable of managing four hundred fleep. Two hundred are, however, fufficient to be fed toge- ther; but by dividing four hundred equally, they can be managed by the above number of perfons. "Phe writer 1s;-however, clearly of opinion that ¢wo fheep may be Kept in this way for one in the other. Iffc, fays he, the amount would be 1/. 135..4¢. per week, which in twenty weeks would come to 33/.-65. 8d. a fum.that would more than clear the expences of the boy and the extra pen the firft feafon. AR O74‘Criltivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. it would‘be advifable, he obferves, to give the feeding ftock rather more than are fuficient for the day, and to turn in the ftore fheep the fucceeding day to confume what may be left. In this method the length of turnips that is necef- fary without much wafte being committed may foon be difcovered*. This plan of confuming turnip crops may be economical and advantageous where the number of fheep is not great; but where it is very large, the con- ftant trouble, difficulty, and expence, of‘procuring the hurdles and fixing the folds, mutt frequently render it incapable of being put in execution. It has been found in the fattening of fheep with this root, that they make the greateft progrefs juft before the turnips begin to run and form their feed- {tems; a circumftance which probably depends partly upon the turnips contain- ing at fuch periods the largeft proportion of faccharine nutritious matter, and partly on the weather becoming more dry and warm. Hence it is a pra€tice in fome diftri@s, towards the latter end of March or beginning of April, according to the ftate of the feafon, to mow off the fhoots or{tems that are ad- vanced, with a fcythe; as by this means, from the numerous lateral fhoots that are fent-forth, a more,copious fupply of green food is not only af- forded, but the roots or bulbs of the turnips preferved longer ina ftate fit for ufe f. In folding fheep on turnips, it’frequently happens that after frofts or fnows the hurdles get loofe, and are either thrown down by the animals or the wind: great: care fhould, therefore, be taken to have them at firft well fet into the ground, and fecured by ftakes of fufficient length, with proper wyths for tying them together., The hurdles employed for this purpofe are generally of two kinds, either Jflatted ox rodded; the former being made from{mall poles of afh, willow, or other tough forts of wood, by fplitting them; and the latter from rods of hazel, or other fuitable woods, by wattling them clofe together with fuitable crofs pieces like ftakes. The flatted hurdle, or what in fome diftri€ts is termed waddle, is much preferable to the clofe-rodded or wattled kind, as being much more durable, The firft coft of them is, however, confiderably greater{. There is alfo another fort of material made ufe of in fome diftri€ts for this purpofe; which is a fort * Experienced Farmer, vol. I. p. 59.+ Synopfis of Hufbandry, p. 148. ¢ The former fort are moftly fold in the neighbourhood of London, at from about 165. to 185..a dozen, and the latter at from. 10s. to 125, the. dozen.-Toiling. is generally from about 25. 104. to 3s, 6d. the rod, Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. 675 of net-work, formed of fmall cord, called ¢oi/ing. This method is, however, more expenfive than that of hurdles, and lefs convenient; but may fave fome- thing in carriage, where hurdles are to be brought from a confiderable diftance. Where turnips are intended for the feeding of cattle, or other forts of ftock, ‘in the winter and{pring months, as they are extremely liable to be deftroyed by the fudden alternations of froft and thaw, becoming in many cafes quite fotten and unfit for ufe, it is necefflary to preferve them by fome means or other during that feafon. For this purpofe many different methods have been attempted, but probably without any of them being completely fuccefs- ful. The only perfeétly fecure method of protecting them againft the effe€ts of intenfe frofts in fuch feafons, is perhaps that of having them drawn, topped, and piled up with dry ftraw in houfes conftruéted for the purpofe, contiguous to the cattle-fheds, or feeding-ftalls. This mode is, however, liable to objec- tion, as being both troublefome and expenfive, efpecially where turnips are cul- tivated upon an extenfive fcale. There is, however, another method which has been found very effe€tual, and which is lefs expenfive, and attended with but little trouble; which is that of ftacking them upon the field where they grow, with layers of dry ftraw betwixt thofe of the turnips. This is a mode frequently praétifed in the county of Hertford, where they ufe one load of ftraw to about thirty or forty tons of turnips. The manner of performing the bufi- nefs is this: the turnips being drawn during a dry time, and the tops and tap- roots removed, a layer of ftraw is{pread on a dry part of the ground, and a layer of turnips placed upon it to the thicknefs of eighteen inches or two feet; after this another layer of{traw, and then a layer of turnips, proceeding alters nately in the fame manner till the heap or ftack is brought to a ridge or point; when the edges of the different layers of ftraw are turned up, which ferves to prevent the turnips from falling out, and at the fame time affords a fort of external covering to the heap, which is completed by being thatched well over the top with long ftraw. They have alfo been attempted to be preferved by being formed, without firaw, after the tops have been cut off and ufed asa green food, into what are termed pies, in the way that potatoes are fometimes kept, being well thatched over on the outfide*.| [t has likewife been fuggefted, that the difficulty of getting them up, and the dangers they are expofed to during frofty feafons, as well as the inconveniences * Corrected Report of Middlefex, p. 209. 676 Cultivation of Arable Land==Turnips. the cattle experience in feeding upon them from their coldnefs, may be pre- vented by piling them up in fmall ftacks, the tops outwards, near to the places where they are intended to be confumed, with a little ftraw between the dif- ferent layers, covering them over with wattles or hurdles lined with fraw. If this practice was adopted on{mall portions, it is fuppofed that much advantage would arife from it to the cattle in frofty weather, befides the turnips being preferved and prevented from exhaufting the land by remaining‘fo long upon it. The fame advantage may alfo, it is believed, be obtained, by finking beds about two feet deep, and of confiderable breadth, in the ground where the turnips grow, putting five or fix layers of turnips into each, with a little frefh earth between every one of them, and covering the tops over with ftraw*. This method feems, however, only capable of being employed with fafety where the foil is of a light porous fandy quality, and of courfe not retentive of moifture. Ther are ftill other methods that have been recommended for preferving this root. The prattice of drawing the turnips, cutting off the tap-roots, and carting them to a piece of pafture-ground adjoining the farm-yard, to be fet together upright upon their bottoms, as clofe as poffible, has been found fuc- cefsful in fome difri€ts. The growth of the tops is, it is obferved, in this:way but little interrupted, thus confequently affords a full compenfation’ for any watte of bulb that may take place. And it is believed that the quantity of nutritious food is increafed. The bufinefs is beft performed when the weather is dry and windy, as the tops are then lefs brittle and the roots in the cleaneft condition}.[t has alfo been advifed, by the intelligent author of the Correfted Report of the Agriculture of the County of Middlefex, that trials be made of carting the roots during the time of hard frofts into heaps, placed on bottoms of ice, and blending with them ice and fnow in fuch a manner as that they may be preferved in a frozen ftate as long as may be neceffary, as thé end of April. In this view they fhould be placed either in proper buildings, or be well: co- vered over with ftraw, fern, or heath, and have earth placed over fuch cover- ings inthe fame way as is pra€tifed in pying potatoes in particular diftri@s. This method, it is conceived, may be of great utility, as the frozen heaps will be fecure againft the thaws that take place on the breaking up of every intenfe froft. In ufing the turnips thus packed up, itis recommended that they be * Kent’s Hints, p, 123, 4 Correéted Report of the County of Suffolk, Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. 677 Sf given to the animals after the froft has been removed by putting them into cold water. And’as the land may in this way be cleaned of fuch crops at a more early period than ufual, great advantages may, it is contended, be gained to the crops that are afterwards cultivated on it. As the living principle of vegetable roots is extremely liable to be deftroyed by freezing, and their tendency to putrefa¢tion thereby increafed, it is pro- bable, however, that in this way the turnips will be in great danger of becoming rotten, if they be not immediately confumed after the heaps are firft opened, and of courfe much lofs be fuftained. It feems not improbable but. that turnips might be well preferved againft fevere frofts, at leaft on a{mall fcale, by the application of firaw, fern, or any fimilar light fubftance that has the power of refifting its operation, along the rows as they ftand in the field, as is frequently practifed in the garden culture of different kinds of vegetables. Such forts of materials might be applied in a cheap, convenient, and expeditious manner, by women and children; proper means, according to circumftances, being provided for fecuring them upon the plants; the matters thus employed being afterwards either removed or turned into the foil, as may be found moft fuitable and convenient to the cultivator. Whenever the prefervation of this root is attempted in heaps, great care fhould be taken not to have them too large or too clofely packed together, as by that means the danger of their heating and being fpoiled may be confiderably leffened. By thefe means, it is obvious, turnips may be preferved both as a winter and fpring food for different forts of live tlock, even in fituations and ieafons that are the moft expofedand fevere. Where fheep hufbandry is carried on upon an extenfive fcale it may indeed frequently be a more advantageous practice to have vecourfe to this root for the ewes in the fpring months, than to confume them during the winter in fattening neat cattle; as in this way they will be better enabled to bring forth and provide for their lambs, which are circumftances of great importance. But in mild feafons, when fheep do not ftand in need of them, er are not kept in any great number, it may be the moit beneficial method to apply them to the fattening or keeping of ftore cattle; in the latter of which the animals will be brought into fuch a ftate of forwardnefs, as to be readily completed on grafs in the enfuing fummer*. * Coxregted Report of the County of Perth. OF8 Cultwution of Arable Land—Turnips. In feeding turnips off by all forts of animals, attention fhould be paid on their firft being turned upon them, that they do not remain too long, otherwife they may be much injured by the diftention which is occafioned by their eating too greedily of them. Ruta Baga, or Swedifh Turnip.—This is a root of the turnip kind, that has long been known, but only lately introduced into cultivation with much ad- vantage. It has been confidered by fome as a variety of the yellow turnip, but it differs greatly from it both in its texture and properties. In its top it has fomething of the appearance of the rape or the cabbage; the bottom, or that part of the root which is above the ground, is covered by a thick green tough cuticle or fkin, and the internal flefhy part is of a denfe firm confiftence, having a yellowifh tinge. It is fufpeéted by fome cultivators that there are two varieties of this plant, the one having a white and the other a yellow root, the latter being confidered as much the beft. This may, however, probably arife from their having been grown in the neighbourhood of plants of the turnip or cole kinds*. It may be grown to advantage on moft of thofe foils that are too moift and heavy for the common turnip; but the land fhould be brought into a tolerable ftate of pulverifation, and be well impregnated with manure, before the feed is put into the ground, or the plants put upon it. It is perhaps from the want of this due preparation of the land, and the putting in feed of a bad kind and at too late a period, that cultivators have fo frequently failed in obtaining good crops of this valuable root. Seed.—The feed fhould be conftantly colle€&ted from fuch plants as have been tranfplanted, and which are the moft perfe&t of their kind; as where this is negleéted, the cultivator can never be certain of having his plants of the proper fort. The quantity of feed that is made ufe of where the broadcaft method is employed, is generally about two pounds to the acre; but where the drill plan is purfued a fmaller proportion may be fufficient; but as it is moftly found dif- ficult to produce a fufficient plant, it may be advifable never to be too{paring in the article of feed. New feed is conftantly to be preferred; and when the feafon is dry, it may be of utility to have it prepared by fteeping. Time and method of fowing.—As this plant is much flower in its vegetation than that of the common turnip, it ought to be put into the ground at an earlier * Corrected Agricultural Reports of the North Riding of Yorkfhire and Nottinghamfhire. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. 679 period; by which means it will not only be- more forward for the hoe, and more fully eftablifhed in the foil, but better proteéted from the attacks of the fly and the heats of the enfuing fummer months... It has been the ufual prac- tice to fow this crop at the fame time with that of the common turnip; but it put in three weeks or a month fooner it will be found more advantageous, as from about the tenth of April to the tenth of May, or perhaps a little later in the northern diftriéts*. Different methods are praétifed in raifing this fort of crop: fometimes in ftead of fowing the feed over the land in broadcaft or drills, it is fown upon beds of good earth; and after the plants are fufficiently advanced, as when they are about the fize of fmall cabbage-plants, they are tranfplanted into the field, and fet out in rows at the diftance of eight or nine inches from each other, and a foot or more in the intervals. The bufinefs of tranfplanting fhould, if poffible, be performed when the weather is moift. This may be the beft method where fuch crops are cultivated only upon a finall fcale; but where they are grown more extenfively, the former are to be preferred, as being more expeditious and convenient, as well as more certain of affording a fufficient plant. Afier-Culture.—In this part of its management, the Swedifh turnip, from its growing ina more flow manner than the common one, requires more atten- tion, in order that it may be kept perfeétly clean and free from weeds, which under fuch circumftances are extremely apt to rife. The operations of hoeing are to be performed in a fimilar manner to thofe for the common turnip, and repeated as frequently as may be neceflary, keeping the mold well broken and laid to the roots of the plants.‘Thefe plants, befides being fubje&t to injury from the fame caufes as thofe of the common turnip, are liable to be greatly hurt by hares, rabbits, and different kinds of birds, feeding upon both their tops and roots, which fometimes.are almoft wholly confumed by them. In refpeét to the quantity of produce, there feems to be confiderable differ- ence of opinion among cultivators; but where the crop is put in fufficiently early, and the ground prepared and managed in.the manner that has been direéted above, it will probably nearly equal that of the common turnip. And when it is confidered that the roots are more folid, and abound more with nu- ritious matter, the vea/ quantity of food which they afford may probably be * Correéted Reports of the Northern Counties of Scotland, and Nottinghamflyire. 680 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnips. greater. In an experiment in the tranfplanted method, upon ridges of the fame dimenfions as thofe ufed for the common turnip, the produce was found, after they had fuftained the frofts, in the month of March, without either tops or tails, and when perfeétly free from dirt, to be thirty-two tonson the acre*. And as an advantage in the feeding of horfes for a few acres, they have been eftimated as high as thirty pounds the acre+. With others the crops, on trial, have like- wife been found in general to be heavier than thofe of common turnips; though in appearance, from the clofenefs of their texture, they did not feem to equal them{. It is obvious, however, that in common the quantity of preduce on the acre muft fall confiderably below fuch eftimates, and the value of the crop in any application be rated much lower. There can be little doubt but that this root may be of great utility and ad- vantage in its application in the keeping of live ftock in the late winter and early{pring months, when the common turnip is liable to fpoil and run to feed; as it is much more eafy to preferve in a found ftate, being found, when taken up, to refift the effets of the feafon without any difficulty or trouble, though when left in the ground fometimes liable to be injured§. By being ftacked, and having the tops removed when they firft begin to hoot, they may be kept till the latter end of May||, or even much later.— In this way they fupply the farmer with a valuable food, for the difficult and diftrefling period when turnips or other forts of food become fcarce, ufelefs, or exhaufted, and the grafs is not ready. Every cultivator, who has ground fuitable for it, ought therefore to have a quantity of this fort of crop proportioned to that of his live flock, to bring to his afliftance the latter end of March and in April, or perhaps later, Neat cattle are faid to fatten confiderably fafter upon this root than that of the common turnip: and when given to milch cows, it has not it is faid the effect of injuring the flavour of the butter fo much, but communicates to it a fine yellow colour|. It has alfo the property of rendering the milk more rich. Sheep are found to be extremely fond of feeding upon it; but its hardnefs renders it more difficult of being eaten. And for hogs it is faid to be equal to * Clofe, in Bath Papers, vol. 1X. + Daikin in Corrected Report of Nottinghamfhire. } Tuke’s Correéted Report of the North Riding of Yorkthires § Anftruther, in Young’s Annals, vol. XVI. , in B th Papers, vol, IX. q Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cabbages. 681 potatoes*. In the keeping of labouring horfes it is likewife afferted to be of the greateft utility, rendering lefs oats neceflary, and not proving of fo laxative a nature a§ moft other roots. The method of applying it in this intention is, after cutting off the tap-roots, to have the reft of the bulb cut or chopped, being firft well wafhed, into rather large pieces, by means of a fharp hoe a€ting ina perpendicular manner, a fuitable quantity of the roots being put into a fort of high tub contrived for the pu. pofe. More than are neceflary for the confump- tion of the day fhould not be cut at a time, as they are liable to be much in- jured by becoming dry. But though the ruta baga appears to be a root of confiderable utility, efpes cially for the more northern diftriéts, where the common turnip muft frequently fail from the feverity of the winters, it has been obje€ted to as being injurious to the teeth of fheep from its great hardnefs, as difficult of being raifed from the ground on account of the number of its roots or fangs, and as huriful to the land from its being continued upon it to fo late a period: but where it is ci Iti- vated and managed in the manner that has been mentioned above, there will be little danger to be apprehended from the fir; and in taking up the roots, where the foil has been in a proper condition for the crop, there is by no means that diffi- culty or trouble that has been fuppofed; and the hurtful effects of their remaining upon the land to fo late a period, and thereby preventing it from being feafon- ably prepared for other crops, may be eafily obviated by drawing and jtacking, or by arranging the roots clofe to each other in an upright manner in any con- venient fituation, as in thefe ways they will not fuftain any injury from the fe- verity of the feafon. There can be little doubt, therefore, from the many valuable properties which the root pofleffes, in addition to that of its continuing folid, juicy, and fit for the purpofes of food, which is not the cafe with the common turnip after it has perfeéted its feed, that it may be found of great advant- age as an afliftant to turnips.on all fuch farms as ftand much in need of late fpring feed for the fupport of live ftock. Cabbages.—That the culture of this vegetable is of great importance, as a winter and fpring food for different forts of live fiock, on all thofe itiff and ftrong foils that are too moift and heavy fur the fuccefsful practice of the turnip hufbandry, is fufficiently fhewn by the great advantages that have been derived from it in thofe diftri@s where it is grown to a confiderable extent. And this is * Correéted Report of the North Riding of Yorkhhire. 48 682 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cabbages. farther enforced, by the little danger that attends the crop, and the largenefs of the quantity of food that is produced; as it has been found to be confiderably larger, in proportion to the fpace of ground that is occupied, than that of turnips. In the field culture of cabbages, feveral different forts are capable of being employed; but thofe varieties that are the moft ufeful as cattle food, and the moft capable of withftanding the feverity of the winters in this northern cli- mate, are the Scotch, the Drum Head, the American, and the Open Green cab- bage or Spring Kale. The firft, when of the true firm flat-topped kind, has been found to be wholly incapable of being injured by froft, except, in fome cafes, a few of the outfide Jeaves. The fecond fort, or true drum-head, is likewife extremely hardy, and more clofe in its texture than many other va- rieties, being of courfe very heavy in proportion to its fize. It admits of being planted clofer than the large American cabbage, which in particular fitua- tions is an advantage. This fort is known in fome diftrif&ts by the name of the tallow loaf cabbage; but it would feem to differ from it in fome refpe&ts. As this kind is not found fufficiently hardy to bear the effects of very fevere frofis, a mixed flock is frequently employed, which is produced by planting it and the com- mon red cabbage together, and, after the feed-pods are formed, cutting down the latter, and leaving the former for feed. This mixed kind, which is of a deep green colour veined with purple, befides retaining the fize of the drum- head, poffeffes the hardnefs of the red cabbage. The third, or American kind, has not only a large fize, but continues good to a late period in the fpring*. ‘The laft, or kale fort, is perfe@tly hardy, and capable of being converted to ufe as a cattle and theep food, at the latter end of April or beginning of May, when other forts of green feed are extremely fcarce and difficult to be procured f. Befides thefe, the varieties known by the titles of the Flat Dutch, the York- Shire, the Savoy, and feveral others, may be made ufe of in fituations where the climate is more mild f. The chief advantage of planting large-fized cabbages in the field is, that of their being capable of being fet out at fuch diftances as to readily admit of being cleaned and kept in order by the plough, without any lofs being fut tainéd in the quantity of produce. Where the foil is not of great ftaple, and * Bith Papers, and Young’s Annals, + Modern Agriculture, vol. Ui. t Martyn’s Edition of Miller's Diétionary, art. Braffica. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cabbages. 683 the expence of hand labour reafonable, the-fmaller forts may occafionally be made ufe of with advantage. From the great fize, and the roots of plants of the cabbage kind penetrating into the ground to a confiderable depth, they fhould conftantly be planted out in fuch foils as are ftrong and have a good depth of mold; as where this is not the cafe they feldom attain their full growth. The moift friable loams and loamy clays, on which turnips cannot be grown to advantage, are probably the beft adapted to this fort of crops; but they may be raifed with fuccefs on almoft any of the heavier defcriptions of land.: In the preparation of the ground, as the roots of the plants run deep, and ftand in need of a large proportion of nourifhment, a confiderable degree of pulverifa- tion fhould be effeéted, and the foil be well loofened to a good depth. Thefe ef- fe€ts may be produced inthe moft perfeét manner, by repeated deep ploughing, and expofing as large a furface as poflible to the a€tion of the frofts during the winter feafon by laying the land up into pretty high ridges. Three plough- ings are moftly found fufficient for this purpofe; but the number fhould always vary according to the nature and ftate of the land. When this fort of crop fucceeds wheat, barley, oats, or beans, the land is generally ploughed up in the autumn by a pretty deep furrow, and formed into ridges of about three feet in width; in this ftate it may continue till the fpring, when it fhould be well broken down by harrowing in different direétions. It is then to be ploughed again, but with fomewhat lefs depth than before. Alter this, as near as pof- fible to the time of planting, the ground may again be well harrowed over, and a fuitable proportion of good ftable manure applied, as from fifteen to twenty three-horfe cart loads to the acre; or, where compofts are made ufe of, from twenty to thirty, and immediately turned into, or inclofed in, the middle of the ridges. After this is accomplifhed, the land becomes ready for the reception of the plants. In fome diltriéts, however, a practice prevails of f{preading the manure upon the land and turing it in with the firft ploughing. in this way the ground is fuppofed to be prevented from becoming too open by the aétion of the manure, and the danger of the plants being injured in droughty feafons prevented. It is obvious, however, that in this mode much of the benefit to be derived from the manure muft be loft by its remaining fo long incor- porated with the foil before the plants are put in, and that the great advant- age of having it in its moft aétive and concentrated ftate immediately below the roots of the plants muft be wanting. 684; Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cabbages. Seed.—In the feleGing of feed for raifing young cabbagesplants, great care fhould be taken that it be procured from the moft perfe@& plants of the different kinds, and fuch as have feeded without any others of the fame tribe blowing near them, as it is perhaps only in this method that they are capable of being kept of a true kind. In this intention it may be of great advantage to have the plants intended to ftand for feed’ planted out by themfelves in a piece of ground at a diftance from the others; and as’ birds are remarkably fond of the feed, well fecured from them. In purchafing feed of this fort, fuch as is new fhould always be preferred, as it not only vegetates much quicker, but is more to be dependéd upon for a proper fupply of plants. In dry feafons, fteeping the feed in water, or fome other liquid, may alfo be of utility. The beds on which the feed is fown fhould be of a good rich quality, well prepared by digging and the application of manure; as, where the foil is poor and not fufficiently enriched by manure, the plants are apt to be weak and ftinted in their growth, as well as much injured by the rifing of weeds. Much injury frequently arifes to young cabbage plants from the feed being fown too thick; care fhould, therefore, be taken to have them properly thinned out whenever they come up in too thick a manner. One ounce or an ounce and a half of good feed may in general be fufficient for fowing a bed fourteen or fifteen feet long, and five or fix feet in width, or for raifing two or three thoufand good plants; in which proportion half a pound will afford more plants than are fufficient for planting an acre*. Time of Sowing.—The periods of putting the feed into the ground muft de- pend much upon the intentions of the cultivator: where the produce is to be confumed during the winter months, as in December, January, or February, the feed fhould be fown in July the preceding year, and the plants be put out in March, April, and May, the following year; but if it be intended for con- fumption in March, April, or May, the feed fhould be put in about the latter end of February or beginning of March in the former year, and the plants be fet out the firft or fecond week in July in the fame year. By continuing to fow with regularity in the months of February, May, and July or Augutt, fuc- crops of young healthy plants may be fecured, and the round of cab- bage hufbandry be effeCtually preferved. Thefe periods of fowing and tranf- planting fhould, however, be attended to with confiderable exaftnefs, in order * Young’s Annals, vol. V. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cabbages. 685 to fecure good and certain crops, and the feed beds be well proteéted from birds. And that the cultivator may not be difappointed in the number of plants, it may be ufeful to fow a little feed at different times, at the diftance of a few days, always choofing as moift a time as poflible. But by haftening or pro- tracting the times of tranfplanting, or fetting out the crops, the growth of the plants may be fo managed as to have them ready for ufe either more early or later, according as circumftances may require. In both the fpring and autumn plantings it is, however, the beft praétice to be fufficiently early; as in the former cafe the plants will have the great advantage of the fpring fhowers, and be lefs in danger from the heat of the fummer feafon, and in the latter more fully eftablifhed in the foil before the winter fets in, as the growth of the plants after September cannot in any degree be depenced upon in field culture. Be- fides, from the length of time which is requifite for their attaining their full fize, it muft always be advantageous to have them fet out early. They feldom arrive at their full growth in lefs than four months. By fowing very early in the fpring, and fetting the plants out as expedi- tioufly as poffible, both full and forward crops may often be obtained. There is, however, in general, an advantage in the autumn plants, that though they be more liable to be injured in the winter by flugs, and other caufes, they are in a ftate to be planted out very early in the fpring, while thofe of the fpring fow- ings can feldom be fet out till the fummer is much advanced*. In this planting different methods have been attempted, fuch as fetting out the plants to ftand the winter in the field, and letting them remain in the feed-bed to be put out in the fpring; the former is the moft advifable in mild winters and fheltered fituations, as the crop will be much more forward; but in expofed fituations the latter may fometimes be adopted with advantage. By fowing in May or June, forward crops of large cabbages may be pro- ~ cured the enfuing year, or coleworts for the following fpring; but in this laft intention they fhould be planted clofer together than ufual. In this way the lofs of weight, and danger of cabbage crops in the winter months, are fully obviated. On the whole, the fooner the autumnal plants are put out in the field after the frofts are over, the better; and the fpring plants fhould be placed out as foon as poflible after them, as before the end of April. It is the cuftom of fome nice * Miller’s Didiionary, art. Brafica. 6&6‘Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cabbages. cultivators to prick the plants out from the feed-beds, while very young, into other beds; and the prattice is certainly advantageous, not only in checking their too forward growth, but in rendering them more fit for planting and lefs liable to run to feed when tranfplanted into the field**. The expence and trouble of this operation is, however, too great, where the cabbage culture is conducted on an extenfive fcale, to admit of its being generally performed. Method of planting.—In the planting out of this fort of crop, care thould be taken to have the bufinefs performed as foon as poffible after the land has been well faturated with rain; as in this cafe the plants much fooner efta- blifh themfelves in the foil, and fewer vacancies are left by their decay to be afterwards filled up.‘The plants are likewife much more readily raifed from the feed-beds, and with much lefs injury to their roots, which is a matter of more importance than is generally fuppofed. The bufinefs is performed upon the Jand when in its flat or level ftate, and alfo when raifed into ridges by means of the plough; but the latter method is the more general, and ought probably to be preferred wherever the foil is much inclined to the retention of moifture. On the lighter and more dry foils the flat furface may, however, be more advifable. The diftance of planting muft depend in a great meafure upon the ftrength and goodnefs of the foil, and the natural fize of the variety of cabbage that is employed; but in general it fhould be fuch as that the ground between them may be cultivated and kept clean by the plough, and yet admit of bearing a full crop. It is obvious that where the plants ftand thin they will attain a larger fize, while in clofe planting there will be a greater number upon the land, which may compenfate the difadvantage of want of fize. It feems probable, however, that both cabbages and turnips may be fet out too thin, as the in- creafe of fize is not always equal to that of number. It is the pra€tice of fome diftri€ts, where this culture is well performed, to fet them out regurlarly, at the diftance of three feet each way, as in this method the plough in cleaning and earthing up the crops can be conduéted both ina longitudinal and crofs diretion, and of courfe the foil between the plants be not only flirred in the moft effe€tual manner, but the moft completely laid up to the roots of the plants, and their growth the moft fully promoted. Where the larger varieties of cabbage are employed, and the land is fufficiently ftrong, this may * Miller’s Diétionary, art. Brafica; and Young’s Annals, Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cabbages. 687 therefore in general be the moft advantageous diftance; but where the finaller varieties are made ufe of, and the ground is of a lefs ee iy ah quality, two feet and a half may be the moft proper and beneficial diftance. Other cul- tivators, however, follow a different praCtice; fome preferring four feet by two feet and a half, while others advife only two feet by twenty inches, or even eighteen inches. In thefe diftances the cabbages are, however, under the neceflity “of being hand-hoed between the plants in the rows; the intervals only being clean- ed by the plough*. Theculture cannot, of courfe, be by any means fo perfedily performed; the foil in the former method being wholly removed except the {mall portions immediately about the roots of the plants, while in thefe, much of it muft remain untouched, and be not only left in a more foul condition for fuc- ceeding crops, but lefs beneficial in promoting the growth of the cabbages+. But whatever diftances may be thought the moft advantageous, it will con- ftantly be neceflary to attend to the manner of fetting them out, the fize of the plants, and the mode of taking them up from the feed-beds, as much de- pends upon thefe operations being properly performed. In fetting the plants out, in the ridge method, it is neceflary to have them placed in lines as regularly as poffible, according to the diftances employed, along the middle or crown of the ridges, immediately upon the part in which the manure has been inclofed; as by having this accomplifhed in an accurate manner, they not only admit a, being cultivated betwixt with more eafe and convenience, but derive the utmoft * Marfhall’s Rural Economy of the Midland Counties, vol. I. p. 211; and Young’s Eaftern Tour, vol. IV. + The experiments and obfervations of Mr. Baker, in the cultivation of cabbages in the field, led him to recommend the following as the moft fuitable diftances for the different varieties which he employed. Varieties, Sea/fon. Diftances. Long-fided Cabbage Winter Plants 2 feet by 4, or 18 inches by 4 feet. Flat Dutch Cabbage do. do, do. by do. or do. by do. Scotch Cabbage do, do. do. by do. or do. by do. Flat Dutch Cabbage Spring Plants 18 inches by 4 feet Scotch Cabbage do. do, do. by do. Turnip Cabbage do. do. 1 foot by do, The nature of the foils on which they were cultivated is not defcribed. For all the larger forts of cabbages on the different forts of ftrong rich foils, the moft advantageous diftances may be three feet each way; and on the more light foils two feet and a half. But for the fmailer forts two feet each way on the ftrong foils, and eighteen or twenty inches in fuch as are light. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cabbages. oo) poflible advantage irom the manure, and at the fame time, from its being more concentrated, require a fmaller proportion to be employed. The fize of the plants is likewife a circumftance of much confequence, as the large flout plants not only take root with more certainty, but are lefs ex- pofed to danger from flugs and other caufes*. In removing the plants from the feed or other bed, for the purpofe of being planted out, it is alfo of much utility to have their roots as little broken or otherwife injured as poffible. Moift or rainy weather is the moft fuitable for this operation; but in dry fea- fons it may be well accomplifhed after the plants in the beds have been well watered. The number of plants that are employed muft obvioufly be different, according to the diftances at which they are planted; but from five to feven thoufand are generally fufficient for an acre of land. In fetting the young plants out into the ground, it is neceflary to fee that the labourers fix them well-in the foil, by applying the mold fo firmly round their roots by means of the dibble, that they cannot be eafily drawn out by taking hold of their uppermoft leaves. The plants are moftly dropped at proper di- ftances, by women or children, and the dibblers follow, having a ftick for mark- ing the diftances with in an exa€t manner. In this way an ordinary labourer will plant a quarter of an acre or more in a day, and an expert gardener nearly as much more. In the courfe of a fortnight or three weeks after the firft fetting out of the plants, it will be requifite to fill up all the vacancies that have been produced by the failure of particular plants; in performing which a moift time, if it be poffible, fhould be chofen. The expence of planting out, as well as of all the other operations in crops of this fort, muft be liable to vary greatly, according to the circumftances of the foil, and the fituation in refpe& to labourers. In Suffolk, according to the writer of the Corre€ted Report of the Agriculture of that diftriét, it is in general about three fhillings the acre; but in other places it is frequently a little higher, the whole charge of an acre being eftimated as fhewn below f. * Corrected Report of Suffolk. + Expences of Cabbage Culture on one Acree oo Te Charges for Rent--=---“ iy? io. to Ty thes 2~ a a---- mn tkO, hoz a, Poor rates--°°*--- i i he GES Carried forward 4,0 12 9° Ploughing Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cabbages. 689 After-Culture.—There is fcarcely any fort of crop that derives more advant- age from having the mold or foil frequently ftirred and applied to the roots of the plants, than that of the cabbage. It is only bya due repetition of thefe ope- rations that the plants attain their moft perfe&t growth and fize. The work is accomplithed by means of ploughs, horfe and hand-hoes. Where the plants are fet out ina regular manner at fufficient diftances, the bufinefs may be performed in the moft cheap and effeCtual way by the ufe of the horfe-hoe, or the com- mon light fwing-plough; but where narrow diftances are employed, this work can only be well executed by means of the hand-hoe. Sometimes both the horfe and the hand hoe are made ufe of; as where the crop is planted clofe in the rows, with wide intervals. The number of hoeings muft in general depend upon the ftate of the Jand and the nature of the feafon; but three will in moft cafes be neceflary. The firft fhould be given about three weeks or a month after planting, according to the growth of the plants; and the fecond at about an equal diftance of time. The third may be repeated as the necef- fity of the crop may require, attention being conftantly paid to keep the land perfeétly clean from weeds, and the earth or mold well loofened and laid up to the plants. In the firft operation it is ufual to turn the mold or foil from the plants, but in the fubfequent ones to apply it up to them, which, where the plants are fet regularly in fquares at the diftance of three feet, may be per- formed in both direétions of the ground, in the moft perfe& manner. In this way the cultivator not only in a great meafure avoids the heavy expence of hand- Me 20 Sel hs Brought over= 0 12-g Charges for Ploughing land five times=.--- oe oO Harrowing twice----=..— OO ee Manuring--=<--~ Jira«eto Seed-bed and feed,&c...--- mi lOF 358) 2G Planting out-<----- pid. 2 ag Filling up deficiencies----=-- 6, o G tand-hoeings------. tO 7) 4g Horfe work in hoeing=°-°-> 30." 479 Cutting and cartage one-fourth of a mile-° r 07 Es Ye fe ghia I 3 In this eftimate, the whole of the expence of manure is, it is obferved, charged to the cabbage- crop; but the advantage ought properly to be divided, which would leffen the expence confiderably, 47 690 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cabbages. hoeing, but contributes to the growth of the crop in the moft effectua] manner. In executing the work, by means of horfe labour, fome make ufe of the horfe- hoe, others the double mold-boarded and common hoe ploughs; and it‘has been contended, that it may be effe€ted with equal exa€tnefs and in an equally effe€tual manner by any common light fwing-plough*. After thefe hoeings have been accomplithed, the hand-hoe may be occafion- ally employed juft about the roots of the plants, if there fhould be neceflity. And where the crops are planted out at narrow diftances either wholly or in the rows only, it muft altogether or in a great degree be depended upon for the after-culture of the crops. In thefe cafes, two or three hoeings are moftly found neceffary t+. The expence of each hand-hoeing in fuch crops is in ge- neral from two fhillings to half-a-crown or three fhillings the acre f. Cabbage as well as turnip crops are fiable to be injured by the attacks of animals of the infeét kind at different periods of their growth. While the plants are young and tender in the feed-bed, the beetle or fly often greatly ine jures or deftroys them by its ravages. The plants likewife occafionally fuffer in the feed-bed from the attacks of the caterpillar, produced by the cabbage but- terfly§, though lefs frequently, as this infeét makes its appearance in general too late to do much injury to field crops. The /lug fometimes alfo does much harm to cabbage plants while young, and on their being firft planted out, but afterwards they are little expofed to its at- tacks.‘The depredations of the fly or beetle, as well as the caterpiller, may in general be in a great meafure prevented by the fowing or difperfing of wood- athes, foot, or other fimilar matters in a powdery fate, over the young plants on the firft appearance of the infects among them. And the ravages of the flug may be guarded again{t by the means that have already been recommended for turnips. But befides the attacks of infeéts on the leaves of the plants, cabbages are fubje&t to a difeafe in the roots, in-which they become fwelled out and knobby, and the plants weak and of imperfect growth This vegetable difeafe has been fuppofed to be caufed by the attacks of grubs below the furface of the ground, and to be chiefly prevalent, where the fame fort of cabbages are fown and planted on the fame fpots of ground for feveral years together||. Anderfon’s Recrections in Agriculture,&c. vol. II.+ See Hoeing. Correéted Report of Suffolk.§ Papiio Braffice.: bd... Stokes, in Witherin* Botanical Arrangements. ++* Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cabbages. 691. When care is taken to plant out the proper hardy forts of cattle cabbages there is little danger of their being injured by the feverity of the frofts during the winter months, as feldom more than a few of their large outfide leaves have been found to fuffer. Many of the hardy varieties of cabbage have in- deed been found to ftand the winter frofts equally, or even better, where there are frequent thaws, than thofe of the borecole or kale kinds; but the latter would appear better adapted as‘a green food, efpecially for fheep, in the early {pring months, as it may be repeatedly eaten down or cut over*. It is fearcely poffible to afcertain the quantity of produce that may be de- rived from an acre of land under a crop of this kind, as it muft depend in a great degree upon the quality of the foil, the proportion of manure that is employed, the method of culture; the goodnefs of the plants, and the favourablenefs of the feafon about the time of planting them out. It may probably in general be efti- mated at from twenty to thirty tons. In comparing the produce of cabbage crops with thofe of turnips, in different modes of planting and on different kinds of foil, it was found, taking the beft parts of the crops, that a medium acre of the former, on good land, well managed, produced twenty-five tons, and of the latter fifteen tons f. The value of the crops muft likewife be affected by various circumftances, as the kinds of live flock by which they are confumed, the manner in which it is ace complithed, and the fituation.of the cultivator in refpect to markets; but in com- mon they may be calculated at from four or five to feven or ten pounds the acre, In the application or expenditure of cabbage crops, as they are often lia- ble to a confiderable diminution in the quantity or weight of food which they contain, by ftanding over the winter to the{pring months, it may be the beft and moft economical pra€tice to make ufe of them late in the autumn, while their leaves are in perfe€tion, in completing the fattening of fuch neat cattle or fheep as have been brought confiderably forward in the paftures during the f{ummer feafon}. In this way there is much lefs lofs fuftained than is generally the cafe where they are fuffered to ftand for fpring feed, by the decay and deftruc- tion of the outfide leaves and other parts of the plants. In the feeding of milch-cows at the fame period they may likewife be of very great utility, as {upplying a large proportion of green food, whether the whole plant be made * Modern Agriculture, vol. IT.$ Young’s Annals, vol. XII. 3 Young’s Eaftern Tour, vol. IV. 692 Cultivation of Arable Land—Cabbages. ufe of, or only the more loofe green leaves, which may often be removed without much injury to the cabbages*. In this method of application they have been fhewn to be more beneficial than hay, given in any proportion, when only com-© bined with ftraw; and that the butter is net in any way injured by them while they are given ina found ftate+. When employed in this way without any combination of other forts of food, as hay or ftraw, an acre has been found to be fufficient for four or five cows, and with ftraw and a little hay for feven or eight+. In this mode of confuming cabbage crops, the cows fhould always be confined to the farm- yards, and not fuffered to eat them after being fcattered on the ground; as in the latter way the farmer muft fuftain injury, both in the treading of his lands and in the lofs of alarge portion of valuable manure. Befides, we fufpe& that fuch fort of food will go much farther when carefully applied in the yard, than when con- fumed on the land, as much wafte muft be unavoidable in the latter method}. In the fattening of neat cattle, an acre of good cabbages may be nearly fuf- ficient for three beafts of from forty to fifty ftone each which have been grazed in the paftures during the fummer. A middle-fized bullock confumes, in ge- neral, of this fort of food, in the proportion of about one hundred pounds in twelve hours; but much in this bufinefs muft conftantly depend on the ftate of the ftomach and the methods of feeding the animals. It would, however, feem probable, that cabbages poffefs the property of fattening cattle, not only more expeditioufly but in lefs proportion than turnips; an acre of the former having been found to fatten one in four more than the fame extent of the latter crop§. In feeding this crop off with fheep it has been obferved, that fuch as weigh about twenty pounds the quarter confume in the proportion of from eight to ten pounds in twelve hours, half an acre being nearly fufficient for one hundred fheep when the crop is good.. The cabbages, when run to feed in the fpring months, are alfo confumed with avidity by thefe animals; but this pra€tice fhould never be attempted, as much injury muft always be fuftained by the land. The refufe of cabbage crops may, however, fometimes be ufefully applied in the more early fpring months, before they begin to run, to the feeding of lamb- ing ewes, as by fuch means the quantity of milk is much increafed, and the lambs of courfe better fupported. * Corrected Report of Suffolk.+ Farmer’s Magazine, vol, IIL. + Bath Papers.|| Corre&ted Report of Suffolk,§ Bath Papers, a Forby in Annals of Agriculture, Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cabbages. 693 Store hogs are likewife faid to be kept upon this vegetable with advantage, and to prefer it to turnips. In the trials that we have been enabled to make with the finer breeds of this fort of animals, we have not, however, found ita beneficial mode of applying fuch crops, as they conftantly rejeé both the cab- bage and turnip for moft other forts of food, and, unlefs prepared by heat, feldom eat them up clean. Though few experiments have been made in the feeding of horfes with this fort of food, it is probable that, after being chopped, cut, or fhaved down by means of a ftock or other knife, and blended with fome fort of dry cut fodder, it might be employed with great advantage both in the faving of other more valuable kinds of food and in promoting the condition of the animals; as, from their containing much faccharine matter, there can be little doubt of their pof- feffing a highly nutritious quality. In this ufe, the more fweet and delicate forts of cabbage ought probably to be preferred. That the application of this fort of crop in this way has been{carcely attended to is fully fhewn by the obfervation of Mr. Marfhall, in his account of the midland diftri€ts, who regif- ters it as extraordinary, that neither in that nor any other diftrié an inftance had been met with of cabbages being made ufe of in the way of food for horfes. Where cabbages are employed for winter and early fpring confumption, it has been advifed by fome cultivators to have them cut or drawn while in full perfeétion, and piled up in houfes for the purpofe, or ftacked in the open air, being clofely covered over by means of ftraw, broom,. rufhes, or any other fimilar cheap material; as in this way they are conftantly ready. and at hand, when they cannot be procured from the field, on account of the wetnefs of the land or the effeéts of froft and fnow*. The praétice is faid to have been made ufe of in Germany with fuch fuccefs as to keep them in a good ftate of pre- fervation during the whole of the winter feafon. From the fweet juicy nature of the vegetable, we are, however, difpofed to believe that it will be liable, in this method, to be injured, not only by taking on too much heat, but by be- coming mouldy. Befides, by keeping in fuch ftacks they, like the turnip, fhrink confiderably, and are probably much impaired in their quality. In whatever manner cabbages are confumed, it 1s of importance to the fuc- ceeding crops that they be wholly removed from the. land in the early part of: *-Farmer’s Magazine, vole LIT. 5 r) Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cabbages. the fpring, before they begin to throw up their flowering ftems and run to i feed. — the whole, as cabbages may aie paneled at no great expe ace, are much ita nutritious ae various‘Kinds of animals, Saves annot be any doubt but that they may be had recourfe to with great advantage in fuch foils and fituations as are not adapted to the turnip Hitbatdliy y, and efpecially. wherever: a large ero- portion of green food is wanted for the fupport of milch-cows in autumn and winter.~ It has indeed been fuggefted by a late writer, that in cafes where turnip crops have either wholly or in part failed, and the foils are of an ordinary depth, the lands may be recropped with cabbages at a cheap rate, and with the greateft chance of fuccefs*. This may, therefore, be a point that deferves the notice of the extenfive turnip cultivator on all the flronger kinds of tur- nip land. The evidence that has been laid before the public by the intelligent writer of the Corrected Report of the State of Agriculture in the County of Suffolk feems to demonftrate, that crops of this kind become injurious to the land both in their growth and the removal of the produce; and that the obje€tions to their culture have chiefly been raifed on thefe grounds. It appears probable, how- ever, that, if the circumftances of the quantity of produce in cabbage-crops being, in general, confiderably larger than in thofe of turnips, and that part of their deteriorating effets depends on the ftalks or ftems being improperly left in the ground till they fprout afrefh, and by that means leffen the fertility of the foil, as well as that of their being removed from the ground with more convenience and lefs injury to the land, from the nature of the ridges on which they are planted, be duly confidered, they will not be found to impoverifh the Jand on which they are grown, in any very great degree, more than thofe of the turnip kind. The trials of different cultivators are likewife in favour of the fame conclufiont. They may of courfe be confidered as a proper and beneficial crop for all thofe forts of land that are too ftrong and retentive of moifture for the fuccefsful growth of the common turnip, efpeciall iy where dairy hufbandry is prattifed to any extent. * Modern Agriculture, vol. II.+ Forby, in Annals of Agriculture, vol, XIX,&c. Cultivation of Arable Land——Turnip-Cabbages 695 J Turnip Cabbage.—This is a plant that has-been long known to the horticul- turift, and which was attempted to be introduced into field culture many years ago, but without complete fuccefs, notwithftanding the refults of the experi- ments that were then made upon it appear to have been much in its favour*. In this variety of the cabbage the bulb or apple is of aroundih flat form, appears principally above the furtace of the ground, and is as it were an enlargement of the{tem of the plant, the leaves that furround it having much refemblance to thofe of brocoli. It has fometimes been cultivated under the title of Cape Cabbage, and often confounded with the Turnip-rooted Cabbage by thofe culti- vators who have not fufficiently attended to the circumftances by which they are diflinguifhed t. It feems to be the plant cultivated in many parts of Gers many under the title of Kohklrabi, and which is faid to be extremely hardy. The foils that are the moft adapted to the growth of this plant are thofe of the more light and dry kinds, that have fome degree of elevation in refpeé& to fituation, and which are in a good fiate of fertility from previous tillage. The land is to be prepared by ploughing three or four times, in nearly the fame manner as for the common turnip; being laid up in the autumn, in order to be rendered fine and mellow by the aétion of the frofts and other caufes during the winter. After being thus well prepared, at the time of planting it is to be ploughed into fmall two bout ridges, and a fuitable proportion of ma- nure, according to the ftate of the foil, turned in. On the ridges, when flatted by a light roller, the plants are to be fet out. Seed, and Time of Sowing.—In colle&ting the feed, the fame method fhould be purfued as has been advifed for cabbages, in order that no adulteration may take place. In cultivating this plant, the feed is. fometimes fown in beds in the fields, whence the plants are afterwards to be fet out, and at athers in drills or broadcaft, where the plants are to remain, being only thinned out to proper diftances by the hoe. The firft method is probably in general to be preferred, though fome cultivators contend that the plants fucceed better when. not re- moved from the places in which they were depofited when fown. Where the iranfplanting method is praCtifed, the feed fhould be fown fufficiently early to have the plants of a proper fize, as of about fix or feven weeks’ growth, at the time of tranfplanting. About the middle of March or beginning of April may be the propereft periods. The feed in thefe cafes fhould be fown very * TranfaQions of Society of Arts,&c, 5+ Bath Papers, vol. 1X. 696 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnip-Cabbage. thin, and the weak plants afterwards thinned out, till they are left at not lefs than three inches diftance from each other. Five or fix ounces of feed will in general be a proportion fufficient for affording plants for fetting out an acre of ground. In the drill method the fame proportion of feed may alfo in common be fuffi- cient, which fhould be put into the foil about the beginning or middle of April; but if fown later, as in May or June, it frequently fucceeds. On the broadcat plan, from the plants not coming quickly to the hoe, the latter end of Marcha may probably be the moft fuitable period of fowing. In this method, the pro- portion of feed muft be fomewhat increafed. Method of Planting.—Crops of this fort may be planted out either upon the plain furface of the ploughed ground, or after it has been thrown up into ridges in the manner defcribed above; but the latter is by much the beft method, efpecially where the land is not perfe&tly dry. The moft eligible time of perform- ing the bufinefs of planting is, as in the common cabbage, when the land has had a good fhower of rain; the operations of ploughing and fetting out the plants proceeding together: but neither operation fhould be attempted when the land is much foaked with rain, as much injury is not only done to the land, but the plants feldom thrive well*. In planting out different diftances are praétifed, fome preferring the diflance of two feet from row to row, and eighteen inches apart in the rows where the foils are good, but in thofe of inferior quality not more than twelve+; while others advife their being planted two and a half or three feet afunder, on two-bout ridges}, the plants being placed as nearly as poffible in the middle, immediately upon the dung, as has been recommended for cabbages. After-Culture.—This bufinefs muft be performed in different. ways, ac- cording to the methods of fowing or planting that have been prattifed. When the feed is put in by the hand, the crop can only be kept clean by means of the hand-hoe, which fhould be applied as frequently as is neceffary for the purpofe. In the drill mode, as well as where the crop is planted out with broad intervals and narrow diftances in the rows, it may be convenient to make ufe of both the plough or horfe-hoe and the hand hoe, employing the former in ftirring and clearing the intervals, and the latter in keeping the ground between the plants clean. When the crop is planted on ridges, it is recommended, that as{con as the * Bath Papers, vol. IX. t Miller’s DiGionary, art. Brafica.} Bath Papers, vol. IX, OY: Fy 8 y ee j 7 q ye Cultivation of Arable Land.—-Turnip-Cabbaze. 607 plants have become firmly eftablifhed in the foil, and weeds begin to appear, to ig throw a furrow from each fide of th vem by means of a fmall plough that is nar- 1e parts not thus moved by the hand-hoe, and after the de- (Reese 1 Peres sof ia rhe before the plants get too large, to } { row behind, ftirring tl cay of the weeds thus turned down, but / o return them to their former fituation, care being taken not to cover the hearts of the plants with the ict. Thefe operations may be repeated as frequently as.the ftate of the crop may require. It may be neceffary to obferve, that in the after-cult forms its bulb above the furface of the ground, the‘earth or mold fhould never be laid up fo much to the roots of the plants as in the common cabbage, as it may contribute not only to prevent the{welling of the bulbs, but promote their deftru€tion. In dry feafons this plant may probably be cultivated with greater advantage than that of the turnip, as not being fubject to the enpnedens attacks of the fly, and being lefs expofed to danger from other animals that are liable to deftroy crops of that fort. When fituated clofe to turnips that st been almoft wholly devoured by the’fly, we have never perceived that plants of this kind were in the leaft touched by it. In good ground the bulbs or roots of thefe plants frequently attain a confi- derable fize, the largeft fometimes weighing eight or ten pounds, and are faid to be‘much more hardy than the common turnip, though not fo much fo as the turnip-rooted cabbage. The quantity of produce on the acre is not pr obably in general equal to that of the common turnip. Its application is chiefly in the feeding of neat cattle and fheep, during the autumn or{pring months, according as it may be fown more early or late; but the moft profitable confumption of it is probably in the latter feafon, as from the middle of March till it is removed from the ground, In this way it may become an ufeful affiftant to crops of the turnip kind. For this ufe it poffeffes a particular advantage, in being formed, as it were, upon a foot-ftalk above the furface of the earth; as it can on that account be more conveniently got at and removed during the time of froft, or when fnow is beet the ground, t common turnip. The proportion of nut in ¢1 fort is confiderable, and of a rich ecaknesloo food, when it is given them in a judicious m beft method is that of hurdling, in the manner praétifed for common tu In this mode of application they are faid to require little or no hay, even wher the intention is to fatten the animals, as they make 4u 698 Cultivation of Arable Land,—Turnip-rooted Cabbage. them than on any other fort of food, except that of oats, Both cows and fheep have been found to feed upon the fprouts with avidity, after their having blof- fomed and been cut and left to wither. But this pra€tice fhould feldom or never be attempted, as much injury muft conftantly be done to the land by the plants being fuffered to run to feed. After the bulbs are fhrunk and withered from being cut and packed up in houfes, they are faid to form a nutritious food for horfes. Inftead of cutting off the bulbs below the parts where they are formed, in order to preferve them in houfes for the above purpofe, it is the prattice of fome cultivators to plough them up wholly, ufing a common plough, with- out any coulter, having only around fhare with a blunt edge, for the pur- pofe*. This is paffed along under the rows, and performs the work with much eafe and expedition. Turnip-rooted Cabbage.—This is another plant of the cabbage kind that has been introduced into field-culture with confiderable fuccefs. It differs prin- cipally from the former in forming its bulb or protuberance below the furface of the ground, in having it of an oblong fhape, and in the leaves having a con- fiderable fimilarity to thofe of the common turnip. The moft fuitable foils for the growth of this fort of vegetable are thofe of the more friable loamy kinds, or fuch as have been formed by the gradual de- pofition of earthy matters from the overflowings of large rivers or the fea. But of whatever kind the foil may be, the particles of it fhould have been well broken down and reduced by means of tillage, and not be too retentive of moifture, when plants of this fort are cultivated upon it. In preparing the land for the crop it will therefore be neceffary to have it brought into a confiderable ftate of pulverifation or finenefs, by repeated plough- ings, and the pafling of harrows over it; and alfo enriched by the application of manure, in the proportion of eight or ten waggon loads to the ftatute acre, which fhould be turned in with the laft ploughing in forming the one-bout ridges for the reception of the plants. This is fometimes performed by the common plough, but it may probably be executed with more exattnefs by one with a double mold-board. Seed.—This is to be conftantly colle€ted from the beft and moft perfe& plants of the kind, in the manner that has been already directed for the com- mon cabbage. It fhould likewife be employed while it is perfe€ily frefh, as * Young’s Annals of Agriculture. Se—-— Cuitivation of Arable Land.—Turnip-rooted Cabbage. 699 fuch feed as has been kept for fome length-of time feldom comes up well, or with much regularity. But where it is neceflary to make ufe of it, the beft method is to fteep it in water for a few hours before it-is fown. Time of Sowing.—This is to be performed fooner or Jater, according to the intentions of the cultivator in refpe@ to the confumption of the crop; but for the fummer planting, the beft time may be about the latter end of March or beginning of April. For this purpofe a piece of ground fhould be prepared by repeated turning over during the winter, fo as to become perfe€tly fine«and free from weeds. This muft now be covered over by fome well-reduced farm= yard manure, adding a little frefh horfe-dung from the ftable. This is then to be turned lightly in by means of the fpade or plough, and a fuitable proportion of feed fown over the whole, being covered in by means of a ftrong rake or light harrow*. As the plants rife, attention is to be paid to the fly, guarding againft its attacks by the ufe of wood-afhes or foot, when it firft appears. When the plants are found to grow too faft or advance too high in the items before the period of fetting them out in the field, fo as to attain an improper fhape not eafily afterwards removed, it may be neceflary to draw up the whole of the plants clean on one fide of the bed, digging or turning the foil over in the place where they ftood, to the depth of four or five inches, with the fpade, putting the plants in the trenches in the proportion of forty or fifty in each yard, the roots being covered by the earth taken out of the fucceeding trench, and flightly trodden down upon them.« In this manner the whole of the plants that require it are to be entrenched; by which their improper growth may not only be checked, but the plants be rendered more fit to be fet out in the field. Where the land for the feed-bed has, however, been properly prepared, and is perfe€tly freed from weeds, this procefs will feldom be found requifite-t. Method of Pilanting.—This fort of plants may be fet out in the fame manner as the turnip cabbage, either upon the plain ploughed furface, or after the Jand has been raifed into ridges, in the way defcribed above. The latter is, how- ever, to be preferred, efpecially where the foil is inclined to be moift. They are planted at different diftances, according to the goodnefs of the land; but , * Where this fort of preparation has not been made, a piece of old grafs-land, reduced by paring and ? F 6/ ro} burning, may(Mr. Tugwell, an experienced cultivator, obferves) be éreffed in a Gmilar manner; or the fubfoil of a winter fheep-fold, the ftraw, dung, and thin turfy material, having been previout'y removed. + Tugwell in Bath Papers, vol. 1X. 400 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnip-rooted Cabbage. the moft general praQtice is from two to two anda half or three feet. Infthe ridge method it is ufual to fet them on the middle of the ridges, at the diftance of two feet in the rows. The plants are to be carefully drawn from the feed- bed towards the latter end of June, for the fummer planting, when of the fize of good large cabbage-plants. And in order that as little injury as poflible may be done to their roots, this bufinefs fhould be performed immediately after rain, or after the beds have been well watered. They are then to be made up into fmall bundles, and diftributed by women or children fingly along the ridges, or on the plain furface of the land, at proper diftances, to be dire€tly put into the foil by the dibblers; in doing which, they fhould be plunged up to the place of the branching out of the leaf ftems, the mold or foil being firmly clofed about them in the manner recommended for the common cabbage plants. It is particularly neceflary to attend to this laft operation in dry feafons, as the fuccefs of the crop ina great meafure depends upon its being properly per- formed*. Care fhould likewife be taken that a greater number of plants be not drawn from the feed-bed than can be planted out the fame day, and that they be as little as potiible expofed to the a€tion of the fun and wind. It is alfo-neceffary for a few days to guard againft their being pulled up by rooks or other birds, Afier-Culture.—This is to be carefully attended to here, as well as in all other crops of a fimilar kind. In about ten days or a fortnight, when the plants grow well, they willin general require the affliftance of the hand-hoe, to clear the ridges and give the plants a flight drefling. And as foon afterwards as may be convenient, the intervals may be cleared either by the common plough or any other more fuitable implement, by pafling them twice along each, turning the furrows, where the land is clean and not too clofe or compatt, up towards the rows, being careful not to earth up the plants to too great a height; but where the contrary is the cafe, they fhould be turned from them, fo as to form a ridge in the middle of the interval, the implement being paffed within a few inches of the plants in performing the operation. This ridge in dry feafons fhould be fplit down and returned to the rows again in the courfe of a few days; another hand-hoeing being given as foon afterwards as may be found convenient. This laft operation may frequently be unneceffary on the more light and clean defcriptions of Jand; but on the ftrong and more compaét foils * Bath Papers, vol. IX. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turnip-rooted Cabbage. 70] it may be had recourfée to with advantage, both in refpeét to the prefent and future crop, fo as tocompenfate any expence that may attend it. The produce in crops of this kind is frequently found, on good land, to be from twenty-five to thirty tons on the acre. In a prattice of twenty years, the produce of an acre of this crop was on an average invariably found to to be equal to the fupport of feventy fheep for a month, in the moft hungry, trying, and difficult part of the year: and this on land then not worth more than thirteen fhillings the acre, but which contained between feven and eight thoufand plants, averaging above four pounds each in weight*. As the plant is a native of a more cold and northern climate, it of courfe retains in fome meafure the late habits of the fituation from which it was ori- ginally brought, and becomes proper for the purpofes of feeding live ftock at a later period in the fpring than many other plants to which it has a refemblance. It is feldom before the middle of April that the juice begins to rife and the plant become proper for being fed upon. About this time, however, as is fhewn by the buthy appearance of its top, it begins to puth forward and be in a condition to be made ufe of. When employed before this period, it is faid to be comparatively of little advantage, and.in fome cafes even injurious to the animals that feed upon it f. Its principal application is in the feeding of fheep, which animals are con- fined upon portions of the crop by hurdles, in the manner praétifed for the common turnip. The roots are, however, to be pulled up and prepared by being cut in two by means of an implement of the mattock kind, having a claw on one fide nine inches long, with a tranfverfe edge at its end two inches in width, and on the other a fort of cleaver; with this tool, aéting as a lever by means of the handle, the roots are readily taken up; after which any dirt that may adhere to them is fhaken off by a blow or two, and the roots fplit by the cleaver. By this means the fheep begin in the centre of the roots and proceed outwards, eating them with more eafe and much more completely than in any other method. When they are not cut, the hard fubftance of the rind renders them difficult of being eaten by thefe animals}. One-year-old fheep, or what are frequently denominated tegs, wethers, and all dry fheep, may in preference be fed on this root; but when ewes and lambs are to be kept upon it, the hurdles muft be fo contrived as to admit the lambs to pafs through + Bath Papers, vol. IX.+ Ibid, p. 271.+ Ibid. 702 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Ieape or Cole. them to feed at large, as by this means both they and the roots will be much benefited*. This root may be found on the whole, from its hardy and other properties, to conftitute an excellent nutritious food for fheep at thofe periods in the{pring when few other forts of green food can be procured or depended upon.‘The culture of it, in proportion to the quantity of fheep that may be kept on the farm, fhould not therefore be neglected.: This vegetable has been afferted to be capable of being preferved for fome time out of the ground, without its properties being in the leaft injured; but asin moft other bulbous roots, the beft and moft economical pra€tice is pro- bably that of employing it in its frefh ftate. When thus made ufe of, there can be little doubt of its proving a valuable affiftant to the turnip crop as.a late fpring feed for fheep. Rape or Cole.—This is a plant of the cabbage kind T, but which differs from it in not forming a clofe head. As being of a hardy» nature, and affording a large proportion of green food for the winter fupport of fheep and other ani- mals, it has been fome time introduced as an article of field culture. It has likewife been cultivated for a confiderable length of time for the ufe of the feed, which is expreffed in mills conftructed for the purpofe, in order to form the oil known by its name. The foils moft adapted to the culture of this plant are thofe of the deep and more fertile kinds: when it is. grown on lands that have been long in tillage, the friable loamy kinds are found to anfwer the beft; but it may be grown with perfe&t fuccefs on the fenny, marfhy, and other coarfe wafte lands, that have been long in the ftate of grafs, after being broken up and reduced into a proper ttate of preparation. As a firft crop on fuch defcriptions of land it is often the beft that can be employed. When fown on old tillage lands, the method of pre- paration is pretty much the fame as that which has been given for the common turnip; the land being ploughed over four or five times, according to the condition it may be in, a fine ftate of pulverifation or tilth being requilite for the perfe& growth of the crop. In this view the firft ploughing is moftly given in the autumn, in order that the foil may be expofed to the influ- ence of the atmofphere till the early part of the fpring, when it fhould be again turned over twice, at proper diftances from each other; and towards the begin. * Bath Papers, vol. 1X.+ Brafic napus, Cultication of Arable Land.—Rape or Cole. 703 ning and middle of June one or two additional ploughings fhould be performed upon it, in order that it may be in a fine mellow condition for the reception of the feed. But if the feed be intended to be put in upon lands that are newly broken up from the ftate of fward, they muft be rendered perfe€tly clean and in a, fufficiently fine ftate of mold for the reception of the feed, either by frequent ploughing in the common way, and afterwards harrowing the furface well by light fhort-tined harrows; or by having recourfe to the pra¢tice of paring and burning, which may be performed in the manner already defcribed*. The laft is by much the moft effe€tual, cheap, and advantageous method, where the furface contains a large quantity of coarfe grafly matter, as it can fcarcely be reduced by any other means without much time and trouble. This is the fort of preparation that is generally employed when the crop is intended to ftand for feed f. If fown on the firft fort of preparation, it is the beft pra€tice for it to fucceed wheat or barley crops. When the former, barley or oats, with grafs-feeds, may be put in after it; but if the latter, it may be fucceeded to the greateft advantage by wheat, as it is found to be not only an excellent preparation for that fort of grain, but to afford it of the fineft quality; and by its being taken off early there is fufficient time allowed for getting the land in order for the wheat crop{. Where the tillage land is not in a good ftate of fertility, manure of the fame kind and in the fame proportion as for turnips fhould be applied and turned in with the laft ploughing for the feed. Seed.—For this crop fuch feed as has been perfectly ripened, is quite frefh, and has a fine black colour, is conftantly to be preferred, as vegetating in the moft perfeét and expeditious manner. The quantity of feed that is made ule of is in general from a quarter to half a peck according to the manner of fowing that may be praétifed. Where the crop is intended to be confumed as a green food for animals, a larger proportion of feed may, however, be neceflary than where the obtaining of feed is the chief objeét of the cultivator. Method of fowing.—The moft common prattice in putting this crop into the ground is that of difperfing it in as regular a manner as poflible over the furface of the ground by the hand, covering it by means of a bufh or other light harrow. Infiead of this it is, however, fometimes ploughed in when tivated on the more light and open kinds of foil, a larger proportion of * Section on Paring and Burning,+ Modern Agriculture, vol, HU,} Kent’ VO4 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Rape or Cole. being allowed, and the furrows made narrow with but little depth. In fuch cafes this has been fuggefted as preferable to the former method*. The drill method has alfo been praétifed with this crop, the feed being de- pofited to the depth of one inch in rows on every other land, twelve inches afunder. The fuperiority of this mode over that of the broadcaft appears con- fiderable in the ftatements that have been made of it, as the land is capable of being kept clean with lefs difficulty and expence{. It has been fuggefted likewife as a defirable method to fow the feed in beds, for the purpofe of being afterwards tranfplanted into the field and fet out in the manner of cabbage-plants. Half a rood of Jand in this way would be fuffi- cient to furnifh plants for five or fix acres. In this manner, as well as by pull- ing the plants from the places where they may ftand too clofe im the field, the vacancies that frequently occur in this fort of crop may be filled-up, the work being performed by dibblest. And even the tranfplanting the whole’crops by beginning at one fide of the field, and proceeding gradually, from‘one land‘to another, till the whole is finifhed, would, it is believed, be highly advantageous; as in this way the land would be provided with the beft plants, and fuchias are of equal fize; and by their being placed at regular diftances, the crops would ripen in a more equal manner, while at the fame time free admiffion would be given to the hoe, and the intervals be kept clean by narrow horfe-hoes|. This bufinefs may be performed about the beginning of September or O&to- ber, according to circumftances. For this purpofe the plough is made ufe of, the plants being placed by women in a Jeaning pofition in every fecond furrow about a foot apart, and the roots covered by the next furrow; after which an- other is added, and more plants placed in as before, proceeding in the fame manner till the whole is finifhed. The plants of courfe ftand at about the di- ftance of eighteen or twenty inches by twelve. Where land that has been pared or burned is managed in this way, the firft or feed-ploughing fhould be in a crofs direGtion, and that for tranfplanting lengthways, in order to render the Jand dry in winter. Thefe methods appear better adapted for fuch crops as are defigned for feed than for thofe intended as green food for live flock; as by the perfe&t culture that + Kent’s Hints. 4+ Amos on Drill Hufbandry. + Marfhall, in Rural Economy of Yorkfhires|| Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Rape or Cole. 705 may be thus given them, and the ufe of manure, the inconveniences attendin Og the feeding of rape crops may perhaps ina great meafure be obviated. When cultivated for ufe as green food, the feed thould probably be fown more early than where the crop is to ftand for feed, or be employed in both ways; but fufficiently early to get a ftrong leaf without running to ftem the firtt autumn*. The middle of June and the. laft week in July may be the moft proper periods. After-Culture-—In the general broadcaft method of cultivating this crop, proper attention in hoeing and keeping it clean from weeds is feldom befiowed, though it is equally neceflary as in almoft any other, and in order to enfure a full and abundant produce ought never to be omitted. Where this bufinefs is at- tended to, it is the pra€tice, after the plants have attained two or three inches in height, put out fix leaves, and begun to fpread and fhew themfelves perfeétly above the ground, to hoe them over by means of a hand-hoe fomewhat fmaller than that employed for turnip crops, fetting the plants out to the diftances of from fix to eight or nine inches from each other, according to their vigour or ftrength and the fertility of- the tte This is the only hoeing that is in ge- neral given; but in many cafes, as where the land is poor and difpofed to throw 1 up weeds, much advantage may be derived from a repetition of the operation p i’ ge round, but promoting the growth of the plants, by not only in cleaning the e g s ftirring the mold round ee This fhould be done about a month or five wecks after the firft hoeing. The expence of performing the work once, is moftly about fix or feven fhillings the acre But. in the row methods, whether by drilling the feed or tranfpla nting the young plants, the bufin efs of hoeing may be performed ina more perfect and cheap manner, on account of the greater difiances of the plants admitting the earth in the intervals to be ftirred by the plough or horfe-hoe, while hand-labour becomes only neceflary between them in the rows. In this way a garden clean- nefs may be preferved in fuch field crops at no great expeice. When the produce is intended to be confumed as green food, the crop will in general be fufficiently advanced for the purpofe, if there thouid be a necel- fity for it, towards the latter end of November; but, except where the feed is - to be afterwards taken, it is probably a much better practice to referve it as feed < 1: phe IX eo>) My‘ in the{pring months. When cut or fed down in the autumn, the plants moitly - x * Miller’s Di€iionary. 4% "06 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Rape or Cole. advance fo in the fpring as to form a fecond crop in April. But in this method of feeding off the crop care fhould be taken that the plants are not pulled up and deftroyed by the animals being confined too long upon them. If the intention be to let crops of this fort ftand for feed, without feeding them down in the autumn, which is a prattice often adopted; after they have been well cleaned by hoeing, nothing further is neceffary till the latter end of June or beginning of July, when the feed becomes ripe.‘This is fhewn by the pods putting on a brownifh appearance, and the feeds in the forwardeft of them turning a little black. This fhould be nicely attended to, as, if fuffered to remain too long uncut, much feed may be loft. They are ufually reaped with the fickle and laid in thin grips or reaps upon the place where they grow,. ‘| until they be in a proper condition for threfhing. This is known by the ftraw | becoming of a whitifh colour, and the feed appearing perfeétly black. If how- ever they remain upon the ground too long, much of the beft feed may be loft, and if threfhed in too green a ftate, much may be left in the pods, as well as what is threfhed out be difficult to cure or preferve*. In thefe cafes, the feed is threfhed out in the field upon cloths about twenty yards fquare laid upon the ground, or what is better, upon wattled hurdles, fo placed as to have an inclining direétion, cloths being placed underneath to fecure the feed. The rape is conveyed to the place by means of fledges, the bottoms and fides of which are lined with cloth in order to preferve the feed that may efcape in the operation. It is fometimes likewife cleaned in the field, and put into facks for the market ft. When large quantities of feed | are brought quickly together, as they are liable to heat and become mouldy, it (| may be a better method to fpread them out thinly over a barn, granary, or .| other floor, and turn them as often as may be neceflary. ii In fome parts of Yorkfhire this bufinefs formerly conttituted a fort of feftival f; but it is now much on the decline, the method of binding the crop in fmall fheaves and ftacking it in the field being much adopted. The barn ought, however, to be preferred. il The expences of the different operations, fuch as reaping, turning, threfhing, i drefling, and depofiting the feed in bags, may in general be eftimated at from il twenty-five to thirty fhillings the acre. %® Marfhall’s Rural Economy of Yorkshire.+ Kent's Hints. * In the Rural Economy of that diftrict Mr. Marfhall has given a full and very interefting de- {cription of the bufinefs, 4 AO Fe) L frahiea T ryyw,y i> 4 fv o(\ Cultivation Of Arable LARG.—hape or Cole. 10) GC 1 When this fort of plant fucceeds well, amd the feafon is favourable for fe- curing the feed, the crops are extremely pro hiaple to the cultivators, forty ot fifty bufhels or more being frequently produced on the acre. Mr. Marfhall thinks, indeed, that on the whole“ it may be confidered as one of the mot profitable crops in hufbandry. There have been,” fays he,“ inftances, on cold unprodu€tive old pafture lands, in which the produce of the tape crop has been equal to the purchafe value of the land*.” The feed is fold by the laft of ten quarters, for the purpofe of having oil expreffed from it, by mills conftru€ted for that ufe; the hufks, after the oil has Hee in a great meafure{queezed from them, forming the cakes employed in feeding cattle. The price varies confi- derably, but lately has feldom been much below thirty pounds the laf. Rape crops are, however, precarious, both in the early cultivation and the fe- curing of the produce: being often much injured while young by infeéts, fome- what in the manner of turnip crops; when in blow, or in the period between bloffoming and forming the feed pods, in the fpring, as about the beginning of May, by Gols blight, and mildew; and in fecuring the crop, if the time of cutting be not nicely attended to, or much rain fall, ee is much danger of its being loft or deftroyed. The culture of this crop for feed has been confidered by many as obje@tion- able, on account of the great degree of exhauftion of the land that it is{uppofed to produce; but where it is grown oma fuitable foil and preparation, with pro. per attention in the after-culture, and the ftraw and offal, inftead of being burnt, as is the common pra€tice, converted to the purpofes of feeding and littering cattle, it may in many inftances be the moft proper and advantageous crop that can be employed by the farmer J. The moft general application of this fort of crop is, however, as a green food for fheep, in which ufe it is fcarcely furpaffed by any other vegetable, in fo far as refpects its nutritious properties, and thofe of being agreeable to the tafte of the animals; but in quantity of produce it is inferior to both turnips and # Rural Economy of Yorkthire. | It is remarked by Mr. Marfhall, in the work juft noticed, that“ the value of the ftraw to cattle in winter is very confiderable, The fiover(pulls and points broken off in threfhing) is as acceptable as hay, and the tops are eaten with an avidity nearly equal te cut ftraw, better than wheat ftraw. When well got, the fmaller butts will be eaten up clean. The offal makes excellent litter for the farm+yard, and is ufeful for the bottoms of mows, ftacks,&c.” $ Ibid. 708 Cultication of Arable Land.—Rape or Cole. cabbages. In this application the crops are fed off occafionally from the be~ ginning of November to the middle of April: being found of great value, in the firft period, in fattening dry ewes, and all forts of old fheep; and in the latter, for fupporting ewes and lambs. The fheep are folded upon them in the fame manner as is praétifed in the confumption of turnips. In this way they are found to pay from fifty to fixty fhillings the acre, that quantity being fuffi- cient for the fupport of ten fheep for ten or twelve weeks. Rape has been found by experience to be fuperior to turnips in fattening fheep, and in fome cafes even to be apt to deftroy them by its fattening quality. It is likewife obferved that that which is grown on frefh Jand has the ftem as brittle as glafs, and is fuperior to every other kind of food in fattening thefe animals; while in that produced on old tillage land, the ftem is tough and wiry, and has but little proof in it ¥, When neat cattle are put upon this food in its green ftate, care is neceflary that they have not too much of it at firft, as they are very liable to be hoven by it. It has been fuggefted by a late writer, that the cultivators of this crop, in order to turn it to the beft account, fhould conftantly keep in view the circum: ftance of its being capable of a double application: as by feeding it off with fheep in autumn, the fucceeding crop may not be much injured; confequently a large fupply of winter food be procured, without the quantity of feed being much, if at all, leffened. This is, therefore, conceived to be the moft profitable management in crops of this kind f. In fome foils and fituations this may be the cafe; but in general, feeding the crops leffens the quantity of feed, as a much larger produce is moftly obtained where this is not practifed f{. Whether cultivated for the feed or as a green crop for the fupport of live ftock, rape may in many cafes be had recourfe to as a firft crop in breaking up coarfe wafte lands, by paring and burning, with great advantage; but in the former view it can feldom be repeated with propriety at any very fhort diftance of time.' In letting the crop ftand for feed, birds are to be carefully kept from it, as they are apt to devour large quantities from their being particularly fond of it. * Correéted Report of Lincolnfhive.+ Modern Agriculture, vol. Il. + Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cuaryots. J Carrots.--Though this valuable root has been cultivated in a local manner for a great length of time in this country, it is only within the laft ten or fifteen years that it has been much applied to the purpofe of feeding live ftock by the farmer. It would feem to have been introduced into the fouthern parts of the ifland from the Low-countries, where its culture and ufe as food for horfes had been long known and pra¢tifed. Although there are many varieties of the common carrot*, there feems to be only one that is proper for being cultivated in the field for the purpofe of feed- ing animals. This is the fort ufually termed the orange carrot, in which the colour is much more dark than in the other varieties, and the flefh more fac- charine and juicy. The root of this variety moftly rifes to nearly double the fize of that of the pale yellow kind. The foils on which crops of this root fucceed to the greateft advantage are thofe which have confiderable depth of fine mold, either of the friable, loamy, fandy, or vegetable earthy, kinds; but they may probably be cultivated to ad- vantage on moft forts, except thofe of the ftiff clayey and thin gravelly or chalky defcriptions. The black deep vegetable, and the rich deep fandy, foils, appear however the beft calculated for this fort of crop, as well as moft other kinds: and the medium fands and fandy loams ftand next, as belt adapted to its culture+. In the preparation of the land for carrot crops, as the roots of the plants are of the tap kind, repeated deep ploughing is particularly neceflary, in order that they may be enabled to pufh downwards, and diftend themfelves with facility in the foil; as in this fort of hufbandry, where due pulverifation is not effected to a confiderable depth, the roots are liable to become forked and of very, limited growth, fending off numerous lateral roots, in confequence of their inability to get down; by which the quantity and value of the produce are greatly leffened. This deep tillage may be perfeétly accomplifhed either by means of the trench-plough following the common one, or by the common one alone, with a good ftrength of team; but the former method is to be pre- ferred, wherever the lands are inclined to be{tiff or heavy. Three ploughings are moftly found fufficient, where the land has been previoufly in a ftate of tillage; but more may in other cafes be neceffary. The firft ploughing fhould be made to the depth of ten, twelve, or fourteen inches, and be performed when the foil is tolerably dry, about the beginning of Oftober.. It may remain % Dancus Carota.+ Young’s Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. . 710 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Carrots. in this condition till towards the middle of February, when it fhould be turned over a fecond time, but in a crofs dire€tion, to nearly the fame depths. In March a third ploughing may be given, in order to the putting in of the feed. This may be fomewhat lighter than the preceding ones. By the two deep ploughings being thus given in the autumn and winter months, the ground becomes more open and porous, from being fa much expofed to the aétion of the frofts and other caufes, than could otherwife have been the cafe. At the laft ploughing in March a fuitable proportion of well-rotted farm-yard dung fhould conftantly be turned into the foil; the furface of the ground being immediately afterwards well reduced and rendered as level as poflible by harrowing. The land is now ready for the reception of the feed. It has been fully thewn, by various trials detailed in the Annals of Agriculture and other books on huf- bandry, that, though good crops of carrots may be occafionally grown without the ufe of manure, it is only by the liberal application of that fubftance that the greateft produce poffible can be obtained, as they are in general found to bear a relative proportion to the quantity that may have been employed.: Seed.—The cultivator of carrot crops fhould always be careful in faving his own feed, by fele€ting annually fome of the moft perfeét and beft-fhaped roots of the preceding year’s growth, to be fet out feparately about the beginning or middle of March, in an open piece of ground, for the purpofe. The feed will be ready about Auguft. By this means the agricultor will always be in_pof- feffion of fuch new or frefth feed as may be depended upon, which is feldom the cafe when purchafed; old and imperfeétly ripened feed being frequently blended with the new, by which the crops often either wholly fail, or come up in a very imperfeét and unequal manner. Befides, feed of the pale yellow kind, or what is termed the horn carrot, a fort often cultivated in the Low-countries and in France, but which, as has been obferved, does not grow to any thing near the fize of the deep orange kind, is often difpofed of to the cultivators of this vegetable. From the lightnefs of this kind of feed, and its adhering fo clofely together, other fubftances have been found neceffary to be mixed or blended with it, in order that the feeds may be feparated, and fown or difperfed over the ground with more regularity, Saw-duft, bran, afhes, dry earth, and dry fand, have been occafionally made ufe of for this purpofe; but the two firft are probably the moft proper, as being the moft nearly of the weight of the feed. Some cul- tivators, however, think that it may be fown more evenly without any of thefe Cultivation of Arable Land.—Carrots. val matters being incorporated with it, by only being well rubbed and‘paffed through a fieve, to feparate it perfectly, after having been well dried in the fun*. The proportion of feed that is made ufe of varies confiderably among differ- ent cultivators; but from four or five to fix pounds, when fown in’a broad- caft method, may in general be the moft fuitable quantity, according as the land recedes from a fandy quality+. But where the drill plan by a machine is followed, two pounds to the acre are faid to be fully fufficient{. The period of putting this fort of feed into the foil is generally about the middle of March; but it fhould not on any account be protra€ted later than the beginning of April. It may, however, be put in much earlier, when the land is in a ftate of preparation for it, without any danger being apprehended from the feafon Method of Sowing.—The moft common praétice in putting carrot crops into the ground is that of the hand or broadcaft method, the feed being difperfed as evenly as poffible over the land, after the furface has been reduced to a very fine ftate of pulverifation by harrowing, in order to provide a fuitable bed for it to ve- getate in; being then covered in by means of a light harrow. Asthe feed of the carrot is not of a nature to be depofited with much regularity by the drill, and as the young plants can be eafily fet out to proper diftances in the operation of hoeing, this is probably the moft appropriate method of putting fuch fort of feed into the ground. And an additional proof of it is indeed found, in its being that which is almoft univerfally adopted in thofe diftriéts where carrot hufbandry is praétifed to the greateft extent||. With the view of having the after-culture of the crops more perfeétly per- formed, and at the fame time to fave the great expence of hand labour in hoe- ing the crop, the drill method has, however, been attempted by fome cultiva- tors, but we believe without complete fuccefs. The work is finifhed in equi- diftant rows at the diftance of from twelve to fifteen or eighteen inches from each other, according to the mode of hoeing that is prattifed. In this bufinefs fome cultivators do not make ufe of drill-machines, but ftrike the land into {mall furrows by hoes or other implements contrived for the purpofe, and then * Annals of Agriculture.+ Corrected Report of Suffolk. ¢ Amos on Drill Hufbandry.§ Ibid. 719 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Carrots. caft the feed over the ground by the hand, covering it in either by flight har- rowing, or hoeing in the tops of the ridglets*. In this method, where a drill machine is ufed, it has been advifed by an in- telligent cultivator to depofit the feed to the depth of one inch in the rows, leaving the{paces of fourteen inches between them as intervals; the feed in thefe cafes being previoufly fteeped in rain water for twenty-four hours, and left to fprout, after which it is mixed with faw-duft and dry mold, in the pro- portion of one peck and a half of each to a pound of the feed. The land is afterwards lightly harrowed over once in a place.“Two pounds of feed in this mode is found, as has been obferved, fufficient for an acre of land fT. After-Culture.—As plants of the carrot kind while young are of a rather delicate nature, and do not rife quickly, it is of great importance to keep them from being too much crowded together, and as free as poffible from being fhaded by weeds, in their firft growth. This may be accomplifhed by means of very{mall narrow hand-hoes about three inches in width, with handles not exceeding a foot and half or two feet in length, the labourers refting upon their knees in making ufe of them. But as in this way there is confiderable danger of too many plants being deftroyed, where the workmen are not expert, it may bea better practice to have recourfe to hand-weeding, as in this mode the weakeft plants may with certainty be removed until the reft are left at their proper diftances, and the weeds at the fame time be wholly taken away. This operation may be rendered lefs difficult by having the crops fown on ridges of fuch breadths as may eafily be managed by two or three perfons. By this means the bufinefs may indeed be performed in nearly as expeditious a manner as by the hoe, the trouble of feparating the weeds from the plants in that way being fo confiderable, and by the operation being performed in this effe€tual. manner at firft, there will be lefs trouble in the future hoeings. A fecond hoeing {hould be given in the courfe of three or four weeks from the firft, according to the growth of the crop. This may be executed by means of the common hand-hoe, the operators carefully fetting out the plants to their proper diftances. Thefe vary in pra€tice from nine to eighteen inches, twelve being that moft generally adopted{. In the county of Suffolk, where carrot hufbandry is car- * Young’s Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV.+ Amos on Drill Hufbandry, + Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV, Cultivation of Arable Land.—Carvots: Tis ried to a confiderable degree of perfe€tion, fhe moft ufual diftance is fifteen or eighteen inches each way. And at thefe diftances they have found, by long ex- perience, that the crops are finer and the roots larger, than when the plants are permitted to ftand nearer to each other*. The tops of the plants by thefe di- ftances have likewife full room to diftend themfelves and cover the furface of the foil, by which it is kept perfe€tly moift and mellow, and confequently in the beft{tate for the nutrition of the plants, as well as for the roots fwelling out to their full fize. A third hoeing is commonly praéiifed fome time in June, ac- cording as the growth of the plants or weeds may’require. In this, the weeds are to be completely removed; and where the carrot-plants fland double or too clofely together, the weakeft plants are to be cut out, till the whole are left at their limited diftances. Further hoeings may occafionally be requifite, of which the cultivator muft judge; as it is of the greateft importance in this hufbandry to keep the land well ftirred and the crops perfeétly clean, their goodnefs materially depending upon fuch operations being duly performed. In the drill method the intervals may be cleaned by a fmall light plough for the purpofe, or the horfe-hoe. Even when executed by the hand-hoe, before the plants appear, as has been practifed by fome cultivators, it may conftitute an advantage in the drill method f. The expence of this bufinefs is different in different fituations, according to the expertnefs of the perfons employed, and the method in which the work is performed. The average expence of different experimenters in various foils and fituations, as ftated by the intelligent editor of the Annals of Agriculture,. is 12. 16s. the acre; but in Suffolk, where the culture is familiar, and the wark of courfe executed with much facility and expedition, it only cofts from 16s. to 18s. or a guinea the acre. It is the pra€tice with many cultivators of this ufeful vegetable to let the roots remain in the foil during the winter feafon, to be taken up as they may be occafionally wanted in the feeding of cattle or other animals. But as the crown of the root, by its retaining moifture, is not only extremely liable to rot and decay in thefe feafons, but the other parts of it from their faccharine qua- lity to be greatly confumed by grubs or other infects below the ground; it is a cuftom that ought not to be recommended, efpecially as the crops can be pre- # Modern Agriculture, vol. Ile+ Legrapd,‘n Annals of Agriculture. 4yY 714 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Carrots. ferved with the greateft eafe and fafety in any dry fituation under cover. The difficulty or impoffibility of getting up the roots in many cafes of hard froft or deep{now, when they are wanted, alfo renders the cuftom highly injudicious and improper. The taking them out of the ground is, therefore, to be con- ftantly advifed. The proper period of performing the bufinefs is in September or O€tober, when the tops firft begin to turn of a yellowifh colour, and to lofe their frefhnefs. Thefe points fhould be nicely attended to; as, if the work be delayed too long much lofs will be fuftained, in the tops being confiderably de- creafed in bulk, and rendered almoft incapable of being confumed by fwine or neat cattle; and when performed too early the roots will not by any means keep fo well. In taking up the crops two methods have been prattifed; thofe of raifing the roots by means of the plough, and the fork. The firft is the moft expeditious, but the roots are apt to be much broken; while by loofening the mold by three- pronged forks of fufficient length, and at the fame time drawing up the plants by the tops, they may be raifed with great facility, and without fuftaining in- jury. This method, though perhaps rather more expenfive, ought in general to be adopted. After being raifed from the ground, the roots fhould be fuffered to remain in the field for two or three days, that they may become perfeétly dry. With this intention they are fometimes piled up in fmall heaps or wads. When fully dry, the tops are cut off, and the roots packed up in heaps with dry ftraw, or, when in fmall quantities, with dry fand, in fome dry clofe building, a good covering of the former being laid over them.‘This is the moft fecure method. But when the crops are extenfive, they are fometimes built up in the field or other convenient place, in rows or ridges, at the diftance of two feet from each other, tops outwards, with dry ftraw, to about four feet in height; the m- tervals being then ftuffed, and the tops well covered over by it, fedge or fome™ other fimilar material being applied by way of thatch.‘The outfides are alfo protected by firaw, kept clofe by means of flakes or hurdles*. In this mode, which can only be praétifed in very dry fituations, there is great lofs from the tops not being removed and eaten before they were put up. in dry fituations they may, however, be well preferved without this trouble or expence, in fheds or other convenient places. But in whatever way they may be preferved, they fhould not be put up in too large quantities or too clofely together, as they| are liable to be much injured by heating. * Annals of Agriculture, vol, IL The expence of taking carrots up muft vary much with the goodnefs of the crop, the nature of the land,&c. The average of feveral trials on different c ~ kinds of foil, under different forts of culture and management, and in different fituations, has been calculated at 17s. 8d. the acre*. In many cafes it will not, however, much exceed half the fum. Cleaning, topping, and carting, in the fame trials, under fimilar circumftances, were found on the average to be 15s. 7d. the acre: the whole expence of procuring crops of this kind, in fuch cafes, being in the proportion of fix pounds four fhillings and eleven pence the acre; or, in relation to the quantity of produce afforded, about two pence three far- things the bufhel: the quantity of produce, on an average of the whole of the different experiments, being about five hundred and twenty-nine bufhels the acre t.‘The expence of cultivating this root on a poor fandy foil, not worth more than five fhillings the acre, is ftated as below by the writer of the Report of the State of Agriculture in the County of Suffolk t: the produce in this cafe being about two hundred bufhels on the acre. The firft coft, of courfe, about three pence the bufhel. In medium crops on middling forts of land the produce may in general be from three hundred to three hundred and fifty buthels on the acre||, the expences of cultivation being from three to four pounds. On com. paring them, in thefe crops, with thofe of the turnip kind, the difference has been found to be about one pound in favour of the latter§. It is obvious from the above ftatements, that though the expences of carrot hufbandry are very confiderable in moft forts of land, the largenefs of the pro- duce, its utility in the feeding of various kinds of live ftock, and the improved condition in which the foil is left by it, warrant its introdu€tion, wherever the cultivator is poffeffed of thofe fandy or other defcriptions of foil that are fuitable for it, as the mott advantageous that can be purfued. * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV.+ Ibide hin&4 i ad, } Deep ploughing once~*= a°- é& 04,790 Expence of feed and fowing= 2° 2. fh Ogg AiO Hoeing=-.==~==. purity wage Taking up and topping 5 loads, of forty bufhels cach"== POUL GEG Carting+©====-== 0 5© Rent, tythe, and rates a a>=-=-© 7 0 # Modern Agriculture, vol. UH.§ Ibid, 716 Cultivation of Arable Land—Carrots. The confumption of this fort of crop has been chiefly in the feeding of horfes, and the keeping of different forts of caitle, theep, and hogs; but as, from its firm flefhy nature, and its containing much faccharine matter, it is found to pof- fefs the property of quickly rendering animals fat without being employed in very large proportions, its moft advantageous application. would feem to be it that view. It has indeed been obferved, on the authority of experience, that it may be made ufe of with the greateft profit in the fattening of bullocks*. And the experiments of other cultivators have fhewn, that in fattening other forts of animals it is equally if mot more advantageous+. When made ufe of in this way, the quantity muft be proportioned to the fize of the animal, a fuitable proportion of good hay or cut chaff being employed at the fame time. In the early parts of the feafon, while the root is in its moft juicy ftate, more of this. dry food fhould be given than afterwards, w hen much of it is diffipated by keeping. This root is thy relifhed by all“forts of cattle; ftore neat ftock are found. to thrive well upon it; and when given to milch-cows, the quantity of both milk and butter is faid to be greatly increafed, without their flavour being in. any way impaired; but crops of this nature can perhaps only be employed in this way with profit under particular circumftances, as where there is not live ftock to be fattened. In the fattening of theep, it has been found in fome diftriats to be particu- larly beneficial, one acre of it being equal to two and a half of turnips{. Hogs readily become fat upon this food, when it is prepared by boiling; but when given in a raw fate, it has not, in: fome trials, anfwered well|.; though in others the animals have foon been made fat by it But the moft general confumption of carrot crops has-been in the feeding of working horfes; in which they have faved much corn, without the animals. fuf- taining any inconvenience. In this application the general daily allowance is from forty to fifty pounds each horfe. When joined with cut chaff and a little hay, they are found to keep the animals in proper condition for performing all the different purpofes of farming labour. This fort of food is moftly begun to be given them towards Chriftmas, and continued till the latter end of April. It is fuppofed by fome, that it is better for fpring than winter ufe; they of courfe give a much{maller proportion at the latter feafon. This is probably * Corrected Report of Suffolk.+ Young’s Eaftern Tour. 3 Modesn Agriculture, vol. II. jj Eaftern Tour, vol. FV. p. 99+ Cultivation of Arable Land.—Carrots. va ewing only to the root being more frefh and fucculent, and of courfe requiring more dry food to be joined with it. The value of crops of this nature muft be different according to the way in which they are applicd in their confumption*. The difference has been found to be from two pence halfpenny to two fhillings; but in general it may be from fix pence to eight pence or ten pence the bufhel, which on four or five hundred bufhels-is confiderable. On the whole, from the facility of cultivating carrot crops, the little dan- ger that attends them, their great application in feeding and fattening various kinds of animals, the vaft quantity of manure they produce, and their utility in preparing the land for grain, they may in general not only be confidered as fuperior to turnips, but much better adapted and more advantageous on all pure fands or light’ fandy loams. This is indeed ftill more fhewn by their hav- ing been found by experiment to be capable of being grown with profit in fuc- ceffion on the fame land+; as, though the cultivator may only have a fmall por- tion of ground fuitable for this root, he may conftantly be provided with it. Notwithftanding the negle& that has attended it, probably from its properties and value not having been. well afcertained, it fhould be more generally culti- vated wherever the foils are proper for it, not only as the means of faving the great confumption of oats and beans by horfes, but as of much utility in the feeding and fattening of different forts of live ftock. It feems probable too that carrots, after being prepared by boiling, might be converted to the purpofes of fattening different kinds of poultry with great ad- vantage; as they are extremely fond of them. Parfnips have been found highly ufeful in this mode of application, as. will-be feen below, * In the trials of different experimenters, as ftated by Mr. Young in the twenty-fifth volume of the Annals of Agriculture, the refults were thefe: Value per bufhel, Applications Fee Set Ae In feeding all forts of cattle--=- a ate OV) OW Aa The average in different ways.=-->° 2){OA AV E10 In fattening oxen---°.-= iO. 4G asc In fattening hogs, boiled--° 2°==) Of. 22-0 Ufed inftead of oats for horfes- 2>-= 0), 0#6 In fattening hogs, raw-.°== geo 8 In fattening theep--==°-“HO!© 4 + Young’s Eaftern Tour, vol. IV. 718 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Parfnips. It has been attempted, in order to render the large tops of carrots ufeful, to convert them into a fort of hay, by mowing them over while green and juicy, without wounding the heads of the roots, and afterwards drying them on the ground, In this way two tons of fodder are faid to have been produced from an acre of Jand*..is obvious, however, from plants of this fort taking in part of their nourifhment by their leaves, that if cut while perfeétly green, much injury mult be done to the growth of the roots But, independent of this, fuch a method muft be uneconomical from the great lofs that muft be fuftained in rendering the tops dry and proper for being put together in flacks. Itisa much lefs watteful pra€tice to take up fuch crops gradually, making ufe of the tops in the feeding of hogs, neat cattle, horfes, or fheep; all of which are ex- tremely fond of them. When it is thought neceflary to wath the roots before they are made ufe of in the feeding or fattening of animals, it may be performed with eafe and expedi- tion in the fame manner as has been recommended for potatoes. Parfnips.—This is another plant of the tap-rooted kind that has been occa- fionally cultivated, though in a very limited manner, for the purpofes of huf- bandry. The garden parfnip ¢ is the fort employed’ in field culture: which when properly cultivated has a long flefhy root, confiderably larger than the carrot, and equally fweet, nutritious, and juicy; and, from its being capable of withftanding the feverity of the winter feafon, is probably better adapted to the northern parts of the ifland. From its eafy culture, and the great quantity of food that it affords, it would feem to demand more attention than has hitherto been beftowed upon it by the Britifh farmer. The foils moft fuited to this plant are thofe of the rich, deep, mellow, loamy or fandy kinds, in which the roots can run down to a great depth, and diftend themfelves with facility. On the gravelly and the pure clayey foils they can never be cultivated to much advantage{. Whatever the nature of the foil may be on which this root is cultivated, it muft, in the fame manner as for carrots, be broken up toa confiderable depth, and have the mold brought into a fine ftate of pulverifation. In diftriéts where the plant is grown for the purpofes of hufbandry, there are two different me- thods purfued: the firft is that of ploughing the ground by means of a light * Biker, in Tranfactions of Dublin Society.+ Pakinaca fatioa. + Hazard, in Bath Papers. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Parfrips. 719 plough, which is regulated in the fore part by two wheels being fixed to it, one of which runs in the furrow, and the other on the unploughed land, the former being fourteen or fifteen inches higher than the latter, and which opens down and turns the mold to the depth of about five inches;‘after which, the furs row is dug down with a fpade, fo is to form a trench of about fixteen inches in depth, proceeding in the fame way till the whole of the field is prepared: but the latter, which is by means of two ploughs of different kinds, one following in the fame track after the other, is by much the mott expeditious and econo- mical. The light plough juft defcribed anfwers very well in performing the firtt part of the operation; but in the fecond, one of the ¢rench kind mutt be made ufe of, by which the mold is raifed from the bottom of the furrow made by the firft, and applied over the flice it had turned up, In this way the foil is not only broken up to a great depth, but the furface left in a fine ftate of mold. Where this fort of tillage is praétifed, the work is generally performed in the more dry forts of land about the middle of February; and in thofe that are retentive otf moifture, towards the latter end of March, The ground, after being thus ex pofed to the influence of the atmofphere fora week or a fortnight, is harrowed lightly over in order to render it fit for the feed.. In fome cafes, however, September, the flight ploughing is given to the lands intended for this crop in ufe of the other ploughs being had recourfe to in January in the fucceeding year. The principal obje& in this bufinefs is that of loofening and rendering the foil mellow to as great a depth as pothble. The ufe of manure is not in general fo neceflary for this crop as many othe: but where the Jand is not in tolerably.good heart, it thould conttantly be em- ployed in fuch proportions as may be thought fufficient. The well-rotted farm yard dung is in eommon the beft adapted to this crop, being turned into the foi by a light ploughing immediately before the time of putting in the feed Seed.—Seed for this crop fheuld be colle&ted from the beft and motl perfect plants, by tranfplanting*, in the manner that has been already directed for oth forts of feed-crops; and fhould always be made ufe of while perfectly frefh, old feed frequently either wholly failing or coming up with great irregularity The proportion of feed that may be employed muit be diflerent, according to the nature of the foil, and other circumftances; but in general about four twelfths of a bufhel to the acre may be fuflicient f. * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I.+ Ibid. 720 Cultization of Avable Land.—Parfnips. Time and method of fowing.—The moit ufual‘period cf putting this kind of crop into the ground is in the early part of the fpring, as foon as the frofts will admit of it; as about the beginning or middle of February. It is, however, fometimes fown in the autumn of the preceding year, immediately after it‘has been ripened and colleéted from the plants, as about the beginning of Septem- ber.{t is contended that in this way the plants will appear more early in the following fpring, and of courfe become large and ftrong before any weeds rife to injure them: and that as the plants are in little or no danger from the fe- verity of the winter feafon, this is, on the whole, the moft eligible period. Where the foil is, however, ina proper ftate of preparation, as there can be no apprehenfions of their being inconvenienced by the growth of weeds, the for mer may be the moft fafe and convenient feafon-for the purpofe. If the tranfplanting method be intended to be praétifed, which may perhaps fometimes be attempted where the Jand cannot be got-into a fuitable ftate of preparation for receiving the crops at the above period,‘but which does not in general anfwer with tap-rooted plants, the parfnip feed fhould be fown at the time juft mentioned, npon fmall' beds of good rich ground, rendered fine by re- peated digging and raking, either in the garden, or the field in which they are afterwards tobe planted; the feed in this cafe being fown thinly, and the plants, where they ftand too clofely together on coming up, thinned out to pro- per diftances, in order that they may become ftrong at the time of-tranfplant- ing in the{pring. The moft ufual method of fowing the parfnip feed is in broadcaft over the land, being afterwards covered in by means of a light harrow. It is probable that this fort of crop might be fown in rows, either by means of the drill ma- chine, or by having fmall furrows made in the land and fowing the feed over it in the broadcaft method, afterwards lightly harrowing it into them. In this mode, by having the rows at fufficient diftances, the crops might be kept more clean and at lefs expence than in the fimple broadcaft method. In tranfplanting this fort of crop, great care fhould be taken to injure the roots of the plants as little as poffible in drawing them from the feed-beds. They are then to be put into furrows made by the plough to the depth of five or fix inches, at the diftance of eight-or ten inches from each other, the plants being regularly difperfed along the rows for the purpofe. In performing this work, care fhould be taken that the roots of the plants are not bent, and that the plants ftand upright, their leaves being free from mold. After the earth has Cultivation of Arable Land.—Parfnips. 721 been brought about them, which fhould be done by perfons immediately follow- ing the planters for the purpofe.. The next row is to be put in in the fame manner, at the diftance of eighteen inches from the former, and the whole field finifhed in the fame way. The dibble is obje&ted to in thefe cafes, on account of its rendering the ground hard, and improper for being penetrated by the tender fibres of the roots of the plants*. This method of putting in parfnip crops is beft performed in the beginning of April, if the ftate of, the feafon will permit. In diffrits where parfnips are much cultivated as a field crop, it isthe com- mon praétice to have beans at the fame time with them, either planted in fingle rows, at the diftance of four feet and a half, and about eight or ten inches from each other, or double ones at the diftance of twelve feet and eighteen inches in the rows. In this manner two crops are obtained from the fame piece of ground; but unlefs care be.taken to remove the beans in good time, great injury may be done to the parfnips.:. As, though there may have-been much Ieaf and ftem before, the roots of thefe plants begin to fwell out and acquire their fize to- wards Auguft, the beans ought never to be fuffered to remain longer than that period upon the ground}. It may, however, be better in many inftances, efpe- cially where they are cultivated in the drill method, to have only the parfnip crop; as, while the land can be kept equally clean, the roots will probably be much larger in fize, After-Culture.—Crops of this fort require to be kept perfeGtly clean and free from weeds during the early part of their growth; frequent hoeing and weed- ing are, therefore, to be praétifed. Where cultivated in rows at fufficient di- ftances, the intervals may be cleaned by the plough or horfe hoe. It is fome- times ufual, where this fort of crop forms a part of field hufbandry, to have re- courfe to the harrow before the procefs of hoeing or weeding is begun. This muft be performed about the time the feed firft begins to germinate; as by harrow= ing too foon the weeds will not have rifen, and if deferred too long, there will be danger of deftroying the buds of the parfnips. This is fuppofed more neceflary on the ftiffer forts of foil, as it renders them more eafily weeded. The firft weeding may be performed about the beginning or middle of May, accord- ing to the forwardnefs of the plants, being at this operation only partially thinned out where they appear to ftand much too clofe together. The fame operation is to be again performed about the beginning of July; when the * Bath Papers.~ Communications to the Board of Agviculture, vol. I.; 4% 722 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Parfnips. plants muft be carefully fet out to the diftance of fix inches. This fort ot work is executed either by means of a fmall fork with two prongs, or a kind of very fmall fpade having a fhort handle; the labourer, in making ufe of it, kneels on one knee, and, holding it in his right hand, digs and turns the mold, while with his left he pulls up and removes the weeds*. After this fecond weeding. nothing further is found requifite in the parfnip culture. As this fort of root ftrikes downwards to a great depth, and of courfe draws much of its nourifhment from below, it may with propriety be intro- duced after moft forts of fibrous-rooted crops. There is little hazard in the cultivation of parfnip crops, except from the falling of too much rain imme- diately after fowing, by which the feed may be in danger of being wathed away; or, when dry weather fucceeds, from the baking of the land rendering the plants incapable of pufhing their roots fufficiently down. They are feldom injured by frofts or other caufes during the winter feafon, or liable to be de ftroyed by any kind of infeéts. The produce of this fort of crop, when cultivated ona proper foil and ina fuitable manner, will, from the great fize of the roots, be probably equal if not greater than that of carrots. The application of this root is much the fame as that of the carrot. In the fattening of cattle it is found equal if not fuperior; performing the bufinefs with as much expedition, and affording meat of exquilite flavour and a highly juicy quality. The animals eat it with much greedinefs. It is reckoned that thirty perches, where the crop is good, will be fufficient to fatten an ox of three or four years old, when perfeétly lean, in the courfe of three months. They are given in the proportion of about thirty pounds weight, morning, noon, and night; the Jarge ones being flit in three or four pieces, and a little hay fupplied in the in- tervals of thefe periods. When given to milch-cows with a little hay in the winter feafon, the butter is found to be of as fine a colour and as excellent a flavour as when feeding in the beft paftures+. Indeed, the refult of experiment has fhewn, that not only in neat cattle, but in the fattening of hogs and poultry, the animals become fat much fooner, and are more bulky, than when fed with any other root or ve- getable. Befides, the meat is more fweet and delicate}. % Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol, I. t Ibid. £ Tbidg Cultivation of Arable Land—Mangle Wurzel. 723 Wher chopped and ufed with dry cut meat, horfes are alfo faid to eat them freely and thrive well upon them. But, befides the root, the tops afford much green food for cattle and hogs, either after being cut off when taken up, or when confumed in the field. In the latter method the proper time of turning the animals upon them is when they firft begin to fhrink and grow dry*. In order to preferve them for fpring ufe, they may be dug up, in the fame man- ner as carrots, in the clofe of the autumn, and-be packed up in the fame way. As this root is capable of being grown to advantage on foils that are too heavy for the carrot, and poffeffes equal, if not fuperior, properties for the feeding and fattening of various kinds of animals, it would feem to require more attention than has hitherto been beftowed upon it by cultivators. Mangle Wurzel.—This is another of the tap-rooted kind of plants that has been introduced into field culture+. It is probably a variety of the common beet. The plants grow to a large fize, both in their roots and tops, the former being of a whitifh red colour.‘The leaves in the latter are of an oblong fhape, extremely thick, flefhy, and fucculent. They are faid to be equal in quality to Spinach, and, from their frequently extending in length more than thirty inches, and in breadth above twenty, to greatly exceed that vegetable in point of produce. This, like all the other tap-rooted plants that have been employed for the purpofes of hufbandry, thrives beft in the deep, friable, fandy, or light loamy kinds of foil. In preparing the ground, it is neceffary to render it as deep and fine as pof- fible in the mold. This may be beft effeéted in the heavier forts of land, by means of trench ploughing, in the manner that has been recommended for the parfnip; and in thofe of the lighter kinds by repeated common deep ploughing. In both cafes the frequent ufe of the harrow will likewife be re- quifite. A proportion of good manure fhould alfo be turned in, fo as to render the ground fufficiently rich for the perfe&t growth of the plants. After this, at the time of putting in the feed, the land fhould be thrown into two-bout ridges, which leaves the tops about two feet in breadth and the furrows one. In this way a confiderable increafe in the depth of mold is provided for the * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. Ie+ Beta major. 724 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Mangle IVurzel. roots of the plants. And in foils that are in fome meafure retentive of moif ture, the Jands are kept by it much drier and ina ftate more fit for the growth of the plants. Seed, and time of fowing:—The feed fhould be carefully fele&ted from fuch plants as are the moft perfe& of their kind, and that have been. cultivated at a diftance from other forts. It fhould have arrived at a full ftate of ripenefs, and be made ufe of while frefh. The proper time for putting the feed into the ground, in the common method of fowing, is in the-early part of the fpring, as foon as the feafon will admit, as in the beginning or middle of April; but where the tranfplanting method is intended, it fhould be fown much earlier, and very thinly, as the beginning of March, in order that the plants may be in a ftate to fet out early. Method of fowing.—The moft common method, where the furface of the land is flat, is to fow thinly over the ground, in the manner that is prattifed for carrots; covering the feed in by means of very light harrowing. In this way the plants are afterwards fet out by the hoe. But where the land is raifed into ridges, in the manner juft defcribed, another mode is pra€tifed; the feed _ is dropped fingly by the hand into little holes made by a dibble to the depth of about half an inch all along the middle of them, at the diftance of eight or nine inches from each other, the plants thus ftanding at the diftance of three feet from row to row, and eight’or nine apart in them. But as it is not neceflary that they fhould ftand nearer than fixteen or eighteen inches, every other plant may be removed, and ufed for filling up the vacancies where they occur, or if not wanted in that way, wholly removed by the hoe. In this mode the in- tervals can be kept perfeétly clean by the plough or horfe-hoe, and the rows by hand-hoeing. Where the praétice of tranfplanting is adopted, the plants fhould be removed when not more than three or four inches in Jength, and be planted in rows upon ridges prepared as aboye, at the diftance of eighteen inches each way. In per- forming the’ work the holes fhould be made fufficiently deep to admit the roots without their being bent. The tops of the plants may be taken off before planting; but the roots fhould not be touched, nor fhould they be put in too deep. Avrather moift feafon fhould be chofen, if poflible, for this bufinefs. But though the plants grow well in this method, the roots feldom become fo large as when they have remained in their original. fituation,. Cultivation of Arable Land——Mangle urzel. 725 After-Cilture.— All that is neceffary in this crop is to fet out the plants to Woper diftances, where put in in the firft methods, and keep them clear and ree from weeds by one or more hoeings, according to the manner of fowing that may have been pra€tifed. The application of this vegetable has been chiefly in the feeding of neat cattle and hogs; in which both the tops and roots have been employed, but without that fuccefs which might have been expefted from the manner in which it was brought to the notice of cultivators. It is probable that, upon the whole, the root has neither been found to be equal in quality as a cattle food, nor to afford the quantity of produce, that was fuppofed on its firft introdution; but, from its being of a hardy nature, and not liable to be injured either by infe€ts or the effetts of drought, as well as from its leaves being capable of being repeatedly cut over*, if may be occafionally cultivated in fituations where green food is much wanted in the latter end of the year for milch-cows, or other forts of live ftock. In fome trials the plants feem, however, to have af- forded a large produce in leaves, when gathered every two or three days from July till late in September}. Others have not found the whole’ produce in leaves and roots equal to that of the large cabbage on the fame kinds of foil, while the culture was confiderably more troublefome and expenfive, and the crop not fo ufeful for the purpofe of winter confumption f. In the trials of an ingenious cultivator, the tops were found to be eat with much greedinefs by cows, calves, and hogs, when cut green, during the latter part of the fummer and in autumn; but the roots were almoft wholly rejeQed at thefe periods, though in winter, after they had been taken up, they were |. The roots frequently rife to the weight of from five to eight or ten pounds, according to the goodnefs of the land, and may be preferved in the winter by being taken up and packed in the manner that has been recommended for carrots. The chief obje€tions to this vegetable as a field plant are, the great expence of its culture, its being liable to degenerate, and the fibrous nature of the roots rendering their preparation as cattle food troublefome. eaten very well * Where this practice is adopted, the roots will probably feldom rife to any great fize. +. Annals of Agriculture, vols. XI. and XII.} Ibid. vol. XI. p. 53. | Wimpey, in Bath Papers. 726 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Hemp. Plantation Crops.—Befides the various kinds of crops that have been already * defcribed, and which ferve either for the purpofe of human or cattle food, there. are feveral others which are not applicable in thefe ways, but which are exten- fively cultivated in different places, in order to be converted into different forts of manufactures, or for their application in the arts of brewing, dyeing,&c. Thefe, as they require particular modes of culture, and are frequently grown on the fame fpots of ground for a confiderable length of time, may with propriety be termed plantation crops. Hemp.—This is a plant of the herbaceous fibrous-rooted kind, which has a thick ftrong ftem, that rifes to a confiderable height, and affords a rind or co- vering of a firm ftrong texture, that is valuable for the purpofe of being manu- fa€tured into cloth, cordage,&c. The foils moft fuited to the culture of this plant are thofe of the deep black putrid vegetable kind, that are low and rather inclined to moifture, and thofe of the deep, mellow, loamy, or fandy defcriptions. The quantity of produce is gene- rally much greater on the former than on the latter; but it is faid to be greatly. inferior in quality. It may, however, be grown with fuccefs on lands of a lefs rich and fertile kind, by proper care and attention in their culture and pre- paration. In order to render the grounds proper for the reception of the crop, they fhould be reduced into a fine mellow ftate of mold, and be perfeétly cleared from weeds, by repeated ploughing. When it fucceeds grain crops, the work is moftly accomplifhed by three ploughings, and as many harrowings; the firft being given immediately after the preceding crop is removed, the fecond early in the fpring, and the laft or feed earth juft before the feed is to be put in. In the laf ploughing, well rotted manure, in the proportion of fifteen or twenty, or good compoft in the quantity of twenty-five or thirty three-horfe-cart loads fhould be turned into the land, as without this it is feldom that good crops can be produced. The furface of the ground being left perfectly flat, and as free from furrows as poflible; as by thefe means the moifture is more effe€tually retained, and the growth of the plants more fully promoted. Seed, und method of fowing.—It is of much importance in the cultivation of hemp crops that the feed be new and of a good quality, which may in fome meafure be known by its feeling heavy in the hand, and being of a bright fhining colour. Cultivation of Arable Land.— Hemp. 727 The proportion of feed that is moft commonly employed is from two to three bufhels, according to the quality of the land; but as the crops are greatly in- jured by the plants ftanding too clofely together, two bufhels or two bufhels and a half may be a more advantageous quantity. As the hemp plant is extremely tender in its early growth, care fhould be taken not to put the feed into the ground at fo early a period as that it may be liable to be injured by the effects of froft, nor to protract the fowing to fo late a feafon as that the quality of the produce may be affetted. The beft fea- fon, on the drier forts of land, in the fouthern diltri€ts, is probably as foon as poflible after the frofts are over in April; and, on the fame defcriptions of foil, in the more northern ones, towards the clofe of the fame month, or early in the enfuing one: but when the ground is more inclined to moifture, it may be a better prattice to delay the fowing to a later pericd in both cafes, choofing, if poffible, a time when the land is neither too dry nor too moift for performing the bufinefs. Sowing as early as poflible is, however, in general, to be preferred; as where this is the cafe, by the crops becoming more ftrong and vigorous in the early part of their growth, the hemp is found to withftand the va- rious operations that are afterwards to be performed upon it in a better manner*. The moft general method of putting crops of this fort into the foil is the broadcaft, the feed being difperfed over the furface of the land in as evena manner as poflible, and afterwards covered in by means of a very light harrowing. It is probable, however, that in many cafes, efpecially where the crops are to ftand for feed, the drill method in rows at fmall diftances might be had recourfe to with advantage; as in this way the early growth of the plants would be more effectually promoted, and the land be kept in a more clean and perfect ftate of mold, which are circumftances of importance in fuch crops. In what- ever method the feed is put in, care muft conftantly be taken to keep the birds from it for fome time afterwards. This fort of crop is frequently cultivated on the fame piece of ground for a great number of years, without any other kind intervening ¢; but in fuch cafes manure muft be applied with almoft every crop in pretty large proportions, to prevent the exhauftion that muft otherwife take place. It may be fown after * Modern Agriculture, vol. IIT. { Mr. Young in the Agricultural Report of Suffolk has remarked it to have been grown in fuce ceffion for feventy years together. 798 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Hemp. moft forts of grain crops, efpecially where the land poffeffes fufficient fertility, and is in a proper ftate of tillage. After-Culture.—As hemp, ee its tall growth and thick foliage,{oon covers the furface of the land, and prevents the rifing of weeds, Itttle attention is necef- fary after the feed has been put into the ground, efpecially where the broadcatt method of fowing is pra€tifed; but when put in by the drill machine, a hoeing or two may be had recoufe to with advantage in the early growth of the crop. In the culture of this plant it is particularly neceflary that the fame piece of land contains both male, and female, or what is fometimes denominated Jimble, hemp. The latter kind contains the feed. When the crop is ripe,—which is known by its becoming of a whitith yellow colour and a few of the leaves beginning to drop from the{iems, and is com- monly about thirteen or fourteen weeks from the period of its being fown, ac- cording as the feafon may be dry or wet, the firft fort being mofily ripe fome weeks before the Jatter,—the next operation is that of taking it from the ground, which is effected by pulling it up by the roots in fmall parcels ata time, by the hand, taking care to fhake off the mold well from them before the handfuls are laid down, In fome diftri€ts the whole crop is pulled together, without any diftin@tion being made between the different kinds of hemp; while in-others it is the pra@lice to feparate and pull them at different times, according to their ripenefs*. The latter is obvioufly the better pra€tice; as by pulling a large proportion of the crop before it is in a proper ftate of maturity, the quantity of produce muft not only be confiderably leffened, but its quality greatly injured, by being rendered lefs durable+. The expence of this opera- tion varies confiderably in different diftri€ts; in fome it amounts to eighteen or twenty fhillings, while in others it is equally well performed for eleven or twelve. After being thus pulled it is tied up in{mall parcels, or what are fometimes provincially termed daits. But where crops of this kind.are intended for feeding, they fhould be fuffered to ftand till the feed becomes in a perfe€t ftate of maturity, which is eafily known by the appearance of it on infpection. The ftems are then pulled and bound up as in the other cafe, the bundles being fet up in the fame manner as grain, until the feed becomes fo dry and firm as to fhed freely; it is then either * Corrected Report of Suffolk.+ Modern Agriculture, vol, III. My Tiwatians at Annhle Tan EN sy Cullivation OF ALraAvle Land FLemp, 729 immediately threfhed out upon large cloths for the purpofe in the field, or taken home to have the operation afterwards performed. The after-management of hemp crops varies great! y in different places where their culture is encouraged; in fome it is the praétice to only what is. called dew ripen or ret the produce, while in others the« general cuftom i is to q@ater Me age Fer it; In the former method, the hemp, immediate he after being pulled, is carefully niece of level] old pafture, on which it is to remain for five, fix, or more weeks, accordi ing to cir- {fpread out in a very even, regular, and thin manner, on a] cumftances, being occafionally turned during the time. When the weather is fhowery, this is moftly done three times in the week; but in other cafes twice is commonly fufficient. When the rind or hempy fubftance becomes eafily fe- parable from the woody part or ftem, it is taken up and tied into bundles, either to be ftacked up on the fpot, or carried home and placed in fome convenient ituation, where it may remain until it can be manufaétured. In this procefs, which is termed gra/ing, great attention is requifite to prevent the texture of the hemp from being injured by its remaining too long on the grafs. But the latter practice is much better and more expeditious, as well as more general. In this the hemp, as foon as pulled, is tied up in finall bundles, He juently at both ends. It is then conveyed to pits or ponds of {tagnant water about fix er eight feet in depth, fuch as have a clayey foil being in general preferred*, and depofited in beds, according to their fize and depth; the fmall bundles being laid in both a ftraight meetin and croffwife of each other, fo as to bind perfeétly together; the whole being loaded with timber or other material, fo as to keep the beds of hemp juft below the furface of the water: the quantity of an acre, or three fmall] waggon-loads, being in fome in- {tances piled in one bed; but as the aétion of the atmofpheric air is eff entially neceflary to produce that degree of putrefa€tion which is requifite for deftroying the fmall fibres and vegetable gluten by which the’ bark or hempy fubftance ad- heres to the dun or ftem, it may be more advantageous to build them in much fmaller beds; as by fuch means the bufinefs may not only be more e:1O ia Watering=-=--= 2 att G) ek et i‘ Grafling---. 2--<2 GF 10) 4.0|: Breaking-.=°®-. seo tow 6 i|; Carriage and delivery-----= Go ae 6 £.9. 8 16 j PRODUCE. Forty-five ftone, at. 7s. 6d.°-*°:(Ay 10. 17.6 Expences- 2:=--= 9.8), 10 Profit-=-.-: TREN TE ae P os ES But at Beccles, where a very different mode of calculation takes place, and rent is valued, they were thefe:: EXPENCBS, Ail s alameidis; Rent, tythe, and rates aes=-. a Ae Oe O Manure)=-- 2 e 2==F 3607, 6| Tillage-~= a is ee ar Uae ts o:} Seed, twelve pecks= 2 e°-= t 20 40-6 q! Pulling--~= By=. wae tg? S Watering- 2®~=—= wr O28 Tare Grailing---= og.= MnO TO 0 Breaking® 2=>.“> a 210 9 Bltz at°=O PRODUCE, "39 Cultivation of Arable Land.—#lemp. Though the profit on hemp may appear confiderable in thefe eftimates, its cultivation has not increafed in any very rapid manner; which is probably owing to its requiring a larger proportion of manure than can commonly be{pared from the other ferts of crops, as well as its demanding a great and conftant 1 ion through the whole of its management, which frequently interferes with the other operations of the farmer. In diftri€ts where its culture is the moft extended, it would feem, however, to be of great utility and advantage to the poor, by affording them much employment in the different proceffes and manipulations through which it is neceflary for it to pafs before it becomes in a ftate fit for the manufacturer. When hemp crops ftand for the purpofe of procuring the feed, they fhould remain upon the ground till perfectly ripe; when, after being pulled, the pro- duce fhould be placed thinly upon its root end againft a wall, paling, or other convenient fituation, according to the ftate of the weather, until it becomes quite dry: the top parts containing the feed are then cut off, the feed being threfhed out immediately and cleaned; as when it is fuffered to remain any length of time in its moift uncleaned ftate, its colour is liable to be much in- jured, and the fubftance fo much impaired as not only to be improper for the purpofe of fowing, but on being cruthed for oil to afford a lefs quantity, and fuch as is of an inferior quality*. The buns or ftems of the hemp may afterwards either be put into the pond to be watered, or dew retted in the manner defcribed above: the former pra€tice is, however, in general to be preferred; as where the latter is adopted the hempy fubftance feldom becomes of fo good a colour f. According to a late writer, the moft advantageous period for the farmer to dif- pofe of hemp crops, is while they remain upon the ground, juft before the feafon of pulling them; as by this means he avoids the trouble and uncertain expence of the different operations which are requifite in its preparation for the market, and which are fo liable to interrupt his other bufinefs. In cheap populous di- ftriGts, where the foil is fuitable, and there is a large extent of grafs or other forts of green crops in proportion to the arable, hentp crops may probably be intro- PRODUCE. Fifty ftone, at 8s.-»---£20 O4)-0 Expences-----=,- mA Os a Profit-«=~== Ae 5 Oak, 2 %* Farmer's Magazine, vol. I.+ Correéted Report of Suffolk. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Flaz. 733 duced and cultivated to great profit by the attentive farmer; but while the demand for grain continues fo great, it is not very likely that its culture fhould become extenfive in other fituations. n its growing to a great height’ and being very fhady in the As hemp, tro leaf, leaves the land in a perfeétly clean condition, it may, where the foils are proper, be an excellent preparation for wheat crops; and where they are too light for that fort of grain, barley or turnips may be had recourfe to with ad- vantage. The hemp produced in this kingdom is in general confidered as fuperior to that imported from abroad, and of courfe more proper for being converted into the various finer forts of cloths and cordage. Flax.—This is another plant of the fibrous-rooted kind cultivated in the field for the purpofe of the cortical fubftance covering the ftem, and the feed. It is the common flax plant* that is employed in this culture, which rifes in ftem to the height of from two to three feet. The foils moft fuitable for crops of this fort are thofe of the more deep and friable loamy kinds, and fuch as contain a large proportion of vegetable meld in their compofition. On ftrong loamy clays that have been well broken down and reduced by tillage, they have alfo been found to anfwer well. The fandy or very light gravelly lands are feldom found to fucceed well with flax crops, But whatever the nature of the foil may be, it fhould neither contain too large a proportion of mcifture, nor be too dry; but have the mold in a fine and well- pulverifed condition. Such lands as are fituated rather low, as upon the banks of rivers, are found by cultivators to be well adapted to the growth of flax.© It has indeed been contended by fome, that where the foil contains water at no great depth below the furface, it is the moft beneficial for the growth of this crop; as in thofe parts of Holland and the Low-countries where it is grown in the greateft perfection, the ground is always found to be deep, and rather in- clined to ftiffnefs and the retention of moifture at fome depth below the furface. The lands for this crop fhould neither be in too rich nor too poor a condition: as when the former is the cafe the flax is apt to grow too Juxuriantly and of courfe to produce a coar/é fort; and on the contrary, where they are in the lat- ter fituation, the plant by growing weakly affords only a fmall produce. In the preparation of the land, as it is neceflary that it fhould be made perfe€lly * Linum ufitatifimum. 734 Cultivation of Arable Land,—Flaz. fine in the mold, it muft be repeatedly ploughed over, and broken down by har- is to be broken up from the ftate of fward, the firft ploughing thould be given late in the autumn, and be left in that condition till 1 1 4 rowing. When the lanc the beginning of the fucceeding year; when it fhould be well reduced by har- rowing with a pretty heavy harrow, and afterwards, in the courfe of a week or two, ploughed over a fecond time, in which fituation it may be left till the period of putting in the feed, when it ought to be again harrowed over by a lighter har- row, and ploughed with a very light furrow: but where flax is fown after grain or other forts of crops that keep the land in a clean ftate, the firft ploughing need not be given until the beginning of the year, in which ftate it may remain till it becomes tolerably dry in the early fpring, when it muft be well broken down by harrowing and rolling, and after it has continued in that fituation for eight or ten days or more, according to circumftances, the land will be ready for the feed, or, if not perfeétly fine, another light ploughing and harrowing may be given previous to the putting in of the feed. Flax crops are cultivated after moft forts of grain, as wheat, rye, and oats, as well as after different kinds of green crops, as turnips, potatoes, and feveral others; but when put in after the latter the flax in general fucceeds the beft. Seed.—TVhat which is frefh and fufficiently ripened fhould conftantly be pre- ferred; which is known by its being more bright and fhining in its colour, more oily in the feel, and more weighty in the hand. Seed of home produce is fome- times made ufe of for fowing; but more generally that which is imported from other countries, as Holland, the Baltic, and America; that brought from the firft is, however, moftly held in the higheft eftimation, from its quality of ripen- ing more early than the others, and affording a more abundant produce of that fort of flax which is moft ufeful in the different manufaQtures; that brought from the Baltic is fuppofed to produce a coarfer fort of flax, but a larger proportion of feed, than any of the other kinds.‘The American feed yields in general a flax fufficienily fine; but the feed-pods being fmall, there is not fo large a quantity of feed obtained from it. In Yorkfhire they frequently fow the feed of home produce for white flax; but where feed is intended to be taken, the Baltic fort is preferred, which, for the fucceeding and a year or two afterwards, is found to anf{wer well as white flax. And in the northern parts of the kingdom it is often a practice to fow feed obtained from the crop of the preceding year, efpe- cially where it was raifed from imported feed. It is fuppofed by the cultivators of this fort of crop, that their fuccefs in raifing it depends greatly on the feed Cultivation of Arable Land.—Flav. 733 being frequently changed, and fuch as is imported from abroad being made ufe of. It is probabie, however, that if that fele€ted from the fineft and moft per- fectly ripened feed of our own growth was employed, it would be equally produétive both in the flaxy fubftance and the quantity of feed, and at the fame time afford the former of an equally good quality for all the purs pofes of the manufaéturer. In Ireland they prefer the American feed for their lighter and more elevated grounds, and the Dutch or Baltic for thofe of the more heavy kind*. Quantity of feed—The proportion of feed is variable according to the cir- cumfiances of the foil, the ufes to which the produce is to be applied, and the method of fowing that is praétifed; but in general from two buthels to two and a half may be confidered as fufficient for the acre, when fown in the broad- caft manner. It fhould never be fown very thick, except where the flax is re- quired to be very fine in quality. For, when the feed is fown too thick, the plants, from being fo clofe together, are liable to be drawn up toa great height and become weak, confequently to fall down upon the ground in cafe of much wet weather, and the produce be thereby greatly injured in its colour and other properties. But in the drill mode of fowing, a much lefs proportion of feed will be found fufficient. If the diftance of the rows be eighteen or twenty inches, lefs than one half of the above quantity will anfwer the purpofes of the cultivator. In fhort, where the crop is intended to ftand for feed, in whatever manner the fowing is performed, a much lefs proportion of feed fhould be employed than where the flax is the chief objeét. Lime and method of fowing.—The period of putting flax crops into the ground is different, according to the fituation and nature of the foil; but from the be- ginning of March to the middle of April may in general be confidered as the moft proper feafon. In Yorkfhire, when this crop is cultivated upon land broken up from the ftate of grafs, the feed is moftly fown before the fecond week in April, if the weather will admit of it+; and on fuch lands as have been in the ftate of tillage, the period of fowing is feldom protraéted more than a week or ten days longer. Early fowing, where it can be fafely adopted, has the advantage of enabling the flax plants to cover the ground well before * Martyn’s Edition of Miller’s DiGtionary, art. Ainum, + Correéted Report of Weft Riding, Yorkfhire. i] ia a hd ets aia 736 Cultivation of Arable Land Flax, they can fuftain much injury from thofe of the weed kind, or from the effeéts of the dry hot fummer feafon. The broadcaft method of fowing is that which is the moft generally em- ployed in putting crops of this fort into the ground, efpecially where they are intended only for the purpofe of flax; but where the feed is the chief objeét, they are fometimes put in in the drill method: and it is contended by fome that in‘this way better feed may be produced, than by the former mode; as where the feed is fown thickly the plants run up more in height, and produce a flaxy fubftance which is of an extremely fine and foft quality; but the feed, from the weaknefs of the plants, is fmall in the grain, and not large in quantity; while, on the contrary, when fown thinly, the ftems of the plants, not rifing fo high, are more ftrong and vigorous, fending off mere numerous branches towards the top, by which not only a greater abundance of feed is afiorded, but fuch as is much better filled, and more plump and heavy. In fowing the crop in the firft method, much care is neceflary in the feedf- man to diftribute the feed over the furface of the land in as regular and uni. form a manner as poflible, as without this care the crop will fuftain great injury by coming up too clofely together and in tufts. It is afterwards to be harrowed in by one or two light harrowings ina place; or, where the furface of the ground has been rendered very fine and even, a buth-harrow may anfwer the purpofe equally well. The feed fhould not in either way be covered in too deeply, as the quick vegetation of the crop may by fuch means be too much retarded. Where the drill is employed, the diftances of the rows may vary according to the circumftances of the foil, or the intentions of the cultivator; but when the crop is to be kept clean by the hand-hoe,{mall intervals, as twelve inches, are moftly recommended; but where horfe-hoes or cultivators are to be made ufe of, inter= vals of eighteen or twenty inches, or perhaps more, may be proper, care being taken that the machine does not depofit the feed to too great a depth in the foil. After the operation has been performed, a bufh-harrow, or light harrow of the common kind, may be once paffed over the furface juft to render it even. When the foil is of a dry kind, and the feafon is inclined to be dry, in either method of fowing it may be advifeable to pafs a light roller over the ground immediately after the feed has been put in, in order that the moifture may be nore effetually preferved. After-Culturé.—Although it is feldom the prattice of the cultivators of flax crops to weed them, efpecially when fown in the broadcaft method, yet as the Cultivation of Arable Land.—Flav. 737 plants are extremely tender in their early growth, and of courfe liable to be much injured and retarded in their vegetation by the rifing of weeds, a hand-hoeing or weeding fhould conftantly be given them, as foon as the plants are fully come up and fhew themfelves, This is particularly neceflary where proper attention has not been beftowed in cleaning and preparing the ground by repeated ploughing, harrowing, and carrying off or burning the weedy materials. In performing the bufinefs of weeding, great care fhould be taken that no injury be done by cutting up or treading under foot the flax plants. It is perhaps only by keeping the land perfeétly clean and free from weeds in this way, dur- ing the early growth of the plants, that good crops of this kind can be produced. It is recommended that this operation fhould be performed as foon as the flax plants have advanced three or four inches in height, the weeds that are drawn out being carefully picked up and conveyed from the land*. By having the foil well prepared before the feed is put in, much expence in this way may, however, be avoided. In the drill method of fowing, where narrow intervals are preferred, the crop is moftly kept clean by the ufe of the hand-hoe; but where the diftances of the rows are larger a{mall plough, the horfe-hoe, or what is termed a cultivator, may be made ufe of in order to preferve the land in a perfe€tly clean condition. A fort of triangular harrow has alfo been found to be a very convenient tool for this purpofe. From its having handles behind, it is capable of being guided with facility, and at the fame time made to pafs deeper or fhallower, according to circumftances, without the danger of railing the mold againft the rows of the plants. In this way the bufinefs may be accomplifhed by one horfe at but little expence, much ground being gone over in a fmall{pace of time. In thefe cafes, however, the rows muft be cleaned by means of hand-weeding, which is accomplifhed with much lefs difficulty and harm to the crops, from the room that is afforded by the intervals, No other fort of plant fhould ever be grown with that of flax, though fuch methods may have been in fome inftances praétifed, as the crops in fuch cafes muft always be in danger of being greatly injured. The young flax plants are fometimes liable to be deftroyed or greatly injured in their growth by the attacks of infects; where this is the cafe, it has been found ufefulto fow foot or wood afhes thinly over the crops, as from the ve- * Modern Agriculture, vol. III. 58 738 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Flax. getation of the plants being in this way promoted, they become improper for, the food of fuch animals. As crops of this kind, from the tallnefs of their growth, are apt to fall down and lodge upon the ground, by which the flaxy fubftance is liable to be injured in its colour and other properties, it has been propofed to fupport and keep them up by means of long flender poles, or{mall cords, paffed in differ- ent direGtions of the ground, and fixed at the angles by ftakes. Thefe methods are, however, troublefome; and where the crops are not fown too thick, will feldom. or ever be neceflary. The cultivators of flax crops are not yet fully decided in refpeét to the degree of ripenefs at which they may be pulled with the greateft benefit; fome con- tending that it ought to be done before the greennefs of the ftems wholly dif- appears, in order that the fibres of the flax may be finer and have a greater de- gree of foftnefs. Others with fimilar intentions maintain, that it fhould be pulled before the-feeds are perfeétly formed; while others again infift that the opera- tion fhould not be performed until fome of the capfules containing the feed begin to open, afferting that the fibres of green flax are not only tender but rua too much to tow. But, notwithftanding this, experience has fhewn that the fibres of over-ripened flax are conftantly harfh, and poffefs too great a degree of fliffnefs; and befides, feparate from the reed with more difficulty, and are more tedious. in the operation of bleaching. Hence it would feem that both extremes ought to be carefully avoided, and that the moft proper period for accomplifhing the bufi- nefs is immediately on the ftem or reed beginning to change from a green to a’ yellowifh caft, and the lower leaves to fall off, the feed affuming a brown- ifh colour. Where the feed is the principal obje€t of the grower, the crop fhould, how- ever, be fuffered to remain upon the ground until it becomes perfeétly ripened, which is eafily known by the feed-pods turning hard and fharp in the points, and the capfules beginning to crack and open. This generally happens. to- wards the latter end of July or beginning of Auguft. In pulling, the flax is laid in fmall parcels or beats upon the: furface of the ground, in fuch a pofition as that it may have the full benefit of the fun. It is then to be tied up, and conveyed as foon as poflible to. the place of watering. As where this fort of crop is cultivated upona large fcale, from the great differ- ences in the foil and other caufes, there will be confiderable variations in the quality of the flax, fome being fine, others coarfe; fome long, and others fhort; Cultivation of Arable Land.—Flav. 739 care fhould be taken at the time of pulling to feparate and put the different forts together; as by this means the injuries fuftained by fubjecting flax of fuch different qualities to the fame operations and procefles, may be avoided. It has been remarked by an intelligent writer, that inattention in flax cultivators to this neceflary precaution, is the chief caufe why crops of this kind often turn out of fo little value, and the principal reafon of the{mallnefs of the proportion of fuch flax as is of a good quality in comparifon with that of the tow or in- ferior fort; the different manufa@urers, in the courfe of their operations, being under the neceflity, on~ccount of the mixed condition in which they receive it from the cultivators, to reduce‘the quality of the whole to a much lower de- gree than would be requifite if the different kinds were forted at the time of pulling the crops, and delivered under fuch circumftances*. When the feed is intended to be faved, it is the ufual pra¢tice in pulling the crop to place the handfuls partly acrofs each other, as by this means the bu- finefs of rippling is greatly facilitated, the operators not having the trouble of feparating them from the large bundles. The operation of rippling fhould be performed as foon as poflible after the crops have been pulled. This is accomplifhed by means of a fort of iron comb with ftrong triangular teeth of confiderable length, fet upright, pretty clofely together, and fixed upon a flrong flat piece of wood, fo as that the operators can fit at each end, and’ by frequently ftriking the feed-end of the flax upon it, and pulling it through with rapidity, the feed- pods are forced off with much ex- pedition, and in a very perfect manner. Where the feed thus obtained is intended to be preferved, a large cloth fhould be fpread out previoufly in fome convenient fituation for the purpofe of receiving it from the ripple, and it fhould be imme- diately afterwards fpread out thinly, and expofed to the fun, till the capfules containing it become perfe€tly crifp and dry; they are then to be broken and the feed feparated from them by lightly threfhing or treading upon them; the whole of which‘being afterwards well cleaned by winnowing and fifting, and Jaid up in a dry room. And when a large quantity is put together, it fhould at firft be frequently turned over in order to prevent its being injured by heat- ing. The feed which is procured from fuch crops as are intended for flax, and which have not ftood till it is perfe€tly ripened, may be colleéted and fold for the purpofe of having the oil expreffed from it; but it is improper for ufe as feed. Some experienced cultivators of flax, when grown for the feed, fet up the * Donaldfon’s Prefent State of Agriculture, vol. IMI. 740 Cultivation of Arable Land—Flax. produce, when tied into fheaves, in the manner of grain, and when it is become perfeéily dry, have it ftacked up until the enfuing fpring, when, by placing the tops of the fheaves towards each other, and making ufe of a roller, the feed is eafily forced out. In this way more time is fuppofed to be allowed for the after- panagement*. In moft difirifts where much attention is beftowed, it is likewife the praétice, even when the crops are only cultivated for the purpofe of the flax, to ripple off the feed-pods before the bufinefs of watering is commenced; as it is found from experience, that when it is put into the water without this having been done, the water, from its quickly becoming putrid, is liable to do much injury to the flax.' The ftem parts are tied up into fmall parcels containing two or three hand- fuls, in a rather loofe manner, in order to their being carried to the pond for the purpofe of watering, which is the next operation that becomes neceflary.- The intention of this procefs is that of inducing a flight degree of putrefac- tion, by which the fubftance'that unites the flaxy material to the ftem or reed is deftroyed, and the flax of courfe rendered eafily feparable, In this crop, as in that of hemp, there are two methods praGifed for the purpofe of accomplifhing the bufinefs; one of which is by immerfing it in ponds of ftagnant water for fome time, and the other by expofing it to the influence of the atmofphere till the fame circumftance takes place. The former is the moft general practice, and commonly efteemed more certain as well as more fafe from injuring the flax; the exa&t point of putrefa€tion that is requifite not being fo eafily afcer- tained in the latter method. Whichever pra€tice is adopted, the length of time which is required for accomplifhing the purpofe, depends confiderably upon the ftate of ripenefs at which the crops have been pulled, the quality and temperature of the water in which it is placed, and the moifture or drynefs and warmth of the feafon in which it is expofed. In water retting the flax, ponds of ftagnant foft clear water are conftantly pre- ferred, as being found much fuperior to thofe of other kinds. The greater the degree of warmth the water has attained before the flax is immerfed in it, the fooner the procefs is effeéted, the heat of the water greatly promoting the perfect feparation of the harl or flaxy material from the reed. The rule for judging when the flax has undergone a fufficient degree of maceration in the water, is that of the cuticle or‘kin readily peeling off from the bun or ftalk the whole length; the latter breaking as if rotten, and appearing of a deep yellow colour. * Perth Corrected Report, Cultioation of Arable Land.—Flav. whl The manner of depofiting the flax in the water is much the fame as that al- ready defcribed for hemp: in fome cafes, however, inftead of the fmall bundles of flax being placed croflways over each other, they are fet in an ere& pofition, the tops of every layer except the loweft being upwards. And inftead of keep- ing the whole down below the furface of the water by ftones, wood, or other heavy materials, earth is made ufe of, to the depth of a few inches, and men employed to tread the whole down occafionally once or twice a-day at firft, fo as to keep it from rifing above the furface; as when that happens, the flax be- comes black and the fale is injured*. The firft feems, however, the moft fimple and eafy. method. After having thus remained in the water a proper length of time, as five, fix, or more, days, according to the particular circumftances of the cafe, the flax is taken from the pits by means of drags, and laid on the fides perfe€tly ftraight for a few hours, in order that it may become fomewhat dry; it is then removed to a pafture or grafs field that has been lately mown, where it is to be fpread out thinly in rows in as even and regular a manner as poflible, each row overlapping the other a few inches, in order the better to prevent their being difturbed by the wind. When left in lumps and not fpread evenly, the flax is liable to become green, and never afterwards to be capable of being made a good colour. After having remained in this fituation for a few days, it fhould be turned, which is beft done after a fhower or two of rain. When the colour is become perfeétly bright and even, and the cuticle or fkin begins to rife, blifter, and feparate from the ftem or reed, it is ready to be taken up. For this bufinefs a fine dry day fhould be chofen, if poflible; and the flax, after being bound into pretty large bundles, may either be ftacked up for ufe afterwards, or be imme- diately broken and fcutched in the manner already advifed for hemp. In the fecond or dew retting method, which is much praétifed in fome of the fouthern diftriéis of the kingdom, as in Dorfetfhire, the flax, immediately after being pulled, is fpread out in rows thinly upon a grafs field, where it is occa- fionally turned until the procefs of putrefaétion has, in a more flow and gradual manner than in the above practice, effe€ted the condition which is neceffary for the eafy and perfect feparation of the flaxy material from the reed or ftem. But in this mode there is confiderably more danger, from the flax being under the neceflity of remaining a much greater length of time expofed tothe aétion and effects of the weather and other caufes. But in whichever method the flaxy % Corrected Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire. 742 Cultivation of Arable Land.— Flax. material is brought into the proper condition for being feparated from the reed or ftem, great care fhould be taken that it be not damaged by continuing too long upon the grafs, as in many cafes, efpecially in rainy feafons, the under fide next the grafs is liable to be rotten or greatly tendered, before the upper one is nearly in a fuitable ftate of preparation. The fuppofition that expofure in the ficld tends to expedite the procefs of bleaching in the manufactured article is not well founded; in practice no cloth being found to bleach with fo much expedition, or in fo uniform a manner, as that made from fuch flax as has been water-retted in a complete and equal manner*. Before the bufinefs of breaking or fcutching the flax can be performed, which is the next operation that it undergoes, it becomes neceflary either to expofe it to the heat of the fun, by placing it againft a wall or paling ina flanting pofi- tion; or the effeéts of fire, by putting it over hurdles, or, what is much better, placing it in an oven heated by means of the refufe of the flax. In either cafe the fire fhould be applied in fuch a manner as that the heat may be very moderate. The flax fhould only be permitted to remain fuch a length of time as may be juft fufficient to remove any damp it may have acquired. In thefe ways the dampnefs is difpelled in a more equal and fafe manner than by any other method except that of the fun, which is always to be preferred when poflible.. In regard to produce there is fcarcely any crop that varies more confiderably than that of flax, either in the quantity or quality of the article. From twenty to fixty or feventy ftones of fourteen pounds each have been obtained from an acre of land, according to circumftances; but from forty to fifty ftones may be reckoned a medium crop. The expence incurred in the cultivation and after-management of this fort of crop is very confiderable, arifing from eight to ten or twelve pounds an acre on the average, where the objeél of the grower is the flax}. When thefe crops are difpofed of before.pulling, which is the # Correéted Agricultural Report of Perth. + It has been eftimated by fome in this way: EXPENCES. Lersaly 7 General expences in preparing land, fowing,&c- SS-=i, O° 20,.240) Rent, taxes, tythes,&e.-<- e-=) BPR Ige ick PRODUCEs Forty ftones at 9s. per ftone=-. 2=} eer Bounty at 4d. per ftone-.-°- Cultivation of Arable Land.—Flae. TAS praftice of different northern diftri&ts where the culture of flax is extenfive, the price is in general from about fix or feven to ten pounds, or upon the average fomething more than feven pounds. When flax feed is the aim of the cultivator, the quantity of that fort of pro- duce’ is generally from about fix to ten or twelve bufhels on the acre. The price depends upon various circumftances, as the quantity of foreign feed that is imported, the demand there is for it for the purpofes of being exprefled for its oil, or for being formed into a fort of jelly as food for fattening cattle. It is moftly about half the price of that which is imported from Holland for the purpofe of fowing. On the average it may probably be eftimated at from about three or four to five or fix fhillings the buthel. It feems probable from thefe ftatements, that flax may be grown with great profit and advantage in many fituations, as in grafs diftri€ls, where labourers can be eafily procured to perform the different operations it requires about the harveft feafon, where the produce of grain crops more than fupplies the demands of the inhabitants, and where there are means of providing due fupplies of ma- nure. But under other circumftances, as from the fibrous nature of its root, the fize of its ftem, the fmallnefs of its leaf, and the quantity of feed which it affords, it cannot but exhauft and impoverifh the land without returning any thing in the way of manure, it fhould perhaps feldom be had recourfe to. But in other calculations the profit is not fo great. In the Corrected Report of the State of Agri- culture in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire it ftands thus: EXPENCES PER ACRE. Tag A iat Working the land------ ae KOR a Seed-------- 1 I Oo Soding and weeding---~-=i O 4 Pulling--= is“ Z" wa) too So Leading, diking,&c.-----= NOLO We Taking out and{preading-~- a- 2140) T2v a Turning and taking up~-- oa a met ae) ho Rent of land when let to flax-yrower---° Pi Aon Gane Drefling 50 ftones at 1s. 6d. per{tone-©%*} Bip hGi on© Profit« o--* i.’, Ir° 20 10° PRODUCE, gsorftones of flax at 8s, 6d. per ftone°©.- 20 10@ TAA Cultivation of Arable Land.——Hops. When grown after other crops, thofe of the turnip and potatoe kind are thofe that moft commonly precede it*. The cakes produced in the procefs of expreffing the oil from flax-feed are made ufe of for the purpofe of fattening cattle with great fuccefs, and in con- fequence the price has of late been unufually high. A mucilaginous or jelly-like fubftance is alfo prepared from flax-feed, by means of boiling, or the pouring of water in a boiling ftate over the feed when cruthed, which is much employed in the fattening of live ftock. Hops.—The hop is a plant of the fibrous-rooted perennial kind, which climbs to a confiderable height, under the fupport of poles. There is only one {pecies of this plant in cultivation t, but which has feveral varieties, as the red- bind, the green-bind, the white-bind,&c.{ It is chiefly grown for the fake of the bud and flower, which are employed in the brewing of beer and other malt liquors, for the purpofe of imparting an agreeable bitter to them. The firft of the above varieties affords a very{mall hop; but, from its hardy nature, is capable of being cultivated in expofed fituations, and where the cli- mate is cold and not adapted to the other forts|j. It is faid to poffefs the pro- perty of refifting the d/a/? more effe€tually than any of the other varieties, often appearing healthy and vigorous, in feafons when the other kinds are greatly in- felted with flies and lice}; and at the period of picking to be lefs expofed to injury from the effets of the fun or rain than thofe of other forts. The fecond or green-bind, though lefs hardy than the preceding kind, is con- fiderably more produétive, and on the middling defcriptions of land, in fituations that are not too much expofed, often fucceeds very well. But the third or whitc-bind, which is ftill more delicate and tender, is the moft in eftimation, on account of its being more early, and the produce felling ata much higher price. In hops there are alfo male and female plants; but * Jt is remarked by the intelligent writer of the Correéted Report of the State of Agriculture in the County of Perth, that in the daw of Scotland a crop of this fort is confidered as a green crop, and that of courfe aftions brought againft tenants by proprietors for fowing flax crops inftead of thofe of the ameliorating kind, would be loft by the latter. It is, therefore, fuggefted that this fhould be guarded againft by having clofes in the leafes{pecifying in a particular manner the quantity of land to be annually cropped with flax. t Humulas lupulus. t They are likewife fometimes diftinguifhed into the Flemish, the Canterbury, the Goldings, the Fabien:&c. | Modern Agriculture, vol. III.§ Syopfis of Hufbandry- Cultsvation of Arable Land.—Hops. 445 the latter only afford the produce for which they are cultivated; the former fhould of courfe be extirpated as improper and ufelets. It is obvious, that as thefe different varieties muft of neceffity fuit different forts of foil, and become ripe at very different periods, the planter fhould be cautious that plants of the different kinds are not fet out in the fame plantation; as when this point is wholly neglected, or not fufficiently attended to, there is much incon- venience experienced in the after-management of the crops, efpecially where they are large, from the difficulty of procuring a fufficient number of labourers to pro- ceed with the bufinefs in fo expeditious a manner as may be requifite for their {afety; while by planting the feparate forts together in a detached manner, the bu- finefs of fecuring and preferving the produce may be accomplifhed with greater convenience, as the crops become ready at different periods. The moft proper fituations for plantations of this kind are thofe that have an eafy, natural, floping pofition towards the fouth, or which are more level, and pof- fefs the advantage of a fouth-wefterly expofure, and which are well protected and fheltered from the effects of the north and north-eafterly winds, by high grounds, tall fences, or trees of the foreft kinds, rifing at fome diftance from them. But, as the plants grow clofely together, and rife to a confiderable height in the ftems, they fhould not by any means be confined, or too much clofed up in the plantations them- felves, but have the benefit of a full and perfectly free admiffion and circulation of air, as well as light and the influence of the fun; as thefe have not only the effect of promoting the vigour and healthy growth of the binds, but, by quickly diffipating and drying up the fuperabundant moifture that may reft upon them, prevent the crops from being fo much injured by the d/at or mildew. This is fully fhown by the circumftance of the middle or more clofe parts of fuch crops, efpecially where they are extenfive, being greatly injured in this way, while the outfide parts, that have the advantage of being more fully expofed to the air, fuftain no injury at all in thefe refpects. It has been remarked by a late writer, that fuch fituations as are in the imme- diate vicinity of the fea, or near marfhy and fenny levels, feldom anfwer for the culture of the hop-plant, as they almoft invariably mifcarry in bad feafons*. The foils moft adapted to the culture of the hop-plant are thofe of the more deep,{trong kinds, whether of the loamy, clayey, or{andy qualities, They fhould be fuch as incline to drynefs, without being too deficient of moifture, and * Synopfis of Hufbandry. 4 c 746 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Hops. that have a confiderable depth of good, rich, vegetable mould. The thin, gra~ velly, and chalk foils are wholly improper for the growth of plants of this nature s the former not teing fufficiently retentive of moifture for the vigorous growth of- the plants; and the latter, from its abforbent quality, imparts its humidity to the roots of the binds in too feanty a proportion for the healthy fupport of their luxu- riant vegetation. There is, however, a fort of thin flatey foil, intermixed with good rich mould, which has an under ftratum of ftone, that is found, by experience, to be ad- mirably fuited to the growth of the hop-plant, and on which it often rifes to its fulleft height and luxuriance, producing an equally abundant produce with thofe of the moft deep, ftrong, and fertile kinds. Hops are extenfively cultivated on a foil of this defcription in the vicinity of Maidftone in Kent*. Hops may be cultivated on fuch lands as have been ina ftate of tillage; but in thefe cafes it is abfolutely neceffary that a fufficient proportion of manure be applied, to bring them into a praper{tate of fertility for the perfect fupport of the plants. Such land as has been long in a ftate of pafture, and which has, in confequence, accumulated a large proportion of vegetable matter, as that of old orchards, rich, dry meadows, or other grafs lands, is however the moft proper for the purpofe. In either cafe the ground fhould be reduced to a perfectly fine ftate of mould by repeated ploughing and harrowing, or, digging it over with the{pade. This laft is the moft effectual method where the land is to be broken up from the flate of fward, and fhould be performed in the autumn, in order that it may have the advan- tage of the effects of the frofts during the winter feafon. By thefe means the plantations are not only to be brought into a perfect ftate of pulverization, but alfo rendered clean, and free from all forts of weeds. In the laft operations, the ground fhould always be left in as even and level a fituation as poffible, if it be fufficiently dry; but where it is inclined to the retention of moifture, it may be ridged, in order more effectually to remove the fuperabundant wetnefs. And immediately be- fore the feafon of planting, a quantity of compott, formed from well rotted dung, and good frefh vegetable earth, by being intimately blended together and remain- ing in that ftate for a confiderable length of time, fhould be applied in{mall heaps, fo as to afford about a bufhel for each hole. The bufinefs of planting out the fets is then to be commenced, which is per- formed at different times, according to the nature of the plants, Where fets from % Bannifter’s Synopfis of Hufbandry. Cultivation of Arable Land.— Hops. 747 the cuttings of old binds are made ufe of, the work is beft performed in the latter end of February, in March, or the beginning of April, as the feafon may fuit; as thefe are the periods of cutting over and dreffing the old binds, when fets of this fort can be the moft eafily obtained; but, when bedded, or root fets are em- ployed, as may fometimes be the cafe on digging up former plantations, the aus tumn is the moft proper feafon, as about the latter end of October, or beginning of November. In the firft of thefe methods the fets or cuttings fhould be made from the mof?® healthy and vigorous binds, each being cut to the length of about five or fix inches, having two or three eyes or joints, which are the buds, from which the roots and ftems, or new binds, proceed. They are fold by the hundred of fix fcore, at from fixpence toa fhilling. In the planting, different forms and diftances are preferred by different planters, according to the manner in which the after-culture of the crop is performed, Where it is executed by means of horfe Jabour, the beft me- thod is that of fetting them out in rows, at fuitable diftances, fo as to form ftraight lines in every direction. But, in cafes where it is to be executed by the hand, this is not of fo much confequence, provided a fufficient fpace be allowed for the healthy growth of the plants. In this way fome practife the row method, while others prefer a triangular plant. It is evident, however, that the planting in equi- diftant rows, fo as to admit of the ground between the plants being kept clean b¥ the harrow and nidget, muft be much lefs expenfive than that of the irregular mode, in which hand labour muft be employed. The diftances at which the plants are fet out, or rather thofe of the holes and hills formed for their reception, are different according to circumftances. Some cul- tivators advife fix feet and a half or feven feet, while others prefer a five or fix feet plant. As the hop-plant, from the luxuriance of its growth, rifes to a ereat height, and fends forth much bind and foliage, it muft of neceflity require confider- able fpace, as where the plants ftand too clofely together they are not only more liable to become difeafed, but to houfe or run together above the poles, by which fo much fhade is produced, as to prevent the hops below from completing their growth; and of courfe the quantity of produce is much leffened. On thefe grounds it would appear that this plant cannot be cultivated with per- feé& fuccefs in lefs fpace than from fix to feven feet: on good rich foils the Jatter diftance may be the moft advifeable, as the plants will be more at liberty to effec their full growth. In this way there will be a diftance of from eight to nine feet from the centre of the hills, I 748 Cudtivation of Arable Land.— Hops. The holes are fet out in different ways, according to the particular cuftom or practice of the cultivators; fome making ufe of a line, in which knots are formed at the diftances intended, which is extended the whole length of the plantation, {mall fticks being then thruft down at the knots, and the land meafured off from thefe by fticks of a proper length; others mark the holes off at once by means of ftakes drove down into the ground at fuitable diftances each way: but a more ex- peditious method than either of the above is that of ftriking furrows by the plough in different direétions of the plantations, at proper diftances, fo as to form a fort of {quares, the holes being made in the angles where the furrows crofs each other. In making the pits or holes, the earth is taken out by a fpade or fpud, to the depth of about twelve inches in a circular form, having the diameter of about cighteen inches, the bottom mould being a little ftirred. Thefe are then partially filled with the earthy compoft mentioned above; and the mould that was taken away replaced upon it fo as to make a little rifing or hillock. On thefe hillocks feven fets or roots are moftly planted by means of a dibble, one in the middle or top of the hill, and the others around it, at equal diftances, about four or five inches from the fides of the holes.~The fets are generally put in to the depth of about two inches in the compott,and fo as to have the tops wholly covered by the mould on the furface of the hills. Some planters, however, prefer covering them lightly with the fine earth taken from the holes, after they have been planted out in the compoft, to the depth of an inch and a half or two inches. Nothing further is now neceffary till about the middle of May, except keeping the ground about the plants clean from weeds; when, from the increafing growth of the young plants, it will be proper to apply an addition of fine mould about them on the hills, which may be fcraped up from the intervals. And in order to check the growth of the young fhoots, and thereby increafe the vigour of the roots, fome twift them together into a fort of knot. Others, however, advife that two{mall flicks, about a couple of yards in length, be fet in each hill in order to direct the climbing of the fhoots, three or more being led up each ftick, and tied occafionally during the fummer with bafs or fedge. A fecond moulding up will be required about the latter end of July or beginning of Auguft, which is to be performed in the fame manner as before. There is ftill another mode of planting prattifed in fome diftri¢ts where the Jand is of the boggy kind and much inclined to moifture*. This is that of forming the plantations into a fort of beds about fixteen feet in width, by digging out trenches three feet in width, and from two te two and a half in depth, fpreading * Correéted Agricultural Report of Suffolk. —————————— Cultivation of Arable Land.— Hops. 749 the earth thus removed evenly over the beds previoufly prepared. On thefe the fets are put in, after the holes have been made a{pit indepth, twelve inches in diameter, and fix feet apart in each direction, fo as to admit three rows on each bed, in the fame manner as in the other methods. The plants in this mode are poled in the courfe of about three weeks with old fhort poles, to each of which two or -more of the binds are tied; the land being afterwards kept in order by hoeing and raking. The operation of hilling is performed in the latter end of June or begin- ning of July. This appears, however, a tedious and expenfive plan, without its poffeffing any fuperiority except that of rendering the lands fomewhat more dry. It is the cuftom with fome planters to cultivate other forts of crops at the fame time with the hops, as common beans, cabbages, french beans, and onions; but this is a practice by no means to be recommended, as much injury may be done by their crowding the plants and preventing the free admiffion of air, light, and fan to them, efpecially thofe that are of tall growth. The onion is the leaft objec- tionable, as not rifing to any great height, and being capable of being fown at the time the fets are planted out. Itis feldom advifeable to takeany produce the firft year, as where this is attempted muchinjury is frequently done tothe future produce of the plantations. In the Suffolk method of planting, a produce of three, four, and even five hundred weight of hops is fometimes however afforded the firft year*. And where bedded or root fets are made ufe of, a fmall crop may be afforded the firft feafon, as the plants or binds will be nearly as forward at that time, as thofe from cuttings are in the fecond fea- fon tf. Where hop-plantations have been carefully formed in thefe methods, and the land is perfectly fuitable to the growth of the plants, they will continue to bear well for twenty years or more, care being only taken to fupply the defects that may occur in. particular hills from the deftruction of plants. But though this fort of plantation may be continued in the above manner, it is fuggefted as a more advife- able practice, in many inftances, to renew them at much fhorter diftances of time, or even to keep renewing particular parts occafionally as may be necetlary. And in order to render them the moft produétive, whether they are managed by the plough, the fpade, or the hoe, the ground in the inter vals fhould be well ftirred ianaea three times when the feafons are favourable, and in other cafes more frequently{. * Corrected Agricultural Report of Suffolk.+ Synopfis of Hufbandry. + Modern Agriculture, Vol. III. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Hops. In the following winter after the plantation has been formed, it will be neceffary to provide and prepare the poles. Where the hop-binds are healthy and vigorous in their growth, two poles may be fufficient for each hill, or in the proportion of two thoufand fix hundred to the acre. But where the plants are weak and lefs luxuriant in their vegetation, a greater number of poles will be required, as three to each hill, or at leaft to each other hill, which in the latter cafe will be in the proportion of three thoufand two hundred and fifty to the acre. But as the poles need not be fo long, or of fo much ftrength, there will probably be but little dif- ference in the expenfe. In bringing the poles they fhould not be carted upon the ground, but be placed at the outfides, to be afterwards removed by the labourers to the places where they are wanted. In the fecond year of the plantation it is feldom neceffary to apply any manure to the hills, but the land in the intervals fhould be ftirred in the autumn, in the fame manner as in the firft; Sut in theearly part of the fpring, when the weather is fuitable, as about the middle of March, the hills muft be opened, and the earth be well cleared away from the principal roots by means of a tool which has the title of a picker, in order to afford the means of pruning and dreffing the ftocks; in which operations all the preceding year’s bearing ftems are cut off within a joint or two of the roots, and all fuch fhoots or fuckers as were not permitted to attach them- felves to the poles, or which have rifen on the edges of the hills, fully cleared away, nothing being fuffered to remain that can poffibly injure or prevent the vigorous growth of the new binds. In performing this bufinefs, care fhould be taken to bare the different{talks and roots fo completely, and to fuch a depth, that every thing that is hurtful may be difcovered and wholly removed. And in the cutting experienced labourers fhould, if poffible, be employed; for much depends on the work being properly executed, as great injury may be done by leaving too great a length of bind, as well as by cutting the ftocks too clofely. In the former cafe the crops may be expofed to the canker, and, in the latter, the hills be fo much weakened as not to afford fhoots in fufficient abundance*. It is therefore neceffary that the work fhould be carefully overlooked. After the bufinefs of pruning and dreffing has been thus accomplifhed, the earth fhould be raked back again upon the plants, fo as to rife into hills as before. At this period all fuch plants as have been deftroyed, or that have a weak and unhealthy appearance, fhould likewife have others put in their ftead, in order that * Synopfis of Hufbandry. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Hops. 75¥ the plantations may be kept as perfect as poffible. Such of the prunings as are cut from the moft healthy and vigorous plants may be referved for the purpofe of forming new plantations. In this feafon, as well as the preceding, three hoeings and one good moulding fhould be performed; the firft about the beginning of May, the fecond in June, and the third in July; a little mould each time being drawn to the roots of the plants on the hills in order to keep them fufficiently moift. The moulding fhould take place in the early part of Auguft, the earth being well laid upon the hills round the root-ftems of the plants;, and it fhould be executed, if poffible, foon after fome rain has fallen. In the poling, which is the next operation to be performed, the common rule is to begin as foon as the binds have advanced two or three inches above the fur- face of the ground, which is in general about the latter end of April, or beginning of May. The number of poles that are the moft proper and advantageous for each hill has not been yet well afcertained by planters: but as it has been fhown that a full and free admiffion of air, light, and fun, is effentially neceffary to the healthy growth of the plants, they fhould never be too much crowded. Three is the moft ufual allowance,though a greater number is often employed. They fhould be placed in fuch a manner as to leave the largeft{paces or openings towards the fouth or fouth-weft, that the plants may derive the more full influence of light and heat; and the ftouteft on the fide which has a northern afpect, the more pow- erfully to refift the winds. The poles are moft commonly fixed in the ground by means of an iron craw, with which holes to the depth of eighteen or twenty inches are formed, and the fharpened root ends of the poles forcibly placed in them, the earth being immediately afterwards well rammed or trodden about them, The difficulty of this bufinefs chiefly confifts in pitching the holes to proper depths, in fetting the poles down with fuch exertion as that they may fix them- felves firm at the bottom, and that the tops of the poles may have fuch a direc- tion outwards as to obviate, as much as can be, the houfing of the binds, Where due attention is not beftowed in thefe points, much injury and lofs may be fuftained by the deftruction. of the plants. When the poles are fet, two or three of the binds may be direéted up each of them, being tied, in the manner advifed above, in different places by labourers employed for the purpofe, and which is to be repeated as there may be occafion for it. When the poles are 152 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Hops. high and the binds ftrong, ftanding ladders may be ufeful in tying them near the tops. It has been obferved that this work demands particular attention in the early part of the fummer. When fhort and flender poles have been put to hills where the binds prove of ftrong and vigorous growth, it may fometimes repay the trouble to have them removed, and others of a taller and ftronger kind put down in their ftead.. The benefit obtained by this practice is often confiderable*. During the fummer, in the more early growth of the plants, the fuperfluous binds of every kind fhould be repeatedly removed as they prefent themfelves, referving only one or two on each hill to fupply the places of fuch as may be hurt in being trained to the poles at firft, as accidents of this nature often occur in confequence of the tender buds being bruifed or rubbed off by the agitation of the winds. This is the whole of the eulture that is required till the feafon at which the hops become ripe, and are ready to be picked, which is known by the fragrant finell which they emit, their becoming firm, and acquiring a brown colour. It is ufually about the beginning or middle of September. Much care and circumfpection is neceflary in the performance of this bufinefs, to fee that every thing proceeds with regularity and difpatch, as there is always much danger from delay, the crops being equally expofed to injury from the winds as continued rain. Asa preparation for this bufinefs, 2akets, bins, or cribs, are procured or formed, in number proportionate to the extent of the plantation and the pickers that are tobe employed. The latter are conftructed by nailing four or more pieces of boards on as many upright pofts as frames fet into the ground. When finifhed, they are about feven or eight feet in length, three feet in breadth, and about the fame in height. The apparatus being thus made ready, the hop-binds are cut over clofe to the furface of the land by a perfon accuftomed to the work, and the| poles drawn up by a tool for the purpofe, which is termed a dog or pulling-book. They are then placed upon the frame with the bind upon them, moftly two, but fometimes three, in order to be picked; three, four, or more pickers being em- ployed in clearing the binds of the hops on each fide of the different frames: thefe, with the perfon engaged in forting the poles, are denominated a fet, Women and children are frequently employed in this work. The hops, after being carefully 3 * Kent's Hints. Cultivation of Arable Land.—lcps. 153 feparated from the leaves and binds, are dropped into a large cloth hung round on tenter-hooks within, underneath the frame. When this has been filled, the hops are put into a large fack, in order to their being taken home, to be dried on kilns for the purpofe. This fhould always be performed as expeditioufly as pof- fible after the hops have been picked, that they may not fuftain any injur maining together in their green moift ftate; as where this is the cafe they are often liable, efpecially when the weather is warm, to be much damaged, both in colour and flavour, in the courfe of a few hours, by the heat which they take on. For this reafon, it is neceffary to keep the caf or kiln conftantly at work, both night and day, during the time of picking. The number of pickers fhould there- fore be as nearly as poffible proportioned to the quantity of hops that can be dried off by the oaf. And where, from the nature of the feafon or other caufes, the undried hops are fuffered to accumulate, they fhould always be placed only a few together, without being clofely packed. In cafes where the crops are pretty abundant, a diligent picker will feparate from eight to ten bufhels a day, which, when dried, may weigh about one hundred weight. It is ufual in many places to let the picking of this crop by the buthel. The price is variable according to the abundance or fcarcity of labourers. From fixteen to twenty expert pickers will be neceffary, in favourable feafons, and where the pro- duce is rather abundant, to keep an ea at work that is capable of dryir bufhels at each meafuring*, 1g off eighty Befides the pole-puller and pickers, another perfon will be requifite in the hop plantation, in order to pick up the{cattered branches of the binds, and convey ae produce to the kiln. A boy is in general employed in this bufine&, who, from the nature of his work, is commonly called the poke day. The conveyance of the hops is accomplifhed by means of a cart, horfe, or hand-labour, according to the diftance of the plantation from the kiln. The drier, or perfon employed in the kiln, fhould be perfectly acquainted with the bufinefs, regular and fteady, as much of the planter’s profit depends upon work being properly performed. To this part of the management, as wel] =) this : as that of the pickers, the hop farmer ought to be careful to direé his attention as much as poffible, The wages of the different perfons engaged in thefe operations are alyays 5 CON-+ fiderably influenced by local and other circumftances. In Kent, before the| * Synopfis of Hutbandry. 5D == zi es 754 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Hops. advances in the price of all forts of farm-labour, it was ufual for the pole-pullers to have from eighteen-pence to two shillings the day, with fmall beer; the driers half a crown, with an unlimited allowance of both beer and fpirits; the pickers from three halfpence to’ twopence the bubhel, with allowances of{pirits, 8c. Thele wages, however, at prefent are greatly advanced.' The ftructure of the hop kiln, or oa, is not very different from that employed in drying malt. It may be of different dimenfions, as twelve, fourteen, or fixteen feet fquare; and have a fuitable proportion preferved between the height and breadth and the fides of the fteddle that contains the fire: thus, where the kiln is twelve feet fquare on the top, it fhould be eight feet in height from the fire; and the fteddle fix feet and a half fquare. It is covered with hair cloth, on which the hops are fpread out, in aneven manner, to the depth of from fix or feven, to eight, ten or twelve inches, according as the feafon is more dry or moift, and the hops are more or lefs advanced inripenefs. Before the hops are laid upon the kiln it fhould be rendered a little warm, and the heat afterwards kept up by a regular gentle fire, increafing it gradually till, by the heat of the kiln and the warmth of the hops, it is found to have attained the proper height. An even fteady degree of heat fhould then bepr eferved for eight, ten, or more hours, according to the ftate of the hops at the time they are applied; by which the ends of the hop ftems become in a per- fe€tly fhrivelled and dry condition; which, with that of their rattling on being touched, is the principal indication that they have attained the proper ftate of drynefs. Much practical experience is however neceffary to conduct the procefs with the beft effeét, and in the moft economical manner in refpect to fuel. Where what is termed a cockle oa/t is made ufe of, fea coal is moftly employed as fuel, a chaidron being confidered the proper allowance to a load of hops. But where hair kilus are in ufe, as the{moke of that fort of coal would be injurious, charcoal is had recourfe to for the purpofe, which in Kent is generally bought for about fifty fhillings the load, which confifts of fifty facks*. After the dryiag has been properly performed, the hops are removed from the kiln by means of a fhovel, into an adjoining room conftruted for the purpofe, which is called the ftowage room. In this chamber they are kept five, fix, or more days, according to circumftances, before they are in a proper condition to be put into the bags; as whea they are bagged too foon they are brittle, and do not draw fo good a fample, or weigh fo heavy. They fhould always remain fo long as to attain a tolerable degree of toughnefs, which may be eafily judged of by the feel. * Synopfis of Hufbandry. 4 Cultivation of Arable Land.—-Hops. 755 For the convenience of bagging the hops, a round hole or trap is prepared in the floor of the ftowage room, exactly equal in fize to that of the mouth of the bag, on which a frame of wood is placed, to which the edges of the opening of the bag are fecurely attached all round. A very fmall handful of hops being then tied firmly in each of the lower corners, the bag is let fall below, and a perfon termed the packer gets in, and with a heavy weight, which he keeps continually moving round, where he is not immediately treading, tramples and preffes the hops down as clofely as poffible into the bags, as they are thrown in, in{mall quantities, by another perfon employed for the purpofe. In this manner he proceeds until it is quite filled, when each of the upper corners has a few hops inclofed in them in the fame way as the others, which ferve the purpofe of handles; and the bag is drawn up, and the mouth of it well fecured, after being difengaged from the frame. In per- forming this bufinefs, the clofer the hops are preffed into the bags the better, as they preferve their colour, fmell, and tafte more perfectly*. In the operations of drying and rendering hops proper for the bag, fome lofs of weight mutt of courfe take place. According to fome, fixty buthels of well ripened frefth gathered hops, which have not been attacked by the Ay, will produee when dried and bagged about one hundred weight. The goodnefs of a fample of hops depends upon different circumftances, as the clammy feel of the yellow, farinaceous, powdery fubftance which is{prinkled over them, and their colour. The former in the language of the hop planter is termed the condition, and the fample is efteemed the more or lefs valuable by the buyer, in proportion as the feel is more or lefs clammy: and in regard to the latter, it is of the utmoft importance in the fale of the hops, that it fhould be preferved as bright as poffible, though it is not always the cafe that thofe which are the brighteft in their appearance are the ftrongeft in flavour. It is this property, however, that induces the planter to make a diftinétion in the bagging of thearticle. The brighteft hops, and thofe which have the fineft colour, are put into bagging of a better quality, and termed pockets; while thofe of the brown kind form bags, being put in bagging of a coarfer and more heavy fort. The firft fort are made ufe of in the brewing of ales and all the finer forts of malt liquor; but the latter chieflysin the making of porter. Where hops are to be kept for fome length of time, the coarfe bagging is however the beft. The length for a bag is about two ells and a quarter, and that for a pocket nearly * Kent’s Hints. "56 Cultivation of Arable Land.— Hops, the fame, each having an ell in width. The former, where the hops are good, well cured, and tightly trodden in, weigh about two hundred and a half; and the latter, when of the Canterbury pocketing, about one hundred and a half. Where they much exceed or fall fhort of thefe weights, it may be fufpetted that they are either of an inferior quality, or have been injured in their preparation. The planter will be beft directed in refpect to the duty on hops, by a copy of the excife laws refpecting them. After thefe operations have been performed, it will be proper to clear the poles of the binds, and fet them up in ftacks as foon as poffible, unlefs, as is fometimes the cafe, it has been done at the time of picking, as they are apt to fuftain much in- jury by remaining upon the ground with the bind upon them. The work is ufually performed by the acre, the poles being piled up into fquare ftacks; thirty or forty poles being fet to each corner, which fhould ftand about twelve feet apart in each dire€tion at the bafe, the tops uniting as clofely as poffible. In this way an open- ing is formed below, which contributes to dry and preferve the poles. At this period all fuch poles as are too fhort, or in any way improper for further ufe, fhould be laid afide, in order that fuch of them as are fuitable may be employed in the new plantations; and that the planter may fully afcertain the proportion of frefh poles that may be neceffary for the following feafon, which it is of great advantage to have provided, brought upon the ground, fet up conveniently in fiacks, and fharpened, when there is leifure inthe winter months. The points of the old ones may alfe be put in order at the fame time, and nothing be thus left to interrupt the bufinefs of poling at the proper feafon. The beft poles, which are thofe of afh, chefnut, and willow, of the length of from eighteen to twenty-four feet, will feldom laft longer than fix or feven years; and thofe of an inferior kind, as from beech, maple, oak,&c. not nearly fo long. The bark is fhaved off all the forts except thofe of the afh kind,(in which it feparates of its own accord in the fecond year,) in order to prevent their being deftroyed by worms lodging in them. After the poles have been ftripped and ftacked up, the bind fhould be cleared away, which, in fome diftriéts, is done by tying it up into bavins or{mall bundles when perfectly dry, and putting it in ftacks, fheds, or other convenient places, for the purpofe of fuel in ovens,&c. This work is performed at the rate of about fixpence the hundred. In others it is burnt upon the ground; and, in fome, the labourers are permitted to take it home for their own ufe. But whatever method I Cultivation of Arable Land.— eps. 75 “I is adopted, it fhould invariably be removed, fo prevent its interfering with the future digging of the plantation, which is the next Operation to be performed*. This fhould be executed as early as poffible in the autumn or winter months, in order that the land may have the full influence of the frofts. The work fhould be performed in a dry feafon, and be accomplifhed with as much expedition as pof- fible, the moft careful and trufty labourers being always employed. It is ufually done at a fixed price for one hundred hills, as from two fhillings to half a crown, The labourer makes ufe of a three-pronged fork, which in fome places is termed a /pud, for the purpofe, each prong being about an inch and a half in breadth. It is of great confequence that this operation be executed in a very perfect manncr, much ef the fuccefs of the plantation depending uponit. If there fhould be any binds of an improper kind, they may be now removed, and others of the proper forts put in their ftead. And though manure may fometimes be omitted in the fecond year where the foilis very rich, it fhould be carefully applied before the bufinefs of winter-digging commences in each fucceeding one, in the proportion of about twelve full cart- loads to the acre; fifteen loads of good frefh vegetable earth having been well blended and incorporated with it by frequent turning, for ten or twelve months be- fore. In putting this compoft upon the land,{mall one-horfe carts with three wheels are fometimes recommended as the beft adapted tothe purpofe. It fhould be laid in fmall heaps; and, in digging the plantation, be well blended and in- termixed with the mould that furrounds the hills, at the diftance of about a foot from them+. The old ftocks, when they begin to decline, as every tenth or twelfth * Synopfis of Hufbandry,. + The prices that were ufually paid by the hop planters in the county of Kent, before the late ad- vances in the rates of labour, for the feveral different operations in plantations of this fort, are thus ftated by Mr. Bannifter: Expenfes per Acre. PEBEG Te. Stripping and ftacking poles----- Oe Winter digging=---==== a o-18 oO Cutting---== 2~ 2 a GOS Poling es=== 2 os i Ba Bee G Sharpening old poles, at 2d. per ftack---= Oran a Carried over 2 2© 758- Cultivation of Arable Land.— Hops. year, or much longer in fome cafes, fhould be taken up, and another portion of ground frefh planted; or, what is better, a fuitable proportion of the old plantation, and an equal portion of new, broken up and planted annually, or every other year, fo as to preferve a regular fucceflion, at an eafy and gradual expenfe, as has been already obferved. There is fcarcely any fort of crop that varies more in the quantity of pro- duce than that of hops, affording, under different circumftances of foil and feafon, from two hundred to upwards of twenty hundred weight on the aere. On me- dium foils, in tolerably favourable years, it may be eftimated at from fix to eight or nine hundred weight, from ten to fourteen being confidered as good crops. A produce of twenty hundred weight but rarely occurs, and is much too large for the planter in general to fix his expectations upon. The whole of the expenfes incurred in the cultivation of thefe crops, and the profits which they afford, are ftated in the following manner by Mr. Kent, in his ufeful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers*:. Vie gs otk Brought over 2° Sharpening new poles, at 3d. per hundred=-=< te°° Shaving fet at.-:- a 5 is_© 4 Tying--«-*--- 010 0 Summer digging(if ufed)------© 18 oa Hoeing=---°=--- 945° 0 Hilling=- ons=--- o 3. 6 49 4 Deduct fummer digging Ss_= o-e.* fey atte e] rue any 4 Add nidgeting--= a° o- Tose 411 4 Bicking, at from 1d. to 2d, per bufhel, and bagging at 8d. coarfe, and 6d. fine. * Expenfes per Acre. Pan Sue Medium price of an acre of land fuitable for hops--- I 10,© Digging the ground-=.---- Oo 1g 0 Drefling and pruning=<= i-== ec 8 Oo Poling-— a a S 4 E: o15 0 Carried over Cultivation of Arable Land,— Hops. The expenfe of forming new hop plantations is very confiderable. In Suffolk it is eftimated at from feventy--five pounds to one hundred, whenevery thing that is requifite is included; the annual charges being nearly the fame as thofe which have been juft ftated*. In the county of Kent, where the practice of letting out the culture of crops of this fort to labourers who are experienced in the bufinefs in fome meafure pre- vails, they are faid not only to find a faving of expenfe, but to be fo much re- liev-d, in refpect to the trouble of the different operations, as to confider it the moft advifeable mode+. In thefe cafes, where fummer digging is omitted, and ei d. Brought over 3° Three hoeings-- x 3 e= 5= es Once moulding--=-- Z i& a G Tying the binds to the poles~--== si° o Stripping the binds off the poles--== 2 Z°° Stacking the poles------=° fe) Sharpening the poles--~=-=© 10 10 Manuring----- 2 é Z te OG Picking, drying, and duty, at 1]. 10s. per hundred, the crop being eftimated at 12 cwt. the acre------= 16.0"@ Bagging and occafional expenfe of bags, about---- O-16)-O “Ath poles, eftimated at 30,250 to the acre, and fuppofed to laft eight years, me- dium price, 18s. a hundred at the ftub, eighth part of which is nearly 3. 03),.0 Carriage of ditto, eftimated at~~.---- I° Produce. oe eee Suppofing 12 hundred per acre, and that the medium price is. 4]. the hundred, the amount will be---=-<= 7 485020 And the expenfes deducted out of the produce will leave a medium profitof 1617 8 * Corrected Agricultural Report of Suffolk. + The account is ftated in this way:—Undertaker’s charge, he paying and finding labourers for the different operations--= a> 2 3 Picking, drying, and duty-----=~ 4 Rent of land-- ae sa“ Ss I Carried over 17 10 0 759 760 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Hops. recourfe is had to the ufe of the nidget, the expenfe will be a few fhillings more, the difference in favour of this practice from as is fhown in the firft eftimate; that where the planter procures and pays the workmen, being about one pound the acre’* The weather moft favourable to crops of this fort, in the different ftages of their erowth, is that which is warm without much rain, and where fouth or fouth-wefterly winds prevail; as the hop is a plant which never fucceeds well in fuch feafons as are wet, or when either eafterly or northerly winds continue for arfy great length of time during the fummer months. Hot gleams of fun-fhine after rain, or after foggy mornings, in the later fummer months, alfo prove highly detrimental to thefe crops. High winds towards the approach of the picking feafon likewife produce confiderable mifchief, by bruifing and otherwife injuring the hops. When unfavourable weather takes place, about the period in which the plants are in bloffom, it is feldom that the produce is good or abundant, as many of the burs generally fuffer in fuch a manner as to prevent their forming perfect hops. In moft cafes the very forward binds fuffer more from all the different accidents to which hop crops are expofed, than thofe that are later and of a lefs vigorous growth. It may, on this account, therefore, fometimes be advifeable to remove all the very forward binds. Thefe crops are expofed to the attacks of difeafe at almoft every period of their growth In the very early ftage of the growth of the hop plant, it is liable to be wholly devoured, as it rifes above the furface of the ground, by the ravages of the fea. And, in a more advanced ftate, it is fubject to the ftill more pre- judicial attack of the green or long-winged fly, red Jpider, and otter moth: the firft of thefe, by the depofit of their ova, afford the means of producing J/ice in great abundance; by which the plants are often very greatly if not wholly deftroyed, and the larvee of the laft prey upon the roots, and thus render the plants weak and Lo ea Brought over 17 10 oO Poles--«=- 5# fy e 60% Manure-”---> sa 2= 210 0 Tythe i= aes 2- ee Soc oR ene!© Bagging cloth-.----=- Ce oven) 28 10@ * Synopfis of Hufbandry. Cultivation of Arable Land:— Heps. 76.1 liable to be attacked by other difeafes*, The baney dew is likewile another difeafe to which the crops are expofed about the fame time, and by which they are often much hurt. The mould or fen.moftly occurs at a fomewhat later: period, but is equally prejudicial in its effects. There are{till other injuries to which hop- crops are expofed, fuchas the d/ight, and what is termed the$a, which occur at different times, but moftly towards the latter periods of the growth of the plants. The ffec, wiich is afferted to be an infect of the fame kind as that which is fo deftruétive to the young turnip, is faid to make the greateft havock in thofe feafons when the nights are cold and frofty, and the days hot and inclined to be dry. In its attacks it eats off the fweet tender tops of the young plants and which, though they are not wholly deftroyed by it, fhoot forth afterwards in a much lefs ftrong and vigorous manner; from which they become more expofed to the attacks of other vegetable difeafes. It has been remarked that this infect is the moft apt to commit its depredations on the plants in thofe grounds that have received a proportion of dung the fame year. And on the fuppofition that dung imits crude ftate has a ten- dency to encourage the production of this infect, it has been fuggefted that the manure employed for the purpofe of covering the hills fhould be previoufly well mixed and incorporated with good frefh mould for a confiderable length of time before it is made ufe of, as has been already directed; and that it fhould be applied either over the whole of the land, or only the hills, immediately after the plants have been cut over: the firft is the moft advifeable practice where manure can be eafily obtained. This infect commits its greateft depredations in the more early cold fpring months, as the latter end of April and beginning of the fucceeding month, difappear- ing as the feafon becomes mild and warm+. _ The principal remedy in this cafe is that of having the land in a fufficient ftate of fertility, to enable the young plants. to fhoot up with fuch vigour and rapidity as to become quickly incapable of being fed upon and devoured by the infect. Surring the mould about the roots of the plants by means of the hoe may alfo be of utility in the fame intention. The green or long-winged fly generally makes its appearance. about. the latter end of May, and in the two following months.. The prevalence of north-eafterly * Withering’s Botanical’ Arrangement, Vol. 11. + Synopfis of Hufbandry. SE 762 Cultivation of Arable Banhootiaps. f winds about the above period has much effect in producing thefe infects, which are very deftruétive of the young leaves of the plants. Under fuch a ftate of the wind they are faid to fcarcely ever fail covering the leaves; and by dropping their ova produce an abundance of lice, by which the crops are often much injured, as when they have once obtained complete poffeffion of the plants they feidom or ever leave them before they are wholly deftroyed. The forwardeft and moft luxuriant hop- binds are{aid to be in general the moft difpofed to be attacked by infects of this fort. The removal of the infeéts chiefly depends upon a change taking place in the wind from the above points more to the fouth, and the fetting-in of mild and warm weather. The otter moth, by producing its larvee upon the roots of the plants, fubjedls them to be attacked by them, and the healthy growth of the hops to be in that way greatly impaired, the crops being of courfe much injured in refpect to their produce. In this cafe,{tirring the earth well about the roots of the plants may pro- bably fometimes be ferviceable. The honey dews moftly occur after the crops have been attacked by fome of the above kinds of infects, and when the weather is clofe, moift, and foggy. In thefe cafes a{weet clammy fubftance is produced upon the leaves of the plants, which has the tafte of honey. They have at firft a fhining appearance, but after- wards foon become black. The nature of this vegetable affection does not feem to be yet well afcertained. It is fuppofed by fome to be the excrement of infects of the apbis kind, depofited by them upon the leaves of the plants after it has been extracted by their punéturing the leaves. Others however contend that it is a morbid exudation proceeding from the plants themfelves; which is much more probable, and more confonant to analogy; fince from its tafte, which refembles that of the vernal fap-juice of plants, and its fupporting bees, ants, and other infects, it mutt be of a nutritious quality*. This fuppofition is rendered ftill more probable from the circumftance of its occurring after the infects have been fome time prefent upon the plants, and difappearing long before they leave them f- It would appear indeed that this exudation may in fome meafure be caufed by the punctures of the infeéts, as it moft commonly takes place after the nights have been cold, moift, and fogey, and the fucceeding days hot and funny, the irritability of the plants being fo much increafed by the former as to render the action of the latter more powerful in promoting the circulation of their juices, and confequently in forcing their paffage more abundantly through the fine openings afforded by the pundtures of fuch infects. 3* Darwin’s Phytologia.+ Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Hops. 763 This difeafe moftly happens in the more forward crops. The chief dependence of the planter for its removal is that of heavy thunder fhowers taking place, as by sthis means, when the deftruction of the hops has not proceeded too far, they are often much reftored, the infects that devour the leaves and binds being greatly de- ftroyed, the growth of freth fhoots promoted, and a favourable bloom brought on*. The fen, mould, or mildew, isa difeafe to which the hop is expofed at a later period of its growth. It chiefly attacks the part where the hop is attached to the ftem. Its production 1s greatly promoted by moift damp weather and a low fituation; thofe hop-crops that grow on low, clofe, rich grounds being the mott liable to be attacked by it. It is found to foon fpread itfelf over the whole crop, after it has once feized upon any part of it. The nature of this vegetable difeafe is not pro- bably yet perfectly underftood. It has lately however been ingenioufly fuggefted to be a plant of the fungus kind, that is capable of growing without light or change of air, attaching itfelf to the plants already in a morbid condition, and by its roots penetrating their veffels. On this fuppofition, the beft remedy is believed to be that of thinning the plants, or wholly removing thofe immediately about it, in order to afford a more free circulation of air, and admit the light more extenfively;, by which the vigour of the hop-plants may be reftored, and the difeafe be of courfe re- moved+. If this opinion of the nature of the difeafe be well founded, it is probable that by planting the hills more thinly, and making them at greater diftances from each other, this vegetable malady might be in a great meafure prevented from oc- curring in thofe fituations where it moft frequently fhows itfelf. Blights are frequent in hop-crops; but the caufes of them do not appear to have been yet nicely inveftigated.‘They are found to happen at different periods of the growth of the plants, but moft frequently in the more early{tages of their rifing from the hills, while the nights are cold and frofty in the{pring months, and the days have much fun and heat. The living powers of the piants being in thefe cafes greatly exhaufted in the day-time by the ftimulus of heat, may of courfe be much injured, or wholly deftroyed in the nights, from. being expofed to a freezing air, which is incapable of exciting the actions neceflary to the prefervation. of vege- table life. The dlaf is likewife a difeafe that hop-crops are expofed to, efpecially in the later periods of their growth. This is in general fuppofed by planters to depend upon or proceed from the particular{tate of the air or weather. It is more probable however that it may be the effect of lightning, as it occurs for the moft part at thofe feafons when it is the moft prevalent, and takes place in a very fudden * Synopfis of Hufbandry.+ Darwin’s Phytologia. 764 Cultivation of Arable Land.— Hops. manner. And befides, lightning is known to produce fimilar effects on plants, by exhaufting their irritability, and thus rendering their vital actions incapable of being excited by the ordinary powers that fupport them*. This is rendered_ftill. more probable from the pra€tical faét, that the moft forward and moft luxuriant binds are the moft fubyect to be affected in this way. In expofures’that are particularly liable to have the crops: injured in this manner, it may be advifeable to keep back the growth of the:plants as muchvas poffible, by extirpating all the moft forward fhoots, as well as by employing a lefs proportion of the earthy compoft in their cul- ture. By having the plants to ftand at greater diftances than ufual from each other, advantages may likewife probably be obtained.’ In the former of thefe two laft difeafes, the prefence of which is fuppofed to be much connected with the prevalence of winds from the northern or eafterly quar- ters, there is frequently a fea produced of a fimilar kind to that which attacks the binds in their early growth. This is highly prejudicial by preying upon the condition of the hops, and thereby diminifhing their weight, and changing them to a brown colour; which is of much injury in their fale+. It is the practice in fome diftricts for planters to fow turnips or fet cabbage plants, or fome other fimilar crops, in the intervals of crops of this fort; but it is an injudi- cious method, which fhould feldom or never be attempted, as the hops may be greatly injured by being thus deprived of their due nourifhment and fupport, as well as of the full aération of the foil, which can only be effected by the operations of frequently ftirring and turning over the particles of the mould; which under fuch circumftances can never be properly performed. Befides, as fuch crops muft prevent the hop-plants from being kept fo perfectly clean and free from weeds as might otherwife be the cafe; and cannot admit of the turnips or other crops being eaten off upon the land, or of being drawn and carted away, without much injury being fuf- tained by poaching and the treading down of the hills; it is much the beft way to exclude every fort of fecondary crop from the plantation. The advantages of the cultivation of hops have been differently ftated by dif- ferent cultivators; fome contending that it is beneficial in a very high degree, while others are equally pofitive in affirming that it is a fort of culture that only affords a very trifling profit. It is evident however that in many fituations the erowth of this plant muft be extremely beneficial, though, like moft others, it muft be fubject to vary, according to the circumftances of foil, culture, and climate. Experiment has indeed fhown, that on the deep boggy foils, after being rendered * Darwin’s Phytologia.+ Synopfis of Hufbandry. Cultivation of Arable Land.—W ead. 165 fuffictently dry, the black vegetable moulds and rich loams, it 1s a culture that an- fwers to a very high degree; and that, under other circumftances of a much lefs favourable nature, it is fo profitable as to far exceed common hufbandry*. It may indeed be concluded, that though on lands that are perfectly adapted to thefe crops, and fo fituated as to afford poles, manure, and labourers for performing the bufinefs of picking and other operations in fufficient proportion and at reafonable rates, they may be highly beneficial both in refpeét to the immediate money profit they afford, and the great improvement that is accomplifhed in the lands from the nature of their culture; yet under other circum{tances, from their precarioufnefs, and their being attended with much trouble, it may be better either to wholly omit them, or only cultivate them:on a limited fcale. And where they are cultivated ‘1 conneétion with farms, it fhould only be to fuch an extent as that no injury may be fuftained by the other parts either in tillage or manure f. Woad.—This is a plant which has a thickihh ftrong fibrous root that penetrates to a confiderable depth in the foil. It is principally cultivated for the leaves, which after being properly manufactured, are employed in the art of dyeing in order to produce a blue colour, and alfo as the bafis of black and fome other colours f. From the nature of its root it obvioufly requires a foil which has much depth, and which is perfectly freth. Thofe of the rich, mellow, loamy, and putrid vegeta- ble kinds are in general the moft adapted to it. In Lincolnfhire, where its culture is carried to a confiderable degree of perfection by fome cultivators§, the deep, rich, putrid, alluvial foils on the flat traéts extending upon the borders of the large rivers are chiefly chofen for the growth of this plant. And experience has fhown that it fucceeds in the moft perfect manner when they are broken up from a ftate of ware immediately for its reception. It is frequently the practice of cultivators of this plant to take lands of this defcription at high prices, for the purpofe of break- ing them up and growing it upon them for a few years;—on the more low rich foils, fometimes for four years, but in thofe of lefs fertility only for three; and in {ome which are more elevated and expofed in their fituations, two is thought fuf- ficient||; perfons accuftomed to this fort of culture, who move from place to place and form a fort of colony, being engaged in the bufinefs. It has been found however, by the ingenious cultivator mentioned above, to be capable of being con- fined to one fpot with equal or more fuccefs, by having a fufficient extent of ground, for changing the place of its growth as may be neceflary, and for appropriating an * Young’s Eaftern Tour.+ Kent’s Hints.} It is the W/atis tinGoria, or dyer’s woad. § 3, Cartwright, efy. of Brothertoft, near Bofton.| Correéted Agricultural Report of Lincolnhhire. 766 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Woad. adequate proportion annually to the raifing of the plant, by which the houfes and machinery that are neceffary for its preparation may be kept regularly in. employ. In preparing the land, it is recommended by fome to plough it up with a good deep furrow, juft before the winter commences, laying it in narrow high ridges that it may have the full effect of the frofts. Early in the fpring another ploughing fhould be given in the contrary direction, leaving it in the fame kind of ridge as before. Afier it has remained in this ftate fome time, and weeds begin to appear, it muft be well harrowed down with a pretty heavy harrow, repeating the operation as frequently as may be neceflary to render it perfeétly fine and clean. In the beginning of June a third ploughing fhould be performed to the full depth with a narrow furrow,, the land being afterwards well harrowed down as in the former cafes. And about the end of July or the beginning of the following month the final ploughing, muft be given, which fhould be light, and the furface left as even as poffible for the reception of the feed*. Other cultivators, however, take much lefs trouble in this bufinefs. Where the foils are fufficiently dry, they break them up early in the month of February; but. where the contrary is the cafe, it is deferred to a later period. In performing the work, great care is taken to plough it in a perfect manner to the depth of about five inches. And in order that the furrow-flices may be well turned, laid flat, and nicely jointed, a perfon is employed in the furrows with a fpade for the purpofe. This is found requifite to prevent the graffy matters’ from rifing inthe feams. After this the furface is repeatedly harrowed over, in order to raife a fuficient depthof good mould for the drill to work in; and before the feed is put in a roller is pafled over it. This method is probably however inferior to that firft defcribed, as the land can- not be brought by it to nearly fo fine a ftate of mould, or the graffy material be fo. effectually deftroyed; it will therefore be apt to rife and injure the woad plants.. But there is{till another method which is more expeditious, and at the fame time- equally effectual with the firft; and which has an advantage over it in more com- pletely deftroying the grubs and infects which are apt to feed on-the plants in their early growth. This is that of paring and burning. It is however chiefly practifed: where the{ward is rough and abounds with rufhes, fedge, and other coarfe plants.. After this, in the laft two methods, the land is to be carefully drained by making. grips in fuitable direétions, by means of the fpade,, as wherever water ftagnates the woad plants are fure to be deftroyed ft. Seed.—This is collected from a portion of the ground that has been left covered. * Martyn’s Edition of Miller's Dictionary, art. I/atise + Corrected Agricultural Report of Lincolnthire,$ Ibid, Cultivation of Arable Land.—Woad. 767 with the beft plants from the preceding feafon, as they only run up to ftem and produce feed in the fecond year. It is fometimes a praétice to crop the leaves of the plants that are intended to ftand for this purpofe, two or three times in the firft feafon; but this is an improper cuftom, as they are thereby much weakened in their growth, and not only afford a lefs quantity of feed, but fuch as is of an inferior quality. It is a better method either not to crop them at all, or but once, as by fuch management, feed of the moft perfect quality may be obtained. The ftem fhould be fuffered to remain till the feeds in the hufks become perfectly ripened; which is known by their attaining a brownifh yellow colour, and the pods having a dark blackifh appearance. The feed fhould then be gathered as foon as poffible, which is beft performed by reaping the ftems in the fame manner as grain, and then fpreading them in rows thinly upon the ground if the weather be fine; when in the courfe of a few days they will be in a condition to be threfhed out from the hufks. When they are fuffered to remain too long, the pods are apt to open, and fhed the feed. The hufk or pod, in which the feeds are included, is of a large fize, but the feeds lefs than thofe of the turnip. It is always the beft to fow new feed, when it can be procured, in preference to fuch as has been kept for fome time; when of the latter kind, it fhould be fteeped for twelve or fifteen hours before it is fown. In refpeét to the proportion that may be neceffary to be fown upon an acre, it muft depend much upon the foil, and the manner in which it is fown. Where the drill is employed, lefs will be neceflary than in the broad-caft method. A rood of land, where the crop is good, will in general afford feed fufficient foreightor ten acres. In fome places fix bufhels are made ufe of to the acre, in the broad-caft method*. Time and ipethod of fowing.—The period of putting crops of this fort into the ground muft depend in fome meafure upon the method of preparation that has been adopted. Where the firft of the methods that have been mentioned is followed, it muft be much later than in the other cafes. Early fowing is in general to be preferred, as there will be lefs danger of the plants being deftroyed by the at- tacks of the fy or grub+. When the weather is fuitable, and the land in a pro- per ftate of preparation, the feed may therefore be fown in the latter end of Febru- ary or in March, continuing the fowings, in different portions of Jand, till about the middle of May, at fuitable intervals, to vary the times of cropping the leaves of the plants.» The late fowings are generally performed about the latter end of July, or beginning of the following month. * Correéted Agricultural Report of Northumberland. + Laurence on Agriculture and Gardening, folio edition. 768 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Woad. The manner in which the feed is put into the ground is different, according to the nature and flate of preparation of the land. When it is in a fine ftate of mould, the drill, or row method, is the moft generally practifed, and is by_much the beft, as the plants may be kept more eafily clean from weeds, and become more vigorous from the earth being more ftirred about the plants: but where the con- trary is the cafe, the broad-caft plan is moftly followed; though it does not by any means admit of the plants being kept fo free from weeds, or of the mould being fo well ftirred about them. In the firft method, the feed is put in by a drilling machine, fuch as is employed for turnips, in equi-diftant rows, about eight or nine inches apart, being covered either by means of a harrow which is attached to the implement, or by paffing a light common harrow over it afterwards once ina place; and if there be any clods, they fhould be raked off to the fides, or into the furrows. In the latter mode, it is difperfed by the hand in as equal a manner as poffible over the whole of the land, being then harrowed in by a light harrow, fo as to leave the land in as even and level a{tate as poffible. In either way the land is frequently rolled afterwards, in order to leave the furface as even and neat as it will admit of. When the feafon is favourable and the feed is of a good quality, the plants moftly appear in the courfe of a fortnight; when much attention fhould be paid to them to fee that they are not deftroyed by the ¢turnip-fly, or the frofts in thofe of the more early fowings; as, where that is the cafe, the land fhould be immediately fown again. In fome places it is not uncommon to fow the greateft part of the crops two or three times over. And in the very late fowings, where the crops are thin on the ground, it is fometimes a practice to render them more thick by forming holes with a triangular. hoe in the vacant fpaces, and directing perfons to drop feeds into them by the hand*: women and children may be employed in this _bufinefs. This mode is often practifed for the late{pring fowings till the begin- ning of June, or even later. After culture.--As the goodnets of the woad plants depends upon the luxuriance of their growth and the thicknefs of their leaves, much attention is neceffary to the after management of the crops. In the f{pring-fown crops, as well as thofe that are put-in in the latter part of the fummer, the firft hoeings fhould be performed as foonas the plants are fully diftinguifhable; as by this means the weeds will not only be prevented from retarding the vegetation of the plants, but thefe, by being thinned out to greater diftances, will be more at liberty to advance, and become vigorous in i* Corrected Agricultural Report of Lincolnthire. Cultivation of Arable Land.—W oad. 769 their firft growth, which is a matter of great importance to the fuccefs of the crop. Yn the fecond hoeings, which fhould be given in the courfe of four or five mies after the firft, the plants are to be thinned out to the full diftances at which are to ftand, which may be fix or feven inches, or more, ac cording to the a lity of the foil, always leaving fufficient{paces to prevent the plants from being in any way crowded. This bufinefs is in fome cafes executed in the fame man- ner as for turnips, by means of hand-hoes; but in others it is performed by fimall fhort /puds, managed with one hand, while the other is employed in clearing away the weeds; the labourers, who are moftly women and children, kneeling wilhe they 4 eat work. After this nothing more is done tii the firft cropping of the leaves has been performed, when the plants are again immediately well weeded; and after each cropping the fame operation is had recourfe to; the extent“a crop cleared in the day being, in moft cafes, weeded before night* In the late mode of fowing, after the fecond weeding in October, nothing further will be requifite till the fpring, about the middle of April, when the work fhould be again well executed, the mould being fuily ftirred about the roots of the plants, in order that they may derive the fulleft advantage from the pro- cefs. This will be fufficient to keep the plants clean till the taking of the firft crop; after which the plants muft be again weeded, and the fame operation be performed after each cropping of the leaves of the plants, as in the former cafe. The expenfe of performing this bufinefs will be different in different cafes, but where labourers are in fufficient number, the firft hoeing will moftly be done at about fix or feven fhillings the acre, and the fucceeding ones at about half the ptice, provided it be executed before the weeds have rifen to too great a height. In many places, the bufinefs of weeding and cropping the leaves of the plants is performed by the fame perfons, at a fixed price for the acre, according to cir- cumftancés. Gathering the crop.—In the{pring-fown crops the leaves are generally ready to be gathered towards the latter end of June or beginning of July, according to the nature of the foil, feafon, and the climate. But when put in at a later period in the fummer, the crops are often fit to be gathered earlier. This work fhould, how- ever, always be executed as foon as the leaves are fully grown, while they retain their perfect green colour and are highly fucculent; as when they begin to turn * Corrected Agricultural Report of Lincoln thire. SF 770 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Woad. pale much of their goodnefs is expended, and they become lefs in quantity and of an inferior quality." In performing the bufinefs, a number of bafkets are provided in proportion to the extent of crop, and placed in the field, into which the leaves are put as foon as they are taken from the plants, which is done by the hand, by grafping them firmly and giving them a fort of twift. On good foils, in favourable feafons, the plants. will often rife to the height of eight inches or mores but in other circumftances| they feldom attain more than four or five: and where the lands are-well managed, in refpeét to the culture of the plants, they will often afford two or three ga- therings; but the beft cultivators feldom take more than two, which are fome- times mixed together in the manufacturing of them.‘The after croppings, ,when. they are taken, are conftantly kept feparate from the others, as they would in- jure the whole if blended together, and confiderably diminifh the value of the produce. The beft method, where a third cropping is either wholly or. only. par- tially made, is to keep it feparate, forming it into an inferior. kind of woad.. The produce upon an acre of land, when well managed, in favourable feafons, is moftly from about a ton toa ton and’a half. The price varies confiderably; but for. woad of the prime quality it is often from twenty-five to thirty pounds.the.ton, and for that of an inferior quality fix or feven. In the parts of the crops that are referved for feed, it is a practice with fome cultivators to crop the leaves two or three times. the firft year,.and then leave the plants to run up to feed in the following; but it. is a. better practice to only remove the fide leaves, as in this way. the plants are lefs weakened, and the pro- duce of feed is much greater. The plants are likewife fometimes fed down by. fheep during the winter feafon; but this, from its tendency to weaken them, is: equally improper. In the preparation of the woad feveral’ procefles are-neceffary after. being- ga- thered into the bafkets: it is, in the improved method, conveyed in one-horfe- carts, fo contrived as to be lifted from the axis, and, by. folding doors in the dot-. toms, to difcharge their contents upon the floor above the mill, on. being. hoifted up to their proper fituation: round this floor holes are formed for putting. the plants down through, in order that they may drop under the: grinding wheels. The mills for this purpofe have feveral wheels for grinding the, plants,.which aave lefs diameters on one fide than the other, and are about three feet in width, being conftructed with iron bars for crufhing the. woad. They are wrought by horfes, 5 or any other power, as may be the. moft convenient. The materials are. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Woad, he é féferved under the grinding wheels by proper contrivances, which, as foon as ‘they are fufficiently reduced, force it out of the tracks upon the ftone floors on the fides; thus making way for new parcels withoutthe mill being ftopped. The bruifed woad is then thrown into rooms on the fides of the mill, deftined for its reception, by means of fhovels. In thefe it remains till the juice is fo much drained off as to leave it in a proper condition for being formed into balls; which is done by labourers, with apparatus for the purpofe, and then laid upon trays to be conveyed to the drying ranges, in which they are placed upon grating fhelves that flide on ledges in the drying houfes. Thefe are placed on the fides of galleries for the convenience of being eafily placed upon them and removed again. It is kept in thefe till it is fufficiently dried to be laid up in other rooms, until the whole of the crop has undergone the fame operations, and the workmen are ready to manufac- ture it. In order to prepare it for ufe inthe art of dyeing, it is neceffary for it to take on a proper ftate of fermentation. This is accomplifhed in the courfe of feven or eight weeks, and, in the technical language of the art, is termed couching. It is effected by regrinding the balls, in the fame mill as before, to a fine powder, and then fpreading it upon the floors of the rooms in which the balls were formed, to the thicknefs of about three feet; where it is then moiftened with water, fo as to keep it in a proper flow ftate of fermentation; and fo managed by turning as that it may pervade the whole in an equal manner. In this bufinefs the direction of an experienced workman is neceffary. In the turning, it is of much importance that the parts of the materials be perfectly divided, which can only be effected by a nice management of the fhovel*. Much advantage has been found in the goodnefs of the woad, from the drying and ftoring of it being performed in a careful manner. When this attention is neglected, the woad will not, on being broken between the finger and thumb, draw out into fine hair-like filaments, or, in the language of the manufacturer, beaver well; as the ufe of this fubftance, in the blue vat of the dyer, is not merely to afford the colour of the plant, but, by bringing on a very gentle fermentation, ex- cite the indigo in the fame vat to yield its colouring principle more perfectly. This is even neceffary for its own colouring matter being fully imparted. The fub- {tance fhould therefore be fo prepared ia the different operations as to produce this effect in the moft certain and perfect manner. When the heat in the procefs * Young’s Correfted Agricultural Report of Lincolnshire. Wor Cultivation of Arable Land.—-Weld. of couching has gone too far, the fubftance will be what is termed foxy; and when it has not proceeded to a fufficient degree, it will be what is called heavy. If the material be good, it dees not foil the fingers on being rubbed between them; but fuch as is heavy does. In the conclufion of the procefs, the cooling is effected in fo eradual a manner as to render it not fit for taking on the fame procefs; and or courfe proper for being preferved in cafks, or in any other way, Itis then ready for ufe*. This is a fort of crop that appears beft adapted to the rich fertile lands that are on thefe accounts, on being firft broken up, unfit for oats or any other fort of grain- crop, as it may in thefe cafes be had recourfe to for a year or two, when they will be in a proper clean ftate for grain; as, from its not returning any thing to the land; it mutt of neceffiry be in fome meafure anexhaufting crop: but it does it ina more moderate way than many other forts of deteriorating crops; and at the fame time, from the nature of its culture, leaves the land in a more clean and perfect condition for the growth of other crops. The ingenious cultivator mentioned above has introduced this plant as a regu- larly returning crop in the rotation of woad for two, three, or four years; then oats for one or two years; after that cole, then oats again; the land being then laid down to grafs, with white clover, rib grafs, a flight portion. of trefoil, the beft hay-feeds, fome parfley, and a little ray-grafs. Land left in this way, if con{tantly fed down with fheep and a few neat cattle, it is fuppofed, would be ina condition to be planted again with woad in the courfe of feven or eight years T. But as the demands for this article are in fome degree confined, it is nota fort of culture that can be extended in an unlimited manner. Befides, as there is much rifk and anxiety attending the cultivation and preparation of fuch forts of crops, and a great expenfe of machinery, it is probable‘that many other kinds of root and other crops that are lefs expofed to hazard in their growth, and trouble in their preparation and after-management, may be grown on foils that are pro- per for this plant, with more profit and advantage. Where the culture of the plant is however eftablifhed, and the neceffary appa- ratus provided, its cultivation, by confining it to a particular place, and intro- ducing it in a regular courfe as juft ftated, may be extended, and rendered more eafy and profitable. Weld.—This is another plant that is cultivated for the fake of its flower-ftems,; 4 ¥Young’s Corrected Agricultural Report of Lincoln fhire.+ ibid. ee Cultivation of Arable Lond.—Weld. 773 which‘are employed in the art of dyeing, for the purpofe of producing the bright yellow and lemon colours*. The foils moft adapted to the culture of this plant are thofe of the more fertile mellow kinds, whether of the loamy, fandy, or gravelly defcriptions; but it may be grown with confiderable fuccefs on thofe of a poorer quality. In the former, the plants will however rife toa much greater height, and produce much larger leaves, than in the latter. In the preparation of the ground, it is neceffary that there fhould be a confider- able degree of finenefs produced in the mould. This may be effected by different ploughings performed in the more early fpring-months, and by occafional harrow- ing. In giving the feed furrow, the land fhould be left in as even and level a {{tuation as poffible on the furface, in order that the feed may be difperfed over it in a more equal and regular manner. Seed.—It is neceffary that this fhould be collected from the beft plants, and that iz fhould have remained upon the ftems tillit has been rendered perfectly ripe; as that which is not well ripened never vegetates well. The plants deigned for feed fhould not, however, be let ftand too long in the field, as the feed is liable to thed; and it fhould be perfectly frefh when fown, as that which has been long kept never comes up well, or in fo even a manner. As the feed is very fmall, the furface mould, by being left in a fine condition, is more fit for its being difperfed over it equally. The proportion of feed that is neceffary is generally from about twa quarts to a gallon the acre, according to circumftances, where it is fown alone; but when mixed with other crops a little more may be required. It fhould be mixed with a little fand at the time of fowing it. Time and method of fowing.—In this, as in the preceding crop, the feed may be put into the ground either in the fpring, as about the latter end of April or be- ginning of May; or in the clofe of the fummer, as about the beginning of Au- guft; but in the former periods, it is moftly fown in conjun¢tion with other crops, But when fown alone at the latter feafon, the produce 1s in general the moft abun- dant. This fort of crop is commonly fown broad-caft, whether it be grown in mixture with other plants or alone; and as the ieeds are of a very{mall fize, it requires an expert feedfman to perform the bufinefs with regularity and exactnefs; which is amatter of much importance to the fuccefs of the crop, as, where the plants * It is the Refeda Luitcola, and is commonly known by the names of Woold, Weld, and Dysr’s Weeds 3 774. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Weld. {tand too clofely together, much unneceffary trouble and expenfe muft be incurred in the thinning them out by the hoe afterwards; and where they ftand too thinly upon the ground, there muft be great lofs from the deficiency of plants. In order that the fowing may be executed with more regularity, it is the cuftom with fome cultivators to blend fome other fubftance with the feed that has nearly the fame weight, fuch as that which has been juft noticed, as, in this way, they fuppofe it to be effected with greater facility and difpatch. Where the weld is grown with other forts of crops, as barley,.buck-wheat, beans, peas, clover, or grafs feeds, it is put in after them; in fome cafes imme- diately, but in others, not till fome time has elapfed. With the firft and fecond, when fown fo late as the beginning of May, it is moftly the practice of the beft cultivators to put it in direétly afterwards, giving the land a flight harrowing with avery light clofe-tined harrow, to cover it*,"With fome, the barley being put in under furrow, the weld feed is immediately fown upon the furface, lightly har- rowed in, and then rolled+. But where the barley feeding is performed fo early as March, or the beginning of April, the fowing of the weld feed is beft deferred till May, when it may be difperfed over the land, and left in that manner to be wafhed in by the rains$. But with beans and peas, it is often put in before the Jaft braking or hoeing of the crops in the latter end of June, or beginning of the following month§. When cultivated with clover and grafs feeds, it is fometimes put in at the fame time with them; but it is probably a better practice to delay it till fome time afterwards, as both thefe crops require to be fown at too“early a period for this plant. Where no other fort of crop is grown with the weld, the ufual method is that of fowing it evenly over the furface of the land, and covering it in by harrowing with a light common or bufh-harrow, finifhing, when the foil is of the light kind, by pafling a roller over it. After-culture.—In the common practice of cultivating crops of this fort, no at- tention is afterwards paid to them. But as the plants are of flow growth, and of courfe liable to be greatly injured in their progrefs by the rifing of weeds, it muft be of much advantage not only to keep them perfectly clean from them, but alfo to have the mould ftirred about the roots of the plants. In the courfe of about a month from the time of fowing, the plants are moftly in a ftate to be eafily diftin~ * Synopfis of Hufbandry.+ Annals of Agriculture, Vol. I. t Ibid. § Corrected Agricultural Report of Kent. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Weld. P15 guifhed; a hoeing fhould, therefore, be then given when the weather is dry, which may be performed in the fame manner as for turnips, making ufe of fomewhat fmaller hoes for the purpofe. It is advifed by fome to fet the plants out, in this operation, to the diftance of three or four inches; but it will probably be better to let them have more room, as fix, feven, or eight inches; which will not only leffen the expenfe of the bufinefs,, but contribute to the advantage of the crop. When this operation is well executed, nothing further will be neceffary till the fpring, when a fecond flight hoeing may be practifed about March, in a dry time; and if any. weeds rife afterwards, a third may be-performed in May. But where the land has been well prepared, one in the autumn and another in the{pring may be fully fufficient. In fome cafes hand-weeding is practifed, but it is in general too expenfive a method. The moft proper time for pulling this fort.of crop is when the bloom has been produced the whole length of the ftems, and the plants are juft beginning to turn of a light or yellowifh colour; which is ufually about the beginning or middle of July inthe fecond year. The plants are ufually from one to two feet and a half in height. It is thought by fome cultivators to be advantageous to pull it rather early, without waiting for the ripening of the feeds, as by this means there will not only be the greateft proportion of dye, but the land will be left at liberty for the reception of a crop of wheat or turnips*. In this cafe, a{mall part muft be left folely for the purpofe of feed. In performing the bufinefs the plants aredrawn up by the roots in{mall handfuls, which are-ufualiy fet up to dry, after each handful has been tied up by one of the ftalks, in the number of four together in an erect pofition again{t each other. Some- times they, however, become fufficiently dry by turning without being fet up. After they have remained till fully dry, which is moftly effected in the courfe of a week or two, they are bound up into larger bundles, that contain each fixty handfuls, and which are of the weight of fifty-fix pounds each: fixty of thefe bundles con- ftitutingaload+. Thefe laft are tied up by.a ftring made. for the purpofe, and fold under the title of qwoold cord. Ass the weld plant is extremely uncertain in its growth, and the whole crop feldom becomes ina ftate. to be pulled at the fame time, it is neceffary to have an ex- perienced labourer to direét the bufinefs of pulling, in order that the pullers may not proceed at random, but take the different parts as the plants become ready, *- Martyn’s edition of Miller’s Dictionary, art. Refeda Luteola,+: Synopfis of Hufbandry, 776 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Veld, or in danger from the blight. In this laft cafe the greateft poffible difpatch fhould always be made, as the lofs of weight in the produce will daily increafe, and the grower be of courfe greatly injured. When the weld is fufficiently dried, which may be known by the crifpnefs of the leaves, and the ftems turning of a light colour, and when the plants are ripe, the feeds fhelling out; according to fome, it fhould be ftacked up lightly in the barn in order to prevent its taking on too much heat*; while others advife, that it fhould be ftacked up clofely in the manner of wheat, being left to fweat in the fame way as hay, as the more this takes place the better; the quality of the weld being thereby increafed, if there be no mouldinefs+. If the crop has ftood till it is perfectly ripe, the feed may be taken before it is put into the barn, which may be eafily procured by rubbing, or flightly beating each of the little handfuls againft each other over a cloth, tub, or any other con- venient receptacle, as, by threfhing, the quantity of the weld would be much re- duced in weight. The price of this fort of feed is moftly about ten or twelve fhillings the bufhel, which may be fold to the feedfmen. The produce of crops of this kind is in fome degree uncertain, much depending upon the nature of the feafon; but from half-a load to a load and a half is the quantity moft generally afforded, which is commonly fold to the dyers at from five or fix to ten or twelve pounds the load, and fometimes confiderably more. It is moftly bought by perfons who afterwards difpofe of it to the dyers occafionally as they find it convenient. The demand for it is fometimes very little, while at others it is fo great as to raife the price to a high degree. The expenfe of cultivating this fort of crop has often been eftimated below one pound the acre; but that is much too low where proper attention is beftowed in preparing the land, and in the hoeing and other management of the crop afterwards.- Without taking in the value of the land, tythes, or other charges, it muft conftantly ftand much higher ft. * Synopfis of Hufbandry. + Carter in Annals of Agriculture, Vol. I. t Without any regard to the preparation of the land or the crop with which it is blended, where that mode of culture is adopted, it may ftand thus per acre: Expenfies. LB. isos Seed,&c.= 3 5 ai 4 a 5S omnes Sowing-: c-==~= Om Ouas Two hoeings ci, 0 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Weld, nie Crops of this kind are particularly liable to be injured by the d/ght, which is pro- bably the reafon that has induced cultivators to raife them with thofe of other forts, efpecially thofe of the grafs kind, as by that means, where the weld does not fuc- ceed, a portion of fheep-feed may be afforded for winter and fpring ufe. The blight frequently comes on fo fuddenly, that crops which appeared healthy and in a vigorous ftate of growth during the winter and fpring, promifing a large produce, are about the month of May attacked fo as to be nearly deftroyed. It is known by the plants, efpecially about the lower parts of the ftems, turning of a yellowifh or pale reddifh colour, while the upper parts remain green and feem healthy. When it appears early in the month of May there is always danger of the crop being deftroyed; but when it comes on at a later period, or where the plants from other caufes, as the drynefs of the feafon, begin to change colour in the fhanks, the only chance is that of having them pulled as expeditioufly as pof- fible. Although the practice of fowing weld with other crops has been common, it would feem more proper to cultivate it alone, as in that way it muft be much in- jured and reftricted in its growth, from the great clofenefs and fhade produced by the plants that furround it. The only objection to the cultivating of it alone is, as has been juft feen, in the danger of the crop being deftroyed by the blight, in which cafe the farmer will have nothing left to repay him for his expenfe and trouble; whereas, when grown with other crops, they may in fuch cafes in fome meafure defray them*. It is ufual with the cultivators of weld when it is grown with other crops, ef- pecially thofe of the grafs kind, to feed them down, in the winter and fpring, with fheep or other forts of live ftock, under the notion that they will not touch the weld plants: but this is not the fact, as they are found to feed upon them, and muft of courfe be greatly injured in their growth: caution mutt therefore be ufed in directing the feeding down of clover or other crops where the weld plant is prefent. fie say ae Brought over 0 9 9 Pulling the crop and tying it in handfuls---- yt) fo: Binding into bundles--.--- o> 1 6 Woold cord=»== cs-. Oro Carting and ftacking--.~«.©. 34,0 ne 2) 0 * Synopfis of Hufbandry.——= SG = FU a MES ee(Ae oa; 778 Cultivation of Ai able Land.—Madder. There can be little doubt but that crops of this fort may be cultivated with much profit in fome cafes, where the foil is adapted to its growth, and from its nature not difpofed to the blight, or to lofe its moifture too much in the fummer months; but under the contrary circumftances its culture fhould not be attempted. Befides, from the great confumption of vegetable matter which it caufes, without contribu- ting any thing in the way of manure to the land, it can only be introduced with propriety, perhaps, in fituations where manure can be eafily obtained*. In thefe cafes, where the crops are cultivated with fuflicient attention, it may be a good preparation for wheat or turnip crops. When the weld cannot be difpofed of foon after it is pulled, it may be pre- ferved perfectly good’feveral years by being put up in ftacks, either in the barn or the open air, care being taken to keep it from being injured by the attacks of rats or other vermin. Madder.—This is another plant of the perennial kind, that is fometimes culti- vated in large plantations in the field, for the fake of its long thick flefhy root, which is employed in the art of dyeing, for the purpofe of giving a fcarlet colour+. It was formerly much more cultivated in particular diftricts than it is at prefent; the importations from Holland having lefiened the demands, and reduced the price of it fo much as to render its culture incapable of being conduéted with profit to the farmer. The foils the moft fuited to the cultivation of this plant are thofe of the deep fertile fandy loams that are not retentive of moifture, and which have a confider- able portion of vegetable matter in their compofition. It may alfo be grown on the more light defcriptions of foil that have fufficient depth, and which are in a proper ftate of fertility. In the preparation of the land for the reception of the crop, it will be neceffary to plough it up deeply before the winter into high ridges, in order that it may be expofed to the action and influence of the frofts. Early in the fpring thefe ridges fhould be well harrowed down by a heavy long-tined harrow, and then ploughed again in the contrary direétion to a good depth; and when, after this, it is not perfectly clean from weeds, or not rendered fufficiently fine and mellow, another ploughing and harrowing may be given. Inthe laft operations, the ground fhould be left in as level a ftate as poffible. It is then ready for the reception of the plants, * Marfhall’s Rural Economy of Norfolk. + It is the Rubia tinCoria. Cultivation of Arable Land—Madder.‘iti Sets.—The plants may be obtained either’ by fowing the feec earth which is rich, and made pe srfedt tly fine L i; being lightly covered in, or from offsets or fuckers from the old firft method, on the plants appearing they fhould be made pe he ing, and be fet out to the diftance of three inches in the beds we th tah iy oy 1 sat way, by keeping the ground quite clean and well flirred about ie plants they v be ready to fet out in the fecond autumn, though it will moftly be better to defer the bufinefs till the fpring. The latter practice is the better in this climate, if the fets can be procured, as the plants feldom ripen their feed perfectly, or afford it in a{tate to vegetate well. It requires about twenty thoufand plants for fetting an acre of land. Time and method of planting.—The proper time of taking the fets is fhown by the plants having obtained the height of ten or twelve inches from the ground, and the fuckers having thrown out fibrous roots at their bottoms. This may, be feen by drawing up a few of the plants, and is ufually about the latter end of May or be- ginning of June. It is quite neceflary that the fets have formed root-fibres at the bottoms before they are removed, as where that is not the cafe they fcarcely ever fucceed well. The plants being in this fituation, and the land prepared as before directed, fufficient number of labourers are to be provided, that the work may be performed as expeditioufly as poffible. In taking off the fets, much care is neceflary not to injure them. Some perform it by means of a dibble with a flat edge, and which is fhod with iron: this tool, on being thruft into the ground on the fide of the fhoots, divides and feparates them by depreffing the handle, without hurting the fine fibrous roots. The number of plants that can be fet ina fhort{pace of time fhould only be taken up at once. They fhould be prepared by having about a third of their top parts cut off. A fort of thin batter fhould likewife be made by mixing good vegetable mould and water well together, into which the roots of the fets fhould be dipped before they are placed in the earth, as by this means the neceflity of watering the plants afterwards is prevented. This work is executed by a perfon before the planting commences. Two others are employed afterwards in diftributing the plants fo as to be convenient for putting into the ground*. There are different methods employed in fetting the plants: in fome cafes they are put in the furrows by means of the plough, while in others they are fet in beds * Corrected Agricultural Report of Kent. 780 Cultivation of Avable Lend.——Madder. by adibble. The former is probably the better method, and, as being the moft expeditious, is.the beft adapted to the culture of the plant on an extenfive feale, In this, the planter begins by drawing a ftraight furrow on one fide of the plantation to a good depth: a row of plants are then laid in it by a perfon for the purpofe, at the diftance of five, fix, or more inches from each other, according to the circumftances of the land, in fuch a manner as to lean off from the‘plough; an- other furrow is then formed, by the mould of which they are covered. In this man- ner the work proceeds until the whole is finifhed. In the other method the fets, after the land has been formed into beds five feet in breadth, with two feet between each for intervals, are put in by means of a line and dibble, beginning at the diftance of fix inches from the outfides, and fetting a row of plants at fuitable diftances from each other, as juft mentioned; then re- moving the line two feet further on them, and putting in another row; after which it is again removed two feet, and a third row of plants fet in, which finifhes the bed; the work proceeding in the fame manner till the whole of the plantation is com- pleted. In this way, each bed contains three rows of plants at two feet diftance each, three feet being left between the rows on the different beds. In Holland, where the culture of this root is extenfive, their method is a little different from the above, The plants, after being taken from the older plantations about the month of May, are immediately fet in rows at the diftance of three or four inches from plant to plant, and about fifteen inches from row to row, the beds being ten or twelve feet in width, with intervals of only about two feet. As, in whatever manner the plants are fet, fome of them even in the moft favour- able feafons are liable to die foon after the work has been performed; it is necef- {ary in the courfe of a fortnight or three weeks to look over the ground, and put frefh vigorous plants in the places where the others have been deftroyed. By this means the plantations may be rendered more perfect and productive. After-culture—Whichever method of planting is practifed, it is of the greateft confequence to the fuccefs of the crop that it be kept perfectly clean from weeds, and that the mould be occafionally ftirred about the roots of the plants. The firft is accomplifhed by means of hand-weeding and hoeing, during the fummer feafon; and the latter, either by the ufe of a hand-hoe or a light plough. This laft is the moft eafy and expeditious. In this manner, or by digging the intervals of the rows, the mould is alfo laid up to the plants once each year, after the ftems have been removed in the autumn feafon*. Where the bed practice is followed, they * Corrected Agricultural Report of Kent? [e<) tend Cultivation of Arable Lend, Madder.” are fometimes earthed up in the autumn, aftef the flems have been cut down, by paring the intervals fomewhat in the manner of thofe of the afparagus kind. This method is however, in general, too expenfive and troublefome where the planta tion is extenfive. The crops are to be managed in this manner until the third autumn after plant- ing, when the plants will be in a ftate to be taken up. This is known by thei: ftalks beginning to wither, and is generally about October. This bufinefs is per- formed either by trenching the land over with a fpade, or by means of the plough. The firft is the more certain though much lefs expeditious method. In executing it, the workmen dig along the rows to the depth of about two feet, breaking and reducing every fpit of earth as perfectly as poffible; each being attended by two perfons who pick out the roots of the madder. But when the planting has been done in narrow beds, it is fometimes the prattice to take the roots up, by turning the earth into the intervals by a /pud, or broad three-tined fork. In this way it is fuppofed that the roots are taken up more perfectly, and with lefs danger of being injured. But the moft ready method is by means of the plough, which, after having the earth-board and coulter removed, is paffed along each fide of the rows, fo as fully to loofen the mould; perfons being employed to pick out the roots, loofening fuch parts of the earth as may have efcaped the action of the plough by their {pades. When the rdots have been taken up, they fhould be expofed fome time to the air, in order that they may be rendered fo dry as to be cleared from the mould. They are then to be conveyed toa kiln, fuch as is employed for the purpofe of drying malt or hops, where they are to be brought into fuch a ftate of drynefs as to be per- fectly brittle: this is done to prevent the danger of their being injured by becoming mouldy, or from running into a ftate of fermentation; but much caution is necef- fary in conducting the procefs. After this they are packed up in bags, in order to be difpofed of to the dyer, who reduces them into a powder, by a mill, before they are made ufe of asa colouring ingredient. The beft madder is that which, on being broken, has a brightifh-red or pur- plifh appearance, without any yellow caft. In order to colleé&t the feed of the madder plant, it is neceffary to let the plants remain in the field till the feed is almoft wholly ripe, which is generally in the month of September: the heads are then to be feparated from the ftems, and ex- pofed on a cloth in the fun till the feed can be eafily forced out by flightly beating them, It is then to be rendered perfectly clean, and afterwards placed in a funny 1 782 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Tea/el. fituation until it is become quite dry; for if the leaft dampnefs remain it will grow mouldy, and its vegetative power be either greatly impaired or wholly deftroyed. When thus properly dried, it fhould be put in fmall bags, and hung up to the cieling of a room where a fire is conftantly kept. The produce from the-root of this plant is different, according to the goodnefs of the foils, but moftly from ten to fifteen or twenty hundred weight where they are fuitable to its culture. It feems probable that the cultivation of madder might be rendered a profitable article of field hufbandry in different diftricts, if the importation of the root from Holland was prohibited; as the event of different trials has fhown that full crops of good madder are capable of being raifed. It is fuppofed by an intelligent cul- tivator, that if the price was never lower than three pounds the hundred weight,.it might be grown not only with profit by the farmer, but without injury to the con- fumer*. From the high degree of culture which land under this fort of crop muft ne- ceflarily undergo, and its not being fo much exhaufted as in many other cafes, it mutt be an excellent preparation for wheat or any other crop that requires a clean and fine pulverized condition of the ground. Teafel. This is a plant of the thiftle kind, which is cultivated in the field in fome diftriéts for its ufe in the dreffing of cloths, the head being conftituted of different well-turned vegetable hooks+. The foils moft adapted to the culture of this plant are thofe of the more ftrong and deep kinds, but which are not too rich, as loamy clays, and fuch as have marley bottoms and are fit for the growth of wheat crops. If broken up from the ftate of old ley, it is the better; but wheat ftubbles are fometimes made ufe of for the purpofe. The fituations the moft favourable are thofe that are rather elevated, open, and incline to the fouth. The high grounds, efpecially where the country is inclofed, are the mofl advantageous, as the natural fuperabundant moifture in the heads of the plants is more completely diffipated in wet feafons, which in other more low fituations is apt to lodge fo long upon them as to caufe them to decay. In the preparation of the ground when it is aley, the beft method is to plough it up deeply in the beginning of the year, asin the firft part of February; and where * Boys’s Correéted Agricultural Report of Kent. + Itisthe Dipfacus Fullonumy or Fuller’s Thiftle. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Teajel. 783 about three bouts each, the furrow flices being laid as even and regular as poffible, the fine mould from the furrows being raifed by the plough or fpade fo as to cover the furface. But in lands that are fufficiently dry, and which are broken up from ftubble, the ploughing may be deferred to a later period, and be laid in ridges of much greater breadths and more flat. In either cafe the furface fhould be left in as fine a ftate of mould as poffible for the reception of the feed. Seed.—In collecting the feed, it fhould conftantly be taken from fuch plants as are the moft perfeét of their kind and the moft productive in heads, as there is much difference in the quantity that is afforded by different plants, fome producing, nearly a hundred, while others do not afford more than three or four*. It fhould be fuffered to remain till it becomes perfectly ripened, and be ufed while frefh, as fuch as has been long kept feldom vegetates in a perfect manner. The proportion of feed that is moftly employed on the acre is from one to two pecks+, but fome make ufe of a larger quantity. It is difadvantageous, however, to fow the feed too thick, as the plants are injured in their early growth by ftand- ing too clofely together. Time and method of fowing.—Crops of this fort are commonly put into the earth about the beginning of April. As the feeds vegetate in the moft expeditious and perfect manner when put in while there is a confiderable portion of moifture in the foil, the fowing fhould never be deferred much longer than this period. It is moftly fown in the broad-caft method evenly over the furface, in the man- ner that is practifed with turnips. But before this is performed the land fhould be well harrowed down, in order to afford a fine ftate of mould as a bed for the feed. It is then to be covered in by a flight harrowing with a light fhort-tined harrow. This fort of feed may likewife be fown in rows in the drili method, at the di- {tance of eight, twelve, or more inches, from each other, in the fame way as that of the turnips. This method is not, however, much employed by thofe who are in the practice of raifing teafel crops. After-culture.--As much in the cultivation of crops of this kind depends on the land between the plants being kept perfectly clean and free from weeds; in having them fet out to proper and fufficient diftances; and in having them well earthed up, it is neceflary that the cultivator fhould fee that thefe operations are performed in % Billingfley’s Corrected Agricultural Report of Somerfet. + Ibid. 784 Cultivation of Arable Land,—Teafel. a perfect manner. The digging between the plants is ufually executed by means of fpades which have long narrow bitts not more than about four inches in breadth, having the length of fixteen or eighteen inches. With thefe the land is commonly worked over in the intervals of the plants three or four times during the fummer months; and about the beginning of November, when they ftand too clofely to- gether, they fhould be drawn out, in order to fill up any vacancies that may have occurred. When there are ftill too many plants remaining, it is fometimes a practice to prepare another piece of ground, into which thefe are tranfplanted. It is, however, found that thofe plants which are never removed produce the bett heads*. In the enfuing winter, as about the latter end of February, the land between the plants is to be again worked over by the narrow fpades, care being taken that none of the mould falls into the hearts of the plants. And about the middle of May, when they begin to fpindle, another digging over is given, the earth being raifed round the root-ftems of the plants, in order to fupport and prevent them from being blown down by the wind. Some cultivators perform more frequent diggings, that the ground may be rendered cleaner and more mellow; confe- quently the growth of the plants be the moft effectually promoted+. This bufi- nefs is commonly termed /paddling, and is executed with great difpatch by labour- ers that are accuftomed to it: the ufe of the hoe has been attempted by fome in performing it, but without fuccefs{. After thefe diggings nothing further is neceflary till the period of cutting, which is generally about the month of July, which is known by fome of the uppermoft heads beginning to blow; as, when the bloffoms fall, they are ripe, and in a ftate to be cut. This is a work that fhould be performed as the heads become ripe; but is moftly executed at three different times, at the diftances of about ten days or a fortnight from each other. It is done by means: of a knife, contrived for the purpofe, with a fhort blade and a ftring attached to the haft. This laft is dane in order that it may be hung over the hand. A pair of ftrong gloves is likewife neceflary. Thus pre- pared, the labourer cuts off the ripe heads along the rows, with about nine inches of ftem, and ties them up in handfuls with the{tem of one that is more per- fe€tly ripened. On the evening of the day on which they are cut, they fhould be put into a dry fhed; and when the weather is fine and the air clear, they fhould be taken out, and expofed to the fun daily till they become perfectly dry. Much * Correéted Agricultural Report of Somerfet.+ Ibid.} Ibid. “Cutiivation of Arable Landi—Teafel. E85 ‘eare muft however be taken that no rain falls upon them. In doing this, fome make ufe of long fmall ftakes or poles, on which thefe handfuls are hung. After being completely dried, they fhould be laid up‘in a dry room, in a clofe * manner, till they are become tough and of a bright colour, and ready for ufe. They are then to be forted or feparated into three different kinds, by opening each of the{mali bundles. Thefe are diftinguifhed into kings, middlings, and Serubs, accora- ‘ing to their different qualities. They are afterwards made into packs, which, of the firft fort, contain nine thoufand heads, but when of the fecond twenty thoufand; the third fort is of very inferior value*. By fome, before forming them into packs, they are done up into what are termed faves, by means of{plit fticks. The produce in-crops of this nature is very uncertain, there being fonietimes fifteen or fixteen or more packs on the acre; and at others fcarcely any. The produce is difpofed of to the cloth manufacturers in Somerfethhire, Wiltthire, and Yorkfhire, and in general averages about forty fhillings the pack. From the cir- cumftance of the land being under the neceffity of being kept in a high ftate of pulverization and cleannefs, the expenfes of cultivation muft be confiderable t- This kind of crop is extremely precarious, as the plants, ef{pecially when the feafon proves wet about the time of bloffoming, are liable to rot and be de- ftroyed., The uncertainnefs of teafel crops has induced the cultivators to blend other plants with them the firft year, fuch as beans,&c. in order to repay thém in fome meafure for the great expenfe of tillage and keeping the land clean: but this is * Corrected Agricultural Report of the County of Somerfet. + Mr. Billingfley, in his able Agricultural Survey of Somerfetthire, eftimates them in the following manner; Expenfes per Acre. asm had f Two years’ rent--.-°.= gr ears Ploughing»=°---*° O15 0 Workmen's labour in digging,&c.-- ts Fs 315© Making out in bundles, tying together, and bands, at 2s. per pack-©1140 Average Produce. Seven packs at 4cs.--- In this eftimate tythes and taxes are not however valued. gH 786 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Liquorice. a practice that fhould be avoided as much as pofflible, as the growth of the teafel plants muft conftantly be injured by it, From the nature of the foil, the preparations that it undergoes in rendering it fic for the growth of the plants, and the fine ftate of pulverization and cleannefs that it is kept in by the after-culture which is neceffary, it becomes: well adapted for the reception of a wheat crop after the teafels are removed, and Which may moftly be put in on one ploughing. But as the teafel robs the foils on which it is grown ofa confiderable portion of their fertility, as is evinced by its fucceeding the moft perfeétly on lands that are newly broken up from the ftate of old fward; it may not be advifeable to follow it by fuch grain-crops, except when the grounds are very rich; but to interpofe fome fort of green crop, either of the bulbous- rooted or ftem kind.; Liguorice.—This is a plant fometimes cultivated in the field for the fake of its roots, which are made ufe of for various purpofes. It is a hardy perennial of the deep-rooted kind. The fpecies moftly grown is the common fort*, the roots of which are faid to be more fweet and juicy than thofe of the others, An open {ituation is always to be preferred for this plant. The foils moft fuited to the growth of the liquorice plant are thofe of the deep light fandy loams, as the goodnefs of the crops depends upon the roots penetrating to a confiderable depth. The preparation of the land is effected either by the fpade or the trench-plough; but the firft is the more perfect method. In either way the ground muft be well loofened to the depth of three feet or more, the autumn before the planting is intended; and a fufficient proportion of well rotted dung then intimately incorpo- rated with the mould. In this ftate the land is to remain till the time of planting, when another ftirring of the earth muft be performed to the fame depth, the mould being left as light as poffible. The land being thus prepared, it is neceffary to provide a fufficient quantity of fets. Thefe fhould be taken off from the fides or heads of the old plants, care be- ing taken that each of them have one or two good eyes or buds, and that they be perfegtly found. They fhould be about ten inches in length. Time and method of planting—The beft feafon for putting the fets into the eround is in the early part of the fpring, as foon as the frofts are over, as about. the latter end of February or beginning of March. There are different methods of putting the plants in, fome preferring the fet- ting them on the plain furface, while others have recourfe to fmall beds. On foils * The Glycyrrhiza glabra. 3 Cultivation of Arable Land.— Liquorice. 787 that are dry and porous, the firft may be the moft advifable practice; bur in fuch as are retentive of moifture the bed method may be preferable. In the firft mode, the fets are ufually put in by means of a line, with a dibble of confiderable length, in rows at the diftance of two feet from each other, and one foot or more in the rows; the fhoots being put in ftraight downwards, fo as to be covered over about one inch with earth on the top. Where the intervals between the rows are fufficiently fpacious, there are confiderable advantages tn the ‘cultivation of the roots, as the earth may be ftirred and kept clean at little ex- penfe by means of the plough; and at the fame time the roots will have room to attain a more full growth. Where the planting is performed in the latter method, it is the practice in fome diftricts to put the fets in on beds three feet in width raifed into ridges*. In both thefe methods, it is the cuftom with many to fow, at the time the planting 1s ex- ecuted, fome fmall feed-crop, fuch as onions. In the bed method they are fown in the alleys: but though in this way fome advantage may be immediately gained, without much care in removing them from about the liquorice plants, they will be prejudicial to their growth: befides, they prevent the land, in the inter- vals of the rows and alleys, from being ftirred and kept in a perfectly clean ftate,— a circumftance on which much depends in the culture of the liquorice root. After-culture.—It is highly neceffary that the plants be kept free from weeds by repeated hoeing and hand-weeding during the fummer months; and towards October, after the onions or other crops, where they are grown, have been re- moved and the land been well cleaned, a flight covering of well rotted dung fhould be applied. In this ftate the plants may remain until the following March; when the ground between the rows, or in the alleys, muft be lightly ftirred, either by digging or the plough, in order to promote the growth of the plants. Some likewife advife the tops of the liquorice plants to be annually cut overt. Thefe methods are to be purfued till the third year after planting, when the roots will be in a condition to be taken up; but which fhould not be performed until the {tems are wholly decayed, a3 when raifed too early they fhrink greatly and decreafe much in weight. The method of taking up the roots is generally by means of trench digging to the full depth of the roots, which is moftly about three fpits in depth. In executing the work three workmen generally follow each other with{pits, Le- * Corrected Agricultural Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkthire,+ Ibid. 788 Cultivation of Arable Land. Cutting and Harvefting Grain Crops. ginning on the outfide of the rows with the trenches, the laft having a mattocle. to affift:him in raifing the roots, After the-roots are taken up, they are thrown on the ground-on the fides of the trenches. The fame method is purfued with cach of the tows until the.whole crop is taken up. In fome-cafes, the land in thefe trenchings is left in fuch a ftate,as to be ready. for replanting. The{mall lateral roots are thea trimmed off, the-largefl being cut into proper lengths for new fets, and the main roots tied up into bundles for.the ptirpofe of fale. This fort of crop can only be cultivated in a local manner, as it requires land that has great depth of foil, and which pofleffes confiderable fertility. Befides, it is in fome meafure expofed to uncertainty, being liable to become. rotten in wet feafons, and to be much injured in its growth. by-frofts in the fpring, and dry- weather in the fucceeding months. As the value of this root depends;much upon its being kept in a fucculent ftate, and there is confiderable.lofs in weight by its. being kept dry, it is the moft advifeable, practice to difpofe of the-praduce im- mediately after it is taken up; but where this cannot be done, it fhould be depo fited in a moift fituation till it can be, fold. Having thus defcribed the.methods of culture.that appear the moft advantage-~ ous in the.different forts of field-crops, we fhall confider the modes of cutting, har- vefting, and fecuring, that are.the moft economical,. and beft adapted to thofe of the.corn kind.| Cutting and Harvefting Grain. Crops.—The times and methods of cutting down grain. crops, as well as thofe. of harvefting and fecuring them, vary confiderably in dif- ferent diftriéts, and under. different circumftances and kinds of corn: In fome, as thofe. of the. midland and more fouthern counties, the harveft commences early, as towards the. latter end of July or beginning of Auguft; and the grain is chiefly cut by means of fhort{tiff foythes* conftruéted for the_purpofe; with bows of {mall fticks, or, what are fometimes termed cradles, fixed to the handles ih, fuch a, manner as to depofit the heads or ears of the.corn, as much as poffible, in one direction. In this practice, the produce is frequently bound up into a fort of fheaves or bundles’; while in cafes where.the naked fcythe is made ufe. of, the- binding is but rarely attempted, the crops being merely raked together, and put in{mall heaps, till they are.in a proper ftate to be fecured in the barn or ftack-yard._ But in moft of the more. northern diftriéts, and in Scotland, where the cutting * The feythes ufed for cutting grain crops fhould neither be fo Jong or fo thin in the edges as thofe. employed in mowing grafs, asit is not neceffary to take fo great a breadth; and where the edges of the {cythes are thin and fine they are liable to be broken by the ftiffnefs of the ftraw.. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cutting and Harvefting Grain Crops. 789 of the grain begins at a much later period, as about the middle or latter part of Auguft, the bufinefs is chiefly performed by means of the fickle or reaping-hook; the handfuls, as foon as cut, being placed upon bands made by twifting a few of the ftems together at the-ear ends. Thefe are moftly afterwards bound up into fheaves of different fizes, according to the nature of the fituation and climate. In this mode of cutting and binding the grain, it is moftly fet up into what are provincially termed frocks, frouks, fhocks, or hattocks, which is accomplifhed by fetting fix, eight, or ten fheaves together, with the tops or ear ends inclining againtft each other; after which the whole is capped, or covered over, by dividing two fheaves quite up-to the-bands and flipping them over the others, in fuch a man- ner as that. their butt ends may meet in the middle; while the ear ends fpread fully over the upright fheaves,.and preferve them from.the»wet. Thefe top fheaves; from the manner in which they cover the others,.are termed hooders. In almoft every fituation, both in the-fouthern and the more: northerly parts of the kingdom, the wheat and rye crops are however cut by the fickle or the reap- ing-hook, as it is fcarcely poflible to cut them’ with a{cythe without..confiderable lofs. And befides, it is of great advantage, in refpect to the ftraw, to have the crops bound up into fheaves ina regular manner. Sometimes a hook which is fharp on the edge, but without teeth, is made ufe of: the labourer, in perform- ing the bufinefs, hooks up the.grain.towards him..‘This.in fome diftricts is termed baging. In the cutting of grain crops, whether by: the-fcythe or the fickle, there is much difference in different places, in the height at which the operation is performed. fn fome it is the practice to mow or reap the crops as clofe-to the furface of the ground. as_it.can be conveniently executed; but in others, eight, ten, fifteen, or:. more inches of ftubble are: left. There are advantages and inconveniences attending the-cutting of grain crops, both in the fcythe-and fickle‘method. The firft has the advantage of being expe- ditious, and at the fame time of being-capable-of being executed with any degree- of clofenefs that may be: required; but it.leaves the produce. in an irregular and uneven fituation, which renders it not fo fit for being bound up.into fheaves. And befides, where the corn is very ripe; it may be, more liable.to be:fhed during the operation, when performed in this manner. It is, however, often the practice, where corn is cut by the fcythe, to have it bound up into fheaves, as well as to let it remain in the fwaths until it is ready for the ftaek; but where the former is the- cafes the grain is moftly mown inwards. towards the crop, the cut grain refting againft 790 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Cutting and Harvefting Grain Crops. the ftanding corn; while, in the latter, it is cut outwards, and formed into fwaths in the fame way as with grafs. Where the fickle is employed, the crop is placed with more exactnefs and regu- larity, and of courfe is capable of being bound up with greater eafe and facility. And it is probable that there is lefs lofs of grain incurred in the operation. The bufinefs is, however, more tedious and difficult of execution in this way than by the {cythe. It feems obvious therefore, that where labourers are fcarce the former method muft be the moft advifeable; but where the contrary is the cafe, it may be the moft advantageous to have recourfe to the latter. In regard to the height of cutting grain crops, as the ftubble which is left in mowing or reaping them is not only nearly ufelefs to the land, but frequently fo troublefome in the culture of it afterwards as to be uncer the neceffity of being removed; it would appear to be the beft and moft economical praétice, in either cafe, to have them cut as clofe as the nature of the ground will admit. By this means the agricultor will not only have more litter at command for the bedding of his yards, ftalls, and other places, and confequently an increafe of ma- nure, but have the bufinefs more expeditioufly performed, and with much lefs waite of the grain; and at the fame time be freed from the trouble and expenfe of removing the ftubble*. It has been fhown by careful experiment made with the view of afcertaining the difference between high and low cutting, that there is much advantage in favour of the latter mode+. In this trial, four ridges in the fame field, apparently equal in quality, were two of them reaped clofe by the furface of the ground, and the other two at fome height, though not fo high as in the general practice of the diftrit. Each of the portions was found to meafure fomething more than a quarter of aScotch acre, which is more than a fifth larger than that of the Englifh {tatute acre. The produce was then fet up feparately into /touks; and the length of time that “eight reapers took to the part that was cut /ow, was found to be one hour and twenty-four minutes; and that taken up by the fame number, in the part cut high, only forty-eight minutes. The expenfe in wages was eighteen-pence each the day, and that of maintenance fix-pence. The refult of the experiment on the grain % Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture, Vol. IJ. and Perthfhire Agricultural Report. $ Corrected Agricultural Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkshire. Cultivation of Arable Land.— Cutting and Harvefting Grain Crops. 79% being threfhed out and meafured, and the ftraw weighed, was found to be greatly in favour of low cutting*. In order to facilitate the bufinefs of cutting grain, different attempts have been made to conftruct machines for the purpofe; but hitherto we believe without com- plete fuccefs. An implement of this kind, which could perform the operation in an eafy, correct, and expeditious manner, would be of vaft importance to the arable farmer in this uncertain climate, efpecially as the difficulty of procuring a fufficient number of labourers in fuch bufy feafons has been lately much increafed. In refpect to the proper period of cutting the different kinds of corn, it is bef fhown by the appearance of the crops, as when the grains are become plump and well filled, and the greennefs in a great meafure removed from the ftraw and ears by the bleaching effects of the oxygen of the atmofphere, it will in general be neceffary to begin the bufinefs of cutting. It is, however, the beft practice in moft cafes to begin before the crops are too ripe, efpecially when the fcythe is made ufe of, as there will be lefs danger of wafte. And the bu- finefs fhould always, if poffible, be performed when the crops are perfectly dry; as when cut down while wet, they are extremely liable to become mouldy, and in- jure the fample. Whether the fcythe or fickle be made ufe of in cutting grain crops, it is probably the moft judicious and fafe practice to bind the produce up into fheaves. It has been remarked by an experienced agricultor, that there are many advantages refulting from it: the wafte of grain is much lefs; the crop is % Tt is thus ftated in the Agricultural Survey of the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire: Refult. Sea Eight fhearers(reapers) one hour and twenty-four minutes, at 2s. per day, or 21d. per hour------ C2 4 Same number of labourers, 48 minutes-== ie Or’ 4£ Difference of expenfe in favour of high cutting a.«© 1 0 Or per acre-===->» e°o 40 One peck anda quarter of wheat more from the low cut portion than that cut high, at 1s. 4d. the peck, is----- onr.§ Fourteen ftones(22 averdupois pounds) more of ftraw, at ad, per ftone, is Ce ay O74? o ee Or per acre->--=-=‘ 0160 Dedu&t the increafed expenfe of cutting, and there will remain in favour of low cutting per acre= a==°~ 2 erm© ee SED “792 Cultivation of Arable Land.—= Cutting and Harvefting Grain Crops. more quickly placed outof danger from the weather; the labour of carrying, houfing, or ftacking, is greatly leffened; the ftraw, in wet feafons, is much better for the purpofes of cattle-fodder, and the grain preferves its colour far better. On the whole, it is likewife concluded. that the quantity of labour is rather diminifhed ‘than increafed: befides, the bufinefs of threfhing, efpecially where the work‘is performed by the machine, is thus rendered much more eafy and-expedi-~ : tious*. The loofe method of harvefting, if practifed at all, can only be employed in -the more fouthern diftricts, where the harveft commences at an early period, and where the climate is mild, regular, and fteady+, as there muft under other cire cumftances be much danger from the crops being fo fully expofed to the weather. In the binding of grain crops, middling-fized fheaves are conftantly to be pre- ferred to thofe that are very large, as there is not only lefs danger of their be- .coming mouldy within, but they are more eafily penetrated by the winds and dried by the fun. In tying the bands, care fhould be taken that they do‘not flip too much towards the ear ends of the corn; and that they be made fufficiently tight for the ftraw not to flide through them during the time of fetting them up in the field, conveying them to the barn or ftack, or in the operation of ftacking; as, where this is not properly attended to by the workmen, there is often much trouble and inconvenience afterwards from the fheaves falling afunder. Wheat and rye crops, as being moftly free from weeds and having the ftraw but little imbued-with moifture,«will only require to be expofed to the influence of the- fun and air for a fhort time,.as a few days, in order to render the grain plump, Slippery, and a good fample. Much:may be effected in this way, by fpreading out and expofing the grips, handfuls, or any fmall portions of the crops, as they are cut down, to the full aétion of fuch powers, turning them occafionally, and carefully‘binding them up before the-evening dews fall upon them. A very little stain is capable of making thefe crops grow, and thereby injuring the value of the grain.‘Jt is generally the practice in thefe cafes to fet the theaves up during the funny part of the day on their root ends, putting them into hattocks during the night. Inthis way they foon become fit for the barn or ftack. But in barley and oat crops, as well as thofe of the pulfe kind, a much longer time is requifite in the field to prepare them for being put up either in the barn or the ftack.‘The neceflary length of time will depend much upon the cleannels of * Marfhall’s Rural Economy of Yorkthire.+ Modern Agriculture, Vol. IL Cultivation of Arable Land.— Cutting and Harvefting Grain Crops. 793 the crops from any weedy or graffly matters. After being cut, they muft remain, according to the manner in which the operation has been performed, for fuch a length of time in the field as is fufficient to render the{tems of the grain, as well as any graffy material they may contain, in fuch a ftate of drynefs, as that when clofely ftacked up they will take on little or no heat; as; where the contrary is the cafe, the grain is liable to be fpoiled by becoming mow burzt, or greatly injured in the colour of the fample. Where the grain is reaped by the fickle, the produce is often placed loofely upon the bands in the day, and tied up into fheaves towards night, being then fet up into battocks.‘Thefe, when the weather is fine, efpecially if the feafon be wet, are expofed to the action of the fun and air by taking off the hood, or cap-fheaves, in the daytime, carefully replacing them as the evening approaches. In bad weather the root ends of the fheaves are likewife turned up towards the fun. And in mowing corn crops, where they are afterwards bound into fheaves, a fimilar method is purfued in bringing them into a proper condition for being piled up in ftacks. In executing the bufinefs it is ufual for the mower to be followed by a woman and boy, the latter of whom prepares the bands, while the former, with a long-toothed wooden rake having a fhort handle, collects the cut grain into parcels about the fizes of fheaves, depofiting them in a quick eafy manner in the bands, without ftooping er touching them with her hands. The mower having proceeded to the end of the fwathe, binds them up as he returns, placing them: ither upon their root ends, or fetting them into /fooks; and in the mean time the ftubble is raked over by the woman in fo clean a manner that fcarcely a ftem is left: this is performed with much eafe and expedition where the land has been well har- rowed over and rolled at the time the crop was put in. A reaping fork is fometimes made ufe of for collecting it into fheaves. This is conftructed with two prongs below, fomewhat in the manner of the common hay fork, to which are added at the upper part two upright prongs,. by means of which the grain'is removed: from the fwathe and collected into fheaves, the lower prongs raifing it up while the upper ones prevent its falling backwards, and determine the quantity which is proper for the fheaf. By this fimple contrivance the grain may be gathered more regularly and much more expeditioufly into fheaves than by mere hand labour. After the grain is become perfeétly dry by expofing it to the fun and wind in the manner defcribed above, it is put into the ftack. This method of cutting and harvefting grain would appear to be better than tha of reaping, as being much more expeditious, and confequently reducing the num- ot! il] 79% Cultivation of Arable Land.—~-Cutting and Harvefting Grain Cropse | Ler of labourers that would otherwife be neceffary, and which in many fituations Hi are difficult tobe procured, i The neateft harveft work is, however, made by thé fickle, and itis probably the beit method where a fufficient number of hands can be procured. The fickle with teeth fhould be employed in preference to the reaping-hock with a cutting blade, which is ufed in fome places, as it is a much more expeditious and convenient tool, and performs the bufinefs in a much better manner. Where the corn crops are-cut by the f{cythe and fecured without being bound up into{heaves, the fwathies aré in fome cafes repeatedly turned over till they become fufficiently dryito be put into the ftack; but in others, after being a httle dried in| the fwathes, they are formed into a fort of heaps, or cocks, in which they remain tll they are ready! to be carried:into the barn or the ftack- yard. As foon as they have attained this ftate,| they are conveyéd.as quickly as poffible to the barn, or ftack, a number of labourerssbeing employed to rake over the ground. The method of harvefting grain craps in this cafe has much fimilarity to that purfued in the hay harveft. It is; however; a flovenly wafteful praétice, which does not by any means ) deferve encouragement, as there mutt conftantly be great hazard of fecuring the veurable:: Befides thefe methods, wlhenthe harveit is late and unfavourable, and the diffi-| culty of preferving the grain greatly increafed, others are fometimes had recourfe to, fuch as gaiting and butting the corn. The firft of. thefe operations is chiefly practifed when the crops are cut late and im a wet condition, and is performed by tying the fheaves in a rather loole manner in the ufual place, and then flipping the Hi bands up tothe ears. They are afterwards fet down on the ground on their root ends,. a) sn{0 forcible a manner as to give them a good bafis to reft upon: with experienced labourers, the hand is then thruft down through the middle’ of the fheaves, by which the butt ends are{pread out and the central parts left open and hollow, more thofe that face towards the fouth; as, by that means, the air and the efpecially rays of the fun enter and pafs through more freely, from which the grain is better ckly preferved and rendered fit for the mow or the ftack*. d recourfe to in late wet harvetts, produce when the feafon is not tia and more qui The butting of grain in the field is moftly ha raétice often attended with much fuccefs in the more northerly climates, efpecially when it can be accompiifhed while the corn is ina tolerable ftate of dry- nefs, immediately after being cut and bound into theaves, The huts are formed by and is a p * Modern Agriculture, Vol. I. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Stacking of Grain Crops."95 building the fheaves together in fuch a manner as to fhoot off the wet as much as poffible, to the height that the labourer can reach as he ftands upon the ground, being fo narrowed up as that they may be covered at the tops by a fheaf or two, fpread out fo as to let the water readily pafs away. They generally contain from about twelve to twenty /bocks, in proportion as the ftraw is more or lefs bulky. When thus properly conftructed, the grain may be preferved, however bad or long- continued the harveft feafon may be. Grain managed in this way has been found, on the buts being taken down after they had been expofed to the moft fevere and heavy rains of the worft harveft feafons for five or fix weeks, in an aftonifhing ftate of prefervation, little injury having been done, except to a few of the top fheaves; while that in fields adjoining not treated in the fame manner, though carefully fet upsin ftooks and hooded, was completely grown and matted together, fo that each ftook was a connected mafs of vegetable vegetating matter*. This fact fhows the advantage of the practice in the moft clear and fatisfactory manner, in diftricts where the harvefts are protracted to a late period, and the weather on that account apt to be wet and unfavourable. After the grain has been rendered, by fome of thefe modes,. perfectly dry and in a proper fituation for the ftack or mow, no time fhould be loft in carrying the crops. In performing the bufinefs, whether carts or waggons are made ufe of, the grain is moftly put upon them by labourers{tationed in the fields for the purpofe; and after they have been brought home, are forked up to the ftacks,&c. by the drivers. The wheat-crops are in many diftriéts chiefly preferved in the barns. This is particularly the cafe in the midland and fouth-eafterly counties, where they are large; but in various other parts it is the practice to build this fort of grain, as well as thofe of barley, oats, peas, beans,&c. into ftacks in yards contrived for the pur- pofe+. This laft method, when properly performed, 1s probably the beft and moft convenient, as the grain is not only more fecure from vermin, but preferved much more free from muftinefs, and at the fame time capable of being got at with more eafe and facility. Befides, the vaft expenfe and inconvenience of the buildings are not only avoided, but the danger of expofing the corn longer out in the field than would otherwife be neceflary obviated, and the wafte of grain by. fhedding, in confequence of fuch drynefs, in loading and carrying, in a great mea- fure prevented. Stacking of Grain Crops.—It is a common practice, when grain 1s fecured in * Modern Agriculture. Vol, LI.+ Ibid. ii Farmer’s Magazine, Vol. HI 796 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Stacking of Grain Crops. ftacks, to allow it to be depofited upon.a bafis formed of large pieces of timber or other kinds of wood, and filled up in the middle with brufh-wood faggots, or any other materials of a fimilar nature, a little ftraw or litter being thinly placed ever the whole. This is, however, a dangerous and flovenly method, that ought never to be attempted by the correct agricultor. It is a much{fafer, better, and upon the wholea more economical praétice, where this mode of preferving corn is in ufe, to have the ftacks built upon frames conftructed of wood, ftone, or brick, When conftituted of the firft fort of material, they are ufually raifed upon ftone pil- lars or fupporters, to the height of from two to two feet and a half, the tops being capped or covered over with flat round ftones of confiderable dimenfions, fo placed as to prevent the entrance of vermin. But when made with ftone or brick, they are built to the fame height as in the former cafe, ina rather flanting manner outwards, and covered on the tops with copings of oak planking or flat ftones, which proje& over the edges feveral inches, and in that way prevent the depre- dations of rats and mice on the grain, as well as their lodging ia the ftacks. In both cafes, pieces of timber are placed as a frame in the middle to fupport the grain. The firft of thefe forts of corn-ffands is in general the befl as being more eafily as well as more cheaply conftruéted, and at the fame time permitting the air to enter and circulate with more freedom underneath, in the bottom of the ftand. In refpect to the form of thefe ftands, it varies according to that in which the ftacks are made, which is differentin different diftricts. The circular and oblong forms are the moft ufual; but the long narrow fhape is probably to be preferred, as it is faid to keep the corn better, more dry, and freer from heating*. It is an ad- vantage in this fort of ftands that the crops, efpecially thofe of the wheat, may be carried and ftacked upon them much fooner after being cut than in other circumftances+. They have likewife the advantage of preferving the grain in a more fweet condition, when kept till the following fummer, or for a greater length . of time. Though very different forms are in ufe in building corn ftacks, thofe of the long, narrow, fquare fhape are probably the moft advantageous where the quantity of grain is confiderable; as they ftand more firmly, have a better ap- pearance, are more conveniently built, and preferve the corn better than thofe of other forms. Befides, they require lefs thatch as well as labour in putting it upon * Correéted Agricultural Report of Northumberland.+ Ibid. SE Cultivation of Arable Land.—Stacking of Grain Crops. 797 them. But where the grain is only in a{mall proportion, the round or oblong fhape may be more proper and fuitable, as being more readily drawn up in the roof. The circular with a conical top and cylindrical body, diverging a little at the eaves, is efteemed the beft form, by fome*. In the building of the ftacks the ftems fhould be fuffered to{well outwards, in avery gradual manner, quite up to the eaves, and not be brought up in a perfelly upright or plumb method, as ts the cafe in fome diftricts; as by this means they will not only be more effectually fecured from the penetration of moifture, but require a lefs extent of ftand. And if well built, they ftand with equal firmnefs and folidity. The proportions that ought to be preferved in their conftruction, are in general about two-thirds of the whole, or fomething more, for the ftems, and one-third for the roofs; but the difference of form may admit of flight variations in thefe refpects. The fizes of ftacks of this fort muft of courfe vary confiderably according to circumftances; but they fhould never be made too large, as there is a great deal more rifk in fecuring and getting in the grain for them; and from their being built at different times, they do not fettle all together in fo perfect a manner, or refift the effects of the weather, and keep the grain io well as thofe of lefs di- menfions, that can be completed at once. Befides, they are more inconvenient in threfhing out, efpecially where the flail is employed. The only advantages they poffefs are thofe of taking fomething lefs in thatch and labour in covering them. In general, from about twenty to thirty two-horfe cart-loads may be fufficient for one ftack. Where grain is{tacked loofe, in the manner of hay, it is the common practice to have feveral perfons upon the ftack as for hay, the corn being forked up and placed on the fides all round in a fimilar manner; after which other parcels are laid round on the infide of thefe, fo as to bind them ina fecure manner from flip- ping outwards; proceeding in the fame way till the whole middle{pace is well filled up; when the operator commences another courfe in the fame method, and goes on in this mode, courfe after courfe, till he has formed the whole of the ftem; when he begins to take in the roof, in a very gradual manner, in every courfe| until he brings the whole to a ridge or point, according as the ftack is formed. In order that the roofs may throw off the water in the moft perfect manner, they fhould be fuffered to have a flight degree of fulnefs or{well a little about the mid- dle, and not be made flat, as is frequently the cafe. But where the corn is bound into fheaves, feldom more than one perfon is em- * Corrected Agricultural Report of the County of Perth, 798 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Stacking of Grain Crops. ployed in performing the bufinefs of building the ftack, except where the dimen- fions are very confiderable; in which cafes it is found necefflary to have a boy to receive the fheaves from the pitcher, and hand them to the man who builds the ftack. In executing this work it is of the greateft importance that the centre of the ftack be conftantly kept in a fomewhat raifed ftate above that of the fides, as by this means the fheaves havea floping direction outwards, by which the entrance of moifture is more effectually guarded againft. To accomplifh this in the moft perfect method, it is the beft practice for the operator to begin in the middle of the ftand or ftaddle, fetting the fheaves together, fo as that they may incline a little againft each other, placing the reft in fucceffive rows againft them till he comes to the outfide, when he carries a courfe of fheaves quite round, in a more floping manner than in the preceding courfes. Having thus formed the bottom of the ftack, it is afterwards ufual to begin at the outfide, and ad- vance with different courfes round the whole, placing each courfe a little withir the other, fo as to bind them in a perfect manner, till he comes to the middle. Different courfes are to be laid fomewhat in the fame way, till the whole of the ftem is completed; when the laft outfide row of fheaves is, in fome cafes, laid a very little more out than the others, in order~ form a fort of projection for the eaves. Where the ftem of the ftack is however formed in the manner advifed above,, this may be omitted without any inconvenience, as the water will be thrown off without touching: the wafte of the ftack. The roof is to be formed by placing the fheaves gradually a little more in, in every courfe, till it comes to a ridge or point, according to the form of the ftack. In making this part of the ftack, great care fhould be taken to give the ear-ends of the fheaves a fufficiently floping dire€tion upwards, in order that they may be the better fecured from wetnefs. And the outfide fhould be well rounded, in the manner that has been directed above. Where proper attention is beftowed in building corn-ftacks in this way, every ‘fheaf in the whole will have fuch a loping pofition outwards of the ftack,, or to- wards the root-ends of the fheaves, as will afford the moft perfect fecurity againft damp and moifture*. In ftacking wheat-crops, thefe direftions require more particular attention; as the fheaves fhould have a rather more floping direction when placed in the ftacks,., on account of the tallnefs of the ftraw, in order that they may be the better fe- cured againft the injurious effeéts of damps. It is of much convenience and advantage, in the ftacking of grain as well as hay,, * Farmer's Magazine, Vol. III. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Thatching of Grain Stacks.“G9 to have a large fheet or fail-cloth to place over them in cafe of thowers or bad weather, while they are building, and before the thatch is put on; as where this convenience is not at hand, much injury is frequently fuftained at thefe umes by the fudden falling of rain. It is the praétice in fome diftri&s, efpecially where the ftacks are made of« circular form, and the weather is wet and unfavourable, to have a funnel or chimney left in them, in order to prevent their taking on too much heat. This is effected by tying a fheaf up in a very tight manner, and placing it in the middle, on the foundation of the ftack, pulling it up occafionally as the building of the ftack proceeds all round it. And in fettine up ricks in bad harvefts, it is a prac- tice in fome places, particularly with barley crops, to have three or four pretty large poles tied together, by winding f{traw ropes round them, fet up inthe middle, round which the ftacks are then built. Where grain ftacks are not placed upon elevated frames or ftands that are open in the bottoms, it may be ufeful in fome cafes to leave one or more openings in the lower parts of the ftacks, that there may be a free circulation of air underneath them*. But except the ftacks are large, or the grain when put into them in an imperfect condition, fuch openings are quite ‘unneceffary+. It may likewife be ufeful, in building large corn ricks, to have a Packing frage, fo contrived as to be capable of ftanding clofe to their fides, and by that means enable the workman. to pitch the fheaves with more eafe and convenience to the perfons employed in forming the ftacks. An eafy contrivance of this fort will be defcribed in fpeaking of the methods of ftacking hay. Thatching of Grain Stacks.—In the thatching and trimming of corn-ftacks, con- fiderable experience, ingenuity and art is neceffary, in order to perform the bufinefs in.a complete manner, The moft fuitable material for the purpofe is good wheat- ftraw that has not beeA much bruifed in threfhing out the grain. But when this cannot. be had in fufficient quantity, rye-ftraw may be fubftituted in its place; which, however, from. its rough and ftubborn quality, is neither fo neat in its appearance, fo-durable, nor affords fo-fecure a covering. Barley and oat ftraw are fometimes made ufe of for the purpofe; but they form very indifferent coverings, and fuch as are not by any means lafting. There is ftill another material thac may be made ufe cf with propriety and ad- * Farmer’s Magazine, Vol. III. a ms ¥ Ia the northern parts of the kingdom, they are denominated facu/es. 800 Cultivation of Arable Lend.—Thatching of Grain Stacks, vantage in fome fituations. This is the ftubble of fuch wheat-crops as have been cut ata great height; which, after being mown clofe to the ground and raked up; ferve the purpofe very well. In preparing thefe fubftances for application, after being well moiftened with water, they are drawn out in handfuls perfectly ftraight and even into regular lengths, and the fhort ftraw feparated, leaving them placed in convenient bundles to be carried to the thatcher. In the application of the thatch, different methods are purfued according to the nature of the materials employed. When long ftraw is made ufe of, the operator ufually begins at the eaves or bottom of the roof, depofiting it in handfuls in re- gular breadths till he reaches the top; the different handfuls being fo placed endways as to overlap each other, the upper ends being conftantly pufhed a little into the bottom parts of the fheaves. In this manner he gradually proceeds, breadth after breadth, till the whole of the roof is covered, which is ufually done to the thicknefs of about four or five inches. And in order to retain the thatch in its place, fhort fharp-pointed fticks are occafionally thruft in, in a flanting di- rection upwards, and fomecimes{mall fticks fharpened at the ends are bent and thruft in along the top parts and fides. But as the water is apt to follow the courfe of the fticks, it isa better practice to make ufe of ropes of twifted ftraw for this purpofe. In fome cafes thefe are applied only round the bottom parts of the roof and the fides; while in others, which is a much better and more fecure method, they are applied in fuch a manner over the whole ftacks as to forma fort of coarfe net= work nine or twelve inches in width in the mefhes; the ends being well fattened, either to belt ropes paffed in fuitable directions for the purpofe, or to dif- ferent parts of the ftraw of the ftack. This method of tying on the thatch fhould conftantly be pra¢tifed where the ftack-yards are much expofed to the effects of the: wind, as without fuch precaution great injury may frequently be fuftained. Where ftubble is ufed in the way of thatch, it is put on by fticking one of its ends into the roof of the ftack, in a regular and exaét manner, fo as that it may ftand very clofe and thick: the other, with fuch loofe ftraws as may occur, is then cut over, or pared off with a very fharp tool, for the purpofe, fo as to form a neat and impenetrable thatch, having the appearance of a newly thatched houfe*.. Is is well fecured in its place by fhort pees made for the purpofe. In whatever way the thatching of corn-ftacks is performed, it fhould never be * Modern Agriculture, Vol. IT. " Cultivation of Arable Land.—Thatching of Grain Stacks. 801 attempted until they have fully fettled; as where the contrary is the cafe it is fure to rife into ridges afterwards, and by that means admit the water to pafs down into them. The expenfe and trouble which attends the thatching of corn-f{tacks has been brought as an objection by fome againft the praétice of fetting grain up in that method; but it 1s not by any means neceffary, in order to have them neat and fe- cure, to beftow either fo much labour or materials upon them as to juftify fuch an objection, though it may be done in fome inftances. As they are feldom de- igned to ftand for any great length of time, it is quite fufficient that they’ be thatched in fuch a manner as to effectually prevent the entrance of water, and fo fecured that the winds cannot difturb them. To have the work performed in any ' other way would be totally incompatible with that difpatch which is conftantly re- quifite ac fuch feafons. Narrow oblong ricks rounded at the ends poffefs. many "advantages, both in the economy of labour and thatch, over thofe of other forms that have the fame contents: befides, they admit of the thatching being performed at one end before the other is finifhed, or as the ftacking proceeds. But in any cafe the expenfe of thatch is of no great importance, as, when removed from the ftacks, it ferves very well as litter for the cart-horfes and other eattle*. And even barley- or oat-ftraw will anfwer the purpofe perfe@ly well when drawn in an even manner and put on with fufficient care+. In diftriéts where the ftubble is left high, it may likewife be employed as thatch for grain-f{tacks, as has been already feen. But when it is intended to make ufe of it in this way, it fhould be mown as clofe to the ground as poffible immediately after the corn has been removed from the field, being then raked together by means of a large borfe fubble-rake t, and carried to the farm- or ftack-yard in order to be put up in a fort of ftack for future ufe. When not applied as thatch, it may be made ufe of in the way of litter for the cattle-ftalls and fold~yards with great advantage. The prattice of collecting it from the fields fhould therefore be conftantly attended to as much as poffible, as other forts of ftraw may be faved thereby, and at the fame time much manure produced, In regard to the methods of trimming grain-ftacks after they have been fet up and thatched, they are differently performed in different diftri¢ts. In the fouthern parts of the kingdom, where the injudicious practice of houfing grain loofe fre- * Communications tothe Board of Agriculture, Vol, I.+ Ibid i Section on Implements {K 802 Cultivation of Arable Land.-—Threfhing of Grain. if quently prevails, it is an ufeful mode to pare or cut the outfides of the ftems of corn-ftacks in an even neat manner, by means of a fharp hay-knife or fome other fharp tool: In this way the rain is more effectually prevented from being abforbed or taken into them along the loofe ftraws. But where the grain is cut by the fickle and bound up into fheaves this is unneceflary, if the operator take fufficient care in building the ftacks. In this, as well as the preceding method, it will, how- ever, be advantageous to have the thatch evenly cut round the eaves and other parts where it may project, as the rain will thereby be lefs apt to fall againft the bodies of the ftacks in bad weather, and at the fame time give them a neater ap- 6 pea rance. Threfbing of Grain.—In threfhing out grain different methods are purfued. The wheat-crops, in fome diftriéts where the ftraw is much ufed for the purpofe of thatching farm buildings, is lafhed out over a{trong wattled hurdle, ftone, or other fimilar contrivance. In other cafes, this as well as all the other crops are threfhed out by means of the flaii or the threfhing machine. The flail method, from its being an extremely flow, tedious, and expenfive pro- cefs, and at the fame time one that requires a great number of labourers, can, perhaps, only be practifed with advantage on the fmaller kinds of arable farms, that are cheaply fituated in refpeét to the command of workmen, and where the expenfe of large machines would be much too great for the quantity of grain which they preduce. But even in thefe cafes, if the fmall hand threfhing-engines that are conftruéted on cheap fimple principles, and which occupy but little room, fhould be brought to perform the bufinefs in an eafy, expeditious, and effectual manner, which feems not improbable from the improvements that have been re- cently made in this fort of machinery, it will moft probably be to the advantage of fuch farmers to abandon it, as the faving in various ways muft foon repay them the expenfe of the machines, and at the fametime afford them a confider- able profit. Befides, where the threfhing is performed by the flail, expenfive barn-floors, either of the fixed or moveable kind, will conftantly be neceffary. The latter fort may, indeed, fometimes be capable of being converted to other purpofes. In this way too the produce is conftantly expofed to the depredations of the perfons that are employed in executing the bufinefs, which, in many cafes, proves a fource of great lofs to the farmer, as he cannot by any means prevent the impofitions to which it is liable. It has been well obferved by the intelligent furveyor of a fouthern diftri€t, that where threfhers are employed by the day, they frequently Cultivation of Arable Land.—Threfhing of Grain, 805 do not perform half the work that ought to be done in the time, nor even that in a perfectly clean manner; and, that if it be executed by the quarter or the trufs, the freeft corn is threfhed out and the reft left in the ear*. The fame thing takes place in a greater or lefs degree in every other method that can be adopted for having the threfhing performed by the hand; itis confequently only by the general introduction and ufe of the threfhing machine, that the property and intereft of the farmer can be fully fecured, and the work be executed with that degree of economy which the greatly increafed price of labour demands. The fuperiority of the method by machinery over that of the flail is very con- fiderable in many other refpects, befides thofe of its executing the work in a much more clean and perfeét manner+, and with infinitely greater difpatch, fo as to admit of the farmer being prefent during the procefs. Sufficient fupplies of both corn and ftraw may at any time be almoft immediately provided, either for the purpofes of feed, the market, or the feeding of animals, without the other ope- rations of the farm being in any degree interrupted. It is likewife obtained with much lefs wafte of the grain, and with lefs danger of its being injured by being bruifed. From the increafing fearcity of labourers, the great advances in the price of Jabour in all the well-cultivated diftricts, and the impoffibility of having this fort of work performed in a clean manner by the flail, the neceffity as well as utility of thefe machines feems eftablifhed. The principal obftacles to machines of this na- ture being more generally made ufe of, are chiefly thofe of expenfe in their erection, and the flovenly prattice which prevails in fome of the more fouthern diftricts, of fecuring grain crops in aloofe manner. The firft of thefe objections may probably, however, be obviated by the conftruction of hand threfhing-engines; and the latter by the difcoveries and improvements that are daily taking place in this fort of machinery. The objections that have been raifed againft the practice, on the {core of its depriving labourers of employment during the winter feafon, are fcarcely deferving of notice, as experience has fully fhown that no injurious con- * Correéted Agricultural Report of Middlefex. + It was found by the author of the Survey of Kent, on having different parcels of wheat-ftraw of thirty-fix pounds each threfhed out clean by the flail, by different farmers, and the fame weight of ftraw threfhed after it came from the machine; the average produce of corn left in the ftraw by the commor mode of threfhing was half a pint in every thirty-fix pounds of ftraw, more than that left in the machine method, 804.‘ubtivation of Arable Land.—Threfbing of Grain. fequences can refult from it, as there muft always be work enough of other kinds at fuch periods, where farms are under a judicious mode of cultivation*. And the inconveniences that may attend the largenefs of the quantity of ftraw that mutt be at once produced in this method, may be eafily obviated either by placing it immediately in clofe ftacks, or by having a part of it cut into chaff and laid up in a well-ventilated granary, as, in this way, there can be little doubt but that it will keep well, provided the operation has been performed while the ftraw is dry. Befides, by the ufe of one horfe or hand-machines the work may proceed with- out this trouble, as the ftraw is wanted fer the ufes of the farmer, which, in the cafe of{tore cattle being fed with it, may be a more advantageous practice. But where the fold-yard and cattle-ftalls are kept properly littered, and as frequently changed as may be neceflary for promoting its converfion into manure, the farmer will feldom be much incumbered with ftraw. The faving of expenfe in this mode of threfhing, over that by the fail, muft be different according to the nature of the machine and the power by which it is wrought, as well as the ftate and condition of the grain, and the regularity with which it is fupplied. By fome it is ftated as about one half, while others make it much lefs than that proportion+.. Wich the beft conftruéted machines we appre- hend it will be performed, on an average of different forts of grain and different flates of them, at one-third the expenfe of the flail method, or, perhaps, much * Modern Agriculture, Vol. II. + In the different forts of grain the expenfe and produce of a day’s threfhing are thus ftated by the author of the Corre€led Agricultural Survey of the County of Kent: W beat. PAS Mae ie Fight men, at 1s. 8d. each-~=, a: Ona 4 Four boys, at 1s. each~----= yl Four horfes, at 2s. 6d. each----- Oo 10 6 Cleaning and meafuring 24 quarters, at 3d. each-- 0 46-0 13 4 Which is about rs. 4d. per quarter, or nearly half the price of the flail method, Barley. Ea 3 Cleaning and meafuring 32 quarters, at 3d. each=~- 0'3.- 0 Other expenfes, as above-=“.“ Tg idl Ten se | Cultivation of Arable Land.—Threfbing of Grain. 805 rc lefs, without taking into the confideration any thing for the great faving in grain*, or f the other operations that may be performed at the fame time, fuch as thoie of winnowing or cleaning the corn, cutting ftraw into chaff, bruifing and grinding the grain for cattle food or other ufes. Where threfhing-machines are made ufe of, it is advifed by the writer of the Agricultural Survey of the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, that the barns in which they are erected fhould extend into the ftack-yards, as by that means the ma: chines are more conveniently fupplicd, and at much lefs expente of labour, with the grain in the ftraw. Thefe threfhing-engines fhould likewife be adapted to the fize of the farms, as by proper attention in this refpect much expenfe may fre- quently be faved. In threfhing corn by the flail it is the practice in fome diftri€ts for only one per- fon to be employed upon a floor; but as two can threfh together with equal if not Oats. Groth: Cleaning and meafuring 40 quarters, at 1d. each.-< OH a Other expenfes, as before--~= a ge cemieiemaeeede TALOA S Or a little more than half the price of that by the flail; this fort of grain being commonly threthed at about 3s. 3d. per quarter. This is without the late improvements in the machines of this kind, by which they are capable of performing the work with much fewer hands, as well as of cleaning the grain and executing feveral other operations, by all of which the above charges would be ftill much leffened. But in the Corrected Agricultural Report of Northumberland it is remarked, that a threfhing-machine is emp'oyed there that has been found, on trial, to threfh at the rate of thirty-three bushels in the hour, or two hundred and fixty-four in the day of eight hours. The expenfe in the attendance of the threfhing and drefling parts of it being merely that of three women; one to feed in, another to hand the theaves to the feeder, and a third to take away and riddle the corn after it is winnowed: confequently the threth- ing and drefling the above number of bufliels only cofts one fhilling and fixpence, while the threshing the fame quantity by the flail would be one twenty-fifth part, or ten and a half bufhels, which, at two fhillings the bufhel, is twenty-one fhillings; to which muft be added two fhillings for the expenfe of a man and two women to affift in winnowing: which makes in all twenty-three fhillings. In the north riding of Yorkthire, according to the Corrected Agricultural Survey of that diftri@, threfhing by the machine is undertaken in oats for fixpence, and wheat a fhilling the quarter, the farmer finding horfes. * In the fame work it is likewife ftated, that in this, fome reckon a profit of at leaft five per cent.; others, as equal to the feed and price of threfhing, which is fomewhat more than half the price of the flail method; this fort of grain having of late been ufually threthed at about 1s. 6d, the quarter. Ne te nee ee ee 806 Cultivation of Arable Land.—-Threfhing of Grain. ereater expedition, it muft be an ineconomical and difadvantageous mode. But where more than two labourers threfh together, which is fometimes the cafe, there mutt be frequent interruptions, and a confequent lofs of time. The tool by which this fort of bufinefs is performed fhould be well adapted to the fize and ftrength of the perfon who makes ufe ofit, as when difproportionately heavy in that part which acts upon the grain, it much fooner fatigues the labourer, without any advantage being gained in the beating out of the grain. The beft method of attaching the different parts of the implement together is, probably, by means of caps and thongs of good tough leather: iron is however fometimes employed. In threfhing moft forts of corn, but particularly wheat, the operators fhould wear thin light fhoes, in order to avoid bruifing the grain as much as poffible. In the execution of the work, when the corn is bound into fheaves, it is ufual for the threfhers to begin at the ear ends and proceed regularly to the others, then turning the fheaves in a quick manner, by means of the flail, to proceed in the fame way with the other fide, thus finifhing the work. When much threfhed grain has accumulated on the threfhing-floor, it is neceflary to feparate the fhort ftraw and chaffy matter from it, by, paffing the whole through a wide riddle or fieve for the purpofe. This fhould always be done before too much grain has been colle¢ted, as in that way the bruifing of the grain may be more effe@tually prevented. The fhort chaffy fubftance thus feparated is in fome di- {tri&ts termed cavings, and is capable of being employed with advantage in the feeding of horfes or neat cattle. After this has been accomplifhed, the loofe grain {hould be thrown up to the fides of the floor, or, what is better, into a chamber con- veniently formed for its reception, where it fhould remain till a fufficient quantity has been collected to render the clearing of it by the winnowing machine or other contrivance neceffary. It is almoft impoffible to afcertain the quantity of grain that a labourer can threfh out in the courfe of any given period of time, as it is obvious that much muft de- pend on the nature of the grain, the freenefs with which it threfhes, and the exer- tions of the labourer: in general it may be of wheat from one to one quarter and a half; of barley from one and a half to two quarters; of oats, moftly about two in the day. The exertions of labourers in this fort of work in the northern diftricts of the kingdom, are however much greater than in thofe of the fouth; of courfe a much larger proportion of labour muft be performed. In fome places it is the practice to threfh by the meafure of grain, as the bufhel, quarter,&c. while in athers it is done by the threave, of twenty-four fheaves, and in fome by the day. 3 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Threfbing of Grain. 807 In Kent, before the late rife in the price of labour, it was ufual to pay from two fhil- lings and fix-pence to three fhillings the quarter, for the firft of the above forts of grain; two fhillings the quarter for the fecond; and one fhilling the quarter for the third*. And in the midland and northern diftricts the prices are nearly the fame, or perhaps a very little lower in the latter. In the above county beans are likewife threfhed at one fhilling the quarter, and peas from one fhilling and fixpence to two fhillings the quarter. But in whatever way the farmer has this fort of bufinefs ex- ecuted, there is always much neceffity for his conftant infpection, in order to pre- vent the frauds and impofitions that are too frequently practifed. All forts of grain and pulfe, when the ftraw is intended to be made ufe of as cattle-fodder, fhould only be threthed out as the ftraw is confumed, as it is eaten much better, and is more nutritious in this freth ftate than when given them after it has been laid by fome time after being threfhed. And the fame is the cafe with the caving-chaffor other material feparated from the grain f. The grain as foon as threfhed out fhould conftantly be cleaned from the chaff and other extraneous matters, as by delay in this refpect the fample is liable to be much injured. There are different methods of having this bufinefs performed; the beft is probably by means of the improved wimnowing machines, as the work is executed in this way in a very cheap perfect manner, and at the fame time with much eafe and difpatch. In fome diftriéts it is however the common practice to have the grain cleaned by means of the cafting-fhovel and flat broom, which is denominated a /pry, which ferves the purpofe of{weeping off the chaffy materials and the fmall portions of {traw that are detached by the wind from the corn. Where the barn-floors are fuf- ficiently large in all direétions, this mode of clearing grain is conceived by fome to be the beft and moft expeditious, but that where the room is confined, winnowing machines will not only do the work better but perhaps at a more cheap rate}. The other methods of rendering grain clean by expofing it to the action of the wind, on the threfhing-floor of the barn, or before the fails of a machine, though prac- tifed in fome diftriéts, are fo imperfect and troublefome as to deferve no attention from the enlightened agricultor. Where the corn is cleaned in the firft of the above methods, there is in moft of the improved machines of the winnowing kind a fcreen through which the grain paffes after it has been cleaned from the chaffy fubftances, and by which * Synopfis of Hufbandry.+ Ibid.} Boys’s Agricultural Survey of Kent. 808 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Preferving of Grain. the fmall feeds of all forts, as well as other foreign matters, are readily fepa- rated from the corn. This procefs is particularly neceffary with wheat and barley. And if thefe grains be cleaned without the wiawowing machine, it will of courfe be requifite to let them through a corn-fcreen afterwards, in order to remove any fmall feeds they may contain, as well as the ova of different forts of infects, by which the production of the weevil, moth, beetle,&c. is prevented; and the depredations which they commit, while in their vermicular ftate, on different forts of grain, effectually obviated. Implements of this nature may be had fepa- rately, but the bufinefs is much more conveniently and cheaply executed at once by the winnowing machine. Preferving of Grain.— After the grain has been thus rendered clean, it is in a pro- per condition either to be fent to the market, or for being laid upin a ftate of pre- fervation. As the prevention of all forts of corn from being affected by the dif ferent caufes that have a tendency to injure it, when laid up for the purpofe of keep- ing, depends upon its being put by in a perfectly dry condition, and on its being afterwards preferved in that fituation,—in order to effect thefe objects in the moi perfect manner, it is of the greateft importance to keep the corn, from the firft pe- riod of its being threfhed out of the ftraw, as much as poffible from coming in contact with earth, ftone, or other forts of floors that are placed near to or upon the ground, as they have conftantly much difpofition to communicate moifture, and by that means greatly injure the grain. And another method is by preventing the entrance of the atmofpheric air as much as can be done, whenever it is ina heavy damp ftate, by being too much loaded with humidity; as in this way, from the vaft extent of furface that is expofed to its influence, it is fubjeét to be very much damaged, the large quantity of moifture thus imparted to the corn bringing on a fort of mouldi- nefs, which is attended with a mufty difagreeable fmell that leffens its value in a very confiderable degree, as well as prevents its keeping. The chief remedy in the firft cafe, is by cautioufly avoiding the too common practices of permitting the grain to remain upon the threfhing-floors, efpecially thofe of the earth or ftone kinds, after it has been threfhed out, before being cleaned from the chaff; or, after being cleaned, by depofiting it upon them either in aloofe ftate or when put up in facks. A perfe&tly dry room or bin fhould conftantly be pro- wided for its immediate reception, the bufinefs being performed as much as poffible in a dry ftate of the atmofphere. And in the fecond, a great deal may be accom- plifthed by means of proper flides, fhutters, or other fuitable contrivances being con- yeniently fixed in the pipes, funnels, or other openings intended for the purpofe Cultivation of Arable Land.—Preferving of Grain. 808 of ventilation, in the corn-rooms or granaries, which fhould be kept ciofe!y fhut up whenever the atmo{phere is fo much charged with moifture as to prove detrimental to the grain. And as frequent turning or ftirring the grain, and ventilation, are found by experi- ence to be effentially neceffary for preferving and keeping it perfe@tly fweet and fit for fale, it is obvious, on the above principle, that this fhould only be attempted when the weather is fine, or the air in a dry elaftic ftate. In damp weather, or when froft prevails, it fhould be excluded as much as poffible. Befides air, light is like- wife advantageous in the prefervation of corn, under fimilar circumftances, as, with- out its being admitted, a fort of vegetable mucor, ufually denominated mould, is apt to fix upon the grain and produce much mifchief, as it is faid to poffefs the fame property as that of other funguses, of growing where there is fcarcely any change of air, and in fituations where there is little or no light, provided there be a fuitable degree of warmth and moifture*. On the fame principle, with the intention of retaining the grain in a ftate as free as poffible from dampnefs, it might be ufeful to have well conftructed ftoves in the bottom parts of corn chambers or granaries, for the purpofe of occafionally communicating fuch moderate degrees of heat to the grain as would be fufficient to dry up and expel any injurious moifture, that it might have attracted in damp wet feafons. On this ground it has indeed long ago been ad- vifed on the bafis of experience, by an intelligent writer ¢, to preferve wheat by ex- pofing it to the action of a funfhine degree of heat, ona hair cloth in a malt-kiln, pro- duced by the combuttion of clean ftraw, for fuch a length of time as may be neceflary to remove the dampnefs; as from four or five to ten or twelve hours, according to the proportion in which it may exift. In this method the heat fhould always be kept fo moderate as not to deftroy the vegetative property or life of the grain; as by that means its putrefaction and decay would be promoted. The degrees of heat that would be the moft calculated to anfwer the purpofe in different cafes would be eafily regulated by thofe inftruments that are in common ufe for meafuring the heat and moifture of the atmofphere. The principles advanced above, affift us much in reconciling the differences of opinion, that have fo long prevailed in refpeét to the ufe of air in the prefervation of corn in granaries; as they fufficiently fhow that when admitted in its perfectly dry and elaftic ftate, it muft be particularly ufeful in carrying off any moiflure or difagreeable fmell that the grain may have contracted by remaining clofely heap i together for fome length of time; as by the ftirring which moftly accompanies t Co he * Darwin's Phytologia.+ Mr. Tull, SL 310 Cultivation of Arable Land—=Preferving of Gratite ventilation it muft operate in a very extenfive manner; but that when applied in its moift heavy ftate, it muft be detrimental in an equal proportion, by imparting: its humidity to the corn, and by that means caufing it to become mutfty. The ventilation of grain fhould confequently be performed when the weather is fine, but never when the air 1s ina: damp condition, or in the time of froft. This is the moft completely effected by ftirring the corn by proper flides or- other contri- vances in the floors, windows, and; other openings in the-granaries or corn-rooms*; but it may be accomplifhed in a more flow and of courfe in a more uneconomical manner, by fhovels, rakes, or other: fimilar tools. But in order that this operation may be more readily as well as more perfectly executed, the grain fhould never be fpread too thickly over the floors of fuch granaries or ftore-rooms.. From one to two feet or two feet and a half in depth, in proportion as it gets more dry and free from moifture, is fully fufficient for the purpofe;.as from the natural moifture of the corn when heaped together to too creat a thicknefs at firft, it is fometimes apt to take on.too much heat, by which the quality or fampleis ereatly injured. Soon. after its being depofited, frequent{creening fhould alfo be prattifed, and afterwards occafionally according to circumftances. There are likewife other circumftances to be attended to, by which the due ventilation and prefervation of the corn is much in- fluenced, fuch as thofe of having the doors, windows, and other principal apertures of the buildings placed towards the fouth, and as clofe to the ceiling. as may be, fo that the rays of the fun may-enter as freely as poffible. Befides, the linings of fuch corn- rooms fhould always confit of materials that have nota tendency from their coldnefs to precipitate the moifture from the atmofphere, which is often the cafe when warm damp fouth-weft winds take place after cold north-eaft ones, and in that way im~ part it to the corn that comes in contact with them+. In every cafe the prevention of the entrance of wet or moifture-fhould be effected by fheltering boardsy. flides,. , more frequently turned over, than afterwards when it has acquired a greater degree of drynefs. Once or twice in every. week or ten days may be requifite the firft month; afterwards, for four or five months longer, about once in the fortnight may in general be fufficient, and after that period only once in the menth, except when the feafon proves very moift'and warm f. * Section on Implements+ Phytologia.+ Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. I. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Preferving of Grain. 81k Yn fome places empty{paces are left on the fides of the heaps of corn and other parts, into which they may be turned over when neceffary. But in others, fquare holes are formed in the ends of the floors, and round ones in the middle, by which contrivances the grain is thrown from the upper to the lower chambers, and back again, by which it becomes more perfectly agitated and expofed to the air. This method is practifed in fome parts of Kent. As fuch frequent turnings in thefe methods are extremely troublefome and ex- penfive in being executed by the fhovel, fliding fhutters have been contrived in the middle of the different floors which have an inclination towards the centre of the granaries, by the occafional removal of which, and the opening of the windows and ventilators, the grain is turned and ventilated at the fame time with great faci- lity and convenience. Monfieur du Hamel has found this mode of preferving grain to anfwer extremely well, even in cafes where it was laid up in a moift ftate. But grain may be preferved without having recourfe to the procefs of ventilation, by having it depofited, when ina perfeétly dry ftate, in fuch dry deep wells, pits, oz other fituations below the furface of the ground, as that it cannot be affected by heat, or the changes that take place in the feafon. But though corn has been known to have been preferved in this method for a great length of time in countries where it is the practice to{tore it up for times of{carcity, it is not by any means fo fafe or fo convenient a mode as the former. In whichever method corn is fecured, care fhould be taken that fuch as is moift, or has been badly harvefted, be not laid up with that which is dry and in a perfectly found condition; as from the quantity of moifture that it contains, and the ftate of germination that takes place in confequence, a mufty bad fmell is apt to be im- parted to the whole, and the fample be wholly fpoiled*. But befides the danger to which grain is expofed when laid up, from the want of drynefs and ventilation, it is liable to be deftroyed by the depredations of animals of different kinds, in the ftates before they affume that of the infect}. As thefe are produced from ova depofited among the grain by the animals when in their more perfect or infect growth; it is obvious that the beft means of guarding againft their ravages is that of preventing their generation by the deftruction of the ova before they affume the vermicular ftate. This is beft effected by frequent fcreening and expofure to a current of frefh air; as by thefe means the nefts which contain and pro- te them are broken and deftroyed, and the animals after pafling through the{creer in the different operations are wholly removed with the other extraneous matters. * Modern Agriculture, Vol, II, t The Moth Weevil and Beetle gn e 812 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Preferving of Grait. The expofure of grain to the free action of the atmofpheric air has beencondemned by fome from the circumftance of the ova of infects being liable in that way to be depofited among the corn; but it is more probable, when the economy of fuch infeéts is confidered, that their ova are either depofited originally among the grain in fuch fituations, or brought in with different parcels of corn from other places. On this laf account great caution fhould be ufed in bringing freth parcels of grain to be laid up, and the ufe of the fereen be conftantly had recourfe to before it is attempted. Where corn is to be preferved for a confiderable length of time, though it may unqueftionably be kept with fafety by proper care and attention in granaries or corn- chambers, it is probably a much better, as well as more certain and economical prac- tice to fuffer it to remain unthrefhed from the ear, in the ftack, efpecially when built on proper ftaddles in the manner that has been defcribed above. In cafes where the corn is ground, and afterwards preferved in the ftate of meal, it is the beft practice to pack it as clofely as pofflible, by treading into perfectly dry fmall clofe rooms, as when laid up in proper condition in this way it will keep perfectly fafe for feveral years. When it is neceffary to preferve grain for any length of time after it has been threfhed out, it is obvious that proper granaries fhould be provided; the fize of which fhould conftantly have a relation to the extent of the farm, being always {ufficient to contain one half of the corn that is produced when it is threfhed out. In their erection the proprietor fhould probably, in all cafes, except where there are very long leafes, be at the whole of the expenfe. But though the pra¢tice of preferving grain in ftacks or granaries, from the con- venience and advantages that may in fome cafes arife from it, both to the farmer and the public, may be in fome degree neceffary, it is evident from the refult of ex- periments carefully made*, that the ftoring of cornin either way fhould be carried to as little extent as poffible, as there is found to be a conftant decreafe in its weight, from the period at which it has been harvefted or laid up, but that at firft this lofs is confiderably greater than when the corn has been kept for fome time. On * Holt in Hunter’s Georgical Effays, Vol. II. + In thefe experiments, Wheat, On being rubbed out in the hot fun, and weighed the 31ft of Auguft, Ib. oz, ars. 1789, foon after being cut, afforded-:.- Di ee On being weighed again on the 18th of O&ober=. eet Lofs of weight per buthel of 7olbs. nearly-“- 6 8 3 Or almoft one tenth of the whole in forty days. Of this wheat thirty-two grains weighed one penny weight. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Lands proper for Tillage and Grafs. 818 thefe gtounds it is therefore fufficiently obvious, that the fooner the produce is brought to the market, the greater muft be the advantage to the proprietor, provided other circumftances be the fame. Having thus explained the culture neceffary in tillage lands, and the modes of cutting, managing, and preferving the different forts of produce, we fhall proceed to the means of reftoring them to grafs. Lands proper for Tillage and Grafs. It is obvious from what has been already advanced, that fome forts of land are much better calculated for the production of grain crops than thofe of the grafs kind; while, on the contrary, there are others that are much more fuitable and better adapted to the raifing of grafs than corn crops. There are{till others that may be cultivated under a convertible fyftem of corn and grafs, with more fuccefs than in either of the other methods alone. Of the firft defcription are all thofe lands which poffefs a fufficient degree of dry- nefs, whether they have much ftaple or depth of mould or not, and which in their natural ftate have but little tendency to produce good herbage, fuch as thofe cover- ed with different forts of coarfe plants and vegetable productions, whether in an open or inclofed ftate. It has been well obferved by a late writer, that grounds of this nature are of confiderably more value when in a{tate of tillage than in pafture; It is however obferved that this is the greatelt poffible lofs that grain can fuftain, as though it was fally ripened it had neither had the advantage of being dried by expofure to the fun after being cut, or undergone the procefs of fermentation after being put together. 1b, oz. drs. Another quantity weighed on the 22d of Oftober, produced° 07.0423 Weighed again twenty-four days afterwards, afforded=“ 0.6.0 Lofs in that time per bufhel, at the rate of--- 2) Ite A further quantity weighed on the 8th of January, 1790, produced- On 2) 2 Loft per buthel, on being weighed again thirty-two days afterwards, at therateof 2 0 19 Barley, On being weighed September the 2d, under fimilar cireumftances, pro- duced-- bor=-- iQsti2.- 33 On being again weighed October the 18th, afforded 2- OQ, 132 Lofs of weight per buthel of 6olbs,:-= 8 4°22 Or about one feventh of the whole in forty-feven days. Twenty-four grains of this barley weighed one penny-weight two grains. 814 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Lands proper for Tillage and Grafs: as they are particularly adapted to the improved modes‘of hufbandry, and in addi« tion to the quantity of grain to be produced from them, will afford a greater quans tity of vegetable food for animal ftock when ina tillage ftate, than they did when kept entirely in pafture*. There are various defcriptions of light lands that may likewife be kept in a ftate of tillage with more advantage than in that of grafs, as they are peculiarly fuited to thofe improved modes of cultivation that are neceflary for raifing large fupplies of green food for the fupport of live ftock of different kinds. The poorer forts of fand lands, where marl, clay, chalk, or other fimilar fubftances can be readily pro- cured, are much more proper for the purpofes of tillage than thofe of grafs, as is fufficiently fhown by the improvements that have been made in many of the more fouthern diftriéts of the kingdomt. Lands of the chalky kinds, whether of the more fuperficial or deep defcriptions, are in moft cafes better fuited for tillage than grafs, as from their wetnefs in the winter feafon, and their opennefs and friability in the fummer, it is almoft impoffible to eftablith good herbage f. And there is ftill another fort of land that is better for the purpofes of tillage than thofe of grafs, which is that which in the ftate of grafs is conftantly fo difpofed ta the production of mofs, as to’afford but avery fcanty fhare of good herbage. Mott of the clayey and more heavy defcriptions of land, efpecially when fituated in valleys, or other low confined expofures, though they may be capable of affording good crops of particular kinds when under the plough, as thofe of the wheat and bean kind, are, on account of their retention of moifture, the increafed expenfes of labour, and the uncertainty of feafon for tilling them, as well as their inaptitude for moft other forts of crops, and their fitnefs for the production of good herbage, much more beneficial in the ftate of grafs than in that of tillage. Where there is an opportunity of procuring fea fand, and of applying it at an eafy expenfe, they may however be converted to the purpofes of tillage in a profitable manner. Moft of thofe{trong cold grafs lands which in a ftate of tillage would be improper for the growth of turnips, and other applications of improved cultivation, fhould alfo con- {tantly remain in the ftate of grafs. And likewife thofe lands that are fituated near large towns, where manure is plentiful, and of courfe capable of being procured ata reafonable rate; and where the produce of fuch lands is always in great demand, and therefore capable of being difpofed of to great advantage. Such lands as are fitu- ated on the banks of large rivers or brooks, which are capable of being improved by means of watering, are likewife more beneficial when kept conftantly under the grafs fyftem than any other mode of cultivation that can be prattifed. The lands * Davis in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. III.+ Ibid. 3 Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Laying down to Grofs. 815 of a calcareous nature which are diftributed in the valleys of the more mountainous diftricts, where old grafs land is{carceand of much importance, and moft part of that in the ftate of tillage incapable of being converted to the condition of good grafs, may alfo be the moft advantageous when continued in a permanent ftate of herbage. The forts of land that are the moft adapted to the practice of convertible hufbandry are thofe of the loamy kinds, which are-not too ftrong for the growth of turnips. Thefe in all their different varieties are capable of being changed from the ftate of tillage to that of grafs, and the contrary, not only without fuftaining any injury, but frequently with the moft evident advantage, as the practice of fome of the weftern and midland diftriéts has fully proved*. The richer kinds of fandy lands are in moft cafes alfo well fuited to this fort of hufbandry;. efpecially where marl is at hand, to be applied at the time of laying them down to the ftate of grafs. And grounds of the peaty fort may in many cafes be the moft beneficially em- ployed in this mode of culture, as, from their producing little elfe than plants of the aquatic kind, it is obvious that they muft be completely deftroyed, and thofe of the - proper grafs kind be introduced,. before any ufeful herbage can be produced. And this is capable of being accomplifhed in by much the moft perfe&t manner under the ftate of tillage. But as-they are in moft inftances much too tender and moitt for the purpofe of remaining long in the ftate of tillage, as foon as the above inten- tion has been fully effected, they fhould be reftored to the{tate of permanent grafs+. Laying Lands down to Grafs.—It is evident therefore that fome-forts of foil are much more difficult to be brought into the ftate of grafs than others, and that, when this object has been attained, fome are much more profitable and advantageous than others, as affording a much better and more permanent herbage. In fome diftricts the bufinefs of reftoring the land to the ftate of fward, after it has been in that of til- lage, iseffected with the greateft eafe and facility: the ground, on being left in an un- ploughed condition, from its natural tendency to the production of herbage, returns to the ftate of fward, almoft without trouble, feed, or expenfe; while-in others all the art of the moft careful agricultor is found infufficient for accomplifhing the purpofe. It has been remarked that‘‘after twenty years fruitlefs expectation and ex- penfe, the landholders have frequently been obliged to reftore the land again to a ftate of tillaget.”’ * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. III:+ Ibid, +: Davis in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. III. 5 816 Cultivation of Arable Land.——Laying down to Grafs. But befides this difpofition in foils for taking on the growth and eftablifhment.of erafs crops, there are other circumftances to be confidered in reftoring them to the {tate of fward after they have been under the plough; fuch as thofe of their poffefse ing neither too much or too little moifture, and that of their having a fufficient {taple or depth of mould for the full and fecure eftablifhment of the grafs plants, As where the foils are too wet, or.too retentive of moifture, they will fuftain much injury ifnot.be wholly-deftroyed: during the«wintersfeafon, when there is much rain and froft, as well as be quickly fuperfeded by plants of the coarfe aquatic kind, fuch as the rufh,&c. And where they are too dry, the craffes will be hable to be de- ftroyed by heat during the fummer months, by the little moifture which they contain being thus carried away, and of courfé leave their places to befupplied by other forts of coarfe plants, fuch as thofe of the mofs, fern, and heath kinds, according to the nature of the ground. A good depth of mould or foil is likewife requifite, in order that the roots of the grafs plants may penetrate or run down to fuch a depth below the furface, as to be in a great meafure out of danger from the effects of heat and evaporation in the fummer feafon. On this as well as other accounts it is there- fore better that the lands intended for grafs, efpecially where they are to be kept in a permanent ftate of fward, thould incline in fome meafure to a ftate of moifture, or be in fucha degree retentive of it, as to preferve that ftate of humidity which is neceffary for the healthy and vigorous growth of the plants, without erfdangering the deftruction of their roots by putrefaction, from its ftagnating in too large a propor- tion about them. It is chiefly on this principle that the more light, thin, dry de- {criptions of foil are better fuited for the produétion of grain, or the occafional practice of convertible hufbandry, than for that of permanent grafs, There are{till other circumftances conneéted with the nature of the foils, which are neceflary to be particularly attended to in the laying of lands down to the ftate of grafs, as thofe of properly adapting the grafs plants to their qualities, fome forts of grafles being much more impatient of wet than others, confequently more proper for the drier forts of land; fome more capable of refifting the effects of heat and droughtand of courfe more fuitable for the thinner and more porous kinds of foil; while others-delight in,a moift or wet foil, and are incapable of being grown with any fuccefs on fuch“as'are-of a dry quality. They likewife differ much in refpect to— their hardinefs: fome refifting the effects of cold much more effectually than others, of courfe are more adapted to high expofed fituations. Befides thefe, they vary in other refpects, fome fucceeding‘to the moft advantage in foils of the clayey kind, others in thofe of a loamy quality, while others delight in thofe of a fandy nature; i catia Hirdord Pull epic aLy} Ps, 71S Pauls Onurch Yard, Oot.23-1804+ Cultivation of Arable Land.— Laying down to Grafs. 817 a few in thofe of the calcareous kind, and fome in thofe which partake much of the nature of peat. And in addition to thefe different natural propenfities, there are fome graffes that have the property of rifing to a great height in the ftem, and of courfe of affording a large coarfe produce, while others are more limited in this refpect, but fpread and extend themfelves more in a lateral direction, affording a lefs pro- portion of produce, but which is of a finer quality. The former, with certain re- ftri€tions, would feem better adapted to the purpofe of hay, though the latter may be applied to the fame ufe, where the finenefs of quality is preferred to quantity of produce. There are likewife fome forts of graffes that contain much larger proportions of faccharine matter in their compofitions than others, as well as more leaves and fewer flower-ftems; and which, from the avidity with which they are fed upon by different forts of live flock, and the fuccefs that attends their being thus confumed in the improvement of fuch ftock, would appear to poffefs the largeft proportion of nourifhment; and of courfe to be the moft proper for being introduced where the lands are intended for the purpofe of grazing, or fattening animals by means of vegetable food in its grafly ftate. There is another property of grafles in which they differ confiderably; and which it is of much confequence to have regard to in the laying lands to the ftate of fward. This is that of early growth, which is a circumftance of vaft import- ance in a grazing point of view, as there is in general a great deficiency of grafs for the fupport of ftock in the early part of the fpring. It is indeed the opinion of a late intelligent writer*, that in the forming of good meadows, or other grafs-lands, there fhould be a combination of thefe differ. ent circumftances, as it is chiefly by the firft, or the quantity of produce, that the cultivator is enabled to fupport his live ftock, and pay his rent; of courfe no expente in labour or manure is fpared to obtain it by the prudent farmer. It does not however follow, he fays, that this fhould be folely regarded, or that to attain it the coarfeft forts of plants fhould be cultivated; nor will the grafles that are recom- mended merely for their being relifhed by cattle, or forithe fweetnefs of their foliage, if they are found to be deficient in the quantity of produce, fully;anfwer the views of the farmer or grazier, as, to conftitute a good meadow or pafture, an abundant produce is neceflary. Though animals prefer fome forts of food to others, it is not poffible to indulge the live ftock that is to be fupported conftantly with the e * Mr. Curtis 5M $128 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Laying down to Grafs, fineft and moft delicate hay, or herbage. Befides, it is not improbable but that the productive grafles may in fome cafes be highly nutritious, or that cattle may eat as eagerly the herbage, or hay, made from the coarfe as the fine graffes. And cattle are frequently known to thrive on food to which they are habituated by ne- cefity, though at firft they could Scarcely be prevailed on to eat it. In making experiments, perfons are apt, he conceives, to conclude too haftily from jhe appearance which a plant affumes on its being firft planted or fown; asthe moft infignificant vegetable will often make a great fhow, when its fibres have frefh earth to fhoot into: but the trial comes when the object of the experiment has been in 4 meadow or pafture feveral years, when its fibres, from long growth, are matted ogether, and it meets with powerful neighbours, to difpute every inch of ground with it: if it then continue to be productive, it muft have merit... tas well known, he fays, that lucern, when left to itfelf, is foon overpowered; and if broad-leaved clover, which is undoubtedly a perennial, the firtt year be fown, a great crop 1s produced; but let the field be left to itfelf, and the clover, like the lucern, will yearly diminifh,—not becaufe it is a biennial, as has been often fuppofed, but becaufe plants hardier, or more congenial to the foil, ufurp its place: this fhows therefore that at the fame time that a-good plant is introduced,, it fhould be a powerful one, and fuch as is able to keep poffeffion, and continue to be produttive. In refpe to. the property of cattle’s thriving on the food they eat,.it is unquef- tionably of great confequence; and it is to be regretted that our knowledge of the moft nutrient kinds of herbage is fo confined; but of thofe plants which have been ‘n cultivation we are enabled to fpeak with fome certainty: it is well known that clover, lucern, faintfoin, tares, and feveral other plants, have a great tendency ta. fatten cattle; but what natural graffes, or other plants, which have not been fub- jected to feparate culture, have this particular tendency, and in what degrees, re- mains to be afcertained by the teft of experiment. But as leguminous plants are in general found to agree with cattle, it may be reafonably concluded, he thinks, that a certain quantity of them may be proper and advantageous in paftures. It is well known that certain paftures are more difpofed to fatten animals than others; but how far this depends on fituation, and their particular produce, re- mains to be afcertained. With refpeét to the property of early growth, the want of early herbage in the fpring is the general complaint of farmers and graziers in all the beft grafs diftricts of the kingdom: thofe plants, therefore, which are found to fhoot at an a Cultivation of Arable Land.—Laying down to Grays.$19 eaily period, and to put forth early foliage, efpecially when it is fuch as is pratefu to cattle, muft be deferving of great attention. As far as graffes have to do in this bufinefs, the few mentioned hereafter may, he fuppofes, effect all that can be ex- pected inthis way: much muft, however, depend on feafons: if the winter fhould be fevere, or north-eafterly winds prevail in the fpring months, graffy herbage will be backward, in fpite of all that can be done; but in order to counteract the bad effects of fuch feafons as much as poffible, paftures and erafs-lands fhould, in his opinion, be warmly fituated, and not drenched too much with moifture, being fheltered by thick hedges, and divided into fmall enclofures. But where early pafturage is the great object of the cultivator, thergsareyOther*plants wiaat may deferve a place among them, fuch as thofe mentioned below. And though early herbage is highly valuable for pafturage, it is.not lefs fo for the purpofes of hay; as bythe middle of May at the lateft, a méadow of this fort would be fit for cuttings and the fecond hay-making might begin by the time that hay-making ufually takes place in other cafes; and by this means the double advantage be obtained, off larger produce, and lefs rifk in fecuring it, On the principles that haye been already explained, there can be little doubt but that by a judicious and duévattention to the different circumftances and ufes for which grafs-lands are intended,“ag jell. as to the felecting and mixing? of the beft and moft proper grafs-feeds, and adapting thenrto the particular nature and cir- cumftances of the foils, after they havé-beenybrought into a fuitable condition for receiving them, thofe grounds which haye been in a ftate of; tillage may be laid down to the ftate of fward, in a much better"and more beneficial manner than has been the cafe under the indifcriminate ufe of fuch“as were in, or which have fown themfelves on the lands from the contiguous paftures. It has indeed been long fince remarked as extraordinary, that cultivators fhould have neglected to make a proper advantage of plants of fuch importance, and which, in moft fituations, conftitute the principal food of live ftock, from the want of properly diftinguifhing and{electing fuch as are the moft advantageous and ufeful under different circumftances of the land*. Some have likewife contended that the beft grafs-feeds cannot be collected at too high a rate, as itis poffible by fuch means to render lands, which are fuited for the production of grafs, much more valuable than can be done by the common modes of laying them down f. * Stillingfleet’s Mifcellaneous Tracts. masini+ Kent’s Hints, and Anderfon’s Effays, Vol. IF. 5M 2 820 Cultivation of Arable Land.— Laying down to Grafs. Much difficulty has without doubt been thrown in the way of introducing the moft proper forts of graffes, in laying lands down to{ward, from their near refem- blances to each other, in many inftances, requiring the niceft difcernment to diftin- cuifh them, and from the want of other means of procuring them. It has been lately obferved by an intelligent botanical writer, that if grafs-lands, fuch as downs, paftures, and meadows, be carefully examined, they will all, except fuch as have been recently laid down with rye grafs or clover, be found much in a ftate of nature, replete with an indifcriminate mixture of plants, fome of which pro- duce cattle-food of a good kind; others, fuch as is of a very indifferent defcription; fome affording good crops, while ovhefsfearcely yield any at all*. It is therefore * Curtis's Pra€tical Obfervations on Britith Graffes. This accurate botanift, on procuring fmall turfs, taken indifcriminately from different downs and commons in Hampfhire and Suffex, employed as fheep-paftures, found, on their being planted in his gar- den, that they produced the following forts of plants: Turf from Selborn Common. Produced Plantago lanceolata. Agroftis capillaris, Avena flayefcens. Dactylis glomerata. Fefluca duriufcula. Poa annua. Cynofurus criftatus. Trifolium repens. Crepis tetorum. Achillea Millee folium. Galium verum. Hypocheeris radicata. Hieracium Pilofella. Thymus Serpyllum. Turf from Oakbah ser. Trifolium repens. Holcuslanatus. Poa annua,” Agroftis capillaris, Agroftis paluftris. Turf From Deortum. Ranunculus repens. Lolfum perennesy) Holcus Janatus. Prunella vulgaris. Feftuca duriufevla. Agroftis paluftris. Trifolium repens. Crepis te¢torum. Achillea Millefolium. Turf from Ghnd Hill. Medicago lupulina. Achillea Millefolium. Poa pratenfis. Turf from the fame. Avena flavefcens. Feftuca duriufcula. eftuca ovina. Hieracium PPilofella. Agroftis capillaris; Trifolium repens. Thymus Serpyllum. Turf from Short Heath. Fefluca bromoides. Aira pracox. Juncus campeftris. Poaannua. Agroftis capillaris. Turf from Mount Cabron. Rumex Acetofa. Daucus Carota. Medicago lupulina. Poterium Sanguiforba. Feftuca duriufcula, Avena flavefcens. Turf from Ringmer Down. Linum catharticum. Scabiofa columbaria. Ornithopus perpufillus. Avena flavefcens. Feftuca duri- ufcula. Trifolium repens. Hypocheris radicata. Crepis teCtorum. Lotus corniculatus. Juncus campeftris. Hieracium Pilofella. Feftuca ovina.‘Thymus Serpyllum. Poa pratenfis. Cultivation of Arable Land.—-Preparation of Land for Grafs Seeds. 821 fufficiently obvious, that by a careful attention to the procuring of the beft and moft fuitable forts of grafs-feeds, and applying them according to the principles which have been given above, much fuperiority may be attained in the forming of pafture or other forts of grafs-lands. Preparation of Land for Grafs Seeds.—This isa part of management that is of vaft importance to the fuccefs of forming good grafs-lands, but which has been much negleéted in the practice of laying them down. From the fmallnefs of the feeds, and the fibrous nature of the roots of the grafs-plants in moft cafes, it is evident that lands which are intended for being laid down to the ftate of{ward, whatever their quality may be in refpect to foil, fhould conftantly be brought into as fine a {tate of pulverization and mellownefs as poffible before the feeds are put in. As where the contrary is the cafe, from the lumpinefs of the furface mould, the feeds can neither be fown with fo much regularity, vegetate in fo equal a manner, or extend their roots, and eftablifh themfelves at firft fo perfectly inthe land, they are of courfe more liable to be deftroyed by hot feafons coming on afterwards. It is probable that in this: way much new laid down grafs-land is greatly injured the firft fummer, efpecially when it turns out to be hot and dry.‘The neceflary finenefs of mould may be obtained in different modes, according to the nature of the lands. In the more ftiff and sheavy ones, by ploughing before winter, and In fix fmall turfs, taken from different parts of the uncommonly produétive meadow near Salifbury, mentioned by Stillingfleet, and particularly defcribed in the firft volume of the Memoirs of the Ba‘h Agricultural Society, the produce was In Turf i. Poa trivialis. Ranunculus acris. Triticum repens. Agroftis paluftris. In Turf 2. Poa trivialis, Alopecurus pratenfis. Triticum repens. In Turf 3- Poa trivialis. Agroftis paluftris. In Turf 4. Poa trivialis. Triticum repens. Peucedanum Silaus. In Turf 5. Poa trivialis. Alopecurus pratenfis. Agroftis paluftris, Avena elatior, Triticum repens, From this trial it is proved, the writer fuppofes, that the great productivenefs of this meadow did not depend on any new grafs peculiar to it, but on the concurrence of different and unufual circumftances, favouring, in an uncommon degree, the growth of certain well-known grafles, as the Poa trivialis and Agroftis palufiriss 892 Cultivation of Arable Laud.—Preparation of Land for Grafs Seeds. leaving them to be expofed to the action of frofts and other caufes during that feafon; having recourfe to fevere harrowing and occafional rolling in the early fpring months; and by the frequent interpofition of fuch forts of crops, in the courfes that precede thofe of grafs, as have a tendency, from the peculiar nature of their roots, to loofen.and render the foils fine; fuch as thofe of the bean, cabbage, rape and clover kinds, The lighter forts of land may be brought into a proper condition for the reception of grafs-feeds, by repeated ploughing and harrowing, or{cuffling, and the frequent introduction in the previous crops of fuch forts of ereen fallow crops, as have a power, by the great degree of fhade and ftagnation which they afford, as well as by the culture which they require while growing, of bringing the foil into a fine friable ftate. Thefe are turnips, potatoes, tares, faint. foin, and others of a fimilar defcription. It has been obferved by an intelligent cultivator, that where the grafs-feeds are to be put into the ground with grain crops in the fpring, the tillage fhould be performed with more than ordinary atten- tion; which, in the cafe of turnips, will depend greatly upon their being confumed at fuch an early period as will admit of the ground being thoroughly broken down and reduced; for if there be much delay, and the feafon prove unfavourable, a bed of mould, fufficiently loofe and mellow, wilh not be procured for the recep. tion of the feeds: and when grown with fpring.cofh, the lands fhould be ploughed over three times: and where the firft of thefe earths can be given early enough to be influenced by the vernal frofts, it will be found to be much more beneficial*. The ufe of the harrow and the roller will be occafionally neceffary after the differ- ent ploughings, according to the nature and ftate of the land. But where the fowing is executed in Auguft the fame degree of attention is not believed by fome to be fo neceffary, as the time and feafon afford fo full an opportunity of bringing the ground into fuitable order, that the moft inattentive cultivator can fcarcely experience any other difficulty than what originates from an unufual wetnefs of feafon F. But befides this finenefs of preparation in the foils, it is neceffary that the me- thod of cropping and application of manure in the preceding courfes be fuch as to leave them in a ftate of high fertility and richnefs; as no good grafs-land can be fuppofed to be produced where the Jands have been worn out and exhaufted by the previous crops,—a practice which has, however, been too general in the returning of arable lands to the condition of grafs. Mr. Marfhall has indeed very juftly ob- ferved, that the want of proper condition in the lands at the time of their being * Clofe in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol, III.+ Rev. A. Young in Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land.—-Proper kinds of Natural Grafs. 823 Jaid down to fward, added to thofe of improper forts of graffes and bad feeds, is the chief caufe of their not fucceeding. According to fome, manure ought to be applied with every other crop, and always with that which immediately precedes the grafs. This is a practice that fhould be acopted as much as poffible. In order to have grafs-lands of the beft kind, it is likewife of great utility to have them fo managed in the preparation, as to be rendered perfectly clear and free from all forts of weeds, as by their rifing with greater rapidity than the fown grafs- plants, they are often able to fhadeand deftroy them, or greatly injure their growth. It has been advifed by an experienced cultivator, in reftoring old worn-out lands to the ftate of good pafture, to clear the land from injurious weeds by means of a full winter and fummer fallowing, or inftead of the latter, by a crop of potatoes well manured for, and kept in a perfectly clean ftate by atten- tive culture while growing, fucceeded by winter vetches fed off in the early fpring*. Inall the more light forts of foil, it is ungueftionably the moft beneficial practice to bring the ground into that fort of fine tilth, which is proper for the reception of grafs-feeds, by a judicious mixture of green crops of different forts with thofe of the corn kind, according to the nature of the foil. The moft appro- priate methods of intermixing thefe with each other have been already explained+. When the lands have been by thefe methods brought into a good ftate of fertility, and reduced into a fufficiently mellow and friable condition of mould, the furface fhould be made as fine, loofe, and even as poffible. Where the grounds are much inclined to moifture, the ridges may be preferved, which fhould be of confiderable breadths with very flight furrows; but in the more light and porous defcriptions of land, the whole fhould be laid as even as poffible without any ridges or furrows. In the former cafes, in fome diftricts they prefer making the ridges fix, eight, or more yards in breadth, which when the land is to be under the fcythe is in a much better ftate for being mown, and if for pafture there will be lefs dan- ger of the animals being injured by being caft in the furrows. And in the latter the furface will not only be more agreeable in its appearance, but be more advantage- ous for all the purpofes of grafs management afterwards f. Proper kinds of Natural Graffes.—The circumftances that have been already ob- ferved, render it fufficiently evident that the proper choice and application of graffes: mutt bea matter of great confequence in the laying down lands to the ftate of fward. * Billingfley’s Corre&ted Report of Somerfetthire. + Rotation of Crops in Setion on Cultivation of Arable Land. } Correéted Agricultural Report of Lancathire, 20 pr wePeny A), Cons 5 ip ph 7 re fi 824 Cultivation of Arable Land.—§ yeet—-/cented Ver nal Grafs. J But itis obvioufly a bufinefs attended with uncommon difficulty, from the number of trials that have been yet made, being very inadequate for affording the means of fully deciding upon their properties, advantages, and ufes, in many cafes, as well as from their habits, and the foils to which they are the beft fuited, being often very imper- fectly known; and alfo from the great trouble and inconvenience of obtaining their feeds genuine, and in a proper ftate for the purpofes of healthy vegetation. The grafs plants of the natural kind which have been found by experienced culti« vators moft ufeful and beneficial in the different views that have been before fug- gefted are: the Sweet-{cented Vernal Grafs; Meadow Fox-tail Grafs; Smooth- {talked Meadow Grafs; Rough-ftalked Meadow Grafs; Meadow Fefcue, Grafs; Sheep Fefcue Grafs; Hard Fefcue Grafs; Tall Fefcue Grafs; Crefted Dog’s-tail Grafs; Ray or Rye Grafs; Yorkfhire White; Cock’s-foot Grafs; Tall Oat Grafs; Timothy Grafs; Yarrow; Burnet; White Clover; Trefoil; Cow Grafs; Rib Grafs; and a few others which will be defcribed below. Mott of thefe different forts of graffes will be found ufeful in laying lands under different circumftances of foil, fituation, and moifture, or drynefs, to the ftate of fward. Sweet-(cented Vernal Grafs*.—Thisis a fort of grafs that comes early into bloffom: it is of courfevaluable as an early grafs, and it is alfo valuable for its readinefs to grow in moft kinds of foil and fituation, being found in bogs, in woods of low growth, or which have had the underwood removed, in rich meadows, and in dry paitures; but in point of crop it is not fo productive as fome, yet more fo than others: cattle are {aid to be fond of it, and it is well known to be the only grafs of this climate which is odoriferous; the agreeable fcent of new-made hay being produced almoft entirely by it; and the green leaves, when bruifed, readily impart this odour to the fingers, by which means the foliage may conftantly be known; and it may be readily di- {tinguifhed when in bloffom, by its having only two threads or ftamina to each flower. But it is lefs productive in point of feed than many of the other graffes, In certain fituations, efpecially in dry feafons, its leaves are apt to be blighted, from a difeafe which changes them to an orange hue, and which has proved highly inju~ rious to the plants when in a cultivated ftate+. From conftantly flowering in hard ftocked pafture-lands, fome fuppofe that it is not much relifhed by cattle in common, In a flight proportion, as that of one-eighth, it may however anfwer well}. It thrives well on poor{andy foils. * Antoxanthum odoratum.+ Curtis’s Practical Obfervations. t Sole in Bath Papers, Vol. IX. 3 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Meadow Fex-tail Grafs. 825 Meadow Fox-tail Grafs*.—Is a fort of grafs that fends forth its{pike almoft as foon, and in fome fituations full as early, as the Sweet-fcented Vernal: confequently it is equally valuable as an early grafs; and as it is much larger and quicker in its growth, it is of courfe much more produttive: it fhoots very rapidly after mowing, producing a very plentiful aftermath: and where the land is rich, and two crops are not thought too much for it to bear, of all the graffes of this climate it appears to be the moft adapted for fuch a purpofe, and ought to form a principal part of the crop in fuch cafes. Its foliage may feem coarfe to fome; but it muft be kept in mind that no grafs can be produétive that is not in fome degree coarfe. If it be mown early, juft as it comes into bloom, though the leaves are large, the hay will not, however, be coarfe, In general, the great advantage proceeding from the earlinefs of thefe two graffes is entirely loft in thofe diftriéts where hay-making begins at a late period, and where a crop of indifcriminate herbage is waited for by the cultivator. It is in fome meafure diftinguifhed by the largenefs of its foliage, and by its producing a foft{pike on a long ftalk about the beginning of May. This is a great objection to it, as the feed cannot be always obtained in plentyt. On a fituation where it was perfectly eftablifhed with thick herbage it was found to produce but few feed-ftems f. In refpect to the places of its growth, it is more confined than the firft fort, grow- ing naturally in a moift foil only: on this account fome think it beft adapted for improving fuch wet grounds as may be drained of their fuperfluous moifture, or for forming or meliorating meadows that have a moift bottom, and are not apt to be burnt up in dry fummer feafons§, Others, however, fuppofe that there is fcarcely a better grafs for moift loams and clays, as it is extremely early; and abides nine or ten years on foils upon which the Meadow Fefcue gives way to thofe of other kinds|. It has likewife by fome been found hardier againft froft and exceffive cold. Others fpeak of it as excellent, both for pafture and hay, as being highly produc- tive, and the firft as a dairy grafs**. The feeds are eafily collected, according to the accounts of fome accurate obfervers t+; but a great number of them, in certain feafons, are liable to be deftroyed by a very minute orange-coloured /arva, or maggot, which feeds on the embryo of the feed, and moft probably produces fome {mall fpecies of fy tt. * Alopecurus pratenfis.+ Young in Communications,&c. Vol. III.} Ibid. § Curtis’s Obfervations.|| Young in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. IE 4] Mr. Majendie.*# Sole in Bath Papers, Vol. IX: +t Martyn’s Flora Ruftica, Vol. I. and Curtis’s Obfervations.+{ Ibid. SN 826 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Great or Smooth-ftalked Meadow Grafs. Great or Smooth-ftalked Meadow Grafs*.—In this grafs the foliage alfo begins to {hoot and to affume a beautiful verdure at an early period in the fpring; but the flowering{tems are not produced fo foon, by a week at leaft, as thofe of the laft: this flight difference, in point of earlinefs of flowering, does not, however, prevent it from being properly ranked with the two preceding graffes. Where early grafly pafturage is the great object of the cultivator, it cannot probably be better obtained than by a judicious combination of thefe three graffes. If quantity of crop be at the fame time in view, the Meadow Fox-tail Grafs fhould predominate in a confiderable degree+. It in fome meafure affects a rather dry than a moift fituation, on which account it keeps its verdure in long-continued dry feafons better than moft other forts; but it is capable of thriving in either pretty well, though more luxuriantly in rich meadows. It is liable to fome objeétion from its creeping root, which when eftablifhed is difficult to extirpate: it fhould of courfe be cautioufly introduced where the land is not intended to remain in a permanent ftate of fward 1 By fome it is confidered, however, as a highly valuable grafs, as all animals are fond of it; and it affords the beft hay, as well as the richeft pafturage. In addition to its other qualities, it has the property of abiding continually in the fame ground, while moft other forts are liable to change§. On rich loams it has been found, by fome, a highly valuable grafs, fucceeding well with different cul- tivators||. According to Mr. Curtis, this grafs is now readily diftinguifhed from the Com- mon or Rough-fialked Meadow Grafs, as it has a fmooth ftalk, while the other has a rough one, which is perceptible when drawn betwixt the thumb and finger, and which proceeds from little fharp points, vifible when the fheath of the leaf, which covers the flalk, is magnified: befides, the latter has a long pointed membrane at the bafe of the leaf, while in the former it is a fhort blunt one. And. further, it only throws up flowering-ftems or bents once in a feafon; from which pecu- liarity, combined with its hardinefs and verdure, it appears well fuited for the lawns or grafs-plats of pleafure-grounds. Notwithftanding what has been juft obferved in regard to its property of remaining in the land; in dry foils the crop from this grafs has fometimes been found to diminifh in quantity annually, and to become ultimately very fmall, efpecially * Poa pratenfis.+ Curtis’s Practical Obfervations. + Curtis in Ibid.©§ Major Cartwright. Sole in Bath Papers, Vol. IX. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Rough-ftalked Meadow, and Meadow Fefcue Graffes. 827 wvhen the roots have become matted, and exhaufted the ground, which they feem much difpofed to do; but in moift meadows this effect has not been fo much noticed*. Common or Rough-ftalked Meadow Grafst.—Though this grafs has much fimi- larity to the preceding in its appearance, efpecially in the mode of flowering, it differs effentially in its qualities, as the former is chiefly found in dry paftures, while the latter principally occurs in moift meadows. It delights in moitture, and fituations that are fheltered; on which account, though there are few more produétive, or better adapted for the purpofe of hay or pafiurage, it is tender, and liable to be injured by fevere cold or drought: and in moift rich ground it has been obferved to grow tall, while in poor land it has been found equally . diminutive. It is faid by fome cultivators to be a grafs well adapted to good, found, moift loams. On the continent it is greatly efteemed both for dry paftures and water meadows, as it multiplies much by feed as well as root. It is therefore neceffary to permit the feeds to fall, in order to preferve the quantity undiminifhed. T’he produce is admirable for the feeding of all forts of cattle{. Itis, however, con- fidered by fome as inferior to the laft fort, from its property of going off after being cut, being fupplanted by thofe of the bent kind: but its radical as well as fiem-leaves grow larger§. As the feeds of this as well as thofe of the laft fort are apt to be entangled, and adhere to each other, it is difficult to difperfe them evenly in fowing. This circumftance fhould therefore be attended to in putting them into the land. Meadow Fefcue Grafs||—This is a grafs that comes near in its appearance to Ray Grafs, but to which it feems greatly fuperior, at leaft for the purpofe of forming or improving meadows; as being larger, and more productive of foliage. It is ftritly perennial and hardy, thriving well not only in wet but in dry grounds; srowing in all fituations, from the fand-pits at Charlton to the ofier-grounds at Batterfea; and it abounds in the beft meadows, in the beft hay diitricts: in fhort, it feems well calculated to fupply the defects of Ray Grafs. Befides, it has the quality " of producing more feeds than moft of the other forts of graffes, which are eafily gather- ed, and grow readily. It is however inferior to the three firft of the above graffes in one property, which is, that it does not produce its flowering-ftems fooner than about * Custis’s Obfervations.+ Poa trivialis. } Young in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol. II.§ Sole in Bath Papers. || Fefluca pratenfis. 5N2 898 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Sheep's Fefcue. Hard Fefeue. Crefted Dog’ s Tail Graffes. the middle of June, which is a fortnight or three weeks later than the fecond of them; though it cannot be confidered as a late grafs, as thofe of the-bent and fome other forts flower later by three weeks or more”. Sheep’s Fefcuet.—This grafs has been much praifed by fome, both for the pur- pofes of pafture andhay; fheep and other forts of live{tock being very fond of it, and foon rendered fat in paftures where it prevails. But from its affording in dry heathy expofed fituations, and commons, but a very{mall produce, and its foliage being hard and wiry, as well as from its appearance in dry fummers being unplea- fantly brown; and in rich moift ones, where the foliage retains its verdure, and becomes much taller; from its being in its nature a fmall plant, it cannot be pro- duétive, confequently cannot be confidered as in any way fit for a hay grafst. It is {aid by fome to be capable of thriving on any foil, but beft on thofe of the light. fpongy kinds, as it can live with lefs moifture than moft other graffes. And it is. afferted to be one of the excellencies of this grafs, that it will eftablith itfelf upon fuch foils as{carcely any other plant can be made to fucceed on; being of courfe of much utility in covering barren fpots, that might otherwife have remained uncovered for a great length of time§. Others however obferve, that if it were fown on rich moift foils, the graffes and other plants, which are natural to fuch lands and fituations, would foon overpower it, and ina very fhort time there would fcarcely be a blade remaining to be feen on theground. And were it for the purpofe of fheep feed to be fown on the high down and heath lands, the animals would ftarve upon them in dry fummer feafons||. Where a clofe matted turf, without a great produce, is required, it may, how- ever, be found ufeful. Hard Fefcueq.—This is an early and produttive grafs, with fine foliage, which grows well on downs and rich meadows. It is well adapted for being combined with other graffes in forming fheep paftures**; and by fome it is faid to conttitute the beft hay. Crefted Dog’s-tail Grafs}+.--This is a grafs that has been much recommended as a favourite and wholefome food for fheep. It is found in the foundeft and beft paftures, but grows beft in dry fituations, and will not thrive in meadows that are very moift. It flowers nearly at the fame time as the Meadow Fefcue Grafs, but is not very productive of foliage{{. The appearance of its bents in poor, high, * Curtis’s Obfervations. + Feftuca ovina. ¢ Anderfon’s Effays, Vol. II.§ Curtis’s Obfervations,&c. {| Curtis’s Obfervations. GQ Feftuca durinfiulg.#* Sole in Bath Papers, Vol. 1X, tt Cynofurus criftatus.+4 Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Ray Grafs, 829 moift paftures, fuggelts the idea of its being an indifferent plant. But its abound- ing in moft of the richeft grazing paftures in different parts of the kingdom, and its being in fome the principal herbage, leads us to conclude that it is an ufeful grafs*. As its fowering ftems and heads are feldom confumed by cattle, its feeds may be collected, where the paftures are fed, with great facility; and, as they are abundant, may be gathered by children at about one fhilling the pound. Land may be laid down with it in a fuccefsful manner, if proper attention be beftowed in having the feed collected when fully ripe, as it has been known to fail on this account+. On the continent it is in high eftimation as a pafture grafsf. From the fibrous nature of its roots, not admitting the running down much into the foil, there may be danger of its being deftroyed in dry fummer feafons. As it abounds greatly in the beft paftures, and is a blade grafs that fhoots up the firft after the land has been mown, its thickeft tufts are faid to afford much food for fheep in the time of{now and fevere weather in the winter feafon. Thofe who are not accuftomed to diftinguith the difference of graffes with much accuracy, may, it is obferved, defpife it, as of an improper and ufelefs kind; but the fheep and the ox, who mutt be allowed better judges, will foon convince them of its importance, From the rapidity of its growth it may be apt to get coarfe, if not cut down more quickly than is often the cafe. The feed is fmall and fine, but may be obtained with much facility by paffing the ftem in a tight manner through the hand. It has been procured at fixpence the quart§, Ray or Rye Grafs||.—This is a fort of erafs that has been much in cultivation, but is deficient in fome of the properties neceffary for meadow or pafture lands. The objection on the fcore of its producing little more than flower-ftems or bents, is faid to be only found valid when it grows in upland paftures and dry fituations: in rich moift meadows its foliage is more abundant; and it feems probable that it is highly acceptable and nutritious in feeding cattle: its foliage is of rapid growth, the flowering ftems continually fhooting forth. Itis, however, a grafs that varies greatly, according to fituation and circumftances. It is beft adapted to the loamy and fandy defcriptions of foils; but it will fuc- ceed on any except ftiff clay, and even on that it may be grown. On the richer * Young in Communications,&c, Vol. II[. and Marfhall’s Rural Economy.+{bid. $ Atti di Milano, var. loc.§ Goring in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. III. \| Lolium perenne.{ Curtis’s Obfervations. 4 830 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Ray Grafs. forts of the two firft kinds of land, it frequently turns out both a good vernal and permanent pafture grafs when employed in due mixture with other forts; and it is particularly fuited to be fed by fheep*. It is not, however, fo early as fome of the grafies that have been defcribed above. Some of the varieties of this grafs, as thofe cultivated by Mr. Peacey, are faid to be much fuperior to the common kind, by thofe who have had great experience of them. Some cultivators fuppofe the reafon of its not producing a thick well-connected fward in fome fituations is, that it is only fuited to lands that are ina rich and fertile condition, though it may be occafionally found in thofe of the contrary kind. Itis, indeed, well obferved by an intelligent writer, that‘* when land is in a proper ftate of manure, ray-grafs, united with white clover, will form a perfect fward the latter end of the fecond year after itis fown, A particular field, of about five acres, that was fown with thefe two graffes only, was more perfeétly eraffed over than others, which had the addition of trefoil and rib grafs, and which were fown at the fame time. A neighbour of his, the only man in the country that had tried ray-grafs, told him it would not anfwer, and referred him to a par- ticular field where fome had been fown. The fact was, that he had cropped this field with oats, until it was no longer worth ploughing; and then, with his laft feed, he fowed ray-grafs, which certainly did not flourifh. But his argument would have been equally conclufive againft any grafs or grain what- ever. The ray-grafs languifbed, and, finally, died away, giving place to the vegetation fuited to the ftate of the land. If it be expected that ray-grafs, or any other good grafs, fhould thrive and produce abundant crops on exhaufted or poor land, it muft not he fays be in the foil which occurs here T. The following remarks of the fame author are deferving of the notice of the cultivator:*‘On converting ray-grafs into hay, it is neceflary he fays to cut it at a period previous to its being fo ripe as to have perfected its feed, and changed to a yellow colour; for in this cafe a great part of the juices of the plant, which conftitute a principal part of the nutriment itis to afford, will be converted into a fpecies of ftraw, and its nutritive properties be proportionably diminifhed. When it is made into hay, perfons not acquainted with its qualities are apt to object to its apparent coarfenefs, which proceeds from its confifting * Young in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol. III. 4 Campbell in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol, IL. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Ray Grafs. 831 almoft entirely of flowering-ftems, the ray-grafs having a comparatively fmaller pro- portion of leaves than any other grafs. Whether this be a defect or a merit, will, he thinks, depend upon a folution of this queftion: Do the ftems and flower- ing parts of grafs, or the leaves, taken weight for weight, contain the greater pro- portion of nutriment?‘It does not appear that this has been determined by expe- riments inftituted for the purpofe; but it feems probable, from the ftems being fo much{weeter than the leaves,(which is particularly perceptible upon chewing them when about half dry,) and from thofe vegetables which contain much fac- charine matter being particularly nutritious, that the greater proportionate quan- tity of nutriment will be found to refide in the ftalks; and if fo, the advantages of ray-grafs will be decifive. But, however this may be, it is certain that, fuppofing wet weather comes on during the procefs of hay-making, the firft part of the grafs that decays is the leaf, which foon becomes yellow, and then black, lofing all pretenfions to nutritive properties; in which cafe, it is evident that almoft the whole nutriment contained in the hay muft refide, exclufively, in the fowering- ftalks. Ray-grafs then has, in unfavourable hay feafons, an advantage over all others, inafmuch as, from having fewer leaves, it is not fo apt to be injured by a continuance of rain; and it is befides, when in the cocks, more acceffible to the air and wind, from lying more open and light; and confequently not fo apt to heat and mould as other graffes in fimilar fituations and feafons.” On the whole, he conceives that“ it certainly poffeffes the following valuable properties: 1. That there are few graffes fo early in the fpring. 2. That there are none better relifhed by cattle, or more nutritive. 3. That it has the power of refifting the effects of bad weather, in ticklifh hay feafons, in a greater degree than other graffes. 4. That there is a greater facility in collecting its feed than of any other grafs.” It is conceived that the prejudices againft it have arifen, 1.‘ From its having been fown in land not capable’ of producing a full crop of any good vegetable. 2. From allowing it to fhoot up fo far as to have formed the feed in the flowering- ftalk, before cattle have been turned into pafture, or that it has been cut for hay. Ray-grafs appears to partake more of the nature of grain than any other grafs. Hegce, when it has perfected its feeds, it fhoots out no more ftalks, and but few leaves that feafon, as lord Kaimes has juftly obferved. THience it is neceffary’ to turn cattle into a field of this grafs early in the fpring, and to keep it well under by a fufficient quantity of ftock; in which cafe it will continue to put out frefh flowering ftalks and leaves during the whole feafon, 3. The hay, for the reafons 3 832 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Meadow Soft Grafs.—Rough Cock 25 foot Crafs.™ jut afligned, fhould be cut before it becomes a mere ftraw.“Common hay ee being compofed of graffes in various ftages of growth and fipenefs, admits of a greater latitude than a field of ray-grafs, becaufe many of them will generally be: in a proper ftate for cutting, although others may have paffed their prime.” The following facts, adduced by this accurate obferver, fully eftablifh its nutri- tive properties:‘* No hay he fays could be better relifhed by his horfes thas this was; not a particle of it was wafted by them, or left in the rack; no animals could thrive, coat, or do their work better than they did, whilft they had this ray grafs hay to take to. Never was there a greater contraft than when they were put to the natural hay grafs of the country after they had finifhed the other, They were literally ftarved into the eating it; and in fpite of an additional quantity of corn they fell away,(agreeably to his farming man’s mode of expreffion) a limb a-piece.‘This year nothing can look better than his horfes do upon this hay, (with which fome red clover is mixed,) and this, with the addition of very little corn, and that moftly light, the tailings of oats and barley.” Meadow Soft Grafs, or Yorkfbire White*,.—It is common in meadows, and paf- tures, and is hardy and productive of foliage, but flowers much ita“ghan the firft of the above graffes: its foliage is foft and woolly}. It thrives beft' on- foils of the more moift kinds; but may be grown on almoft any that are not very dry- and in poor condition; and even on thefe it is fometimes met with. By fome cultivators it is chiefly advifed to be made ufe of with a view to fheep pafture, as it has not been found equally good for other forts of ftock. And it has been found to anfwer beft when kept very clofely fedf. It has been fuppofed ufeful for neat cattle, but very indifferent for horfes§. It grows in a quick manner, and affords good fheep-feed in the winter feafon; and would feem, from the following fact, to be much relifhed by live ftock: on two fields being laid down adjvining each other, one with this grafs, and the other with rye-grafs(Lolium perenne,) the former was eaten much clofer than the jatter, by the ftock turned upon them|. Rough Cock’s-foot Grafs§.—This is a coarfe, rough grafs, but very hardy and * Holcus lanatus. + Curtis’s Practical Obfervations. t Young in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol. IL. § Marthall’s Rural Economy of the Midland Counties. }| Goring in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol. I. 4] Dactylis glomeratay,. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Tall Oat Grafs—Meadow Cat’s-Tail Grafs. 838 productive. as not only an indifferent grafs, but one that is often rejected by cattle+. Others, however, on the authority of experience, confider it as highly valuable on moift It is common in meadows; and rather early*. Some condemn it loams where the bottom is of a clayey marl nature; and in cafes where the grafies of a finer kind are liable to be overpowered and deftroyed by thole plants that are common to the foil. When it is kept very clofely fed down, it conftitutes excellent pafturage for fheep; but when this is neglected, like many other graffes, it gets coarfe: if fown with red clover, in the proportion of two bufhels of the grafs feeds to ten pounds of the clover, it forms a better fward; for, as the latter wears out or difappears, the former refumes its place, and lafts better in the land: It is a grafs that vegetates better during the winter feafon than many others}. It affords much feed, and which may be gathered at but little expenfe, as about four fhillings the bufhel§. It has been found highly beneficial in affording an early feed for theep|. Tall Oat Grafs ¢.—This is a grafs fometimes found abundantly in meadows. It is early, coarfe, and productive; but affords a plentiful aftermath. In excellence it approaches the meadow fox-tail, for which it may, in many cafes, prove no indiffe- rent fubftitute**. It is cultivated on the continent with advantage t+. This, like the preceding grafs, is found the moft beneficial when retained in a clofe ftate of feeding ft. It makes good hay, and experiment has fhown it to afford a greater weight of produce than moft other graffes§§. On the continent, in.comparifon with common grafs, it is found to yield in the proportion of twenty to two|||. Meadow Cat’s-Tail Grafs, or Timothy§q.—This grafs fucceeds belt in moitt foils and fituations, is very productive, but coarfeand late. It poffeffes no advantages over the meadow fox-tail|. It is the moft proper for clays, the moifter kinds of loams, and thofe of the peat nature. When cultivated on moift loams with a fubftratum of the clayey marl defcription, it has been found on trial very ufeful, efpecially when kept clofely fed down by fheep|p.‘According to the accounts of travellers in America, * Curtis's Obfervations,&c.-+ Sole in Bath Papers, Vol, 1X. + Youug in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol. III.§ Ibid. {| Young’s Eaftern Tour, Vol. I. q Avena elatior.*%* Curtis’s PraGical Obfervations, ++ Annals of Agriculture; ¢} Young in Communications,&c. Vol, III. §§ Swayne’s Gramina Pafcua, Vol. edit.||| Obf. Soc. de Bretagne pour l’Année 1759 Gq Phleum pratenfe. 4 Curtis’s Pra&tical Obfervations. jp Young in Communications,&c. §9e 834 Cultivation of Arable Lapd.—-Hay-Seeds—Yarrow. it conftitutes the principal fupport of cattle and other animals, wherever the lands are of the meadow kind. Ic affords plenty of feed, of which a bufhel is faid by fome to be fufficient, when mixed with thofe of other forts, to fow four or five acrés of land. They are capable of being procured in a perfectly clean ftate from America, inany proportion, at the eafy expenfe of about a guinea the bufhel*. Hay-Seeds.—Thele are the feeds collected in hay-lofts and:chambers, or from un- der the ftacks; and mut of courfe be a mixture of the feeds of various forts of graffes, both good and bad, as well as of other forts of plants that may have been upon the land from which the hay was taken. They fhould confequently never be indifcrimi- nately made ufe of in laying down lands to the ftate of fward, as has been the too com- mon practice. The only way in which they can be ufed with propriety is, by felect- ing them from the beft graffes on the fields after their being cut down, and afterwards threfhing them out, as by this means the feeds of the bad and improper plants may avoid being mixed and blended with thofe that are valuable and of the proper forts. Another method has been advifed'by an able practical cultivator, which is that of taking them from fuch old pafture meadow, or marfh lands, as abound in graffes of the beft kinds; being careful that the foils from which they are taken be fimilar to thofe on which they are to be fown; and inftead of cutting them at the com- mon period of hay-time, to let them ftand till the yellow oat grafs begins to turn its colour, which being one of the lateft kinds, all the others will have attained perfection: they fhould then be cut down, and afterwards threfhed out ona cloth in the field, or fecured to be threfhed in the winter feafont. But in this way, with the greateft care, improper and ufelefs plants may often be propagated. There are other plants befides thefe that may be of great advantage in laying down lands to grafs, by the large quantity of herbage they produce, fuch as the following: Yarrowt.—This is a plant that fends forth a great abundance of leaves, which conftitute good herbage, and which are confumed with great avidity by cattle and fheep; but from the flower-ftems being fometimes rejected, it has been too much negleéted. Ic forms the principal herbage in many fine rich paftures; but where they are kept clofely fed down is but little perceived§. It is predominant on moift, loamy foils, in nearly an equal degree as on thofe of the dry, burning, fandy, gravelly, or chalky kinds. It is of much utility in refifting the effects of drought in the moft dry, parched, clofe-fed lands; often preferving the fpots where it prevails in a green ftate, while others are burnt up and become quite brown. It is faid to * Young in Communications,&c.+ Boys in Communications to the Board of Agriculwure, Vol. IIL. { Achillea Millefolium.§ Anderfon’s Effays. Cultivation of Arable Land.—White Clover—Cow-Grafs—Trefoil. anfwer- well, when cultivated with a view to be fed by fheep. It is therefore a plant of much value, and which deferves greater attention than has hitherto been beftowed upon it*. The feeds may be colleéted in October, without much diffi- culty, and at the rate of about five fhillings the bufhel+. White Clover{.—This has been greatly depended upon by moft cultivators, in bringing lands into a ftate of fward. It is an extremely ufeful plant on the more rich and dry, fandy and loamy foils, as well as in the clayey and peaty defcriptions of land, where they have been well drained from moifture: but on the more wet and poorer forts of loamy and clayey lands, it is not by any means fo proper or ufeful, as it is not lafting, but gives place to plants of the aquatic kind, as well as others of an indifferent defcription. It is fuppofed by fome not to afford fo fweet an herbage as broad clover or many other plants: with us it has, however, always been eagerly fed upon both by fheep and neat cattle; and where clofely fed down, we have little doubt of its great utility.“That which comes up naturally by the application of manure is faid to be much more hardy than that which is fown, as well as more iafting in the foil§. It has been’ juftly remarked as a proof of good land, that it runs quickly, of its own accord, to this plant||. It may be introduced with moft forts of feeds, and contribute greatly to the fuccefs of the cultivator. Cow-Gra/s ¢.—This is ufually known to farmers, under the title of Marl Grafs. It is faid to be a more lafting plant than the common red clover. On clayey foils and loamy ones of the ftronger kind, it is found to fucceed to the greateft cer- tainty**. And its cultivation has been attempted on thofe of the fandy defcription, with fuch fuccefs as to afford good cropst+. The feed can always be procured with facility. It is faid to fucceed well on all the heavier forts of foil, and to be of great utility when fown with other graffes, where the lands are to remain in the ftate of grafs ft. It is recommended to be fown on the ftone-brafh lands, in large proportions, with other forts of clover, by an intelligent cultivator§§, Trefoil||\|.—T his is another plant which is capable of fucceeding on foils of different * Young in Communications,&c. Vol. III.+ Ibid. t Trifolium repens.§Goring in Communications,&c. Vol. ITI,|| Young in Communications,&c. q Trifolium medium.** Young in Communications,&c. +t Correéted Report of Lincolnthire.$+ Sir John Sinclair in Communications,&c,§§ Ibid, \||| Medicago lupulina. 5 02 A tee— os ee ec mg al mag IRAE aEOE RaGar nee eee eee ee~~ 836 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Rib Grafs or Plantain. kinds. It may be objected to as being only a biennial; but as it annually theds much feed, it is faid to feldom wear out of the lands on which it is eftablifhed. This plant is often difiinguifhed by the titles of Now/uch, Yellow Clover,&c. As it is always of much importance to the farmer to have the land he lays down for pafture to produce anample crop the firft year; and as there are fome grafles or plants which require two or three years to eftablifh themfelves, and acquire their perfect growth, while others arrive at their extreme growth and expanfion the firft year after they are fown; fome of the latter fort fhould be chofen, among which trefoil will be found highly valuable. This proves the advantage of mixing it with other fown graffes. Some think the quantity of four pounds of trefoil feed to the acre is too{mail; and intend in future either to double it, or add as much red clover feed, which may be more proper. In this quantity, it is fuppofed, they will not injure the other grafs feeds fown at the fame time, but furnifh a copious vegetation until the others come to perfection, at which period both the trefoil and red clover have a natural tendency to difappear or wear out*. The feed may be readily pro- cured, and without much expenfe. It has: likewife been found to anfwer on the ftone-brafh foils by Mr. Davies+. On chalky, and all the drier forts of foil it is recommended as proper and beneficial ¢. Rib Grafs or Rib-wort Plantain§.—This is a plant much relifhed by neat cattle and horfes; and on grounds that are rather foft and porous, as fands and loams, in good heart, and which have a tendency to moifture, it affords a large produce of herbage; but on thofe that are very dry and binding, its produce is but fcanty|]. But on thefe it is afferted to anfwer for fheep-pafture, though inferior to’ others q. It has been long eftablifhed in. fome diftri¢ts, where it is in much efteem for fheep- feed, but from its fucculent nature improper for hay**, According to a late writer, it feems a good plant for thickening the bottom of the grafs. Cattle are faid to have a diflike to it, by fome; but certainly the flower- ing-ftems are here eagerly eaten by all forts of ftock. It is early in flower, and flourifhes particularly in mofs lands that have been drained in a perfect manner tf. It affords feed in great plenty. The Gra/s-leaved Plantain{f is alfo a plant ca- pable of being employed with advantage in the laying down lands to pafture. It is faid to fucceed on barren foils and clays, It has the property of refifting the * Campbell in Communications to the Board,&c.+ Ibid.+ Boys in Ibid. § Plantago lanceolata.|| Anderfon’s Effays; Vol. II. q ibid. ** Marthall’s Rural Economy of Yorkthire.+f Ibid. ti Plantago tenuifolia. — DUTCH OR WHITE CLOVER. itso (Trifolium repens.) Vol 2. p.835 TREFOIL OR BLACK NONSUCH. (Medicago lupulina-/ es, NY BIRDSFOOT FRIEF OTL / Lotus cormiciulaties., Cultivation of Arable Land.—Burnet. 837 effects of the fea air; and, as growing well on land liable to be covered with fale water, may be a valuable plant in fuch forts of ground. Its leaves, from their fmallnefs, have the appearance of the thicker and better forts of grafs. Both cattle, fheep, and horfes, feed upon its leaves with much greedinefs, but parti- cularly fheep, which pare it as clofe as poffible*, It affords much feed, which is capable of being eafily collected. Burnet+.—It is a plant that may be cultivated for cattle; but its principal ufe is for fheep pafturage. It fucceeds on moft forts of foils, as thofe of the fandy, clayey, and peaty kinds. It is afferted to form a large proportion of the natural pafturage of extenfive tracks on the moft fertile parts of the South Downs; and it abounds much on moft other downs of the chalky kind}. Its moft beneficial application is in the way of an early green feed for fheep, or other forts of ftock. It fhould be always made ufe of while in its more young and tender{tate of growth, as being better relifhed by the animals.’ In foils that are fertile and fuited to its cultivation, it is faid; under proper management, to fometimes afford good pafturage in the latter end of Jannary, and through the whole of the two following months. The fevere weather in winter affects it lefs than moft other herbaceous plants, being fo hardy as in fome cafes to vegetate in that feafon, when the weather is a little open. If not fed down, it may be cut at the above period as a green food for animals. Its property of refifting the effects of drought in the fummer feafon, is likewife a circumitance of much importance in its favour. It has alfo the quality of getting thicker and more clofe on the land by time§. For the purpofe of hay it is a plant that is faid to afford a large produce, but which requires to be cut rather early, to prevent its coarfenefs. The feed is faid to be of much advantage in the feeding of horfes, and alfo the chaffy material||. In the culture of the plant it is of vaft importance to have good feed, and that which is of the proper fort. It may be the beft procured by felecting a part where the plants are good, as they afford it in a large proportion. Where the land is intended as a fheep-pafture it fhould be fown broadcaft over the ground; but in other cafes it admits of being cultivated in drills, in the fame manner as lucern. There are many other plants, both of the tare or vetch and fweet pea, as well as other forts, that are faid to have been found highly valuabie, efpecially when kept clofely fed down by cattle; but the trials that have yet been made with them are much too few to allow us to fpeak of them in this place, * Anderfon’s Effays, Vol IT’+ Poterium Sanguiforba.+ Young in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol, III.§ Annals of Agriculture, Vol, XXI.|| Ibid. 4 858 Cultivation of Arable Land.—-Arrangement of Graffes, The different ficld-graffes and herbaceous p'ants which have been defcribed above, may be arranged and found ufeful in refpect to foil, allowing for particular circumftances, fomewhat in the following order: for Clayey Soils.——Marl or Cow Grafs; Rough Cock’s- Foot Grafs; Crefted Dog’s- Tail; Meadow Fefcue Grafs; Meadow Fox-Tail Grafs; Rough-ftalked Meadow Grafs; Tall Oat Grafs; Trefoil; Meadow Soft Grafs, or Yorkfhire’White; Mea- dow Cat’s-Tail or Timothy Grafs. Leamy Soils.—White Clover; Ray or Rye Grafs; Meadow Fefcue Grafs; Meadow Fox-Tail Grafs; Crefted Dog’s-Tail Grafs; Poa, or Common Meadow Grafs; Meadow Soft Grafs, or Yorkfhire White; Meadow Cat’s-Tail or Timothy Grafs; Smooth-fialked Meadow Grafs; Sheep’s Fefcue Grafs; Hard Fefcue Grafs; Yarrow; and Lucern; Sandy Soils.—White Clover; Ray or Rye Grafs; Meadow Soft Grafs, or York- fhire White; Sweet-fcented Vernal Grafs; Sheep Fefcue Grafs; Yarrow; Burnet; Trefoil; Rib Grafs.: Chalky Soils—Yarrow; Burnet; Trefoil; White Clover; Saintfoin. Peaty Soils.—White Clover; Crefted Dog’s-Tail Grafs; Rough Cock’s-Foot Grafs; Rib Grafs; Meadow Soft Grafs, or Yorkfhire White; Ray or Rye Grafs; Meadow Fox-Tail Grafs; Meadow Fefcue Grafs; Meadow Cat’s-Tafl or Ti- mothy Grafs. Confiderable latitude muft, however, be allowed in the ufe of thefe, both on account of the variations of foil, and the differences in the ftates of preparation in the lands, as well as the convenience or difficulty of procuring the feeds of them. Early Herbage.—In this point of view they may alfoftand fomewhat in the following manner*: Swect-fcented Vernal Grafs; Meadow Fox-TailGrafs; Smooth-ftalked Mea-: dowGrafs; Rough-ftalked MeadowGrafs; Tall Oat Grafs; Rough Cock’s-Foot Grafs; Hard Fefcue Grafs; Burnet; Rib Grafs; Ray Grafs; Trefoil; Broad-leaved Clover, Abundant Produce.—In this refpec the following order may perhaps be proper: Ray Grafs; Tall Oat Grafs; Broad Clover; Burnet; Meadow Cat’s-Tail Grafs; Meadow Fox-Tail Grafs. Too few experiments have yet been made with regard to the differences in the feeding properties of different graffes, to afford any correct arrangement of them in that view; yet, as diftenfion, as well as the nutrient principle, is requifite in the fupport and fattening of all animals, it may not be improbable but that thofe grafles or other plants that abound in fweet-jointed ftems, and at the fame time *® Curtis’s Practical Obfervations. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Grafs-Seeds—Proportion of neceffary. 839 afford much foliage, may be the moft nutritious. The fuperior utility of thofe graffes that run much to ftem, as well as of broad clover, tares, and other fimilar plants, in the fupport of different forts of ftock, feem to countenance the fuppo- fition. And it is probably on the fame principle that the firft crops of hay are better capable of fupporting work-horfes, than thofe which arife from the foft laxative herbage of the aftermath. Grafs-Seed.—As mott of the beft grafs-feeds may now either be purchafed inthe feed-fhops, or be eafily obtained in the manner that has been mentioned above, there will of courfe be much lefs difficulty in laying down land with proper graffes than was formerly the cafe. In refpect to the proportion of feed that may be the moft proper and advanta- geous under different circumftances, it muft depend in a great meafure upon the» nature of the foil, the fituation of the land, the ftate of preparation to which it has been brought, and the intentions of the cultivator in its application..But old til- lage lands will in general require a much larger proportion of feed than thofe which have been more recently broken up*.‘Cold expofed fituations alfo ftand in need of a greater quantity of feed than thofe that are low and warm: and where the Jands are defigned for pafture a larger proportion than where hay is the principal object. Clayey Scils.~On thefe fome advife the following proportions as the moft pro- per: Marl or Cow Grafs, slbs.; Trefoil, slbs.; Crefted Dog’s-Tail Grafs, rolbs.; Meadow Fefcue Grafs, one bufhel; Meadow Fox-Tail Grafs, one bufhel. And where the three laft cannot be procured, Meadow Soft Grafs, or Yorkfhire: White, two buthels; Meadow Cat’s-Tail or Timothy Grafs, 4 lbs.; or Meadow Cat’s- Tail or Timothy Grafs, 4lbs.; and Yorkfhire White, one bufhel+. Others recommend, on the heavy forts of lands that are to be broken up in a year or two, from ten to fourteen pounds of red clover; but where they are to remain in permanent grafs, Marl or Cow Grafs from 4lbs. to 6lbs., and White Clover 4lbs. f. Loamy Soils.—Thefe are fuppofed to require the following proportions, by fome experienced cultivators: White Clover, slbs.; Crefted Dog’s-Tail, rolbs.; Ray Grafs, one peck; Meadow Fefcue Grafs, three pecks; Meadow Fox-Tail, three pecks; Yarrow, two pecks. Or where the fecond cannot be had, Ray Grafs, one peck; Rib Grafs, 4lbs.; and in the room of the laft three, Meadow Soft Grafs, * Sir John Sinclair in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol. III. + Young in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol, III.$ Ibid. 840 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Grafs-Seeds—Proportion of necéfary. er Yorkfhire White, half a bufhel; Meadow Cat’s-Tail or Timothy Grafs, 4lbs.; Marl or Cow Grafs, slbs.*; There are others, however, that advife, on all dry foils, White Clover, 4!bs.; Marl or Cow Grafs, from 4 to 6lbs.; and of Hop or Yellow Clover, from 2 to 4lbs. And for permanent pafture it is the practice of an intelligent farmer in Devonthire to fow White Clover, Marl or Cow Grafs, and Hop or Yeliow Clover, in the quantity of each from 6lbs. to 7lbs. with the beft Ray Grafs, in the proportion of one bufhel. In this method a conftant fucceffion of food is fuppofed to be preferved for five or fix months in the year; as the Hop Clover and Rye Grafs flourifh in the early part of the{pring, the Marl or Cow Grafs being in perfection in about the middle of fummer, when the former begins to difappear, and the White Clover becomes in its perfect ftate a month or fix weeks later, continuing through the reft of the feafon+. On fuch loams as have a fubftratum of the ftone-brafh kind, it is recommended by an experienced agricultor to fow per acre: of Ray Grafs, one bufhel; Marl or Cow Grafs, rolbs.; White or Dutch Clover, 3lbs.; Hop Clo: e+, or Trefoil, 1b.|| Without difcriminating the particular kind of foil, Dr. Wilkinfon, who has had much experience, recommends the ufe of White Clover in the proportion of 12\bs.; Broad Clover, Trefoil, and Rib Grafs, of each albs. é Sandy Soils:—On this defcription of land the following proportions have been found by fome the moft uleful: White Clover, 7lbs.; Trefoil, 5lbs.; Burnet, 6lbs.; Ray Grafs, one peck; Yarrow, one bufhel: or inftead of the laft, Rib Grafs, albs.; Ray Grafs, one peck f. But on the fame forts of foil other experienced agricultors only make ufe of White Clover and Trefoil in the proportion of slbs. each, with a bufhel of Ray Grafs, and about an equal quantity of collected grafs-feeds to the ftatute acre§. As graffes even in the richer forts of lands of this nature are liable te be much injured by the moifture being too quickly conveyed away in the fummer feafon, it would feem proper to put in a full proportion of feeds in all cafes. On the poorer and thinner forts, the quantities recommended in the above cafes may often be aug- mented, efpecially in the Burnet and Ray Grafs, with advantage. Chalky Scils.—Thefe are found to fucceed with the following quantities: Burnet, rolbs,; Trefoil, slbs.; White Clover, slbs,; Yarrow, one buihel; or in its place, Ray Grafs, one bufhel Tf. * Young in Communications to the Board,&c.+ Sic John Sinclair in Ibid.| Davis in Ibid, + Young in Communications,&c.§ Greenall.in Communications to the Board,&e, Vol. III. ++ Young in Communications to the Board,&c. 4 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Grajs- Seeds— Proportion of neceffary. 841 v On this defcription of foil, Mr. Boys, an intelligent cultivator of much expe- rience, advifes Rib Grafs, 8lbs.; White Dutch Clover, and Marl or Cow Grafs, each 4lbs.; and Yellow:Trefoil, 4lbs. He alfo fpeaks highly of the ule of Saint- foin in fuch cafes. And as in this, as well as the preceding foil, the graffes are apt to be injured by the heat of the fummer feafon, the land fhould conftantly be well ftocked with grafs plants. Peaty Soils.—In this fort of land the proportions of feed advifed below are found to fucceed well by fome: White Clover, rolbs.;-Crefted Dog’s-Tail Grafs, rolbs.; Ray Grafs, one peck; Meadow Fox-Tail Grafs, two ditto; Meadow Fefcue Grafs, two ditto; Cat’s-Tail or Timothy Grafs, one ditto: or in the places of the fecond, fourth, and fifth, Meadow Soft Grafs, or Yorkfhire White, fix pecks; Rib Grafs, glbs.; Marl or Cow Grafs, 4lbs.* An able and experienced agricultor thinks it a matter of the greateft import- ance, that a full quantity of feeds fhould be fown in all cafes where the land is intended for pafturage f. In the laying down land for the purpofe of good meadows, the following proportions ef thefe different grafs feeds have been recommended per acre, for lands that are of the moifter kind: Meadow Fox-Tail Grafs and Meadow Fefcue Grafs, each two pecks and a half; Rough-ftalked Meadow Grafs and Smooth-ftalked Meadow Grafs, each a peck and a half; Crefted Dog’s-Tail Grafs and Sweet-fcented Vernal Grafs, each three quarters of a peck; White or Dutch Clover, and Wild Red Clover or Broad Clover, each one peck and a quarter. Where the grounds are much clined to moifture, the Crefted Dogs’-Tail Grafs and Smooth-ftalked Meadow Grafs may be left out. Thefe are faid to foon form a good turf; and, from their being hardy perennials of vigorous growth, are not liable to be overpowered by the coarfe indi- genous plants of fuch landst. In lands which are to be conduéted under a convertible fyftem of corn and orafs, it will in moft cafes be the moft advifable practice to fow feeds of the artificial grafs kind, as Broad Clover, Saintfoin,&c., according to the nature of the foil, with thofe of White Clover, Ray Grafs, and fome others. In cafes where the lands are to be kept ina permanent ftate of fheep paiture, though it has been advifed by fome to have recourfe to the finer forts of graffes, it is probably a matter of lefs importance than has been commonly fuppofed, as the coarfer forts, when in a ftate of fufficiently clofe feeding, become eradually finer * Young in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol. IIT. + Wilkinfon in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol. III. t Curtis’s PraCtical Obfervations. &--P. / 842 Cultivation of Arable Land——Grafs-Seeds—Time and Method of Sowing. and better; but in order to produce this effect in the fulleft_ manner, they fhould conftantly be fo eaten down, as to prevent any of the feed-ftems from advan- cing. The Tall Oat Grafs, the Cock’s-Foot Grafs, and the Meadow Soft Grafs, have, under this fort of management, become fufficiently fine, and the fame effect has long been known to be produced on Rye Grafs, by the clofe eating of it down by animals. Time and Method of Sowing.—In accomplifhing thefe different operations, different modes are practifed according to the manner of preparation and the particular circum- ftances of the land. In refpect to the frit, or the periods of putting in the grafs {eeds; the moft ufual has been inthe fpring, at the time that the grain crops are fown: but where the ground hasbeen brought to a fuitable ftate of preparation by means of green or other fallows, the latter end of the fummer, as about Augutft, has been the more general feafon. In the former cafe they are commonly put in with the grain crops; but in the latter, without any other fort of crop. There has been much diverfity of opinion among agricultural writers with regard to the fuperior utility of thefe different feafons of introducing the feeds, as well as with regard to their| eing fown with or without other forts of crops.‘The advantages of the au- tumnal over thofe of the vernal fowings are contended. to be: thofe of the grafs plants being lefs expofed to danger from the fhade, clofenefs, and choking that muft neceflarily occur at the latter feafon; there being lefs rifk of{tocking the ground with noxious weeds in cafe of the feeds of hay chambers being indifcriminately fown*; their being put in upon a better preparation and more mellow and fertile ftate of the land; their growth being more ftrong and vigorous from their not being robbed of their proper nourifhment by other exhaufting crops, and the great fuperiority of the hay produce: while on the contrary it is maintained in fupport of the ver- nal fowings, that befides their being lefs precarious, fhade is neceffary in the early growth of the grafs plants to protect them from the effects of heat; the moifture is better preferved in the foil for their fupport; fmall annual weeds more effectually prevented from rifing to injure them; and the lofs the farmer muft fuftain from the want of the grain crop guarded againft f. * Clofe, in Communications te the Board,&c. Vol. 11I. It is remarked by this author, that“fowing rubbith in Auguft is not of fo great importance as in the fpring. In the former feafon all the annuak feeds vegetate, ard if the beginning of the winter be mild, they will bloffom; but they cannot perlect their feed, and the firft froft deftroys them. If fown in the fpring. they vegetate, bloffom, perfect and thed their fecds, and thus ftock the land with noxious weeds. The fats he has ftated muft, he fays, do away the objections to fowing rubbifh. It is immaterial, he thinks, what you: fow, if you do but obtain an abundant crop, andileaye your land clean and in good order.’’ + Anderfon’s Eflays, Vol, I. $$ Cultivation of Arable Land.—Grafs-Seeds—Time and Method of Sowing. 848 But though fome of the arguments urged on both fides of this contraverted point may be objected to, the autumnal fowings not preventing the perennial weeds from rifing and fhedding their feeds in the following fummer, nor the great clofenefs of erain crops being without injury to the growth of the young grafs plants; there are faéts that render it not improbable but that each method may have advantages under particular circumftances. In the more fouthern diftriéts, where the feverity of the winter feafon is later in its approach, the autumnal feafon may frequently be made ufe of with advantage, after fallow crops, for fowing grafs feeds, efpecially in cafes where the lands are in too rich a condition for the fuccefsful growth of corn. But inthe more northern parts of the kingdom, and expofed fituations, where the frofts fet in at an early period, it may be in general the moft advifable practice to ’ put the feeds in, in the vernal months, with fuitable crops of the grain kind. An intelligent writer of much experience has indeed obferved, that grafs feeds anfwer almoft equally well in either method: he prefers the Auguift fo wing without corn, though the fuccefs of his trials in the different feafons has not juftified any deci five conclufion*. It is even admitted that in moory and mountainous fituations, where the faows come early, autumnal fowings are not advifable, or to be perform- ed later than the very early part of Auguft; the vernal feafon with oats for being cut young for foiling, or hay, is conftantly to be preferred. Mr. Dalton, in Yorkfhire, after trying other methods, recommends the autumn without corn as the moft ad- vifable. And the Reverend Mr. Clofe ftates that‘a friend of his, wifhing to procure a good meadow or pafture around his houfe, fallowed the land for barley; but the{pring proving wet, and the foil being a ftrong loam, he could only put half of it in order for that crop, which was fown, and laid with clover and rye grafs. The other part was fallowed, and fown in Auveuft with the fweepings of hay chambers. The barley was a good crop, and the elover and rye grafs were probably equal to the firft year’s cut of hay. The fecond year the artificial graffes began to fail; worfe the third, fourth, and fifth; the fixth year, after hav- ing received two dreffings, the{pontaneous product of the foil began to give a fleece over the furface of the land. About ten years after thefe lands were fown tee Mr. Clofe faw this field, when the part fown in Auguft was worth at leaft fifteen fhillings per acre more than the part which had been fown with artificial graffes in the barley. Thus from a€tual experiments, numbers of which he could adduce, he concludes that fowing the fweepings of hay chambers in Auguft is preferable # Rey. Mr. Young in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol. ILI. § je 944 Cultivation of Arable Land.— Grafs-Seeds—Time and Method of Sowing. to fowing artificial graffes in the{pring with any crop of corn. Suppofe, fays he, the corn worth five pounds per acre, the difference in the produce of hay or feed in the fecond, third, fourth, and fifth years, would more than counterbalance this; and the proprietor would find a permanent improvement in his land of from fifteen fhillings to twenty fhillings per acre.” On comparative experiments being made with corn in the fpring months, and without ic in Auguft, the latter was found by much the belt mode by different cultivators*. But in the experiment of an accurate agricultor, mentioned by the Rev. Mr. Young+, in comparing different methods of vernal fowings, in which four acres were fown with feeds alone, on peafe and buck-wheat ploughed in the preceding autumn; five acres with barley; and five more with the feeds put in alone without corn or manure: the portions fown alone were overrun with weeds, and only pre- ferved from being fmothered and deftroyed by being eaten down by a dairy of cows. Others, after repeatedly trying the experiment of fowing in the fpring with corn, and the autumn without, and from long and extenfive practice, conclude,“ that, even if we were to have no regard to any other circumftance except the grafs crop alone, it would always be beft to fow it with fome kind of grain; but when we con- fider likewife the lofs that the farmer thus fuftains for want of a crop of grain, the practice of fowing alone muft'be looked upon as highly pernicious to the farmert.” It is probably in this laft refpeét that the ereateft difadvantage of the practice confifts, as without it the farmer can derive no immediate recompenfe for his great expenfe ef tillage and preparation of the land. Where the vernal fowing with other forts of crops is had recourfe to, barley is that which is the moft ufually recommended, and“ there feems to be no queftion that barley is in general the fitteft grain to be fown with erafs-feeds. The fame tilth which anfwers for the one is requifite for the other. Barley has a difpofition toloofen the texture of the ground in which it grows; a circumftance,highly fa- vourable to the vegetation of grafs-feeds, which require a free and open foil to ex- tend their roots in; the tender and delicate fibres of which have much, difficulty in contending with the refiftance of a ftubborn foil. And this points out.the reafon why grafs-feeds fo frequently fail on ftrong land not in a proper ftate of cultivation, * Mr. Lyefter in Lincolnthire, and M. Burgoyne, Efq. in Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XIX. + Mr. Dixon of Belford.+ Anderfon's Effays, Vol, I. Trees Cultivation of Arable Land.—Gra/s-Seeds—Time and Method of Sowing. 845 In the choice of barley, that fort fhould be preferred which runs lea{t to ftraw and which is the fooneft ripe*.” But as from the graffy nature of the ftem, and the large fize of the car in this fort of grain, aconfiderable degree of clofenefs and fhade muft conftantly be kept up, it fhould never be fown fo thickly as in other eafes where there are no grafs-feeds. Some object to fowing grafs-feeds with barley on other principles—as thofe of its drawing its nourifhment from the furface, which is alfo the cafe with the grafs-plants, and that in confequence they mult be greatly retarded in their growth from the want of due fupportt. Where the land is ina proper ftate of preparation and tillage, if fown with oats, they will be apt to become foluxuriant as to greatly injure, if not wholly deftroy, the young grafs-plants by the clofenefs of their fhade$. In fome cafes they, however, fucceed tolerably with this fort of crop. On the ftronger kinds of land the fowing of grafs-feeds has been found to anfwer well with thin crops of beans. In an experiment of this kind, Mr. Dalton found that the beans did not“ rob, but fheltered and nourifhed”’ the grafs- plants, the plan anfwering beyond his expectations. The importance of having the furface mould in a fine ftate in order to the more regular diftribution and more perfect vegetation of the grafs-feeds, has been al- ready noticed. But to effect thefe purpofes in the moft complete manner, the feed{man fhould be accuftomed to the bufinefs, and the feeds, as being of different weights, as little mixed with each other as poffible. It is much better to have more cafts than to blend the feeds together for the fake of difpatch. For all the fmaller forts of feeds, ithas been fuggefted as preferable to deliver them by means of the Norfolk turnip trough, which has lately been adapted to clover and ray grafs§. This operation fhould always be performed as foon after the land has been ploughed as poffible, as under fuch circumftances the feeds vegetate in a much more quick and vigorous manner. But it fhould never be attempted in fuch a wet fate of the land as produces any great degree of tenacity or adhefivenefs in the 5 in fach circumftances the feeds would be apt to come up in a tufty un- equal manner. Nor for the fame reafon fhould the lighter forts of grafs-feeds ever be fown in windy weather; as the delivering them in an equal and regular manner is a point of confequence: to the forming of good grafs-land. In the co- vering in of the feeds, care fhould be taken that none are left in an expofed{tate on the furface of the ground, as when that is the cafe many of them will be de mould, a * Cartwright in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol. TIL + Dalton in Ibid,$ Clofe in Ibid.§ Young in Ibid. & 346 Cultivation of Arable Land.—After-management of new Grofs Lands. ftroyed or picked up by birds, and the fward appear patchy. This bufinefs is executed in the moft coniplete manner by a pair of light fhort-tined harrows at one tining. The praétice of employing buh harrows is improper, as in that way the feeds aré liable to be drawn into lumps. In all the lighter and more fpongy de- {criptions of land, it may be advantageous to pafs a light roller over the furface immediately after the feeds have been well harrowed in. ‘In cafes where the ténants and not the proprietors of the lands are to lay them down to grafs, it may be the moft advifable practice for the latter to procure the feeds; but at the expenfe of the former; efpecially where they have a fufficient intereft in fuch lands,—as, without this precaution, from their general propenfity to keep the grounds under the plough, and their indifference in refpe¢t to the obtaining of the moft proper forts of feeds, there may be danger of the bufinefs being improperly performed*. After-management of new Grafs Lands,—This is a matter of confiderable import- ance, and upon which much of the fuccefs of forming good grais land depends. As foon as the crop with which the’feeds have been fown has been removed, it is advifed-by fome to have recourfe to rolling the land with a moderately heavy roller, when it is in fuch a ftate of drynefs as juft to admit the impreffion of the implementt 3 as by this means, from the mould being preffed clofely about the roots of the plants, their early growth may be much benefited, and the danger of .drought prevented. The practice is, however, the moft neceflary in the more light and porous defcriptions of land. Others likewife recommend the application of manure at this period, in order to promote the growth and fupport of the young grafs-plants ¢; but this would feem quite unneceflary when the mode of prepara- tion that has been juft defcribed has been attended to, As the furface of fuch grounds as have been newly laid down to the ftate of fward is, from the previous tillage which they require, extremely tender, and readily broken into holes for fome time even in the drier defcriptions of land, the turning in of cattle with the view of feeding them down muft in meoft cafes be highly prejudicial by the treading which they caufe. The beft practice is therefore probably to fuffer no fort of ftock to be put upon fuch lands till the fpring after their being laid down§; or where the farmer finds it abfolutely neceffary to turns upon the lands, the lighteft fort of ftock fhould conftantly be felected for the pur- # Communications to the Board of Agriculture, var. loc. Wol. IIT. 4 Cartwright and Maxwell in Ibid.-+ Wilkinfon in Ibid.§ Maxwell in Ibid. 5 TES tie Se Cultivation-of Arable Land.—After-management of new Grafs Lands, 847 7) g pofe. Ithas been obferved that the advantage. of feeding fuch lands during the autumn and winter feafons is fcarcely a matter of any confequence, as the{pring feed for‘fheep, where it isomitted, is of fo much greater utility, a very early paf- turage being in this way afforded for ewes and lambs*. As to the advantages in the fucceeding management that may le had recourfe- to, in different cafes and circumftances, there is much contradi¢tion in the opi- nions of different experienced cultivators, fome maintaining the fuperiority of keeping the ground clofely fed down by fheep or neat cattle, while others conceive, mowing or feeding as preferable. There feems little reafon to doubt but that feed- ing by fome fort of ftock is a much better practice than thofe of either mowing or feeding; the chief difficulty is in refpect to the fort of ftock that is the moft proper. On the more dry and firm forts of ground a mixed ftock may. be the moft advan- tageous, as neat cattle and{heep, as in that way the new pafture may be fed down in the moft regular manner; but on thofe that are of a more open, porous, and lefs firm quality, fheep, by their eating fo clofely, may do much harm, efpecially in the firft years of the new lay, by pulling up the young and imperfe¢tly eftablithed ovafs-plants. Several inftances of this kind we have noticed in fuch foils. In-lands that are more incliued to moifture, the confuming of the produce by neat cattle mutt conftantly ve liable to do mifchief, except in very dry feafons; they muft of courile be principally fed down by fheep. And in all cafes where the new lay is chiefly conftituted of the more coarfe fort of graffes, fheep would feem to be the moft pro- per kind of ftock, as the grafies are thereby conftantly becoming more fixie and fweet. Many facts of this nature have been noticed by cultivators. The fweetnefs of the pafturage on many fheep downs has been remarked to depend move on their being kept clofe fed down than any other circumftance, as on being neglected in this te- fpect it becomes coarfe, and is rejected+. It has been well obferved, indeed, that‘ theep-feeding not only ameliorates by enriching the foil, and fining. the herbage, but alfo by deftroying weeds.” We have been aflured by a very ex- tenfive and experienced cultivator in Somerfetthire, that under this fore of manage- ment, not only many coarfe graffes but other forts of plants become: fine, and eagerly fed. upon by animals. Door Wilkinfon, who has been muchin the habit of comparing different prac+ tices, advifes the grazing, conftantly with fheep, and for the firft fix years never to # Young in Communications to the Boatd,-&c.. 4 Agricultural: Reports of Wiltthire and Stirlingthire. $ Young in Communications to the Beard,&c. Vol. IL 848 Cultivation of Arable Land.—After-management of new Grafs Lands. permit the fcythe to touch the lays. And the Reverend Mr. Young has well obferved, that it is not merely the firft year that feeding with fheep is the beft practice on new Jays, but it may be fo managed the fecond, and if it extend to the third it is the better: and though there is not any neceffity for adhering to it any longer, it has been found to anfwer well in his praétice, four, five, or even fix years; and in general xe thinks it may be concluded, that the more the land is fed with fheep, the greater the improvement will be. But in this management the impoverifhing ab- furd fyftem of removing the animals to be folded in other places, is not to be had recourfe to. [t has been long the practice in many diftri@s with the moft improved cultivators, to have recourfe to the method of fheep-feeding for fome time after laying the lands down to grafs, as two years or more*. And where ray grafs and white clover are in- tended to remain fome years, it is found, by fome, advantageous to eat them the firft year by fheep, inclofing, thickening, and rendering them more permanent}. Thefe facts are all in evidence of the great propriety and utility of the practice of feeding new grafs lands. It muft however be obferved, that in order to render the practice as fafe and beneficial as poffible, the new lays fhould not be fed during the autumn, or the ftock turned into them at too early a period in the fpring. Nor fhould they be too heavily ftocked, or the ftock kept in the paftures too long, efpecially when it confifts principally of fheep, as they may do much harm by paring and eating the plants fo clofely down, as immediately to kill them, or expofe their roots too much to the deftructive effeéts of drought. And in cafes where the graffes have run up much to ftem, if the lands be fufficiently ftocked with plants, it may be an ufeful method to cut them over by means of a{trong fcythe before their feeds are formed, as by this means they will become more{trong and vigorous: but, in the contrary cir- cumftances, they are better left for the purpofe of providing a more abundant fup- ply of young graffes, as the benefit obtained in this way will more than counter-~ balance the injury fuftained by the running up of the old plants. But though the practice of feeding new laid graffes in the firft years appears to be the moft advantageous and proper mode of management, efpecially for lands intended for pafture, there are many cafes in which they may be mown with great fuccefs. This practice is perhaps always the moft beneficial and proper, and in- deed the only one that can be fafely adopted in fuch foils as poffefs any great de- * Correéted Agricultural Report of the North Riding of Yorkfhire. + Corrected Report ef Perththire. Cultivation of Arable Land.—After-management of new Grafs Lands. 849 eree of moifture, as under fuch circumftances the feeding them down with any fort of live ftock muft in moft feafons be injurious to the fward. And, befides, where the object and intention of the farmer is chiefly hay, the grafs-plants, by being kept clofely eaten down by live{tock for a confiderable length of time before the fcythe is applied, may, from their becoming thereby difpofed to a low and lateral fpreading growth, be afterwards more unfit for the production of hay crops. Several facts of this nature are related by writers on hufbandry. In one cafe, where different divifions of land of the fame kind were laid down inthe fame man- ner, onone of them being kept in the ftate of pafture and the other alternately mown and paftured, after fome years both being fhut up for hay, that which had been paftured afforded a much inferior produce to the other*. The fame thing has happened in other cafes of old paftures being converted to hay lands, even when the moft favourable feafon prevailed ft. On thefe principles it may be a more judicious practice to manage lands de- figned for hay without having them for any great length of time, previoufly to their being mown, ied down clofely with ftock, as in this way a larger produce of hay may be afforded. Where the new lays are mown the firft year after being laid down, which is not a method to be generally recommended, it is an excellent practice to apply a mo- derate coat of manure over them in the autumn, efpecially when the ftate of the land and the feafon is fuch, in refpect to drynefs, as to admit of its being done without injuring the furface{ward; as by this means the grafs-plants not only be- come more ftrong and vigorous, but better eftablifhed in the foil, and of courfe bear cutting with much lefs injury. As it may fometimes happen, though it can be but feldom, where the methods that have been detailed above are fully attended to, that the cultivator may fail either in part or wholly of producing a good lay: in the firft cafe it is the beft practice to have recourfe to fowing frefh feeds, which fhould be performed in the early part of the fpring, when the weather is in a moift ftate, the feeds being ad- vifed by fome to be trodden in by putting fheep upon the land either indifcrimi- nately, or by very open folding, as the ufe of the roller will not be effectual, and that of harrowing cannot be practifed without injuryt. Doétor Wilkinfon has found advantage from putting the feeds in before the manure was applied in the new * Wight’s Syftem of Hufbandry, Vol. IV. + Young in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. III. Ibid. 52 850 Cultivation of Arable Lend.— After-management of new Grafs Lands. lays, which are fometimes too haftily ploughed up. By either method the fward of fuch lays may often be much thickened and improved. And in cafes where the graffes have run up much to ftem, if the lands be fufficiently ftocked with plants, it may be an ufeful practice to cut them over by means of a fharp fcythe before their feeds are formed, as by this means they will be more ftrong and vigorous and the lands be lefs injured; but in the contrary circumftances they are better left for the purpofe of providing a more abundant fupply of young graffes, as the benefit obtained in this way will more than counter- balance the injury fuftained by the old plants. Where there is a complete failure from particular caufes, the moft advifeable practice is, in cafes where the feeds have been put in in the fpring with grain crops, to take off thefe crops as foon as they will admit of it; and after giving the land one ploughing, directly to harrow in freth feeds. The bufinefs fhould be accom- plifhed as early in the beginning of Auguft as poffible. A roller may be applied over the land when in a fuitably dry condition about Oftober. But where the latter end of fummer has been the period of fowing, it is recommended that the land fhould have three ploughings performed upon it in the early{pring months, when the weather is fufficiently dry, and the grafs-feeds be again put in with a crop of buck wheat in May, which, though itis not a fuitable crop for the heavy wet forts of land, fometimes anfwers well in dry feafons; and in wet ones, as affording but little feed, may be mown when in bloffom as a green food for cows. From its not robbing the land much of its fertility, itis well adapted for the above purpofe*. In regard to the application of manure to new laid down erafs lands, though it will {eldom be abfolutely requifite, where they have been returned to the ftate of fward under the degree of fertility and preparation that has been already advifed, it may in moft cafes be had recourfe to with great advantage and improvement, as it is probably one of the beft means of preferving a good clofe-ftate of fward when judicioufly employed. It has been remarked by an experienced cultivator, that though in general no manure will be wanted till the land has been mown for hay, there can be little doubt but that great additional improvement will be produced where manure of any fort canbe applied, and that“ the oftener the land is ma- nured, the greater will be the improvement.” If the lands have been laid to grafs with corn crops, the application of a flight dreffing of manure in the autumn following may, as has been already feen, be of great utility in fixing and encouraging the growth of the young grafs-plants; but # Young in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. IIL.+ Maxwell in Ibid. wenger: | | | i Cultivation of Arable Land.—After-management of new Grafs Lands. 851 ‘nother cafes the latter end of the fummer following, or very early in the autumn, are fuppofed by fome to be the moft beneficial periods for the purpole; but as at thefe times, in many inftances, much lofs of manure may be fuftained both by eva- poration, and the wafhing of heavy rains and fnows, it may be a better and more ad- vifable prattice to perform the bufinefs in the early fpring months, efpecially where the lands are to be conduéted under the fcythe, as in this way the eariching material will be ready to exert its influence at the moment the young plants begin to fend forth their new fhoots; and thus not only afford more aftiftance in thicken- ing and invigorating the new fward, but be lefs in danger of being ufelefsly diffi-~ pated and wafted*. But where manure cannot be fpared for repeatedly dreffing new erafs lands, as the graffes are often, efpecially on lands not well fuited to their growth, hable to decline and become thin, in fome inftances it is fuppofed from the fown grafies difappearing before the fpontaneous ones have attained fufficient vigour and ftrength ¢, but more generally, probably, from the grounds not having been ina proper ftate of fertility or finenefs of furface mould at the time the feeds were put in, or the particular unfavourablenefs of the feafon, about the clofe of the third fummer after their being fown, it is believed to be a better practice to defer the ule of manure till that time on fuch lays as are paftured; and when they are under the fcythe, till the hay crop has been taken from the ground{. We have no doubt of the fuccefs of the application of dung top-dreffings at thefe periods, though they muft evidently be made ufe of in a lefs economical manner than at a later feafon in the autumn, or an earlier one in the fpring. And it is the moft common opinion that all the finer and more foluble kinds of top-dreffings are ap- plied with the greateft benefits in the very early fpring months, as about the latter end of February, or the beginning of the following month. The differences in the effeéts of thefe forts of manure have, perhaps, not yet been fully afcertained. In encouraging and fupporting the growth of the natural graffes when the fown ones decline about the third year an experienced cultivator§, who feems to favour the opinion of manure being the moft ufefully laid on land early in the autumn, or on hay lands immediately after the crops have been taken off, ftates that he has <¢ ufed coal afhes with great fuccefs, to the amount of three chaldrons per acre. He has laid of this manure on grafs land above 50 chaldrons in a year. About eight years ago he laid down a field of 12 acres with broad clover principally, * SeGtion on Manures,+ Wilkinfon in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol, II ¢ Young in Ibid.§ Dr. Wilkinfon of Enfield 592 852 Cultivation of Arable Lend.—JAfter- management of new Grafs Lands. intending it to ftand only for two years. In the fummer it was mown twice, next year it was grazed: the clover was but weak. As he had particular reafons for al» tering his mind, and for wifhing to continue it in grafs, he refolved to try the ef- feéts of grazing it with fheep. On the fourth year it looked fo very bad, the clover almoft entirely difappearing, that he was tempted to plough it up. He, however, refolved to continue the grazing, and to give it a dreffing of three chaldrons per acre of coal-afhes. The next year he obferved the white clover and natural graffes beginning to form a clofe turf, and the field is now an excellent piece of fward, without the aid of any hay-feeds.” It would appear from the further trials of the fame intelligent agricultor, that the following fubftances have much effeét, not only in promoting the growth and rendering the herbage more fine and{weet, but in renovating the fward.—** The {crapings of the road, or fand-drift, are, he fays, of great fervice in producing a fweet herbage. Wherever the{weepings of his own walks have been laid on an adjoining common, he has obferved the coarfe grafs difappearing, and the fine bents fhow- ing themfelves. He has a field now in his own occupation which, from a piece of coarfe herbage, has been brought into fuch a luxuriant ftate of fward that it is efteemed the beft piece of grafs land in the parifh. The improvement was in part owing toits fituation near a brook, which brought down from.a contiguous coms mon a quantity of leaves and fand-drift: thefe were carefully collected and laid on the meadow every year.” And he has ufed fold-yard liquor with advantange.--“ Having laid down a field to grafs immediately adjoining his fold-yard, which was fituated above it, by means of pipes and trenches he had the liquor from the fold-yard conducted over the field, after having colleéted it in a rflervoir: the effect of it in deftroying coarfe erafs, and producing a{weeter fward, was very remarkable.” The effects of watering have likewife been found powerful in the reproduction of fward;‘and where it can be had at command, land may with great facility be broken up for corn, and afterwards returned to a ftate of meadow. In two different meadows, which during the winter were frequently flooded, he has pared off part of the turf, and has obferved that the ground became green the firft year, and on she fecond, it was fo covered with grafs that he could with difficulty diftinguifh where the fward had been taken off. He has knowa the fame land pared a fecond rime in three years, and fpeedily covered again with a coat of fward after having been frequently flooded.” effeéts of the following manures, according to the experience of the fame cul- The Cultivation of Arable Land.—After-management of new Grafs Lands.— 858 tivator, would feem to be chiefly in promoting the luxuriance of the graffes, and of courfe to be principally advantageous in refpect to the quantity of produce. « Tallow-chandler’s graves on being ufed to the amount of a ton an acre, at half-a- crown a hundred weight, the grafs was rendered fo rank that for fome time cattle would not touch it, and the hay was too coarfe for fale, On account of its rank- nefs he generally ufes it mixed with mould or ditch earth, Its effects are vifible for fome years after it has been laid on in the fuperior verdure of the grafs.” It is obferved, that the effects of“night foil have been abundantly proved both in Flanders and the neighbourhood of London. The quantity ufed on grafs land is about three loads an acre. It is aftronger and more permanent manure than 9 common dung. In the fixing, producing, and rendering the white clover more permanent, the following fubftances have been found by the fame gentleman to have con- fiderable powers. On“ the application of marl he mentions one faét, which is, that he has known it fuccefsful in fixing the white clover on ftrong cold land, from which it is very apt to difappear. He has likewife found folding of great advantage in fixing and forwarding- the white clover. Coal-athes, will, he fays, produce this clover on wet land; but unlefs the land is drained it will foon grow weak or difappear.” It has alfo been obferved, that on the drier elayey lands in Cornwall,“ fea fand is found to mellow the clay and make them hold the graffes.”” And on what are often termed ftone brath lands the ufe of marl is found of great utility, when applied in the latter part of the fummer of the firft year ofthe lay. Butitis neceffary, to the fucceis of this fort of application, that the eround be well covered with grafs before it is applied, as where the furface is much expofed, the marl is liable to plafler and cake together, and the young grafs-plants to be in confequence expofed to much injury from the heat of the fummer. This fubftance feems to bring up the beft fort of natural graffes. In time this is, however, funk below the reach of vegetation. About thirty cart loads are fufficient for the acre. And chalk on the deep loamy clays is found an ufeful application the firft year on new lays, in the proportion of about twenty loads to the acre*. And on the more fandy defcriptions of land clayey marl may be of great advantage in eftablifhing the grafs. On peaty or moory lands marl and other fimilar materials will be of advantage in rendering them more compact, and better fuited for preferving the graffes; and sand and road ftuff for fining the herbage. The advantages from the two following fubftances do not feem fo important. * Davis in Communications to the Board,&c, Vol. III. 854 Cultivation of Arable Land.——After-management of new Grafs Lands. Soot has been much ufed as a top-dreffing, but Dr. Wilkinfon has nct obferved“ the effects to laft beyond the firft year. He has tried it to the amount of fixty bufhels per acre, at 8d. per bufhel; perhaps it fhould be ufed in larger quantity. Lime is nearly as dear, and of that he has ufed 160 bufhels-per acre on arable land. If he ufes foot again le intends to lay it on tothat amount. But he has ufed fugar-baker’s fcum with great fuccefs to the amount of two loads an acre, at half a guinea per load, which has been found a beau warm manure, highly ferviceable on cold land, its efieéts being permanent.”’ Lime is found ufeful on the more friable red loamy foils, by fixing and rendering them more clofe, to keep the vegetation more to the furface, as well as to promote the growth of the natural graffes, and prevent their roots from being injured by the heat of the fun. The following materials are probably chiefly ufeful in protecting and nourifhing the young grafs plants in their more tender growth; but they are more flow in producing their beneficial effects.— Woollen rags, though not generally ufed as manure on grafs land yet, when chopped fmal], have been fpread with advantage on young clovers before winter to the amount of about 10 cwt. per acre*.”’ On applying, in order to compenfate for an immediate crop of hay, and to thicken the fward, on one part of a field rotten dung about eight tons to the ftatute acre, on another part woollen rags chopped at the rate of 100 ftones to an acre; and on a third a rich marl in the proportion of about 80 tons to the ftatute acre: Dr. Campbel, on comparing their effects two years after their application, found that‘‘ the dung had produced the greater luxuriance. The woollen rags had a fuperior verdure, a deeper green: but as they had not yet been properly incor- porated with the land, by the grafs growing over them, their ultimate produce could not be afcertained, An acre of land may, he fays, be manured by this means for about 3]. effectually, fhould they be found to anfwer the purpofe.” The fame is the cafe with“ the marl, which having covered the ground into which it is not yet carried down by the rains, and the grafs not having grown through, it has at prefent rather done harm than good.”’ On this account it is fuppofed that marl is long in producing its beneficial effets, and the return of which cannot be looked for in lefs than two or three years. Thefe facts fufficiently thow that different effeéts may be produced on grafs lands by the application of different forts of fubftances to them in the manner of top- dreffings after they have been laid down. That where fine herbage is the principal object in view, coal afhes and compotts of the earthy kind, formed from: fand, mud, * Wilkinfon in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol. III. — Ta hr Ee Cultivation of Arable Land.— Artificial Grafes. 855 ferapings of roads, and other fimilar materials, intimately blended and incor- porated with fuitable proportions of well rotted dung, may be the moft advanta- geous applications. The liquor of fold-yards and watering may alfo be ufeful in the fame intention, as well as thofe of reftoring the fwards, and promoting the luxu- riance of the crops. But where the increafe of produce is chiefly intended, good dung in a well reduced ftate, tallow-chandler’s graves, night foil, chopped rags, foot, fcum of fugar, and other manures of the more animal kind, are the moft beneficial and proper. In other views, as thofe of eftablifhing and preferving the different graffes—marll, ime, chalk, the folding of fheep, and other fubftances and operations of the fame nature will be the moft fuitable for producing fuch effects. And in rendering the lands more firm and folid, the lait three fubftances may probably be had recourfe to with the greateft benefit and fuccefs. Artificial Graffes.—The methods that feem the moft advantageous in reftoring different forts of tillage lands to the ftate of grafs, as well as thofe which appear the moft proper for afterwards bringing them into the moft perfect ftate of fward and produttivenefs, having been thus explained, it may be neceffary to defcribe the modes of culture that are beft fuited to the raifing crops of the artificial grafs kind, and the means of confuming them with the greateft chance of profit and advantage. The general introduction and interpofition of crops of artificial or fown graffes between thofe of the corn kind is a praétice of the greateft utility and importance, as the lands are thereby not only prevented from being fo much exhaufted as would otherwife be the cafe, and at the fame time rendered fit for the growth of particular kinds of grain without the neceflity of fallowing, but a much larger proportion of green and other food than could otherwife be obtained is provided for the fup- port of live ftock. It has ef courfe chiefly laid the foundation of the late im- provements in arable cultivation as well as live ftock. As mott of the plants employed in this way are of confiderable fize and ftrength, or luxuriance of growth, they muft of courfe, as well as the natural graffes, re- quire the ground on which they are cultivated to poffefs a good ftate of fertility, anda confiderable finenefs of mould, as where this is not the cafe they feldom fucceed in 2 perfe& manner, or afford that abundance of produce which would otherwife be the cafe. Like the natural graffes they fhould alfo be adapted to the peculiarity of the foil on which they are to be grown, as they are all found to anfwer better on fome kinds of land than others. Some of them fucceeding moft perfectly on the heavier forts of foil, asthofe of the more dry, loamy, clayey, and ftronger gravelly defcriptions; others on the more ftrong, poor, and thin kinds of 856 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Red Clover. calcareous lands, as thofe of the chalky and limeftone forts, and others on the deep fertile grounds which abound in vegetable matter. Red Clover*.—This is a plant which is well known, apd that rifes to confiderable height, with arather ftrong ftern, affording a large produce of leaf and blofiom, on which account the Jand is kept in a more perfect{tate of clofenefs and fhade, while the crop remains upon it, than is the cafe with moft other plants of the artificial grafs kind. On this principle it has of courfe much more influence in ameliorat- ing and improving the foils, and affords a better preparation for wheat crops f. Red Clover is capable of being cultivated with fuccefs and advantage on almoft all the more heavy and dry defcriptions of land which are in a tolerable ftate of fertility, and it is faid to fucceed on the deeper kinds of gravelly, chalky, and fandy foils Th. In refpect to preparation it is lefs nice than many other herbaceous plants, yet the finer the ftate of mould the land has been brought into, the more certainly and the better it fucceeds. And as wheat is the grain crop that moftly follows clover, it may in general be the moft advantageous practice to apply manure for the crop with which it is grown, as by that means the ground will be in the moft fuitable con- dition for that crop. It may be fown with any clean grain crop, but is found to fuc- ceed the beft with barley after turnips§, where the nature of the foil will admit, as the land in that way is brought into the beft itate of preparation for its reception. Seed.—It is of much confequence in the raifing of crops of this fort to fow fuch feed as is perfectly good, frefh, and well ripened; as from its being kept in the fhops for a confiderable length of time much of it is frequently in a ftate unfit for vegetating. That which is good has a bright appearance, flides eafily in the hand,{mells fwee and has the purple coloured feeds greatly prevailing over thofe of a yellow catt. The proportion of feed that is neceffary muft vary according to the quality of the land, the ftate of preparation to which it has been reduced, and that of its fertility; as in rich lands almoft every feed grows, while in thofe of the contrary defcription many of them fail in producing plants, efpecially in dry feafons, and a great number of the plants are apt to die away after they have come up. It feems not improbable but that both thefe inconveniences might in a great meafure be re- moved by having recourfe to fteeping the feed in fome liquid for a fhort time in fuch feafons, before itis fown on fuch forts of land, as by this means it will be made to vegetate in a more quick, regular, and vigorous manner, without remaining in the foil in an inactive fiate till it becomes unfit for producing healthy plants. On the richer forts of foil that are clean from weeds, ten or twelve pounds may be * Trifolium pratenfe.+ Marfhall’s Rural Economy of the Southern Counties, Vol. I. t Synopfis of Hufbandry.§ Kent’s Hints, 4 RED CLOVER. (Lirtolhium pratense.) PLXYIiM Vol. 2 p. 656 Cultivation of Arable Land.—-Red Clover—Time and Method of Sowing. 857 a fufficient quantity for the acre, while fixteen or eighteen pounds will not be too much for thofe that are of a more ftiff quality, and poffefs a lefs degree of fertility. Where the land is to be converted to the purpofe of pafturage for two or more years, it may alfo be advantageous to fow a larger proportion of feed than where it is to be broken up in the following feafon. And where it is to be cut for hay it is better to be fown rather thin, as the plants will be in lefs danger of being drawn up weak*. Time and Method of Sowing.—It may be put into the ground in any of the more early fpring months with crops of{pring corn, or fown over the young wheat crops at the fame feafon. When it is fown with oats the moft common time of putting it in is about the beginning of March; but with barley it is performed at a later period, as in April. It may therefore, perhaps, be more properly fown with this crop than oats in the later diftricts, where it might be apt to fuffer from the frofts in the preceding months. On the richer foils, as from the luxuriance of its growth too much of it is frequently cut with the barley, fo as to keep it in the field fo long as to expofe it to danger, efpecially in bad fgafons, or from the barley becoming rank and lodging, great injury may be done to the clover, it may be more advifable to fow it with the oat, or over the wheat crops. But on the thinner foils there is feldom any danger to be apprehended in this way. In order to prevent its proving hurtful to the barley in its early growth, by the rapid pro- erefs which it makes in fome cafes, it has been recommended not to fow it till the barley has fprouted to the height of two or three inches, as it may then be per- formed to equal advantage as at an earlier period, the barley being rather benefited than injured by the flight harrowing which is neceffary ¢. In fowing it among wheat it is the beft method, efpecially in the fouthern diftricts, to have the bufinefs performed at as early a period in March as the land becomes fufficiently dry to admit of harrowing f. Clover crops may likewife be raifed without being mixed with thofe of the grain kind. In very rich foils this may indeed often be the moft advantageous practice, as the danger of either crop being injured by the other will be fully obviated. The fowing in this cafe fhould be executed as early in the{pring as the ftate of the jJand and that of the feafon will with fafety permit. When clover is fown with grain crops on the more fertile and better prepared * Corrected Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkshire.+ Modern Agriculture, Vol. II + Report of Middlefex. 5R 858 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Red Clover-—Time and Method of Sowing, lands, with the intention of being kept in the ftate of pafture for fome time, the grain fhould always be fown much thinner, or in lefs proportion than is ufual under other circumftances, as in this way the danger of its lodging and injuring thé clover plant may be avoided*. In fowing it with barley it may according to fome be put jn by the drill-machine, after that crop has been fown, broadcaft being immediately covered by light harrowing. The practice of drilling it in the fame drills with the barley, as employed by Ducket, is lefs common, and by no means fo good. In putting clover in with grain crops the moft common practice is to perform the bufinefs either immediately, or as foon as poffible, after the grain has been covered in, as all fmall feeds vegetate in much the moft perfect manner when put in foon after the foil has been turned up, as has been already explained. With whatever fort of crop the clover iced is fown, it fhould be difperfed in as re- gular and even a manner as poffible over the furfece of the ground when in the broad- caft method, after it has been rendered perfectly fine by the harrowing in of the erain crops. And in order that this may be effected in the moft complete manner, it fhould be performed, if poffible, when the mould is in fuch a{tate of drynefs as to work well under the harrow. But it fhould on no account be executed when the foil is in fuch a ftate of moifture as to clog or ftick much togethert, as under fuch circumftances the feed will neither vegetate well or be covered in in a regular ee being liable to be drawn into heaps by harrowing. In covering it ia, a ight fhort-tined harrow is the moft adapted to the pu baits: which in the freer and more mellow forts of land fhould only be paffed over once in a place, but in thofe of the fliffer and more heavy kinds twice may be neceffary. The feed fhould never be buried to much depth, as its vegetation would by that means be much retarded. The ufe of the tined harrow is much preferable for this purpofe to that of the bufh kind, as by the latter the feed is not only lefs perfect y covered in, bur lable to be drawn fo together as to rife in tufts. And merely rolling over the land, though fometimes employed, is a practice never to be depended upon. Where the clover is fown among the green wheat, harrowing it in with fuch light harrows once in a place is the beft practice in all cafes, except where the wheat is very thin, and the foil too loofe about its roots to permit it with fafecy. In all the more light defcriptions of land, the ufe of the roller after the feed has been.covered by the harrow muft be of great utility, as well in clofing the particles of the foil * Synopfis of Hufbandry.+ Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Red Clover—-After-management of. 859 round the feeds as in levelling the furface, and rendering it lefs penetrable by drought. And even on ftrong foils, where the clover is fown among the wheat, it is recommended by fome as of great ufe after harrowing*. There is a practice which prevails in fome diftricts of fowing a larger{pace of land than can be covered in at the fame time, but it is an injudicious method and fhould never be attempted, as clover feed always vegetates the moft perfectly when it is covered in immediately after it has been fown, and it is apt to be much injured by lying expofed for fome time upon the furface of the land before being harrowed in, efpecially if much wet fhould fall. With fome it is a practice when the land is intended for the purpofe of early pafturage, and in fome cafes where the object is hay, to fow rye, rib, and other fimilar graffes with the clover. In the firft intention the practice may be beneficial, as the rye grafs rifes early, and may contribute to afford a more full and better herbage for the ftock at fuch periods, efpecially on the later forts of foil ¢; but with the latter view it fhould perhaps feldom be made ufe of, as the clover will in general produce a fufficiently abundant crop of itfelf; and from other forts of plants being mixed with it, on account of their drying in an unequal manner, it may fuftain injury as hay. It is probably for fome reafon of this fort that fuch clover hay as is mixed with other graffes is lefs faleable, and of confiderably lefs value in the London markets, than that which confifts folely of cloverf£. Some cultivators, however, fuppofe, that by blending rye grafs with clover, in a{mall proportion, a ftrength and body is given to the crop§. It has been fuggefted as an improve- ment where rye grafs is mixed with clover, to fow the latter a week or two before the other, as from the clover plants having a tender, weak{tem in their early srowth, they may in that way be prevented from being injured by thofe of the rye grafs clafping round and fhading them J]. If the crop be defigned for cutting green for the purpofe of foiling animals, it would feem to be the beft method not to fow any other fort of grafs with the clover, as no advantage can be gained in that way**. After-management.—W here the feed has been put in on a proper foil in a fuitable {tate of preparation, little attention will be neceflary to the crop afterwards. But as the young plants while in the ftate of feedling-leaf are liable to be attacked by flugs or other infeéts, in the manner of turnips, by which the plants are often greatly * CorreCted Reports of Middlefex and Northumberland. + Marfhall’s Rural Economy of the Midland Counties. t Corre&ted Report of Middlefex. § Corrcéted Report of the Weit Riding of York hire.|| Corrected Report of Perthfhire.** Ibid, fa Oe 860 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Red Clover— After-management of. thinned and deftroyed, the crops ought to be carefully attended to in their early growth. Many acres have fometimes been completely ruined in the courfe of a few nights*. Such effects are to be prevented by putting in the crops as foon as poffible, that they may become fufficiently{trong and vigorous before the dry weather fets in, and by the ufe of fuch means as have been advifed for turnips. With fome it is the cuftom to apply manure over the clover crop immediately after the grain has been taken from the land, which in foils that are not in a good ftate of fertility may be advantageous in preferving and invigorating the plants; but under other circumftances it is not neceflary.‘There is, however, another cafe in which the ufe of what is termed long ftable dung, when not in the ftate of fermentation, may be found ufeful, by preventing the young plants from being too clofely nibbled and eaten up by fheep, which is that where the land is in the ftate of commonage fF. But when the clovers are to be continued for two or more years, the application of a thin coat of manure, in the autumn or fpring feafon, is a practice from which great benefit may be derived, efpecially on lands that are in the lefs perfect ftate of heart. In the drier forts of foil this bufinefs may probably be done with the greateft advantage about the latter end of February; but where the lands are foft, retentive of moifture, and poachy, the early part of the autumn, while the ground is fufficiently hard, may be the moft fuitable feafon for the purpofe. Well-rotted dung is perhaps the moft proper in thefe cafes. By performing the work at this period there is lefs danger of the clover plants dying away in the winter than is the cafe under other circumftances{. At whatever feafon the manure may be applied, it fhould be fpread out over the furface in as even a manner as poffible and beaten perfectly fine. It is the practice in fome places to fow coal-afhes over the young clovers, in the latter end of January or the beginning of the following month, when they are intended to be mown in the following fummer, in the proportion of about thirty bufhels to the acre, by which means the crops are rendered more abundant and the plants better preferved§. The methods of difpofing of crops of this fort are either by mowing them for hay, cutting them occafionally as green food for different forts of live ftock, or feeding them down with cattle, sheep, and other animals. In the firft mode-a large quantity of hay for the purpofe of feeding working horfes may be procured with but little expenfe or trouble. In thefe cafes the crops * Corrected Report of Middlefex.+ Ibid.+ Ibid. § Hertfordfhire Report, and Annals of Agriculture. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Red Clover—After-management of. 861 fhould be mown as foon as moft of the heads are in full blow, before they begin to turn of a brown colour and die away. The moft proper time may be known by attending to the foliage on the bottom parts of the plants, as when the leaves on thefe begin to drop off and decay the crop fhould be cut as foon as poffible, as by ftanding afterwards it will lofe more in the bottom than it can gain in the top*. The crops ufually attain this ftate fome time about the middie of June, according to the nature of the foil. Though it is fuppofed by fome that clover takes lefs harm by ftanding, after it is in a condition for being mown, than many other forts of plants it is always the beft practice to cut it rather early, as by remaining on the ground it not only lofes its heads and lower leaves and becomes reduced in quantity, but the plants are rendered hard and fticky, and fo exhaufted as to re- main a great length of time after mowing before they fend up new fhoots and afford good herbage ft. After it has been cut, Mr. Middleton advifes that the fwaths fhould not be fpread out, as is the common practice with meadow grafs, but fuffered to lie in the ftate the feythe leaves them until they are dried about two-thirds through, which, if the feafon proves favourable, will be in about three days, and if the weather fhould then appear promifing, they may be turned with rakes immediately after the dew is off. If there be no rain, the clover thus fpread out will be ready to cock up the next morning, or on the fourth day, as foon as the dew is fully gone, and may be carried in as foon afterwards as is convenient. And if this be done as foon as the dew is well off, the leaves will be juft fufficiently tough to preferve them whereas when this operation‘is omitted in the morning; and per- formed in the heat of the day they will be too dry, being reduced to powder, and loft in the bufinefs of heaping and loading. When, however, it is heaped fufficiently early inthe morning, the loading and ftacking may continue through the day. Where a part of the produce is become rather over dry, there is a method adopted by expert haymakers of putting the rows into heaps without rubbing the leaves off. It is only familiar to a few, and is performed by rolling the fwaths over with rather larger forks than ufual in a very gentle manner, keep- ing them from being feparated or broken, and then laying them lightly into the cock, being careful to avoid breaking and toffing the hay about, putting it along the ground, or beating it down flat. In this mode of converting clover into hay there will not only be much lefs lofs, but the hay be of a much better colour and 5) 1a * Correéted Report of Middlefex.+ Corrected Report of Perihthire. 862 Cultivation of Arable Lend.—Red Clover— After-management of. finer flavour; which are circumftances of great importance both in its fale and ufé as fodder. Where a fecond crop is to be taken for the fame purpofe, all cattle fhould be kept out of the field, in order that it may be in full bloffom and ready for the {cythe about the laft week in Auguft. It muft be made into hay in the fame manner as the firft, and fhould not be delayed later, on account of its lofing in weight, and the danger of not getting it into the ftack before the heavy dews and rains fet in. Befides, by getting the hay off as early as poffible, there will be more fheep-feed previous to ploughing the land up in the autumn for wheat.‘The quantity of pro- duce in the fecond crop is in general confiderably lefs than in the firft, and not by any means fo good in quality: confequently, if hay be not much wanted, it is a better practice to feed it, efpecially where the foil is fufficiently dry, than make it into hay. The quantity of produce in the firft crop varies confiderably; fhowery fummers producing great crops, while in dry ones they are often ftunted to one half. Be- fides, the natural quality of the foil has a confiderable effect, as well as its being in a high or poor ftate of cultivation. On the general average of years and foils in Middlefex, the two cuttings are faid to produce about three loads of marketable hay; which, for the laft fifteen or twenty years, are fuppofed to have yielded twelve guineas per acre. In many cafes a much larger profit is afforded. By fome, two tons are fuppofed to be a medium crop for the firft cut*. It is moftly employed for the fupport of draught-horfes, as it is the general opi- nion that it is more nourifhing than any other hay, except that of fainfoin. It, of courfe, fells at about fifteen fhillings a ton higher than hay of the meadow kind, It is alfo found highly ufeful in fattening oxen and in feeding milch cows; but is lefs efteemed for faddle horfes, probably from its not having been fo much in ufe, as it would feem well calculated for the purpofe. Ic is fometimes a profitable practice to let the crop ftand for feed. In this cafe, the method is either to eat it well down in the early part of the fpring, till about the latter end of May, by ewes and lambs, or other forts of ftock, or to let it ftand for a firit crop of hay, and depend upon the fecond crop for feed. The firft appears, however, by much the beft practice, as the land is lefs exhaufted, confequently in a better ftate for the fucceeding crop; and, at the fame time, the * Kent’s Hints. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Red Clover—After-management of. 863 farmer has the great advantage of an early green-feed for his ftock in the{pring months. And it feems not improbable but that feed of a better quality may. thus be obtained in a greater abundance, as the plants by being mown mutt be rendered more weak and lefs proper for affording good feed; while, by feeding down, they will not only fuffer lefs in this refpect, but throw out more flower- ing-ftems, and, of courfe, afford a larger proportion of feed. Where the latter method is followed, the firft cut fhould be made as early as poffible. It is always neceflary to take off the firft growth in one of thefe ways, as the clover plant does not perfect its feed early in the fummer. The crop thus referved tor feed muft be fuffered to remain till the hufks, or bloffoms, become perfectly brown and the feeds have acquired a confiderable de- b)?> eree of frronefs. It fhould then be cut, and harv efted in the fame method as the common crop, but jet remain in the field till it is more perfeétly dry and crifp, in order that the feeds may become more fully hardened. It may then be laid up dry, in order to the feed being threfhed out in the winter feafon at the farmer’s convenience. As the great difficulty in the fecuring of the clover for this purpofe is that of he dewy and damp feafon at which the getting the herbage fufficiently dry un?t d of thin cloth or feed becomes ripe: it has been fuggefted that light bags, forme fine wire, might be ufeful for collecting, catching, and retaining the heads which moftly rife above the herbage, by being fixed upon the handles of the fcythes, as they are fwept off by them, being emptied as there may be neceffity; as in this way the herbage, by being left upon the ground, would be of three times the value of the mufty ftraw afforded by feed clover, either for the purpofe of being Befides, the heads by being well dried in eaten off or turned down as manure. the feed would wet weather in the houfe, and in dry feafons in the open airy not only be preferved with more certainty, but in a much better ftate in refpect to the fample, and, of courfe, in moft feafons be of much greater value*. Ii ap- pears fcarcely poffible, however defirable it might be, to colleét the heads in this way without fuffering confiderable lofs from their dropping down and being loft in the herbage. Much labour and expenfe is neceffary in feparating the feed from the capfule, hen it is effected by threfhing, as the work is flough, or feed-coat, efpecially w efs than from five to fix or feldom, from its difficult execution, performed at| * Marfhall’s Rural Economy of the Southern Counties. I 864 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Red Clover—After-management of. feven fhilliggs the bufhel*. By the ufe of mills or other contrivances it may, however, be rubbed out with more facility, and at a much cheaper rate. The produce in feed, like that of hay, is liable to vary much, under different circumftances: in general it may be from about three to four or five bufhels when perfectly cleaned, weighing from two to three hundred weight. The prin- cipal objections to the feeding of clover crops are thofe of their uncertainty, on account of the ftate of the feafon at which they become ripe, the trouble and ex- penfe of threfhing out the feed, and the injury which they produce in leffening the fertility of the foil. The high value of the feed in moft feafons is, however, a great inducement to the letting of clover crops ftand for the purpofe. But though much advantage may be derived from the converting of clover crops into hay, and letting them remain for feed, it is probable that a ftill greater benefit may be produced by the practice of cutting the crops green occafionally, as they attain a fufficient growth, and conveying them when wanted to the horfes or other cattle in the ftables and fold-yards, in order to their being confumed in the {talls. It is contended, by an experienced agricultor, that, in this manner it will certainly{upport more than twice the ftock it would do if fed cff upon the ground where it grew; and the additional quantity of manure that will by this method be made in the ftables and yards, if they are kept well littered with any fort of {traw, or even rushes or fern, will fully compenfate the farmer for his expenfe in cutting and bringing the clover into the yards+. It is a method which experience in many parts of the kingdom has proved to be of the greateft advantage, efpecially where the bufinefs is not upon too exten- five a{cale; but in large concerns it is, perhaps, impoffible to attend to it fo fully as may be neceffary for deriving the greateft benefit from it. The refult of an experiment ftated by a writer of confiderab'e accuracy, how- ever, fhows, that even on an extenfive f{cale it is a practice which is attended with vat advantaget. In this trial feven acres of clover cut green were found to be fufficient for twenty horfes, feven cows, five calves, and five pigs, for the period of feventeen weeks from the middle of May. They were fed in the ftable and rick- yard, being taken twice in the day to water, and the horfes had neither hay or corn§. The great fuperiority and utility of this practice is exhibited in a more Striking point of view, by contrafting this with the confumption of the fame fort of * Modern Agriculture, Vol. II.+ Kent's Hints, ¢ Young’s Eaftern Tour, Vol. Il. p. 147. § In calculating the value of the crop, it is remarked that the horfea could not have been kept Cultivation of Arable Land.—Red-Clover—After-management of. 865 crop in the field, by an equal number of the fame kinds of ftock: as, in the time five acres had been ufed in the former method, thirty had been confumed in the latter, and the horfe part of the ftock left in much worfe condition. But befides the fuperiority of the praétice of foiling‘this fort of crop in the economy of food, it has the important advantage, as has been feen, of affording much larger fupplies of manure, efpecially where the ftalls and fold-yards are kept occafionally well bedded and cleaned up, as the converfion of the materials proceeds, which muft be greatly expedited from the vaft increafe in the urinary, as well as other difcharges that muft of neceffity take place in this mode of feeding. The great difference between feeding clovers off on the land and confuming them in their green ftate in the manner juft mentioned, is fuppofed by an able writer* to be this:‘the quick growth of this grafs, after mowing, fhades the ground, and prevents the fun from exhaling the moifture of the land fo much as it would if fed bare: confequently it continues to fpring with more vigour; and the moment one crop is off, another begins to fhoot up. Whereas when cattle feed it, they frequently deftroy almoft as much as they eat; and, befides, bruife the necks of the roots with their feet, which prevents the clover from fpringing fo freely as it dues after a clean cut by the fcythe. In hot weather, which is the common feafon for feeding clover, the flies too are generally fo troublefome to the cattle,‘that they are continually running from hedge to hedge to brufh them of; equally weil for lefs than eight-pence a day; but as the ufual price at which they are taken in at in that diftri&t is two thillings and fixpence the week, it may be better to take that as the principle of calcula- tion. Geese 20 Horfes 17 weeks, at 2s. 6d. per week:=+_ 42:10..0 7 Cows ditto, at 2s. 6d. per week-°- 14 17 6 5 Calves ditto, at 13. 6d. per week-- 2 657.6 5 Pigs ditto, at—————- 2-© 00 6315 9 Or,-peracre.-9 92,1 ‘The quantity of dung raifed by the above ftock is{uppofed to be from four to five hundred loads, which is eftimated at 2s. 6d. per load, The expenfe in labour for cutting and conveying the food to the ftack is not charged; which ren- ders the experiment in{ome meafure incomplete. The benefit of the practice is, however, fully eftg- lithed. * Mr. Kent, 538 R66 866 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Red Clover-—After-manegement of. by which it is inconceivable what injury they do to the crop. But when they are fed in{tables and yards they are more-in the fhade; they thrive better; and,. at the fame time, confume the whole of what is given them without wafte.” Much of the fuccefs attending this practice without doubt.depends on thefe cir- cumftances; but befides, the upper parts of the roots are lefs penetrated by- moif- ture, and fewer of the plants of courfe deftroyed. By proper attention to this crop a very ufeful and abundant green food for different forts of live ftock may be provided at an early period in the fpring, efpecially when the winters are not very fevere. It is advifed by fome, on the poorer fort of foils to-have both the firft and fecond crops of this plant to be eaten green upon the land by fheep and bullocks, being mown and given them to feed upon*.”’ In this way the cattle thrive better from their filling themfelves fooner, and } having more reft; and there is no wafte. But in order to derive the greateft poffible advantage from the foiling with this or other, crops, convenient covers, fheds, or other fuitable houfes are abfolutely neceffary. The practice of feeding down or pafturing clover crops with live ftock, though it may be advantageous in many cafes, efpecially where fheep-hufbandry forms a principal object, always requires to be conduéted with care and attention, both in refpect to the plants and the animals that are to be fed upon them. From the tender nature of the clover plant it fhould feldom be eaten on the land by the heavier forts of cattle, as, from the greedy manner in which they feed, many of the plants are pulled up, and others, as has been feen, greatly injured or deftroyed by being bruifed in their treading, efpecially as they protrude their young fhoots. Horfes are particularly objected to on this account by many ¢. The moft appro- priate fort of ftock is obvioufly that of fheep; but where the foils are of the drier kind, the lighter forts of ftock of other defcriptions may be occafionally admitted, {ach as calves, foals, and young beafts. And as pigs are fond of the clover plant, and thrive well upon it, they may fometimes be admitted with advantage. In the practice of Jamb-fuckling it is an ufeful application of the young clovers to turn the ewes upon them, as they afford a fort of pafturage which has much effeét in increafing the flow of milk. They may likewife be applied to the fattening of fheep in April and May; and be fed by the fheep intended for turnips, in the autuma, till they are ready, with much profitt. No fort of ftock fhould however be kept upon crops of # Middlefex Report.+ Experienced Farmer, Vol. I t Middlefex Report. I Cultivation of Arable Land.—Red Clover.—-/ {fter- management of. 8 A~ Cc i PN= 7 1S 45 clover when the land is foft, wet, or poachy. In fome of the fouthern di- ftri¢ts, where it is the cuftom to eat down the young clovers ufual to choofe a dry feafon for the purpofe, the& tock being removed in cafe the land becomes foft and wet*. Where this fort of ftock is'employed, it may the moft fafe practice not to permit the animals to continue too long upon the land; as by eating the plants too clofely they may fuftain much chine It is conceived by fome that treading the foil lightly while the lands are dry may be of great utility to the clover plants by forcing the earth to their roots, and in that way protecting and rendering them more capable of refifting the effects of froft in the winter feafon. It has likewife been fuggefted that the eating off the weak, late- ral fhoots, that were thrown out while under the fhade of the grain crops, may be ferviceable by increafing the ftrength of the plants, and enabling them to withftand the frofts, as well as to fhoot more ftrongly in the{pring f. It would therefore, on the whole, appear the moft beneficial method, where the pafturing of this crop either in the fpring or autumn is had recourfe to, not to fuffer the lands to be fed upon when in a moitt ftate, or to be too hard ftocked, or with the heavier fort of animals at any time. by fheep, it is indeed But in the feeding down of clovers, there is not only danger of injuring the plants, but the animals that confume them. Without proper management, cattle and other animals on being turned upon them often fuffer great inconvenience, and are in danger of being deftroyed by the vaft diftenfion of their ftomachs which takes place. In this fituation the animals are in the language of the farmer faid to be blown or boven. The nature of the difeafe does not feem to be much inveftigated: but it probably arifes in confequence of the large quantity of green fucculent her- bage being greedily devoured without due maftication, by which it under;@oes an uncommon degree of fermentation in the ftomach; and from this fudden decom- pofition, an unufual quantity of gafeous fluid is at once fet, at liberty, which ultimately overcomes the contractile power of the digefiive organ, and the animal is deftroyed. The fuppofition is rendered more ee from the circumftance of the affection being lefs apt to take place when the clovers or other fimilar herbag. are fed upon in a dry ftate, as the ftock in thefe cafes are not able to confume them in fo expeditious a manner or in fo large a proportion. On thefe principles, therefore, the practice of not fuffering the cattle or other forts of ftock to feed upon them when they are wet, and there is a full bite, would * Marfhall’s Rural Economy of Southern Counties.+ Ibid, §S2 868 Cultivation of Arable Lend.-—Red Clover.—-After-management of. feem to be perfectly correct. The advice of not turning the animals upon the crops before the fun has diffipated the dew and moifture depofited in the night is likewife judicious, and ought to be attended to, as well as that of keeping them in motion as much as poffible when firft turned in. With fheep the fame precautions may be neceffary, if they be put upon them with the other ftock in their full growth; but when they are turned in after they have in fome degree been fed down, there will be little danger of their being injured. Where the clovers are eaten off as after-grafs in their foft, foggy, and young ftate of growth, there is however great danger of the ftock being hurt in this way, unlefs thefe circumftances be attended to. Various means of removing the difeafe, when the animals happen to be affected, have been propofed, fuch as common{trong falt and water; and new milk and tar in the proportion of about half an egg-fhell full. This laft is afferted to afford imme- diate relief on its reaching the ftomach*.‘The{tabbing the animal in the flank, clofe to the hip-bone, with a fharp penknife, fo as to avoid wounding the inteftines, placing a quill in the orifice to difcharge the confined air, has likewife been prac- tifed with fuccefs; but it never fhould be attempted by unfkilful perfons. The ufe of long flexible tubes has alfo afforded great relief, by being introduced down the gullet into the ftomach, and in that way drawing off the diftending gas. This method is probably the moft fafe and effectual, though troublefome in the application f. "There is another remedy which we have found ufeful in removing‘this malady in its more early ftage, which is that of a very ftrong folution of prepared ammonia in water. By this means the confined air isin fome meafure difcharged from the ftomach, and almoft immediate relief afforded. Whatever remedy is employed, it fhould be applied on the firft attack of the dif- order, or as foon as the animal is perceived to be uneafy, as there is never any time to be loft, the diftenfion proceeds with fuch rapidity. It is evident, from what has been faid on this plant, that it muft be of vaft ad- vantage to have a fufficient extent of it where much ftock is to be kept, as it has been found, as pafture, to far exceed moft forts of natural grafs in the fupport of animals{. The chief difadvantage of this almoft invaluable plant is that of the fhortnefs of its continuing in the lands, efpecially thofe of the lighter and more free kinds. It is afferted by fome not to laft longer than two years, except on grounds that are perfectly fre/a; and in fome cafes where it has been often repeated not more than * Modern Agriculture, Vol. II.+ Tubes for this purpofe ar¢ fold in London + Modern Agriculture, Vol. IL, Cultivation of Arable Land.— Trefuil. 869 one*®. In fome of the fouthern diftniéts, it is, however, found more durable on the calcareous foils, efpecially where not frequently repeated on the fame land, from its being better able to contend with weeds in its natural{tate of growth ¢. Thele faéts fhow the neceffity of keeping it as far diftant as poffible in the courfes of cropping, efpecially on all the more light friable forts of foil, and the fuperior advantages of cultivating it on thofe of the calcareous kind. Ir is probable that its duration may be confiderably prolonged by preventing the plants from fhooting up to{eed-ftems as much as pofiible, either by keeping them cut by the fcythe, or by feeding them down by ftock in a moderate degrce; as in thefe ways they will be prevented from being fo foon exhautted in their roots, as happens in many other forts of plants, as foon as they have perfected their feeds i.. he frofty nights and hot dry days in the more early fpring months, aswell as the clofe funny weather in the fummer feafon, are highly prejudicial in deftroying the clover plant§. When the clovers are kept in the ftate of herbage more than one year, they are not by any means fo proper for fowing wheat after as in other cafes: it is the full {mothering crops that afford the moft fuitable preparation for this fort of grain. Befides the common red or broad clover, there are other kinds ufed in cultiva- tion; as the White or Dutch clover, and Cow Grafs. Thefe, from their being more frequently employed in the laying down of lands for the purpofe of permanent grafs, have been defcribed above. The firft affords a fine delicate herbage, which is very agreeable to moft forts of ftock. In the fecond it is more coarfe and abun- dant, but ftill lefs fo than the common clover; and the plant has the advantage of growing better, and of being more lafting in the poorer forts of clayey foils. Trefoil|.—T his, as being an ufeful plant in permanent grafs lands, has been already noticed; but its properties as an artificial grafs may be defcribed in this place. It is of much lefs growth than common clover, and much flenderer in the ftem; but not- withftanding it is fometimes fown with grain crops in the manner of that crop, the proportion of feed made ufe of is about three pottles when cleaned from the hufks, but in the contrary ftate two bufhels are moftly employed... Thefe may however be varied ac@ording to the circumftances of the land. Some fuppofe it an advantageous practice, efpecially where large ftocks of cattle are kept, to fow it with oats, or among thewheat crops in the{pring when they are to be * Kent’s Hints.+ Rural Economy of Southern Counties, $ Correéted Report of Perthfhire; and Rural Economy of Southern Counties, Vol. I. §. Synopfis of Hufbandry.|| Medicago Jupulina. 3 ied 870 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Saintfoin. fucceeded by grain in the following feafon, as by this means good feed is produced in the flubbies for ftock in the latter part of the fummer and in autumn; and at the fame time they are left free for tillage in the fpring. The feed is capable of being procured at a cheap rate*. It is faid alfo to afford excellent pafturage for cattle, but to be more particu- larly calculated for fheep, either when in mixture with clover or alone, as it is not fo’ liable to hurt them by lowing or hoving as that grafs. In the latter cafe it is of vaft importance in the fupport of fheep, from its being more early than clover, and coming well in after the confumption of the turnip and rye crops before the clovers are ready+. When it is let remain for hay it does not afford a large produce, but a fort which is highly ufeful as a fheep-fodder in the winter feafon, and lefs wafteful than moft other kinds, and which, at the fame time, is fuppofed by fome lefs troublefome in the procefs of hay-making, though others affert that it readily mats together and becomes mouldy by wet f. The feed is to be collected from the fecond fhoot in the manner directed for clover, and the produce is in general confiderable, often affording feven or eight bufhe!ls of clean feed from the acre. Buton the whole it is much lefs valuable than common clover as an artificial erafs, Saintfcin§.—This is a plant which, though lefs generally introduced into cultiva- tion than clover, is not lefs important or ufeful to the farmer. It is on the lighter and thinner forts of calcareous foils, what that plant is on all thofe of the ftrong, heavy, and more deep kind; and it has the fuperiority of being more durable. It is equally advantageous for the purpofes of hay as thofe of pafturage, and in the Jatter method has not, it is faid, the dangerous property of boving or /welling the cattle that feed upon it, as is the cafe with clover. Its lafting properties on poor barren foils in hilly fituations, where other forts of grafly herbage are deficient or {carcely to be procured at all, likewife render it particularly beneficial in fupplying a valuable green food for different forts of ftock |. The foils moft proper for this fort of grafs are thofe of chalky loams, light fandy or gravelly kind, or almoft any of a mixed quality, provided they be not wet, and have a rocky or hard calcareous bottom, to check the roots at the depth of a foot or fifteen inches below the furface; otherwife they are apt to exhauft them- felves in running down. On this account it is improper for being fown where there is great depth of mould. It is afferted to afford a large produce even on thofe of the * Synopfis of Hutbandry.. Ibid.+ Kent’s Hints.§ Hedyfarum onobrychis.|| Kent’s Hints. = aS S °“S » s AS > 9 NS S See LG fi Hedysarunt Cultivation of Arable Land.—Saintfoin—Time and Method of Sowing. 871 pooreft quality; and on fuch as are of a more rich and friable nature it is often very abundant. Itis only, however, in the calcareous foils, or fuch as have been well impregnated with that fort of matter, that this plant fucceeds in a perfect manner, or becomes durable*. In regard to the preparation of the ground, it cannot be made too clean or too fine before the feed is fown; of courfe it generally fucceeds beft after turnips or other fimilar crops which require a fine clean culture while they are growing.— It often, however, anfwers well on lands that have not undergone fo high a degree of preparation. Seed.—This: fhould be felected from the beft plants, and thofe which are moft fuited to the foil of the cultivator by their durable propertiest. It fhould always be fown frefh, as that which is old never vegetates well. The proportion of feed which is neceffary mutt be different according to the circumflances of the land; but in the broadcaft method about four bufhels are probably in general the moft proper quantity, as on thefe forts of foil it is better to have the plants thick: fome, however, think lefs than half the above proportion fufficient.| In the drill mode three bufhels are moftly employed. Seed of this fort is ufually procured at from about three to five or fix fhillings a bufhel. Time and Method of Sowing.—The earlier the feeds of this grafs can be put into the ground in the fpring the better, as there will be the more chance of their vegetating in a perfect manner from the greater proportion of moifture in the foil; as when the bufinefs is performed at a late period, ifa dry feafon follow, much of the feed would be prevented from growing, and the young plants that come up be more expofed to the attacks of the fly. The latter end of February or the begin- ning of the following month may anfwer very well in moft cafes. It is, however, by fome cultivators fown in the autumn with the wheat crop; but the pra¢tice is not to be recommended, as there may be danger of its not growing well, or of bein injured in the winter feafon§. It may be putin either alone or with any of the fpring corn crops, but with Cr fo] barley after turnips is confidered the beft method. Some advife its being fown with about half the quantity of barley which is ufually fown for a full crop, as it may fhade and keep it moift during the firft fummer; and at the fame time not injure it from the crop being lighter, which is fometimes the cafe. Where the barley is drilled, the faintfoin may afterwards be put in, in the fame manner, but in a contrary direction. If fown over the wheats, it fhould be harrowed in, and #* Marfhall’s Rural Economy of South 7 Counties, Vol. II.+ Ibid.} Synopfisof Hufbandry.§ Ibid 872 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Saintfoin— After- management of. afterwards rolled. In whatever method it is fown, as the feeds are larger than thofe of many other graffes, they fhould be covered in with more care and to a fomewhat greater depth. Soine advife the ploughing the feed in with a very thin or fhallow furrow*. In moft cafes, efpecially in all the more light forts of land on which this crop is fown, the ufe of the roller may likewife be neceffary. It is fometimes a practice to fow a fmall portion of clover feed with this crop, with the idea of increafing the firft year’s produce; but as plants of different kinds feldom fucceed well‘together, from there being a continual conteft in their erowth for an afcendency, it is probably a better practice to increafe the proportion of the feed without mixing it with that of other forts. Mr. Marfhall, however, feems to think the method beneficial in ultimately procuring a fine clean crop of faint~ foin. After-management.—On this being properly attended to, a great deal of the fuccefs nthe culture of this plantdepends. The moft experienced cultivators of the grafs advife its being cut for hay inftead of being paftured. But others think it more advantageous neither to cut nor pafture it in the autumn of the firft year. It is probable that both practices may be proper under different circumftances, as in the richer forts of foil, where this plant moftly affords a tolerable crop when fown alone the firft year, it may be mown with propriety and without much injury being done to the plants; but in thofe of the thinner and more poor kinds, where the crops are in general the firft feafon but thin on the ground and light, it may be advan- tageous to let them remain without being cut or fed down by ftock, as in this way they may fpread more, and form: a better and more clofe fward in the following year. By the plants in this cafe being fuffered to feed, befides the advantage juft mentioned, they will have acquired a great vigour of growth, and the fucceed- ing crops be greatly increafed from the fhedding of the feeds. In all cafes, in the fucceeding fummers, a crop of hay maybe taken, and the after-grafs be fed down with any forts of ftock but fheep till towards December, care being taken that they do not eat it in too clofe a manner, as where that is the cafe, from the largenefs of the roots, they may be in danger of injuring the crowns of the plants. In the following autumns there will, however, be lefs rifk in this refpect, and fheep, as well as cattle ftock, may be turned in and kept upon the paftures till they are all well eaten down, being always careful to fhut them up as early as poffible in the beginning of the yearf. The quantity of produce muft of courfé be liable to vary much according to the * Kent’s Hints.+ Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Saintfoin— After-management of. 878 nature of the foil, and the care that has been beftowed in the preparation: ona medium of foil and culture it may probably be eftimated at about two tons. The poorer and thinner ftapled forts of land, worth little more than five fhillings an acre, will feldom afford lefs than from a ton to a ton and a half. On the thinner forts of foil it can feldom be cut more than once, but-on thofe of the deeper kinds two crops are fometimes taken in the fame way as with clover, In its green ftate it is highly ufeful for all forts of ftock; though fome fuppoie, that when given to milch cows the milk is not fo well flavoured. When made into hay it is an extremely nutritious fodder for working-horfes,. as well as other forts of cattle. And the after-grafs is highly valuable for weaning and fupporting lambs. As this fort of herbage is fuppofed to be improved By being nipped by the froft, it may be a proper practice not to turn upon thefe lays too early in the autumn. The application of manure upon faintfoin lays is of great utility, when put on in the latter end of the fecond autumn after they have been laid down. For this purpofe peat afhes are the beft material where they can be procured. Other forts of afhes are likewife found beneficial where thefe cannot be had. They fhould be applied fo as to form a thin even drefling; foot has alfo been found of great utility when fpread evenly over thefe lays about the beginning of January, in the propor- tion of about twenty-five bufhels to the acre. And malt duft has been employed in the fame way with great fuccefs*. Where top-dreflings of this fortcan be applied every third or fourth year, the faintfoin crops, when well eftablifhed in the foils, may be preferved in a ftate of vigorous growth for ten or fifteen years, and the land be confiderably improved by the roots+. It ufually attains its perfect growth about the third year; and begins to decline towards the eighth or tenth, if not well affifted by manure in the manner mentioned above. It is, in fome cafes, a profitable application of this fort of crop to cut it before it comes into flower, for the purpofe of foiling horned and other forts of cattle, in the manner that has been defcribed for clover. The moft ufual application of it is, however, in hay, which it affords of the beft and moft nutritious quality, both for horfes and other forts of cattle. The method of bringing it into this condition differs but little from that employed for clover. It is cut immediately on its coming into full bloffom; and as it remains but a fhort time inthis ftate, as much expedition as poffible is employed both in mowing and making the produce into hay. This, of all other graffes, requires the leaft pains * Synopfis of Hufbandry.+ Kent's Hints, P Y Sor 3it Cultivation of Arable Land.—Saintfoin— After-management of. in making. When the feafon is fine the hay-makers may follow the fcythe, and, having turned over the fwaths, throw them into wind-rows the fucceeding day after the grafs is mown, when it may be immediately formed into cocks, and the whole crop be fit for carting in a few days after it is mown: and though it may appear very green, and the ftack when made take on a confiderable degree of heat, there is no danger to be apprehended, provided the weather has been fair during the hay- making; as it is fo far from taking harm by heating in the ftack, that the contrary ftate is moft to be feared; and for this reafon care is neceflary not to fuffer the fodder to continue long either in the{wath or in grafs cocks, left the fun and wind {hould dry it up too faft, and, by exhaling its juices, prevent its heating in the ftack, and thereby render it of little value. In order to preferve its fucculence, ia some places they puta number of the grafs cocks together, fo as to form large cocks of a fize to contain a load in each, and finifh the ftacks out of the cocks. Ic is likewife the practice with many farmers, when the crop is flight, to turn the fwaths, and then run them into cocks with a three-pronged barley fork, following with a wooden dew rake, the head of which is of fufficient width to cover the ground occupied by three or four fwaths; in this manner proceeding with the ut- moft difpatch, faving a deal of labour and expenfe*. In letting this crop ftand for feed, it fhould remain on the land till the hufks become of afomewhat brown colour, and the feeds are perfectly plump and firm, as by thefe means they will not only be better, but in lefs danger of being injured in the field from the little time that it will be neceffary for them to remain, and alfo lefs in danger of being hurt by heating when laid up. After this degree of maturity is attained, the crop fhould be mown as foon as poffible, and remain expofed in the fwath till the upper furface is fully dried: it muft then be turned over in a very careful manner, fo as to prevent the feed from fhedding, as much as the nature of the bufinefs will admit. This fide being rendered perfectly dry and crifp in the fame way, the crop is either threfhed out upon cloths in the field, or laid up in {tacks to be afterwards performed. The bufinefs of threfhing out the feed in this crop, however, is much lefs troublefome than in that of clover. Where threfhing- machines are in ufe, it may be threfhed out with great facility in that method. When the feafon is favourable the practice of threfhing it out in the firft way is probably the moft beneficial, as the{tems,. or haulm,. may be laid up for the pur- pofe of fodder in the ftack. The produce in feed is ufually from about four to five coombs in fome diftricts * Synopfis of Hufbandry. Cultivation of Arable Land.-Lucern. 875 but in others it will probably be much lefs, efpecially on the fhallower forts of faintfoin foils. It is evident, from the faéts that have been{ftated, that this is a plant of vaft utility to the farmer, not only in providing a full fupply of fodder for the fupport of ftock, but of good green feed for the latter part of autumn, in foils that are adapted to its culture, as it is capable of affording a large produce, even on thole thin poor defcriptions of land that under other circumftances yield only a very fcanty product either in herbage or hay. And in fuch as are of the better and more fertile kinds the quantity of crop is incomparably abundant. Its culture ought, therefore, to be extended to all thofe extenfive tracts of lands in different parts of the kingdom that afford little or nothing under other fyftems of hufbandry or modes of cropping, and which are not adapted to the growth of clovers.—This is. particularly defira- ble, as it is an artificial grafs that fucceeds well in the ordinary methods of fowing, without the trouble or expenfe of either the drill or the hoe. It feems extremely probable, from different trials that have been made with this plant, that it is not by any means fo confined in refpect to foil as has been generally fuppofed*, though there can be little doubt but that it anfwers beft on thofe of the calcareous dry loamy kinds. On fuch as have had occafionally applications of lime it has been known to fucceed in a perfect manner fT. The fituations that are the moft unfriendly‘to the growth of this grafs are thofe where there is much ftagnant moifture in the foils, or where they are wet and {pungy; a confiderable degree of drynefs being effential to the healthy vegetation of the faintfoin plant tf. The principal inconvenience which crops of this fort fuftain is from the rifing of coarfe grafles, and weeds of different kinds, as it is thefe that, ina great meafure, limit the duration of the plants, and not that of their age: the advantage of a proper and clean preparation of the land previous to its being fown is therefore fufficiently evi- dent. Where, notwithftanding every precaution, fuch grafles come up fo as to in- jure the faintfoin, harrowing has been had recourfe to with fuccefs, when performed to fuch a degree as to leave the furface of the land in nearly the ftate of fallow§. 1, that may in fome LucernG. This is another plant of the artificial erafs kinc cafes be cultivated with much profit and advantage, as affording a large produce of fucculent green food, for the fupport of different forts of ftock, and likewife of hay for the winter fodder of horfes or other cattle.; The foils moft fuitable to the culture of this plant are all thofe of the more deep, * Young’s Eaftern Tour, Vol. IV.+ Marfhall’s Rural Economy of the Southern Counties t Young’s Eaftern Tour, Vol. IV.§ Ibid.@ Medicago fativa. ae: 876 Cultivation of Arable Land.—LEucern— Proportion of Seed neceffary. rich, and drier kinds, as thofe of the found, mellow, loamy, gravelly and fandy defcrip- tions; buton fuch as are retentive of moifture it fhould not be attempted, as the roots are liable to be greatly injured, if not wholly deftroyed, by the ftagnation of water about them. Weeping gravelly lands, and all fuch as are not well drained, are of courfe improper for this fort of culture. It is fuppofed by fome, that for the fuccefsful cultivation of this crop, it is neceffary that there fhould be a fubftratum of fuch a fort as is capable of ftopping the defcent of the roots at a certain depth, in order to prevent their exhaufting themfelves; but the depth of the mould, in this cafe, fhould be confiderably greater than for that of the preceding grafs, a foot anda half or two feet being moftly requifite*. In the preparation of the land the foil fhould always be brought into as fine a con- dition of mould as poffible. This may be effected by repeated ploughing and har- rowing, and the previous growth of fuch crops of the green kind as have a ten- dency to clean and render the land more fine and mellow. In this intention, fome advife the taking of two crops of turnips, carrots, or cabbages, either in fuc- ceffion or alternating with each other; the turnips, in the heavier loams, being eaten off upon the land in the fecond autumn, before it is ploughed up. In either of thefe cafes, from the hoeing and conftant culture which is neceffary, while the crops are upon the land, it will be left ina fuitable ftate of cleannefs and friability+. Others recommend fallowing as a better praétice, the root weeds of every kind be- ing carefully pricked out in the different ploughings and harrowings. From the great length of time that the ground muft remain unemployed in this mode of prepara- tion, it is probably, however, only capable of being practifed with advantage where the lands are heavy and very full of weeds. Before the feed is put in, the foil muft be rendered perfectly fine by ploughing it over as frequently as may be neceflary,, and breaking it well down by occafionally harrewing. It will feldom be neceffary to make ufe of manure; but where the land is found to ftand in need of it, the appli- cation is beft made with the firft of the green crops. The object to be conftantly kept in view in this bufinefs is chiefly that of rendering the land perfectly clean. from weeds, and at the fame time highly mellow and friable. Seed.—The feed of lucern is larger and of a more pale colour than that of clo- ver; and as much of it is brought annually from Holland, it is commonly purchafed in the feed-fhops, the price varying from one to two fhillings the pound. As feeds- men are apt to keep their feeds from year to year, it may be neceffary to obferve, that that which is perfectly frefh is the moft proper for being fown,, as fmall feeds in general vegetate in the moft perfeét manner when new. The proportion of. * Keat’s Hints.+ Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XV. ‘\ _ LUCERN. PLXX (Medicage sativa.) Vol.2.p. 376 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Lucern—Time and Method of Sowing, 347 feed that is neceffary is variable, according to the nature of the land and the manner in which the crop is cultivated. In the broadcaft method, which has been found very fuccefsful, from eighteen to twenty pounds may be proper, while in that of the drill it will be confiderably lefs, according to the diftances at which the operation is performed. In two-feet equidiftant rows the ufual allowance is about fix pounds; in thofe of eighteen inches, about eight pounds; in thofe of twelve inches, ten or twelve pounds; and in nine-inch rows, which are by much the beft, from twelve to fixteen pounds may be necefiary. Time and Method of Sowing.—The moft proper feafon for putting this fort of crop into the ground is as early as can be done in the{pring months, as in this way plants may be fully eftablifhed before the feafon becomes too hot. The latter end of March for the more fouthern diftri¢ts may be the moft proper period, and the seginning of the following month for thofe of the north. When fown late there is more danger of the plants being deftroyed by the fly, as has been obferved by Mr. Tull. Ifthe plants be intended to be tranfplanted out in the garden method, it will alfo be the beft practice to fow the feed-bed as early in the fpring as the froits will admit,. in order that they may be ftrong and fit to fet out about Auguft. With regard to the mode of putting in the crop, it fhould vary with the circum- ftances of the foil, and the mode of after-management that can be adopted with. the moft convenience. Where much attention cannot be beftowed in the bufinefs of hoeing and keeping the crop clean, the beft method is that of fowing the land broadcaft;. though in this method the crop may not laft fo long in the ground. But in cafes where the crops are capable of being kept in.a fufficiently clean con- dition by repeated hoe culture, the drill may be more advifable, efpecially at narrow diftances.‘ Some, however, think. it the beft method in all cafes*. The practice of tranfplanting can, perhaps, only be done in particular cafes, or {mall pieces of deep land that are in great heart, and. require the plants in confe- quence to ftand thin and regular upon the ground, as in this mode: they become large and of vigorous growth. In foils that are inclined to moifture:at fome depth below the furface, it may be an ufeful method of keeping the roots of the plants from being injured by their penetrating too deeply, as is more the-cafe when the plants rife from feed f. The feed may be fown either alone or with grain.crops, in the fame manner as clover: each method has its advocates, and it is probable that they may both be ufe- fal under different circumftances, as in the deeper and more fertile forts of lands the firft may be the moft beneficial method, and in thofe of the lighter and lefs deep * Kent’s Hints,+ Annals of Agiuiculture, Vol. XXV. 878 Cultivaticn of Arable Land.—Lucern—Time and-Methad of Sowing. kinds the latter;—as in the deep, rich forts of land there may be lefs lofs of time in procuring the green produce for the ufe of horfes or other forts of ftock, as well as the ereater certainty of the crop fucceeding. But in the lighter and more porous foils, by being fown with corn, the plants may be better protected in their early growth, as well by the fhade as the moifture that will in that way be preferved. Some indeed {peak of its fuperior utility, on the ground of long experience, in its being better pre- ferved from the fy*. Wherever this mode is made ufe of, the grain fhould however be fown thinner than is ufually the cafe in proportion as the foils are more rich. Oats are preferable to barley for the purpofe, as being lefs liable to lodge, efpecially when fown thin. From five or fix pecks tot hree buthels, fown as evenly as poffible, may be the beft proportions, the fmalleft quantity being neceflary on thé richeft foils. After the grain has been fown and harrowed properly in, the lucern feed fhould be immediately fown by a regular even caft over the fine furface, covering it in with a light feed harrow; but it fhould not be too deeply covered in, two inches is fully fuffi- cient. In the drill method the fame fyftem fhould be followed, the lucern feed being drilled in, either lengthways or acrofs, at fuitable diftances, immediately after the corn has been put inf. It is hardly neceflary to obferve, that the plats of ground fown for the purpofe of raifing plants to be fet out in the garden method of culture, fhould always be without grain or other forts of crops, in order that they may admit of having the plants properly thinned out and kept clean, and in a vigorous ftate of growth for being afterwards put out with the moft advantage. In regard to the proper diftance of the rows where the drill mode of culture is practifed, it fhould probably depend upon the ftate and circumftances of the foils: fome advife two feet as the beft diftance in all cafes{, while others think equal di- fiances of a foot in rich foils, fuch as are worth from thirty to forty fhillings the acre, and nine inches thofe that are of inferior fertility, as from fifteen to twenty fhillings the acre, the beft general diftances§. On foils of lefs value, it is probable that this culture can feldom be had recourfe to with much benefit to the farmer. The laft diftance approaches much to the broadcaft method, which is contended by fome as the molt appropriate in almoft all cafes||: of courfe it may be preferable, as it admits of being ploughed between by a fuitable plough in the room of the harrow. The feed, in whatever method it may have been fown, is, when good, rather rapid in its vegetation, beginning to fprout in the courfe of a week, and foon{preading itfelf over the furface of the land. And the fooner it attains its rough leaf the * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. KXV.+ Ibid.+ Kent’s Hints, § Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXV. jl Ibid. 5 Cultivation of Arable Land.—~Red Lucern~~ After-management of. 879 better, as it is then, like turnips, out of danger of being deftroyed by the fly. Before thefe plants arrive at this ftate of growth, they are liable, efpecially in dry feafons, to be much injured, if not wholly confumed, by the ravages of the fame fort of infeét as that which is fo detrimental to the turnip plant. Where the greateft part of the plants are injured in this way, it is probably the beft method, when the crop has been put in alone, to plough up the land, and fow it down again with freth feed as foon as poffible. This is an advantage which the practice of fowing the crop alone has over that of putting it in with thofe of other kinds. After-management.—As the economy of this plant is fuch as to render it incapable of being grown with much advantage where other forts of plants, whether of the grafs or weed kind, are apt to annoy it, much care and attention fhould of courfe be employed in keeping it clean and free from the intrufion of all fuch vegetable productions. This may be effected in different ways according to the methods in which the crop has been raifed. Where the broadcaft plan has been purfued, little is neceffary where the land has been properly prepared, after the grain crop has been removed, except keeping all forts of heavy{tock from coming uponit. Ina dry feafon, if there be occafion, the field may, however, be fed a little by calves and other very light ftock, but they fhould never be kept long upon the plants at one time. When the fecond cutting has been made in the following year, if any grafs fhows itfelf, the land fhould be harrowed over in a moderate manner by a harrow which is not too heavy or too long in the tines, twice or more times, as may be necef= fary, in different direétions, the graffy matter being collected by a{mall light imple- ment of the fame kind, and removed from the land. This bufinefs fhould be executed as foon in the early part of the fpring as the nature and ftate of the ground will admit, as dry a period as poffible being taken for performing the work. In the fucceeding years two fuch harrowings may frequently be required, one in the early part of the fpring feafon and the other in the clofe of the fummer. But in thefe cafes, efpecially where there 1s much grafs appearing, a much heavier fort of har- row fhould be made ufe of. Some advife one of fuch weight as is fufficient for four horfes,and which does not fpread more than four or five feet*; but in moft cafes, efpecially when the bufinefs is fo frequently done, one that requires lefs draught may be adequate to the purpofe, as where fuch large heavy harrows are employed, there is much danger of injuring the crowns of the plants, and thereby caufing their deftruc- tion; whereas by the ufe of lighter ones they are moftly much benefited from. the mould being ftirred about their roots. After thefe harrowings, asin the above cafe; * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXM, 880 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Lucern—After-management of. the weeds fhould te brought together and removed from the ground. Where the crops are thin and patchy, feed in proportion to the deficiencies fhould be fown over fuch places before the harrowings commence each time. In every cafe the rollers fhould be applied immediately after the operation has been performed, not only for the purpofe of preffing the mould about the roots of the plants, but to render the furface perfectly level and fit for the fcythe. In the broadcaft method of culture, where the produce is not to a confiderable extent, it is probably better to feed the crop by light cattle ftock in the autumn than mow it. In the drill-fown lucern fome recommend, where the rows are fufficiently evident in the autumn feafon, after the grain has been fecured, the paffing of a fmall fhim between them, in order to extirpate all the weeds and graffy materials, as well as to loofen the mould about the roots of the plants, and, that they may be rendered more perfectly clean, the hand-hoeing of the plants in the rows*. In the fucceeding year ftill more particular attention to the ufe of the fhim and hoe will be requifite. The bufinefs fhould be begun as early as the ftate of the foils will fafely admit of its being executed; being continued occafionally in fuch a manner, during the whole fummer, as 1s fufficient for preferving the crops perfectly clean and free from all forts of weeds. But in order to accomplith this in the moft complete way, great circum{pection is neceflary, immediately after the lucern has been cut, to the extirpation of the natural grafs plants and the weeds of other kinds, as at this period _ they can be difcovered and removed with the greateft facility and difpatch. The crops raifed in the tranfplanted method, as they are put in fo late in the fummer feafon, will demand but little regard in the autumn: one or at moft two flight hoeings may be fufficient for the purpofe. But in the following year’s culture the fame management will be proper as in the preceding cafe. Some advife it as a good rule in thefe cafes to give full hoeings, either of the horfe or hand kinds, as foon as weeds appear, every time after the crops are taken off. Ifthe plants are perfectly ftraight in the rows, which fhould always be the cafe,“ a fhim may be had recourfe to with the greateft benefit, as it may be drawn fo clofely to the plants as in a great meafure to fave the expenfe of hand hoeing, as in fuch cafes it will only be neceffary to extirpate the weeds or natural grafs plants that may have eftablifhed themfelves among the lucern plants in the rows, which is capable of being effeéted in a very complete manner by the ufe of a pronged hand hoe t. It is further recommended by the fame cultivator, never by + Tbid, * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XKV. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Lucern—After-management of. 88} any means to fuffer fields of this fort to become weedy, under the fuppofition that the produce may not cut well, or be free from duft; as, where it is of fufficiently vigorous growth, and of a fuitable diftance in the rows according to the nature of the land, there can be no reafon for fuch an injurious practice; as it is only where the planting isexecuted at larger diftances than the condition of the foils will permit that any inconvenience can be experienced in this way. Where hand-hoeing is the method chiefly depended upon for keeping crops of lucern in a proper ftate of culture, much of the bufinefs may be performed by women, or even children, and the expenfe be thus confiderably leffened. When the foils on which this plant is grown are not of confiderable fertility, the occafional application of manure may be of great advantage in thickening and increafing the quantity of crop. For this ufe clean well rotted dung is probably by much the beft manure, as where earthy compotts, afhes, or foot are employed, they are apt to promote the growth of, or bring up common graffes too much. The latter are, however, fometimes fown over the cropsin the winter feafon. The dung is advifed by fome to be applied in the quantity of about twenty tons to the acre every five or fix years*. Others, however, think it a better pra¢tice to put alight coat on annually in the early fpring feafon+. The culture of this fort of crop is obvioufly attended with confiderable expenfe, both in its firft eftablifhment and the after-management which is neceffary to enfure its fuccefs. The inexperienced cultivator fhould not therefore commence this kind of hufbandry too haftily, without confidering how far it may fuit his circumftances. The additional expenfes in putting in this fort of crop, with thofe of the grain kind, in the drill method, the neceffary annual charges afterwards, and the produce in the fupporting of horfes, are fhown in one view below it. As this is one of the moft forward of the natural graffes, it frequently attains a fufiicient growth for the fcythe towards the end of April or beginning of the fol- * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXV.} Kent's Hints, { Extra Expenfe. Mh 85 de ‘Two{pring ploughings extra, are------ 018© Harrowings--.-°==“ o 2 6 Eight pounds of feed---=--° OSes Drilling--°-->--© 2 6 Horfe-hoeing inautumn-==- 2 5 is a2.'s6 Hand-hoeing ditto---°--© O28. 6 Firft year e118 6 882 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Lucerin——After-management of. lowing month, and in foils that are favourable for its culture will be in a ftate of readinefs for a fecond cutting in the courte of a month or fix weeks longer; being capable of undergoing the fame operation at nearly fimilar diftances of time during the whole of the fummer feafon. In this laft fort of foil, with proper management in the drill method, it has been found to rife to the height of a foot and a half in about thirty or forty days, affording five full cuttings in the fummer*. But in the broadcaft crops, in the opinion of fome, there are feldom fo many cut- tings afforded in this feafon, three or four being more common, as the growth is fuppofed to be lefs rapid than by either of the other modes. This is, however, contradicted by the experience of other cultivators who have paid much attention to the fubjeét,.as will be feen below. In order to have new fucceffions of this grafs conftantly becoming ready to be cut, it has been recommended, for the purpofe of foiling, to have the broadcaft plantations formed into fo many divifions as that one of them maybe cut daily; as about fixty, and thofe of the drilled and tranfplanted kinds into from. thirty to forty, according to the nature of the land, confuming them in the fame manner+. Thefe cuttings muft however be varied in proportion to the differ- ences in the growth of the crops and the confumption. The moft economical mode of cutting the produce is without doubt by means of the fcythe, though the reaping-hook has been made ufe of byfome. After being cut, the food fhould be conveyed as foon as poffible to the animals. This may be done by a light cart, or large barrow, made for the purpofe, according to the fcale on which the bufinefs is conducted. One cutting only in the day is advifed by fome; but as there is a lofs as well as injury done to all forts of green cut food by keeping even for a few hours in hot feafons, it may be a better praétice to have two cuttings in the day, efpecially when Annual Expenfes. to AS. ass Profit by foiling Horfes. To rent, tythesandrates== T 10 10 Four horfe-hoeings-- O10 oO Three hand-hoeings”-© 112.4.0 Five mowings--- o12 6 By keeping five horfes from Raking together-- OA AGTNO beginning of May to mid-£-; rai Loading andcarting home=-- ow 7“6: dle of O&tober at 2s, 6d. Manuting to amount per annum~~ o 12-0 per horfe per weela A OO Clear profit 9g 18 6 fag 76£14 7 6 * Annals of Agriculture, Vol, KXXYV. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Lucern—After-management of. 883 the weather is warm, and the lucern at no great diftance. Befides, the food is eaten better when given quite frefh. The produce of this fort of crop in converting it to the purpofes of foiling cattle muft neceffarily be different under different circumftances; but an acre can feldom when under proper culture and management, fupport lefs than from three to five or fix horfes or other cattle during the fix fummer months; the profit of which cannot be Jefs than from feven to ten or twelve pounds. And in letting it remain for hay, which is lefs advantageous, in the three mow-~ ings an acre where the crop is good will feldom afford lefs than from three to five tons of dry hay. In Mr. Arbuthnot’s trials, the produce was four loads, but in thofe of others on rich grounds it was five. In making this fort of plant into hay the fame dire@ions fhould be attended to as for clover; the lefs the produce is fhaken about, the better, provided it be fufficiently quickly dried; as the leaves will be more fully preferved on the ftems, and the hay of courfe more valuable. From its greater fucculence it will in common require rather more time than clover or faintfoin in making. As this fort of hay is held in lefs eftimation than that of either of the above graffes, it fhould be confumed at home by the farm hories or other ftock, and that of other forts fent for fale. In the application of the crop the principal and obvioufly the moft advantageous practice is that of foiling horfes, neat cattle, and hogs. But as a dry fodder it is alfo capable of affording much affiftance in many cafes. And asan early food for ewes and lambs, it may be of great value in particular cafes. As this plant bears repeated cutting better than moft of thofe of the artificial grafs kind, f{prings in a more quick and expeditious manner, and affords a healthy nutritious food, in foiling it mutt be of vaft utility to the farmer where horfes and cattle form a large part of his ftock. With horfes, in this way, it has been found by fome to anfwer better than any other fort of green food that has been tried—the number of cuttings that it admitted of being on different foils and under different modes of culture, from about three to five, affording a produce of green herbage adequate to the fupport of from three to four or five horfes for a period of nearly fix months in the fummer feafon. And though much of this vaft advantage, in the fupport of thefe animals, may with propriety be afcribed to the economy of the confumption of the food that unavoid- ably takes place in this excellent practice*, the real produce in green food is with- out doubt larger than in moft other grafs crops. The broadcaft crops in the trials Young’s Eaftern Tour, Vol. IV. S$ U2 384 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Lucern— After-manageiment of. of fome cultivators appear to have been more profitable in this mode of confuming: the produce than thofe of either the drilled or tranfplanted methods of culture, In the practice of Mr. Hall, the former fupported from four to five horfes for twenty-{fix weeks, while the crops tranfplanted in rows.two feet afunder only afforded produce fufficient for the keeping of three. And in. thofe of Mr. Clayton, in the broadcaft without grain, five horfes were kept from the middle of May till Michael- mas, while that drilled in equidiftant rows, at the diftance of eighteen inches, only fupported four*. There are many other facts that lead to the fame: conclufion. On very rich foils the drilled lucern will, without doubt,, when the plants are kept perfectly clean, and the mould well ftirred between the: rows and laid to their roots afford an abundant produce, perhaps more fo than in the broadcaft, but to do this great attention in the culture muft be beftowed. Inits application in the foiling of cows and other forts. of cattle in. the fold-yards,. and in the feeding and fattening of oxen, its importance is equally great. It is found that in foiling cows, the proportion of this fort of food’ confumed, in twenty= four hours, is from about fixty or feventy to upwards of a hundred pounds, in thofe which are of the middling-fized kinds;, an acre maintaining in the proportion of about four for twenty weeks. In other trials larger proportions of ftock have been kept by this practice. In feeding cattle with this fort of food in its green ftate, care is neceffary, however, not to give the animals too largely at a time, efpecially when it is moift, as they may be oven or blown with it in the fame way as with clover.’ The trials in fattening bullocks, or other cattle, with this green fodder are not numerous; but they are fufficiently fo to prove its. utility in fuch application. In Mr. Young’s trials, cattle were found to increafe faft in flefh by it, pay- ing at the rate of four fhillings and fixpence a head per week, which is con- fidered as a great proof of the value of the plant: in this view its fuperiority to tares he thinks prodigioust. It has alfo been confidered of great value in this view in Ireland, by Mr. Herbert, after much experience. The great power which it poffeffes in fattening is, indeed, rendered fufficiently evident, by the fudden effeéts which it produces in foiling horfes. In moft inftances they get into high condition in a fhort time, becoming“ fat without oats or hay” in fome cafes f. Sheep have likewife been fattened on this green food with great fuccefs in Mr, Baldwin’s trials§. %* Young’s Eaftern Tour, Vol. IY.+ Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XIV.{ Ibid. Vol. XXV.§ Ibid, Cultivation of Arable Land.—Lucern-~ After-management of. 885 In foiling hogs in the fold-yards it has alfo been attended with confiderable fuccefs. And it has been fuggefted, that as thefe animals do not bite fo clofely as fheep, they may be admitted upon the crops with greater fafety, A, plot of it contiguous to the yards might in this view be highly beneficial*. Itis fufficiently clear, from thefe ftatements, that this is a highly beneficial method of difpofing of lucern crops. Its vaft fuperiority over that of making them into hay, as well as the expenfe, product, and neat profit in cultivating them on different foils, may be feen at one view in the following table f. The utility and application of the hay produced from this grafs has been already mentioned. The refult of the comparative experiment, made by Mr. Anderdon, with this crop and thofe of burnet and faintfoin, fhows its great fuperiority over them f. Though crops of this fort fhould not, by any means, be fed clofe with fheep ftock, it is probable that, in particular cafes, they may be appliedas an early green feed for ewes and lambs with great utility and convenience, as they may be re+ * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXV. + Soils. Application.| Expenfes. Product. Profit. cess TAS IVE Ose ae. Balegi tds ¢{Light fandy loam Soiling TiW4i Orgs 03 0) OFF latte yO) g| Rich black loam Hay Go 8 Hie 15© Grae 4 uw| Good loam Soiling BPG coms fond tay 6 10) 125) 6 % Good loam Soiling Bu 95.0 O) eh) Rai 6 %| Rich deep fandy loam Soiling Olea 77 Ort 3 13 114 <| Averages 20. OTL 10 18 8 TO is Ibs. } Lucern at four cuttings green, produced......ssesseereeesvecseens 159 BBUENCE(a ate. 1 orels 6 os) betel B AaiSh ia]e alo ielaielotol blalpie! aloft le aitveloleie otcts mam 6 84 RAMI he Soe ag aa ubn EDO 0 Eases bo Gabe t ba sotb eens 6 ot aNih ws ol ery vows FIZ The difadvanges of making them into hay ftand thus Ibs. lbs. Pree: merase 62 0s Apia View cs aon‘MITES ys uy KONO One On A 22 Burnet in ditto...5:..% SR OG Roeder Unig HAYS hei eehe weetent ols ore q Saintfoin in ditto..+...5. 24 sees im Hay gs. doiid sida“ag One cutting of each. Thefe fats fully thow the great lofs and difadvantage of employing in the way of hay the more fucculent forts of vegetable productions that are capable of being cut and foiled in their green fate, 856 Cultivation of Arable Land.—-Lucern—~After-management of. lied on for this fort of feed much fooner than any other kinds of artificial grafs crops, efpecially in foils of the rich, dry, and warm defcriptions; being often ready for the purpofe foon after the middle of March, affording a good bite through the whole of the following month, the moft difficult period for the providing of fuitable fupport for this kind of ftock. The benefit produced in the healthy growth and improvement of the lambs in this mode, will much more than counterbalance any Jofs{uftained in the firft cuts for foiling of horfes. The fheep fhould not, however, remain on longer than while the firft fhoots are eaten down. On the whole, though this plant is capable of being thus ufefully applied, con- fidering the very great expenfes which are neceflary in raifing and keeping lucern crops in a ftate of production, and their affording but little produce, ef- pecially when fown without corn, for the firft years, notwithftanding they appear to yield a great advantage in the practice of foiling animals, it is probable that much of the profit depends upon the method of confuming them, and not on that of the particularly advantageous nature of the plants. Its fuperiority to clover, when the differences in the expenfes of their culture and other circumftances are fairly brought into view,will not, perhaps, appear fo great as many on a fuperficial obfer- vation may have fuppofed. The point in which it moft materially excels that inva- luable plant is the duration, or time which it lafts in the ground, after being once introduced; continuing from ten to fifteen and even twenty years, according to the {tate and nature of the foil, and the attention that is beftowed in the after-management. This is, undoubtedly, a circumftance of the firft importance, in cafes where the culti- vator wifhes to avoid the trouble and expenfe of grain crops, as he can keepa fuit- able extent of land under this crop for the purpofe of foiling his{tock without them, whle with clover it is utterly impoflible*. Where the proportion of Iand is fmall, and the quantity of cattle and horfe ftock difproportionately large, it is a plant ad- mirably calculated for the cultivator’s purpofe, when grown conveniently to the farm yards and kept in due order by proper cultivation. It has alfo been recommended on dairy farms as of great utility in fupporting the cows and increafing the quantity of milk+. Where the foils are fuitable, a few acres under this grafs round the houfe muft in almoft all cafes be valuable for the purpofe of early green food. On attempting to break up lands that have been long under this fort of crop, it has been fometimes found from the great ftreneth of the roots of the lucern plants, and the confequent difficulty of deftroying them, that the crops have been reftored in * Young’s Eaftern Tour, Vol. 1V.+ Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXV. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Tare. S87 fuch a manner as to induce the cultivators to leave it again for the production of this erafs*, In fituations where fuch grounds could be conveniently flooded, or covered with water occafionally, they might, therefore, be very advantageoufly converted into good meadow or grafs lands; a fort of application that has long fince been recommended by a French writer ft. When fuch lands are perfectly broken up, they afford, in moft cafes, admirable crops of the grain kind. Oats, as being the leaft injured by a luxuriant growth, may in general be the moft advifable as the firft erop. The nature, cultivation, and modes of applying different forts of artificial graffes in the feeding of live ftock being explained, we fhall confider a few other plants of the herbaceous kind, which feem properly to belong to this place, from their great importance and ufe in affording plentiful fupplies of green food for the fupport of cattle or other forts of live ftock. Yaret{.—This is a plant which, fromits tall, clofe, hardy growth and fucculent nature, is capable of being introduced with vaft advantage in the manner of thofe of the artificial erafs kind, between different forts of grain crops, with the view of pre- venting the fertility of the land from being too much expended, and at the fam: time procuring an ufeful fupply of green or other fodder for the confumption of horfes or other defcriptions of{tock. It has indeed been contended by an intelligent cultivator§, that it“‘ may be made the means of enabling the arable farmer to fup- > port as much live ftock as the grazier,” as while crops of this fort remain upon the ground they afford larger fupplies of the beft kind of green food on the acre, than the moft rich and fertile grafs lands; and they may be taken from the ground at fo early a period in the fummer feafon as, on the friable loamy foils, to admit of a clean crop of turnips being obtained from the fame land in the fame year, and of thofe of the more heavy kinds being fown with wheat. And while they are capable of being raifed with fuccefs on moft kinds of foils and fituations, they fup- port and fatten cattle and fheep of different fizes and breeds in an expeditious manner. Befides, they afford a good preparation for other forts of green crops, and in that way keep up the fucceffions of fuch kinds of food for the fattening of additional quantities of animals; and in that way produce abundance of manure in fituations where it could not otherwife be procured. In fhort, he fuppofes that by a judicious combination of this plant with thofe of turnips, clover and faintfoin, * Young’s Annals, Vol. XXY.+ De Serrésen Theatre d’Agriculture, p. 442. t Vicia fativa.§ Mr, Middleton, 5 $88 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Tare—Varieties of- the poor downs, fheep-walks, and other wafte lands, may be rendered from ten to thirty times more valuable than they are at prefent. But, however fanguine thefe obfervations may be, there cannot be any doubt but that the tare may be an ufeful object of cultivation in the view of improving the land, as well as the fupporting of a larger ftock, and a plant that ought to be more generally grown in moft fituations, in proportion to the extent of the ftock that is kept. The common tare is diftinguifhed by writers on hufbandry into two forts,—-the winter and /pring tare: the latter is probably a variety of the above fpecies. It is, however, much lefs hardy in its habits than that of the former or{pring kind; the plants when wholly of this fort being capable of refifting the effects of the fe- vereft winter feafons in this climate. In cultivating thefe plants, with a view to afcertain their difference in refpect to hardinefs, the Rev. Mr. Laurents of Bury, in Suffolk, is ftated by Mr. Young to have made the following experiments:—On the 3oth of September 1783 he fowed feeds of the winter tare andof the fpring tare near to one another, in the fame foil and expofure, and covered both with a-coat of crumbled mould one inch deep. The weather proving mild, the fpring tare foon made its appearance; and two days after- wards the winter tare came up. This afcendency the former did not fail to maintain over the latter until the middle of December; at which time that was about fix inches high, and this not above four. They were both ina vigorous and thriving condition when a froft came on and continued for fome weeks. Ona thaw taking place, he found the{pring tare lying on the ground, flimy, and putrefied to the very root. The winter tare had received no damage. It grew up afterwards, and was ripe before the middle of Augutft. This difference in the effects the froft had on.them, led him to view the ftate of tares in more open fituations; where he found that in fome grounds fcarce any plants had been deftroyed, in others patches of fomething in a ftate of putrefaction, re- fembling the dead tares in his garcen, were obferved. Andon the 6th of March 1784, both forts were again fown in the manner defcribed above; and in their fpringing up and growth, a progrefs fimilar to that which he had remarked in autumn was obferved, Near-a week later than the winter tare of the autumnal fowing, the{pring tare of the vernal fowing arrived to perfect ma- turity. But the winter tare of the vernal lowing was mildewed, not a fingle pod of it ripening. From thefe two circumftances there appears a material difference in the con- 4 an Cultivation of Arable Land.—Tare-—Varieties of. 839 ‘ftitution, if he may fo calf"it, of the two forts of tares in queftion. He adduces nothing as to the trifling difference in the colour and fize of their feeds, but paffes ofn to the only vifible marks of diftinction he was able to trace in watching the procefs of the two experiments. And_this is a difparity in the firft leaves of the upper part of the{talks of the plants when gathered about the end of November, while the leaves on the branches, which afterwards iffue in the lower part, and in time l form the bulk of the plants, refemble one another in the two vetches. This is all he has been able to offer towards the decifion of thig point. Thefe differences may be feen by confulting a plate in the fecond volume of the Annals of Agriculture. It has been obferved by the author of the Synopfis of Hufbandry, that“ the feeds of the winter and fpring tare are not eafily difcriminated, being nearly alike in fize and every other chara¢teriftic; but on the appearance of the blade the difference is at once to be perceived. The winter tare vegetates with a feed-leaf of a frefh green colour, whereas the{pring tare comes up with a graffy{pear of a brown dufky hue.” There is likewife a fecond variety which is denominated the white tare, but it is tenderer than even the{pring tare, of courfe feldom employed in field culture. The tare is a plant which in ref{pect to foil admits of confiderable latitude, grow- ing without difficulty on all the varieties, from the thin gravelly to thofe of the deep and fiff clayey kinds, but flourifhes in the moft vigorous manner on thofe gravelly loams* that are not too moitt. In the preparation of the land for this crop lefs care is neceffary than for many other forts of grafs crops, as it will fucceed well where the foil has not been much broken down or reduced into fine mould; but it always grows in the moft perfect and vigorous manner where a degree of finenefs has been produced in the land. Two ploughings, with occafional harrowings in the intermediate times, may in general be fufficient for the purpofe at whatever feafon the crop is put in. They are fometimes fown on one ploughihg, efpecially the winter crops; but the prac- tice is not to be recommended, efpecially on the fironger forts of foils. In fuch foils as arg not rich it is a good practice to manure for this crop f. Seed.—As the feed of the fpring tare does not fucceed well when fown for the winter crop, nor that of the winter kind when put in for the fummer produce, care fhould be taken to keep the feed of the two forts as perfectly diftin&t as poffible. And as they are, from their being both of nearly the fame colour and fize as well as * Modern Agriculture.+ Suffolk Report. 5X 890 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Tare—Time and Methed of Sowing. their agreeing in other particulars, liable to be mixed in the feed-fhops, it may be the beft practice for the cultivator to preferve his own feed, as by that means he may not only be certain of having the feed good in its quality, but of the right fort, and of courfe may depend more fully on his crops. It has been fuggefted that fteeping the feed in dry feafons may be of utility in promoting the quick vegetation of the crop*. The quantity of feed fhould vary according to the nature of the foil and the method of fowing. From two bufhels to two and a half are the proportions re- commended by fome in the broadcaft method. Others advife three bufhels; but on medium foils in the middle of the feafon the former may be fully fufficient. Where the land is more rich and the feed put in early, lefs may anfwer the purpofe; but on poor forts of land, where the feed is fown late and the climate is backward, the latter quantity may not be too much. In the drill mode, at fix inches, two bufhels are enough. When the crops are either to be cut-for foiling or to be fed down, the proportion of feed fhould be increafed, as not only a greater produce is thereby provided, but the growth of the crops rendered more quick. Time and Method of Sowing.—The periods of fowing tare crops vary with the intentions of the cultivator, but the winter fowings fhould be performed fome time between Auguft and October: in late expofed fituations and poor foils more early than in thofe of the contrary. Inthe former the beginning of Auguft may not be too early t. In other cafes the latter end of that month or the beginning of the follow- ing may be better. It fhould, however, for the general crop always be done in fuch time as that the plants may be perfedtly eftablifhed in the foil before the cold feafon begins, as by this means the crops fucceed better. For the fpring fowings, from the beginning of March to the end of April may anfwer very well; but the fooner the better, as the plants will have got the more firm hold of the ground before the hot feafon fets in. It is of great advantage in providing a due fucceffion of green food for the fpring confumption to fow at different-periods in the autumn. The method of fowing is moftly that of the broadeaft, which fhould be performed ase ly as poffible over the furface, the feed being afterwards well covered by har- rowing, inorder to prevent their being picked up by birds, and enfure their perfect vegetation. Inrich clean foils it is probable, however, that the row method would fueceed well at Gx or eight inches with this fort of crop, as is the cafe in fome of the fouthern diftriéts$. With fome intelligent cultivators it is the cuftom to fow a little * Corre&ted Report of Middlefex,+ Ibid. + Synopfis of Hufbandry, Cultivation of Arable Land.—Tare— After-management of. rye with their winter tare crops, and a fmall quantity of barley with thofe of the fpring. But as plants of different forts never fuccced well to that little advantage can be derived from the practice, efpecially as the tare is not a plant that ftands much in néed of protection in the early ftages of its growth, and may be injured by too much fhade. Crops of this fort are mofily cultivated after wheat or barley; but the y may be grown after almoft any kind where the land is in good heart. After-management.—As this fort of crop covers the land in a very complete manner where it is fufficiently full, it does not require fo much attention during its growth as many others. Some nice cultivators, however, make a point of hoeing up and drawing out all the more: coarfe and rank kinds of weeds that are in danger of doing injury to the tare plants, and which they cannot fmother and overpower. This bufinefs thould be performed as early in the{pring as poffible. And in order, that the land may be in better order for the{cythe, a light roller may be paffed over the crops when the feafon is tolerably dry in the very early{pring months*. When the parts of crops of this fort that have run to feed, or any others, are left for the purpofe of a fupply, it is the ufual pra@tice to cut and wad them in the fame manner as for peas, in order to their being afterwards houfed or ftacked, and threfhed out in the winter feafon. In making tares into hay, more attention is neceffary than in thofe of moft of the artificial grafles, as wet is more injurious to them, and they require more fan and air; but in other refpects they demand the fame cautious management in order to preferve the foliage from being loft. The time for cutting for this purpofe is when the bloffoms have declined, and they begin to fall flat+. When well made the hay is of the moft nutritious quality. The produce in tare crops, as in thofe of other forts, muft be different according to circumftances; but when they are good, in the winter kinds it is commonly confiderable. The writer of the Report of the S:ate of Agricul- ture in Middlefex ftates it as the refult of experience, having frequently weighed green tares, to be twelve tons per acre; and when made into hay, at about three tons;—the value of the produce, eftimating it as if the whole were made into hay, being in that diftriG from twelve to fifteen guineas the acre, and in places where other forts of hay fell at fifty thillings or three pounds, at from feven pounds ten thillings to nine pounds. The{pring tare crops are in general lighter, and more liable to be injured by a dry feafon than the winter. af * Report of Middlefex.+ Synopfis of Hufbandry. 5x2 $92 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Tare—After-management of, The produce in feed is likewife confiderable: by fome it is ftated at from three to fix facks*; in other inftances forty bufhels or more have been obtained from the acre. This fort of feed is greatly preferred by pigeons, and it may probably be ufed for poultry with advantage. In the above ftatements the produce in green food is undoubtedly large; but from the fucculent nature and luxuriant growth of the crops it cannot probably be much too high. In the application of tare crops, there can be little hefitation in pronouncing that of foiling them with horfes or other ftock on the farm, as the moft advantageous and beneficial method. The vaft advantage of this mode is rendered particularly evident by the great lofs which we have juft noticed in converting them into hay. In the practice of foiling much lofs may be fuftained by cutting the tares at too early a period}. An intelligent agricultor is of opinion that the farmer's ftock fhould be wholly fup- ported on them from the time they begin to blow till the bloffoms begin to fall off, and the formation of pods takes place. On acconnt of the rifk from wet, he recom- inends that all the ftock of a farm fhould be foiled on them green, as it will have the good effect of taking it off the grafs land long enough to allow of its being mown for hay; and by this means the meadow hay be much increafed in quantity, and there will not be fo much occafion for pafture, the tares abundantly fupplying: its place. Befides, at the time the cattle return from green tares, the grafs land, in the mean time having been mown, may be ready to receive them f. It is further obferved that, as it would be watfteful in the extreme to turn live: fiock into a field of tares, as their treading and lying down would do great mifchief to the crop, even by feeding it in{mall patches hurdled off, the moft advifable method would be to mow the tares of the firft half acre, and to carry the produce into the ftables, cow-houfes, and fold-yards, or on to poor land to be confumed by ftock, then to hurdle the growing tares from fuch cleared ground, into which put the ftock and feed them all with the tares, given to them in racks, removing the hurdles and the racks forward daily to the edge of the growing tares; which will manure the- land uniformly, and depofit all the urine in the foil§. In the Gloucefter Report another good method is recommended,“ which is to feed them through rack hurdles, which are made the fame as the common five-railed ones, only leaving the middle rail out, and nailing upright pieces acrofs, at proper difiances, to admit the fheep to put their heads through..” The art of hay-making has been obferved to have been brought toa degree of perfeGion in this diftrict altogether unequalled by.any other part of the king- dom. The neat hufbandry and fuperior{kill and management, fo much and juftly , f admired in-the arable farmers of the beft cultivated diftricts, may, with equal juftice and propriety, be faid to belong in a very eminent degree to the hay-farmers of this part of the ifland, as they may very fairly claim the merit of having reduced the art of making good hay toa regular fyftem; which, after having ftood the teft of long practice and experience, is found to be attended with the moft perfect fuccefs. Even in the mo% unfavourable feafons the hay made-according to this method is fuperior to that made by any other under fimilar circumflances. It is, therefore, to be regretted that this very excellent practice has not yet, except in a very few in- ftances, travelled beyond the limits of the county. But as it highly deferves the attention and imitation of farmers in other diftricts, we fhall defcribe the whole process, from the moment at whieh the mower applies bis fcythe, to that in which the hay is fecured in the barn or fiack f. The chief part of this fort of labour is performed by means of{mall forks made for the purpofe. In the firft day’s procefs all the grafs mown before nine o’clock in the morning is tedded or fpread out, great care being taken to{hake it fo as to leave it free from lumps, and to firew it evenly over the whole furface of the ground.= It is feon afterwards turned, with an equal degree of care and attention; and if the number of * Middlefex Report.+ Ibid, ¢ Middleton’s Report of Middlefex: 942 Cultivation of Gra/s- Land.— Hay-making. hands be fufficient they turn the whole again, or at leaft as much of it as they can’ before twelve or onc o'clock. It is then raked into what are termed fingle windrows, or fo as that each perfon may form a row at about three feet diftance; and the laft operation of the day is to put it up into prafs-cocks. The bufinefs of the fucceeding day-commences with the procefs of tedding all the grafs that was mown the firft day after nine o’clock and all that was mown this day before the fume hour. The grafs- cocks are then well{haken out into what are called fiaddles, which are feparate plats of five or fix yards in breadth. Where the crop is fo thin and light as to leave the{paces between the fiaddles rather large, they are immediately raked clean, and the rakings mixed with the other hay, in order to its all drying fo as to be of an uniform colour. The ftaddles are next turned, and after that the grafs that was tedded in the firft part of the morning once or twice, in the fame manner as defcribed in the fir day. This bufinefs thould all be performed before twelve or one o’clock, that the whole may lie to dry while the people are at dinner. After this the firft thing is to rake the fiaddles into double windrows, which is done by every two perfons aking the hay in oppofite directions or towards each other, forming a row between hem of double the fize of the fingle windrows, each being about fix or eight feet difiant from the other.‘They afterwards rake the grafs into fingle windrows; then put the double windrows into baftard cocks; and conclude by putting the fingle windrows into grafs-cocks. The labour of the third day is begun by firft tedding B 4 Ls and{preading out the grafs mown and not fpread the preceding day, as well as that mown in the early part of this day, and then the grass-cocks are thrown out into ftaddles as before, and the.baftard cocks into ftaddles of lefs extent. Thefe narrow {taddles, though laft fpread out are firft turned, then thofe which were in grafs-cocks, and lafily the grafs is turned once or twice before twelve or one o’clock. When the weather hasbeen funny and fine, the hay which was laft night in baftard cocks will this afternoon be in a proper ftate to bé carried, as in fine feafons it may mofily be performed on the third day; but when the weather has been cool and cloudy, no part of it probably will be fit to carry. In that cafe, the firft bufinefs after dinner is to rake that which was in grafs-cocks laft night into double windrows; then the grafs which was this morning{pread from the{waths into fingle windrows. After this the hay which was laft night in baftard cocks is made up into full fized cocks, and care taken to rake the hay up clean, and alfo to put the rakings upon the top ofeach cock. And laftly, the double windrows are put up into bafiard cocks and the fingle ones into grafs-cocks, as in the preceding days. On the fourth day the great cocks juft defcribed are mofily carried before dinner. The other ope- Cultivation of Grafs Land.— Hay-making. e438 rations are fimilar to thofe of the former days, and proceed in the fame order, con- tinuing them daily until the whole is finifhed. During the whole courfe of hay-making the grafs fhould, as much as poffible, be protected both in the day and night againft rain and dew by cocking*. In diftrits where the hay feafon is later and the weather more changeable, it would often be dangerous to expofe the hay fo much abroad as in the above procefs: a more cautious method fhould probably be adopted. In fuch cafes, inftead of keep- ing the hay almoft conftantly fpread out and expofed to the atmofphere, as in the preceding method, it may be better to put it into fmall cocks foon after it has been cut down and become alittle made; thefe fhould then be frequently turned over but not fpread out, except when the weather is in fuch a fine ftate as to infure their being put up again in the fame ftate, without injury from the falling of rain+. This method is much more flow, though the hay is lefs expofed to danger in wet weather, than in that which has been defcribed above; and when there is much heat it may be made with little trouble or expenfe, and without much expenditure of its nutritious juices. Another practice that has been found ufefulin fuch fituations is, to break out the grafs that is mown, turn and windrow it the firft fine day, and alfo to put it into {mall cocks when the ground is dry; on the next fine day a few of the cocks are broken out at atime, and kept conftantly turned till fally dry.‘Three or four of them are then put into one cock, the work proceeding in the fame manner till the whole is done. And when the weather is bad thefe cocks are never re-broken out, being only lightened up-to let the air pafs through them more freely. The advantages in the firft mode are fuppofed by fome to be, that from the re- gular tedding that is given the hay becomes ofa more valuable quality, heats in the fiack or mow in a more uniform and equal manner, and cuts out better in the trufs. It is likewife well obferved, that no more of the produce fhould be thrown abroad than can be put up into cock the fame day, or before it is injured by the fall of rain. When the weather is unfettled, it may often be permitted-to remain in the fwath for feveral days, only taking care that the underfides do not become difcv- loured by turning them over by the head of the rake. In this way it will fre- quently be fo much made, in a few days, as to require little tedding afterwards to: form good hay*. * Corrected Report of Middlefex.+ Modern Agriculture, Vol, IT.+ Middlefex. Report. 944 Cultivation of Grafs- Land.—Stacking of Hay. The preferving hay of a proper green colour is a circumftance of fome im- portance. In order to effect it the baftard cock, previous to their being carried, fhould be put up in the heat of the day and remain in that condition till the fol- lowing morning, when they muft be turned and opened fo as to difpel any damp that might induce it to beat in the ftack, and in that way fpoil the colour*.. The acquifition of a lightifh brown colour in the flack is not found injurious to hay, but where it becomes of a dark brown from too much heat, it is faid to weaken and relax horfes that are fed upon it by its powerful diuretic quality. It is of courfe of inferior value. The rowen, or fecond crops of hay, from their being flender, having fewer fuc- culent ftems, in moft cafes require lefs time in being made into hay than the firft. In fecuring this fort of hay it 1s, however, advantageous to have it well made, as without this it will be very liable to grow mouldy in the ftack and become of a bad colour from taking on too great a degree of heat, as the lefs it heats in the fiack the more green the colour will be. Stacking and Thatching Hay.—In performing this bufinefs it is always advifable to have ftaddles made for the purpofe, fomewhat in the fame manner as thofe that have been recommended. for grain, though it is too common a practice to build hay-ftacks without ever attending to this circumftance. They need not, however, for this ufe be raifed fo high or have any fhelving outwards, but be quite plumb and with- out copings. In the common method of placing them upon the ground, on a little drift, or a few pieces of wood laid acrofs each other, there muft conftantly be great lofs in the bottom parts of the ftacks from the moifture being abforbed by the hay; but by the ufe of ftaddles this may be wholly avoided, and the expenfe will be but a trifle, as any old rough pieces of wood will anfwer the purpofe. In refpect to the form of the ftack it is not a matter of much confequence, the long{quare, or oblong fhapes are the moft fafe and convenient, efpecially when not too broad, as they admit the air the moft fully. Befides, they are the moft con- venient to cut from in truffing hay for fale. But the circular form for farm ufe, where firaw is fcarce, may‘be the moft advantageous in the economy of ftraw in thatching. The fize of the fiaddle or ftack bottom fhould be proportioned to the quantity of hay, but it is better not to have the fiacks too large; twenty-four feet by fourteen or fifteen is for moft occafions a good fize. The bufinef of ftacking hay is beft performed, if poffible, while there is a full * Middlefex Report. Cultivation of Grafs- Land. Hay-ftacking Stage, 94.5 fun, efpecially when the feafon is indifferent, as by that means it is much improved, It is neceflary to have a perfon that underftands the art of fetting up ftacks, and a fufficient number of helpers to affift in fpreading the hay and treading it well down. In building, the middle of the ftack fhould always be well kept up, fomething higher than the fides. In this diftrict, where work of this fort is well executed; at leizure times, during the whole period the ftack is building, the men are employed in pulling the fides and endsinto proper form. And it is common to have a large fail cloth raifed on poles, which covers the whole and preyents its being injured by rains until it is finithed. In order to prevent the hay-ftacks from heating too much, holes, pipes, chimneys, and other contrivances are fometimes formed in the middle of large ftacks to draw and conduét off any fuperabundant heat. It is better, however, to avoid thefe as much as poflible, as the hay round them is always much injured by attracting the moifture of the ftack. In building the upper parts of ftacks of hay, corn, or other materials of a fimilar nature, fome contrivance of the /racking rage kind is neceflary, in order to enable workmen to pitch the fubftances with convenience to the perfon who ftacks them. The common method of performing this is by means of a framed ftage, fet upright, fufficiently near the ftack to fuit the workman who pitches the hay or grain to it. But a ftage of this fort which appears to be better contrived, and which is more fimple and cheap, is defcribed by Mr. Young in his excellent Report of the Agriculture of the County of Suffolk. It is fuggefted that this ftage may alfo be employed for nailing up weather-boarding, painting the outfides of buildings, plas- tering of walls, and feveral other purpofes of the fame kind. After the work of{tacking has been completed, and the ftack is pulled and topped up, it is left till it has fweated and is perfectly fettled, which is moftly the cafe ina week or ten davs: the roof fhould then be well covered by a good coat of thatch, fecured by means of a ftraw rope, extended along the eves acrofg the ends and on either fide juft below the ridge. This rope is ufually fecured by means of pegs. The roof fhould be dry when the thatch is put on to prevent the hay from becoming mouldy, It is of great confequence that thisfort of work be well performed, the farmer fhould of courfe always have attention to it, as labourers are often apt to flight it. It is a point not perfe@ly decided among agricultors, whether hay keeps better in ftacks in the open air or in barns for the purpofe. It is the opinion of mof farmers in the fouthern diftri@s of the kingdom, that the firft mode has the ad- vantage in fo far as refpects the quality of the hay. In many of the more northern parts of the ifland the hay is, however, fecured in 6E 946 Cultivation of Grafs Land.—Difference of keeping Hay in Stacks and Barns. the barn, and has appeared, in all the examinations we have made, equally good and fweet with fuch as has been preferved in ftacks in the open air. And the trials of Mr. Middleton, as tiated in the Middlefex Report, feems to fupport the fame fuppofition; as in fecuring hay in his barn, witbout clearing it from the quar- tering on the fides, he found on cutting and binding it up, that it was equally good in quality with that from the fiack-yard, and as perfecily free from duft. The bay was made without rain, and that which was the leaft made put in the barn. Barns are obferved to have other advantages, being“extremely ufeful and conve- nient during a catchingand unfettled hay-harveft,and alfo at other feafons of the year. Ip wet and windy weather they afford an opportunity of cutting, weighing, and bind- ing hay; none of which operations could at fuch a time be performed out of doors.” All the farmers who were confulted on the fubject“* agreed, that hay might be put together earlier, even by a day, ina barn than it would be fafe to do itin a ftack.”’ In anfwer to objections made on the grounds of the practice not repaying the ex- penfe of large barns, it is remarked, by the fame writer, that it is“in direct op- pofition to the opinions of the beft hay-farmers in the country, and contrary to his own experience. For in the drieft feafons barns are a faving of four or five fhillings and, in wet feafons, the ready affiftance which they afford in{peedily an acre; has been known to make a difference in price of twenty fhil- fecuring the hay, lings per load on a fmall number of loads.” There are other advantages in the ufe of barns for this purpofe, as there is not only lefs litter and watte, but, in merely hay diftricts, a great faving in ftraw, which is now an expenfive article in many places, efpecially near large towns. But without having recourfe to the erection of expenfive barns, many of the con- yeniences and advantages of them, efpecially thofe of faving the labour and- ex- penfes of thatching, may be obtained by the ufe of covered fheds, raifed on pillars or pofts, and open on all the fides. Thefe may be conftru@ed in a cheap manner by having the roofs made with thin feather-edged boards, well payed over on the outfide with tar or paint. Thefe are light, cheap, and will laft a great length of time by care ip keeping them well painted*. * The expenfes of mowing and making the hay in the firft method, carrying, ftacking, thatching, and other neceffary operations, are thus flated by the author of the Report of Middlefex: Expenfes per Acre. Ei Sonnels Mowing 3s.—beer 6d.-=-=“ c Saagpee Making and ftacking c 2 z Bi 5 o 9 6 Pulling the flack, and laying the hay pulled out upon the ftack-- oe» D6 Horfes, harnefs, and carts= ss as=: 2 o 460 Straw for thatch gs. thatcher and labourer 6d..---@:1 8410 3 Total expenfe per acre in the ftack-yard is 19 oF 208., * Cultivation of Grafs-Land.— Hay-fweeps and Sledges. 947 On fome hay-farms the dependence is chiefly upon the fale of the article, which is conveyed to the market after being cut by a knife,and bound up into truffes, weighing fifty-fix.pounds each, thirty-fix of which form aload, or about eighteen hundred weight; but when fold freth from the ficid, twenty hundred weight conflilutes the load*. When the hay has been preferved in a_perfeétly good condition, there fhould not be the finalleft wafte in the binding; the loofe parts being put in the middle of the truffles and the bands twitted from the long coarfe parts. The quantity of produce obtained from an acre of grafs land muft be different according to the fertility, management, feafon, and other circumftances; but from one to two loads is the ufual proportion, For the purpofe of facilitating the bufinefs of getting the hay together in bad fhowery feafons, bay-/weeps'and fledges have been conftrucied. A contrivance of the firft fort has been invented by Mr. Middleton, which feems to be poflefied of merit. It is fo confiruéted as to be drawn by four horfes in pairs, but fmaller ones might be made to be drawn by two, and is managed by two boys, one of whom drives each pair of horfes, being mounted on oneofthem. Where the ground is level, little more will be neceflary in order to affift the machine than merely to break and turn up the rows of hay in different places; but where the ridges are high, and there are confiderable incqualities of furface, it will be requi- fite to affift the implement by occafionally{ticking the prongs of a fork into the fiill hay juft before the machine, that it may more effectually catch it. In Yorkthire another fort of contrivance, termed a hay-/ledge, is employed for the fame purpofe, and in fome fituations 1s probably to be preferred; as where the land is dry, the ridges high, and the ground irregular in the furface. With this machine and two, horfes the hay may be collected together, loaded, and carried to the ftack- ing place, in much lefs time than by means of a cart. In loading it, the hay is firft to be raked into rows, when the fledge is brought to the end of one of them, and one of the horfes made to pafs on each fide, until it has collc¢ied.a fufficient quan- tity foraload, one of them then croffing the row of hay, the load is conveyed to the {tack; when, by the horfes being turned about, the fledge is drawn back, leaving its load behind it. Since the period this flatement was made, 1798, the expenfes have increafed very confiderably. It is added thai‘‘ Ifthe hay be put into barns, the laft charge of 3s. 6d. will not, of courfe, be incurred; moft of the third, and part of the fecond, will alfo be faved; fo that the whole expenfe in this cafe will not exceed 15s. per acre.” * Synopfis of Hufbandry. 6-B 2 948 Cultivation of Grefs-Land.—After-Grafs, or Rowen.~ The inoft econo mical and advantageous methods of confuming this fort of fodder willbe confidered when wecome tofpeak of thedifferent modes of managing live ftock. After-Grafs, or Rowen.—In fome diftrids much of the after-grafs is frequently cut and made into a green foft fort of hay, in the manner that bas been already mentioned; but in others it is fed off by live ftock in the autumn.| Both modes may be ufeful under different circumfiances. In fituations where plenty of manure can be procured, as near large towns; and where the chief dependence is upon the fale of hay, or where lamb fuckling prevails, it may frequently be a beneficial praétice to take a fecond crop of hay, as the firft may by that means be more fully fpared for fale, the after-crop fupplying the cows or other cattle that may be kept on the farm. But in cafes where manure cannot be eafily obtained, and there is no local practice carried on that particularly requires fuch fort of hay, it is better to let it be fed off by flock than run the rifk of exhaufting and injuring the ground by the taking off repeated crops. There is alfo another circumftance to be confidered in this bufinefs, which is that of the{tate of the land in refpect to drynefs; as where it is low, wet, and very retentive of moifture, it may be often more hurt by the poaching of the cattle in feeding off the herbage than by taking a fecond crop of hay. Independently of thefe confiderations, it may, however, in gencral bea more fafe and ufeful practice to eat off the after-grafs by ftock, and only take one crop of hay, as by fuch means a more abundant annual produce may be afforded and the land fuftain lefs injury*. Where a crop of rowen is made into hay, the moft profitable application of it is probably in the foddering of fuch cows as are in milk, as it is well fuited, by its graffy quality, and its not heating fo much when well made as other forts of hay in the ftack, to afford a large flow of milk. It is this reafon that induces the cow-farmers to cut their grafs fo many times in the fummer. Another beneficial application of this hay is in the feeding of fuch ewes as are employed in the fuckling of houfe- lambs during the winter feafon; the intention in this cafe is the fame as in that of the preceding inftance. There is another advantageous ufe to which this fort of produce may be applied, which is that of fupporting young calves and all forts of young cattle that are kept as ftore flock. Where fheep require the fupport of hay in the winter feafon, it is alfo well adapted to that ufe. * CorreGted Agricultural Report of Middlefex. 4 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.— Management of After-Grafs. 949 Where after-grafs is fed off by ftock, there is much difference of opinion in regard to the moft proper periods of turning in the animals. Some haye contended that it is the beft practice to let them into’ the field before the young grafs has attained any very great head; while others maintain the oppofite doétrine, and think it the beft method to allow the grafs to get up to a full bite before the ftock is turned upon the]and. Both endeavour to fupport their opinions by experience. But as they cannot be both of them true, it is probable that the extremes of each are to be avoided; and that, as in many other matters, the truth may lie in the middle. This is indeed equally fupported by fact and the obfervation of the moft intelligent ma- nagers; as when the cattle are turned in too carly there is not a fufficient bite to keep up the condition of the animals;- while in the contrary extreme, the ftock fo foon fill themfelves that much of it is trodden down and watfted afterwards in their roaming about the fields to pick the fweeteft morfels. In confirmation of this opinion, Mr. Marfhall found in the midland diftriGs that milch cows fell off in milk, and bullocks in flefh, on being put in too early, before there was a fufficient bite. This he, however, feems to confider as arifing from the want of nutritious quality in the grafs in this ftate. And the incautious obfervation of common farmers has afcribed it to the inconvenience the animals fuftain in feeding from the ftubs. It is not, however, probable that either is the cafe; for as foon as the fcythe has fepatated the old grafs from the roots, new fhoots are made that‘are highly fweet and nourifhing. This may be eafily perceived to be the cafe on examining a piece of ground foon after its being mown, and tafting the young fhoots. The fuppofition refpecting the ftubs is fhown to be founded in error, from the circum- fiance of the ftock devouring the herbage with avidity, as Mr. Marfhall has well remarked. Befides, the animals lick in their food by the tongue, which is armed for the purpofe before it is bitten, and do not puth their nofes fo as to be incon- venienced by the ftiffnefS of the cut grafs-flems. It is poffible, however, that fome effect in lowering the condition of the ftock may arife from the laxative effect that may at firft be produced on the animals’ by fuch young fucculent graf. Where much ftock is turned upon after-grafs in a full flate of growth, there cannot be any doubt but that much lofs muft, as has been jeft obferved, be fultained by the treading down and rendering the grafs unfit for being eaten off. This is fufficiently evident on viewing fields fed in this ftate. Itis therefore perhaps only by beginning the pafturage of after-grafs when in the middle ftate of growth that it can be confumed to the beft advantage, and with- out Iofs in either of the ways that have been juft noticed. This practice feems to be 950 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Management of After-Grafs. countenanced by the obfervation of an agricultor who has had much opportunity of information on the fubject*.' The manner of feeding down after-grafs varies much in different diftricts; it bas been obferved by a farmer in Middlefex, that the condition on which he rents his farm is that of taking out the heavy cattle at Michaelmas, but that fheep remain till February: in this ccunty the practice is to turn on the cattle immediately after mowing. But in the northern diftri@s this grafs, to which they have given the name of eddifh, is kept till Norcmber or even a later period for the purpofe of finithing fat ftock, or for the pafturage of milch cows, from which a fuperior qua- lity of cheefe is made, and by which time it has attained a confiderable head: however, this latter practice would feem to be attended with fome lofs, from its being trodden and trampled under foot as may be readily perceived by examin- ing the field. In the ftocking of after-grafs, fome attention is neceflary not to have too great a number of animals on a given proportion of land.—To overftock produces injury in various ways, efpecially on firft turning in, but particularly by too much treading and beating dowm the grafs. Mr. Marfhall found the midland graziers of opinion, that one cow to the acre on well grown after-grafs was an ample ftock. Good grafs-land may, however, admit fomething more. In the pafiuring of rowen, or after-grafs, by heavy cattle in the autumn, great injury has been complained of from their poaching the ground, particularly at a late period in that or the winter feafon. On this account it has been recommended to confine the confumption of this grafs principally to the fupport of fheep, unlefs in very favourable{eafons, or where the foil is uncommonly dry, in which cafes milch cows or other heavy cattle may be admitted without inconvenience tf. It is the practice in cafes where there is a great fcarcity of{pring feed to referve after-grafs in the autumn for fpring ufe. Some on the bafis of experience contend that it isthe moft certain, and, on the whole, the beft{pring feed yet known. This would feem however to be a wafteful prattice, at leaft in refpeé to the more forward after-grafles. The forwardeft ought certainly to be eaten without wafte, before winter fetsin; and the lateft, that is to fay the fhorteft, may be fhut up for fpring feed. If afier-grafs be too long and grofs, it is apt to lodge and rot upon the ground in winter; therefore on rich lands, it fhould always be more or lefs fed off before Mi- chaelmas, in crder to prevent its being wafied or loft in the winter. An expe- * Marthall’s Rural Economy of the Midland Counties. + Wilkinfon in Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, Vol. IV. Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Paftures. 951 rienced agricultor found, from repeated experiments, that old aficr-grafs feeds fheep that give milk better than turnips, which are more adapted to the fattening of flock; and that this grafs holds to a period, if wanted, when moft other refources fail, the laft half of April, and the firit half of May—periods always of want and dif- ficulty, where rye grafs is not fown*. Mr. Mar hall alfo affures us, that as a certain and wholefome fupply of food for ewes and lambs in the early fpring, the preferved pafture is to be depended upon as‘ the fheet-anchor”, in preference to turnips, cab- bages, or any other fpecies whatever of what is termed fpring feed. The fame thing has been experienced by Dr. Wilkinfon, who has obferved that this food with him afforded a more nutritive and healthful quality of milk from the ewes to their tender lambs than turnips, even in their beft ftate. But however ufeful after-grafs paftures may be under this management, there is evidently a great lofs of food incurred by it, efpecially in fevere winters: it would therefore feem to be frequently the beft practice to eat after-grafs well down, as late as poflible in the autumn, by differerent forts of live ftock, and depend in a great meafure upon the new grafs for{pring feed. It has been fuggefted that mowing the preferved after-grafs in the winter, and giving it to the ftock in the farm-yard, might be advantageous in preventing the jJand from being poached, and the ufeful long grafs from being trampied down and deftroyed-+. The trouble and expenfe of the procefs would perhaps in general be too great, though in particular circumflances, as where other forts of fodder do not bear a proportion to the quantity of fiock to be kept, and where fheep are conceived improper, it may afford fome convenience and benefit, efpecially where it can be performed without injury to the ground by poaching, in tae conveying away the materials which can feldom be the cafe except where the land is very dry; in which fituations there is rarely much after-grafs for this purpofe. Where the nature of the foils is{uch as not to admit heavy cattle, early and late lamb-fuckling may often be carried on with advantage, as well.as the feeding and fattening of other forts of fheep, which is frequently the cafe in this diftrict, Pafture Lands.—Having in the preceding pages explained the different me- thods of management that feem neceflary in the cultivation of thofe forts of grafs lands that are-chiefly applied to the purpofe of producing hay, we fhall now de- fcribe the modes of practice which appear requifite in fuch as are almoft wholly appropriated to the fupport and fattening of live ftock. The grounds that are the moft perfectly adapted to this ufe are, all thofe which have a confiderable depth of good mould, and at the fame time that they afford a * Young in Annals of Agriculture. ¢ Lawrence in Commercial and Agricultural Mag. in Vol. IV. 952 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Paftures. good herbage are fo dry in their nature as to admit the animals to feed upon them at almoft all feafons without injury by poaching. Coarfe rufhy lands may, however, in many cafes be converted into good paftures, by proper attention in draining, and cutting over the rufhes in the early part of the fpring, as by this means the water enters their ftems and the plants decay, the young fhoots being afterwards eaten by young ftock, and the good grafs plants allowed to flourith.‘There is alfo another fort of land that may be employed in this way, which is that of the moory kind, cenfifting of much imperfectly reduced vegetable matter proceeding from the leaves and roots of various decayed vegetable productions, that require to be brought into a fuitable condition for the fupport of grafs plants by proper drainage and the application of fubftances of the foffil kind. Pafture lands fhould likewife, as much as poffible, poffefs properties in the nature of their graffes that are tho moft advantageous for the particular method of manage- ment under which they are to beconducted. In this view, fome may be more adapted to the producing of milk or butter, others of cheefe, and others again of feeding or fattening animals. It is in fome meafureon this account, as well as that of local convenience, that different modes of management are employed on grafs lands, The difference of fituation in pafture lands has likewife much influence in direct- ing the ufes to which they may be applied with the greateft benefit. The higher or more elevated grounds being in general more proper for fheep, while thofe of the lower and more inclofed kinds are moftly better fuited for the purpofe of neat cattle or other animals under the fattening fyftem. And befides, the age of the lay makes a difference in fome cafes; new laid down pafture lands being commonly found more proper for the fupport of the young ftore animals, while thofe that have been long in the ftate of fward are in general better adapted to the feeding or fattening ftock. 'The mode of inclofing has-alfo fome effeét in the fame way; as when the inclo- {ures are of a moderate fize, they are found more fuitable for the purpofes of feeding than where the contrary is the cafe*. This fort of grafs land, as well as that of the hay kind, is fubject to be overrun and much injured in its produce both by mofs, coarfe plants, and ant- as well as mole-hills. Thefe fhould therefore be conftantly removed, or fpread about as foon as poffible, and prevented from obftructing the complete pafturage of the lands in the manner that has been recommended above. On the marth grazing lands in Kent, where ant-hills frequently occur, they have a mode of extirpating them in an eafy and expeditious way, and of bringing the furface level, which is by the ufe of an implement, cight or nine feet in breadth, * Correted Report of Perthhhire. eee Cultivation of Grafs-Land.——Improving Paftures. 953 which is armed with a fort of ftron® cutting blade. When in ufe, itis drawn by a horfe directed by a boy, and guided behind by a man, and is capable of often cut- ting off feveral of the hills at one firoke, and of courfe of clearing a number of acres in a very fhort fpace of time. There are various other ploughs in ufe for this fort of work. But, befides thefe, paftures when not well attended to are frequently prevented from being properly fed, by various kinds of low fhrubby plants, fuch as thofe of the alder, brier, broom, furze, and other forts that fhoot out upon the furface, and which fhould always be extirpated as foon as the bufinefs can be conveniently done; as by their remaining upon and fhading the ground they render the herbage fours and improper for the food of cattle. This fort of work may be performed by cutting them clofely down as they rife in the early fpring months; but a better practice is to dig them or plough them completely out, in the manner that has been defcribed in {peaking of the methods of bringing lands into the ftate of cultivation*. The fhrubby, black, and other thorns and briers that fpring up from fuckers on the fides of the hedge-rows of pafiure grounds, fhould likewife be exterminated, efpecially where fheep are pafiured, as they do great mifchief by pulling and entangling their coats. Befides, much ground is often loft in this way, and the appearance of the hedges is difgufting. In many cafes after the plants are ftocked up, the earth about them might be thrown up into a compoft with a fmall proportion of well rotted dung, and fpread upon the land with much benefit; and at the fame time the land thus cleared be brought into a proper condition for being fown down with grais feeds. Where paftures are productive in grafles of the more fharp coarfe bladed kinds which rife into tufts or tuflocks,and which are known to agricultors under the titles of pink or carnation graffes, and there are other forts of aquatic plants prefenting themfelves, it isa certain indication that the foil is too retentive of moifture, and not only ftands in. need of draining, but alfo of being kept in a clofe ftate of feeding by different forts of ftock. The manuring of pafture lands is a bufinefs much lefs in practice than ought, perhaps, to be the cafe, as where the foil is not good, and they are kept in a conftant flate of feeding or pafturage, it would feem probable that their fertility muft in{ome meafure decline, if proper means be not taken to preferve and keep it up, even though they thould be fed down with fheep, which is unqueftionably in this view the moft favourable fort of ftock. It is indeed hardly to be fuppofed that the fmall proportion of excrementitious matter that 1s dropped at random during the feeding of the animals, efpecially the largerkinds, under anexpofure to the diffipating and wafhing effedts of the atmofphere, at different feafons, where no other forts of food * SeCtion on the Cultivation of Arable Land. OF 954 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—LImproving Paftures. than that of the natural grafs of the paftures is confumed, can in fuch forts of land be adequate to the reftoration of the great degree of fertility that is conftantly conveyed away in the time of pafturing. In the better kinds of pafture Jands, where the produce of grafs is confiderable, improvement may, and undoubtedly does, take place by feeding them, efpecially by fheep, as the difcharges of the animals are not only more abundant, but a proportion of old grafs is left to decay during the winter feafon, and in that way make an annual addition to their fertility. It appears probable to me, however, it may differ from opinions that have been held on this fub- ject by fome cultivators, from much clofe attention to the management of grafs lands of the lefs rich kinds in the flate of pafture, that in fuch cafes, unlefs attention be paid to improve their condition by fome other means than merely that of the ma- nure difperfed over the land by the animals in fimply confuming the herbage, that they muft in time become gradually deteriorated, and the quantity of pafturage be leffened fo as to fupport fmaller proportions of flock than was formerly the cafe. This fuppofition feems indced, in fome degree, fupported by the condition of downs, and other uninclofed lands that have been in a ftate of pafturage for a great length of time; as in thefe cafes, if feeding had rendered them more fertile, they mutt long fince have been enabled to carry a vaftly increafed proportion of ftock; which is certainly not the cafe*. That feeding down pafture lands, of thefe as well as other kinds, in a judicious manner has the effect of rendering the herbage more fine, and better for the fup- port of ftock in general, there cannot be the fmalleft doubt; but it does not certainly follow that the fertility of the land, in fuch cafes as have been juft men- tioned, is thereby really improved, as has been fuppofed by fome employed in the, bufinefs of grazing in particular fituations and circumftances. Where the pafiures, as has been juft obfery ed, are in fuch heart as to afford a large quantity of herbage for being converted into manure, and fufficient to permit a por- tion annually to revert to the ftate of vegetable mould by its undergoing the procefs of putrefaction, a confiderable progreffive improvement muft, without doubt, be the cafe under the pafiuring fyftem, efpecially where fheep conftitute the principal ftock. And in moft cafes the fining of the herbage by this practice muft be advantageous.- It feems, therefore, not improbable but that the bettering of the condition of the herbage by feeding the lands with fheep may have occafionally led to the fuppofition that the fertility of the grounds was thereby, in al cafes, really improved. That an increafe of fertility is a in moft inftances, by the pafturing of lands with theep, is not difputed; it is only in particular circumftances that the contrary is contended to take place. And in all cafes the injury that may be * Anderfon’s Effays, Vol. LI. Cultivation of Grafs- Land, Stocking Paftures. 955 fiflained in this way mutt evidently be very fmall, when compared with that which takes place from repeated mowing without the application of fuitable dreffings to the lands. The improvement of the fertility of pafture grounds may be effected in different ways, as either by the direct application of manure in its natural ftate, fuch as that of rotten dung, lime, marl, or in that of earthy compoft, occafionally over their furfaces ina thin even manner; or indireétly by the folding or confining of fheep upon the land during the time they confume other forts of green food, fuch as turnips,&c. The latter mode is unqueftionably the mo{t advantageous and convenient, as it is in but very few fituations that the former can be practifed with- out injury to the arable or hay lands, By proper attention in this way the more poor pafture grounds might foon, and at little expenfe, be brought into a good fiate of pafturage; which could feldom or ever be the cafe without it. The moft proper period for turning the fiock into the paftures in the fpring feafon has been a matter of difpute among thofe employed in the management of grafs lands; forne contending that it fhould be done early, before the natural grafs has rifen to too great a bite, while others maintain the contrary opinion. There are probably inconveniences attending each of thefe extremes, as in the firft the ftock, efpecially when of the fattening kind, may fuftain injury from the want of a fufficient bite to permit the animals to fill themfelves in an expeditious manner; and in the latter there may not only be much wafte by the ftock not being capable of keeping it under, but great lofs and inconvenience from its running up in tufts to feed, and by that means rendering the pafiures patchy and unevenly fed down, by which the extent of real pafturage is leflened. It has been alfo obferved, that by turning the ftock upon the paftures when there is a full bite the better forts of graffes are only confumed, the more coarfe herbage being rejected and let run up to feed, by which the lands are greatly injured at the tine as well as in future; while, on the contrary, if the ftock be’ allowed to enter during the time fuch coarfe plants are in their more tender early. growth, and before the pafture is covered with better herbage, the whole of the other plants will be fed down in a regular manner with the grafs*. It is likewife remarked by the fame writer, that the want of a full bite on the firft turning out of ftore flock is of advantage to the animals, as they become more gradually accuftomed to the change from dry food to fucculent herbage. And it is fuppofed that fattening fiock only require a full bite on being at firft put upon the pafture+. In anfwer to the objection that has * Marfhall’s Rural Economy of Yorkthire,+ Ibid. OF2 956 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Stocking Paftures. been made, that early turning upon paftures expofes them more to the effeAs of drought in the fpring months, it is faid thatit is in a great méafure ill founded, fince cattle milk and thrive well in fuch cafes.“It is not,” Mr. Marfhall remarks, “the length of grafs, but the quantity of nourifhment which it contains, that makes cattle pay for their pafturage.” And it is not fuppofed improbable but that the richnefs of the herbage may in fome degree depend on the fun or heat of the fea- fon*. As the ftate of grafs which is the moft favourable to the feeding of the ftock, and their expeditious filling themfelves andtaking their reft, as wellas that of their wafting the leaft poffible proportion of the food, would feem to be that of a middle degree of growth, it is not improbable but that that may be the moft proper and advan- tageous period for breaking the paftures; the exact time of which muft obvioufly be regulated by the nature of the foil, the fituation of the land, and the ftate of the- feafon. From the end of March to the latter end of April, or beginning of the following month, according to the forwardnefs of the feafon, may be the moft advantageous in the fouthern diftri€ts, but in thofe of the north it may be des ferred a week longer or more with benefit. In regard to the general eating down of pafture lands there is likewife much difference of opinion, fome advifing that it fhould be done in as clofe a manner as poffible, others that this fhould never be the cafe. It would feem, however, that the clofenefs or degree of feeding that is the moft proper fhould be direéted by the nature of the grafs and the time at which it is performed, as where the herbage is of the coarfer kind and confumed in the autumnal feafon, it may be done much more clofely than in the contrary circumftances, as fuch forts of grafs muft always be improved by fuch clofe feeding, and no injury can be fuftained at fuch feafons from the roots of the graffes being left fo much expofed, which would be the cafe in the later fpring or early fummer months, from the conftantly increafing heat at fuch periods. The advice that has been given by an intelligent obferver on this fubject may in general be adopted with propriety, which is, to be cautious not to overftock, as by that means great lofs may be fuftained, as“ land when fed too bare is apt to burn in fummer and to be chilled in winter. Befides, the necks of the roots are fo in- jured by very clofe biting that they do not afford fo quick or free a fpring to the facceflion of blade as there would otherwife be.” But, on the other hand, it is not recommended to leave a long bite of grafs on the land: a middle degree will fuit * Marthall’s Rural Economy ef Yorkthire. I I Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Stocking Paftures. 957 all lands the beft, and afford the moft benefit to the perfons who occupy them*. By the too thin ftocking of paflures, though lofs may be fuflained in their not fup- porting the proper number of animals, as well as from the injury which is done by the grafs plants running fo niuch up to ftems, the broken srafs, in fuch cafes, can be mown when in fufficient proportion for hay; but the difadvantages of overftocking are{carcely capable of being repaired, as, befides the lands being often expofed to much injury by the crowns of the plants being fo clofely pared down, efpecially in the finer kinds of grafs, the cattle from fuffering a check in their feeding are long in regaining their former thriving difpofition-+. It has been well remarked, that al- moft the whole of the produce of pafture lands may in this way be often thrown away, and that it is an error that young farmers are extremely liable to fall intoy. The medium degree of ftocking, which has been advifed above, is in general to be carefully adopted from the experience obtained upon the land. In the pro- curing of which it is beft to begin by an under proportion of ftock§. It is the opinion of a writer of great experience, that the more various the kinds of cattle are that are fed upon the paftures at different times the better]. But it bas not been fhown on what principle this advantage depends. If the different modes of feeding in the different animals be attended to and minutely examined, it will be found that though fome forts may confume grafs when in a more luxuriant ftate of growth than others, they are all fondeft of pafturing on that which is the moft fweet and tender. This is rendered extremely obvious by the obfervations of an attentive inquirer, who has found, that although horfes“ appear partial to particular patches of fward, he has never been able to difcover any peculiarity in the foil or the herbage of fuch barely eaten fpots.” It is fuppofed that they have been fed down by fuch ani- mals at firft in fo clofe a manner merely by accident; but that afterwards they are kept in fuch a clofe ftate of feeding from“ their peculiar fweetnefs,” depending on the“ peculiar fhortnefs of the herbage.” It would, however, feem more probable, from the circumftance of the animals being almoft wholly directed by the tafte in the choice of their food, that the fweet or tender nature of the herbage in thefe parts firft induces them to feed upon and confume them in fo clofe a manner, as well as the continuing the clofe eating them down afterwards.‘The fame thing is obferved to happen in the vicinity of preferved covers, with hares and rabbits, from their * Kent’s Hints.+ Marfhall’s Rural Economy of Yorkfhire.+ Ibid. § Ibid.|| Kent’s Hints.@ Ibid, 958 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Stocking Paftures. keeping fpots of barley or other grain crops clofely fed down*. And theep are well known to ramble over the whole of the paftures in order to nibble and pick out the moft{weet and delicate morfels. The feeding of neat cattleis, perhaps, lefs particular and delicate in this refpe@; but where not forced by hunger they moftly appear to fix upon fuch parts of the land as poflefs the moft fweet and palatable herbage, rejecting the coarfer fpots where it is lefs tender and agreeable. Ifthe conclufion be therefore well founded, that ftock of all forts prefer the beft, fweeteft, and moft tender herbage, it is evident that no mixture of animals can in- fure the even and regular feeding down of paftures, as they will in fome degree beall attracted by the fweeteft and moft tender parts, and thofe of the more coarfefourkinds be in confequence almoft wholly rejected. An agricultor of great experience and nice obfervation has remarked, that in paftures ftock naturally pick the moft palatable graffes firft, leaving the others to run up to bents; and though it is admitted that one fort may have a preference for one fpecies of grafs and another for another, there is no mixing the animals in fuch a manner as to prevent this circumftance from taking place. It is wholly impracticable to proportion each kind of ftock in fuch a way to the fpecies of grafs that may be moft agreeable to it, as to prevent the fcarcity of one fort and the abundance of the other. Thefe are therefore not only difficulties in the regular feeding down of paftures, from the cattle being more fond of fome forts of herbage than others, but alfo from the inability of the grazier to proportion them in a way that may fully anfwer the purpofe. There obfervations, at the fame time that they fhow the difficulty of the bufinefs, convince us of the advantage and importance of keeping pafiure lands regularly and evenly fed down, which is perhaps only to be fully effected by one fort of ftock pro- perly fucceeding another, till the want of the finer forts of herbage obliges them to feed upon thofe that are of a more coarfe nature. In this, as well as other views, the fattening fiock fhould be firft turned into the lands and kept upon them fo long as they continue to improve in a proper manner; thefe may then be fucceeded by the older forts of cattle that require to be brought into condition, and the more young ftore flock may confume the remainder of the grafs, according to the in- tentions of the farmer. That great utility and advantage may be derived from often flifting the cattle by having recourfe to a head flock and proper followers, there can * Marfhall’s Rural Economy of York fhire. + Clofe in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. III. Cultivation of Grafse Land.—Stocking Paftures. 959 be little doubt. The few writers that have touched upon the fubject of grafs hufbandry have in general, indeed, recommended the practice as highly beneficial both in refpect to the pafiure and the ftock. And Mr. Marthall, in his Rural Economy of Yorkthire,.fpeaks of this being a defect in the grafs land management of that diftrit. The correct grafs farmer fhould, therefore, be more attentive to this part of his management than is commonly the cafe, taking care that the changes of his ftock are made in a feafonable and judicious manner. This is probably a practice from which greafer utility may be derived than that of permitting many different forts of ftock upon the ground at the fame time, as, be- fides their not anfwering tlie intention of feeding the paftures down with more re- gularity and even nefs, they are inconvenient and difadvantageous in other refpects. For where the paftures are fed down with a mixed ftock,the animals feldom thrive or fatten fo well as where the contrary is the cafe. They are too much driven about and difturbed by the different kinds teafing cach other, efpecially where horfes and neat cattle are put together. A mixed ftock is alfo improper in another point of view: many forts of animals feed clofer and more expeditioafly than others; of courfe, when there happens to be any fcarcity of feed, fome of the kinds may be greatly injured from the want of proper fupport. The horfe, like the fheep, feeds clofe and quick, while the contrary is the cafe with the cow: it would of courfe feem im- proper to mix horfes with neat cattle in the pafturing of grafs lands, though the practice has been prevalent in many places. It has indeed been obferved, that fheep and horfes may feed and thrive beft together, both from the fimilarity of their manner of eating, and that of the former confuming the rich luxuriant herbage which fprings in confequence of the manure dropped in the feafon, while the latter prefer the lefs vigorous but the more clean grafs*. Itis a practice, however, that has fometimes been found ufeful, to mix fheep with neat cattle. The notion of deriving advantage from the mixing of ftock, from the circumftances of fome forts having a greater diflike to feed near their own dung and lefs towards that of others, 1S probably not founded on juft obfervation, as all animals have a fixed averfion to both their own and that of other animals, and none of them will feed near either till compelled by the fcarcity of food. This averfion does not,. perhaps, depend wholly on the dung, but is in fome meafure avoided in confequence of the grafs becoming rank and coarfe about fuch places. As it isa matter of importance to keep paftures and grazing-grounds as even as poffible, a proportion of fiock fitted to produce this purpofe fhould always be put * Correéted Report of Perthfhires >$60- Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Stocking Pajtures. upon the lands.| On the rich and more fertile kinds, where the grafs fprings quick| hi and in greater abundance, more fiock will be neceflary to effect this purpofe than it where the contrary is the cafe. It has been found on the marfh lands in Lin- colnfhire, that where the moft grafs is left in the autumn the herbage is the coarfeft and the worft in the fucceeding year. In the extenfive feeding tract of Romney Marfh, the clofe feeding fyftem is alfo found to anfwer in the moft perfe& manner*. Thefe facts fhow the neceffity of hard ftocking on the richer bi defcriptions of land. In other parts of the firft of the above diftricts, on turning upon a full bite in the fpring, they ftock in fuch a manner as to prevent the grafs/ | from becoming coarfe by running up toftem, The neceflity of fweeping over the\ a i i rough tufty parts by the fcythe is thus avoided, except in very wet feafonst. i | It isa practical remark ef a cautious obferver, on deferibing a field not fufficiently ftocked, that, on the marfh juft mentioned, the grazing farmers would be ruined if they fuffered fo much grafs on their landst. And it feems to bea bad practice to a| allow the grafs in paftures to advance to fuch a fiate as to require being fwept over| H by the feythe, though it may be right to do it under fuch circumftances, in order|) to prevent the greater injury that might otherwife be produced. It appears extremely probable, indeed, that by permitting the grafs plants to run lh up to feed-fiems, the paftures may fuftain vaft injury, not only by the exhauftion of i | the foil that takes place during the efforts of the plants to form and fiil the feeds, | but in confequence-of their whole vegetative powers being dire¢ted to that purpofe, i || from their fending forth few or no leaves, This is extremely evident in all‘the |. coarfer forts of grafs plants, and fully explains the utility of keeping them clofely ij fed down, as by fuch means a more abundant grafly herbage is provided for the fupport of fiock. There are various obfervations that feem to fupport this opinion. 75 Thus, it has been recommended to ftock pafture lands in fuch a manner as will oh| keep the grafs in a young fucculent fiate; as in this way there is a benefit, by the whole of the produce being confumed, and at the fame time the flems of the grafs plants are prevented from feeding, which exhaufts the roots and the lands: the foil is of courfe preferved in a better ftate of fertility, more fhoots are thrown out, the fward is rendered more clofe, and a more conftant verdure kept up.* i “« The true principle of grazing,” in the opinion of the fame writer,‘ is to eat all,® 1 and particularly at thofe feafons when vegetation is rapid, that it may not weaken, i} * Mr. Young in Lincolnfhire Report.+ Boys in Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XIX. t Ibid.§ Price in Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXI. | } ¥ aa SL‘iid Cultivation of Grafs- Land.—Stocking Paftures. 961 the*turf and foil, but, by keeping the grafs in a young ftate, have the fhoots more vigorous.” As for the purpofe of feeding the larger forts of neat cattle, it is neceflary for the grafs to have grown to a pretty full bite before they are turned in, and of courfe nu- merous feed-ftems to be formed; it feems not improbable, but that the fuperior benefit of feeding with fheep may depend upon the circumfiance of their eating » nlars o piace. os more clofely, and thereby preventing fuch effects from_takin In the fiocking of pafture grounds the growth of the grafs{hould be particularly attended to, and the proportion of flock adapted to it; care being always taken to have a‘full proportion during the fummer months, from May to Auguft; a proper referve being then made for the winter feafon*. In this bufinefS the farmer fhould be as careful as poffible to neither over or under fiock, as by either means he muft faftain lofs and inconvenience. There is another point, in refpect to the eating down of pafture lands, upon which farmers differ very greatly in their opinions, each contending for the propriety of their practice on the ground of experience: this is that of giving the cattle, of whatever fort they may be, the whole range of the lands, however ex- tenfive, at once, or by having them divided fo as to let them have the grafs at different times in a frefh unbroken ftate. The queftion does not appear to have been examined in that view, or with that degree of attention which is fufficient to fully decide the matter; and there are obvioufly various circumftances, fuch as thofe of the inequality of grounds and ftocks, which muft continually operate againft its being determined by the teft of experiment.. It fhould probably be divefted of thofe ad- vantages that may arife from the circumftance of inclofure, as drainage, fhelter, water,&c. in order to be* fairly afcertained, and be merely confidered as to whe- ther there may not be more economy or lefs wafte in the confumption of the grafs in one way than in the other? and whether it may not go further in feeding or fattening the ftock in one method than in the other? As the animals will not, of courfe, remain upon the fame fpot, the difference in refpect to the difadvantage that may arife from the trampling down and{poiling the grafs in that way, muft be pretty equal in both methods of proceeding. In the firft mode there will, however, be more difficulty in proportioning the ftock to the confumption of the herbage, as well as more trouble and inconvenience in tending it; which are circumftances of importance. In what regards the grafs being eaten with greater frefhnefs in * Price in Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXI. 66 962 Cultivation of Grofs-Land=Stocking Paftures. one cafe than the other, it is obvious that the confuming the herbage ina divided fiate muft have what little fuperiority there may be, as each time the cattle are let into anew piece of grafs it will be perfectly frefh; which in the contrary cafe can only be fo at the firft putting the animalsin, as they moftly trample over the whole before they fettle to feed quietly om any particular part. But there are other points of more confequence that feem to favour the feeding pafture lands in a divided itate; fuch as thofe of the cattle not grazing fo quietly in large herds as in fuch as are fmaller; and where any difturbance happens, cither from accident or neceflity, the whole being difturbed inftead of only a part. Befides, it is found, as has been fhown above, that all forts of ftock, when duly proportioned to their paftures, thrive better in fmall than large numbers together, being lefs liable to teafe and difturb each other. The experience of a writer, who has examined grafs hufbandry with much minutenefs and attention in different diftri€ts, would feem alfo, in fome meafure, to favour the fame conclufion, while it fhows the benefit of one fort of ftock fol- lowing another, as he advifes that‘ in all cafes where fattening cattle or dairy cows conftitute a part of the ftock; and where foil, fituation, and water will ad- mit, every range of grazing lands fhould have three divifions: one for the head fiock, as the cows and fattening animals; another for followers, fuch as the rearing or other Jean fiock; and a third for being preferved in order to frefhen for the re-_ ception of the principal ftock*.” And he is decidedly of opinion,“ that whether the ground may confift of one, two, or a greater number of divifions, not a weed fhould be fuffered to feed, or a tuft of ftale grafs to ftand on it; but once, at leatt, in the fummer feafon be levelled down by the fcythe, as by fuch means weeds may be converted into nourifhment,“ and wafte ground into after-grafs.” The practice of clofe feeding, as recommended above, may, in many cafes, render this unneceflary, and at the fame time afford a fuperior advantage to the farmer. The proportions of ftock of different forts that can be properly fupported on any given fpace of pafture ground muft vary confiderably, according to the natural good- nefs of the foil, the properties of the grafs, and the differences in the fizes of the animals. There is likewife another circumftance which fhould be attended to, which is the length of time the land has been in the ftate of{ward, as new lays are feldom capable of carrying fo much ftock on the acre as thofe of the older kinds, It is alfo a point that ought to be attended to, that thefe lays fhould be ftocked as _* Marfhall’s Rural Economy of Yorkfhire, Vol. Ie Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Drinking-Ponds. 963 imuch as poffibie with fheep. To give any ftatement of the number of animals’ that may be grazed on the acre would not only be ufelefs, but be liable to lead the young farmer into error, as it muft differ fo greatly in the manner that has been jutt noticed. Befides, the porportion of different forts of ftock that is put upon the grazing lands, in different diftri¢ts, will be feen when we come to fpeak of the manner of feeding or fattening animals at grafs. Lands employed for the purpofe of pafture are frequently occupied by ftock during the autumn and winter, as well as the{pring and fummer months: it is, however, only thofe of the very dry kinds that can be turned upon in the winter feafon, efpecially by heavy cattle; and it is probably, in all cafes, a much better practice to confine that fort of ftock wholly to the fold-yards at fuch feafons, as by fuffering them to be turned upon the paftures there muft be a great lefs in the wafte of manure. It has been found an advantagecus practice by fome to fhut up their paftures late in the autumn, according to the flate of the grafs and other circumftances, eating them down as clofe and evenly as poffible previous to the ftock being removed, and keeping them perfectly free till they are wanted for ewes and lambs in the early part of the year, or for cattle at a later period, as when the firft thoots appear in the fpring, which from being intermixed with thofe of the autumn, are fuppofed to afford more nourifhment for the fupport of the ftock than when either of them are seaten feparately*. In fields that are paftured by cattle, care fhould be taken that all fuch plants as are hurtful to ftock be completely eradicated, as much injury is often done by them to the cattle as well as the produéts which they afford. The plants moft prejudi- cial in this way are thofe of the hemlock, henbane, nightfhade and yew kinds, It has been obferved, that while the grafs is plentiful there is not much danger of their feeding upon fuch plants; but when it becomes fearce, and they are confined, it is likely to take place, efpecially in the{pring feafon+. Drinking-P onds.— There is another circumftance in refpect to pafture lands, that it is indifpenfably neceflary to attend to, whieh is that of their being well fupplied with water, as without having this in fome degree at command, it isimpoffible that the flock can thrive well, or anfwer in the mott perfect manner in other views. Where they are not therefore fupplied by brooks or ftreams running through them, it will be neceffary to have recourfe to the forming of ponds, or pools, for the purpofe inthe fields. In fitua- tions where the natural{tratumof clay is of confiderable thicknefs, there is little diffi- * Marthall’sRural Economy of Midland‘Counties, Vol, I.+ Perth Corrected Report. 6¢2 964 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Drinking-Ponds, culty in the conftru@ing of watering ponds fo as to be perfecily retentive; but im loofe porous foils the bafinefs is not executed without confiderable art and attention, Even in clayey lands, except the ponds be kept confiantly filled with water they are liable to become leaky. This has been fuppofed to depend upon the cracking of the clay by drought, and the perforations of worms, the bafons being converted by fuch means into a fort of filters*. Thefe inconveniences are of courfe to be euarded againft in their conftruction; which are partly effected by the pr i guar again onftruction; which are partly effected by the proper appli- cation and puddling of the clay as the work proceeds, and the ufe of a coat of lime below it. It is of great advantage alfo, in preventing the clayey firatum from being injured by drought and the poaching of cattle, to have coverings of earth, coarfe gravel, or fmall ftones laid over the clay.‘The fides or parts of the ponds which are to admit the cattle to drink thauld be well floped down, fo as that they may enter with eafe and the leaft poflible injury to the bottoms of the pounds. In refpect to their fituation, it is the moft ufual to make them at the bottoms of flopes or rifing grounds; where after heavy rains a flight run of water may be conveyed into them, from fome road, or other firm furface; many are, however, placed without any fuch affiftance for filling, or with very iittle, it being found that the rain that falls upon their furfaces is in general fufficient for a fupply, after they have been once filled: but in many cafes, as the expenfe is con- fiderable, it would feem more advantageous to have them formed in the angles or corners, where two or three fields meet, as by this means one pond inay ferve the whole, and at the fame time but little fpace of ground be taken up or wafted.— It has been fuggefted as highly ufeful in the forming of thefe drinking. ponds, to have a wafte-water place on the upper fide of the main refervoirs, to prevent their being ufelefsly /i/ted up when full by the muddy water continuing to run into them; as by its changing from arunning to a ftagnant ftate a confiderable depofit takes place, which might thus be avoided f. Much mud would alfo be collefted in this way, in many cafes, and be removed with little trouble; which renders them of great utility in procuring manure. It has been obferved that“ the beft feafon for making thefe ponds is thought to be in autumn, as they are then likely to be filled the fooneft, and the leaft liable to crack before they are filled. Should the weather prove dry at the time they are finifhed, it is well to cover their furfaces with ftraw, or litter, to hinder them from “ cracking.” And“as it is defirable to get them filled as foon as poflible after they * Marthall’s Rural Economy of York hire. + Correéted Report of the North Riding of Yorkshire. t Ibid. Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Drinking-Ponds. 965 are finifhed, fnow is frequently colle€ted and heaped upon them, lacie Mible, in larg quantities, the firft winter after they are finithed, for that purpofe* 5 The form of ponds for this ufe is in general that of a(hallow bafon, the* fides fhelving in a gradual manner from the brim to the centre. But other forms may be adopted according to circumftances. In the firft’ mode, where the excavation is fixty feet in diameter, the gr ate(t depth is about feven; but when only forty feet in diameter, the depth is moftly about five, before any of the coats are applied. There would feem, however, to be an advantage in having fuch ponds of greater depths and lefs diameters, as it is well afcertained that the quicknels of evaporation is in a great meafure in proportion to the extent of furface that is expofed to the influeace of the atmofphere: of courfe fach ponds as have great diameters with little depths, muft become dry in hot feafons much more quickly than where the contrary is the cafe. In fetting out ponds of this fort, the ufe of the level will be neceflary; ftakes being driven down asa guide towork by in forming the banks, andin making the con- ducting channels and wafte- water pools. The materials raifed from the excavations muft be taken away. or applied according to.the circumftances and fituations of the land; but wherever the forts of loofe materials are employed, great care fhould be taken to have them well wrought together, in order to give them due folidity. The expenfe of forming ponds of this kind muft vary greatly according to the fituation, fH nature of the foil, and various other caufes. They are“ ufually made by men. who go about for the purpofe, and are chiefly, or entirely, engaged in it, and who ufually contract for the job. One of the diameter of fixty feet and depth of fix feet mayin moft fitu ations beexecuted for about 151.;”and“ one of forty-five feet by five feet, forro or 12l.; but fome allowance mutt be made for the different prices of lime, and the diftance it may be neceffary to convey it, as well as the clay, or the other materials for the w fo) k. A. pond of fixty feet diameter by fix feet deep, will contain upwards of 700 hogfheads of water: one of forty-five feet by five feet, near i> y 5’ LP) 400 hogfheads—a valk fupply, when obtained at fo fmall an expenfe. Mr. Marfhall in his Rural Economy of Yorkfhire, where the fubje& is fully confidered, bas calculated the expe nfe oflcaelet fquare bard of coated furface to coft from fixpence to fevenpence ha alfpenny; which at‘orefint would probably cofi ninepence or tenpence bce % Corrected Report of the North Riding of Yorkthire.+ Ibid. + It is remarked in the Agricultural Survey of the North Riding of Yorkthire, that the improved Ge iice of confiruéting ponds of this fort is capable of fucceeding in almoft any fituation in any diftrict I 966 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Drinking-Ponds. In fpeaking of farms on the Mendip hills, Mr. Billingfley, in the Agricultural Report of Somerfetfhire, mentions a method of confiructing drinking-pools for The following, which is chiefly drawn from_Mr. Marfhall’s Rural Economy of Yorkshire, is the method recommended for executing the bufinefs. “‘ Let a circle be marked on the ground fixty feet in diameter, more or lefs as the perfon choofes, or the fize of the pafture may require a fupply of water; and if of that diameter, let it be hollowed out in the fhape of a bafon, or bowl, to the depth of feven feet in the centre. When the furface of this hollow has been raked fmooth, let it be well beaten over fo as to reduce it into as even, uniform, and firm a furface as the nature of the ground will admit of; on this, well fallen, fkreened lime mutt be uniformly fpread with a riddle, to the thicknefs of two or three inches; the more porous or open the ground, the greater will be the quantity of lime required: this lime muft then be flightly watered, to make it adhere firmly to its place, and great care muft be taken to fpread it equally, fo that no place remains uncovered, as on the lime depends, more than any thing elfe, the fuccefs of the work. On this lime muft be laid a bed of clay, to the thickness of about fix inches, which, being moiftened fufficiently to render it duétile, is to be beaten with mallets, or beetles, into a folid compaét body, capable of being trod upon without impretlion orinjury. Great care is to be taken in laying on uniformly this mafs of clay, and beating it into a compact body; for which purpofe not more muft be fpread at a time upon the lime than can undergo the beating while it retains a proper temper or confiftence for the purpofe: after the whole is hus finifhed, it is gone over feveral times by the beaters, and fprinkled each time with water, and care is taken to prevent any cracks being formed, which might entirely deftroy the power of retention.} “Pure brick-clay is not required; but any tenacious earth, that by beating will become of a folid eompact body, will anfwer the purpofe. As foon as this operation has been duly performed, the whole furface of the clay is covered, to about the thicknefs of a foot, with broken chalk, fine gravel, or the chippings of mouldering ftone, or limeftone, to prevent any injury being done by the treading of the cattle. It is neceflary to obferve, that coarfe ftones, or any ftones of a texture that will not unite into a folid body, muft not be made ufe of, as fuch are liable to be difplaced by the treading of the cattle, to be preffed into or through the bed of clay, or to be rolled down to the bottom of the pond; under all which cir- cumftances the beds of clay and lime are liable to be broken, and the water confequently let out of the pond. Sometimes the clay is covered with fods, the grafs fide being laid downwards, as a fupport to the gravel, by which fome faving of covering may be made; or feveral inches thick of common earth is laid upon them, or upon the clay without the fods, by way of bed for the covering, where gravel or fuch like materials may be fcarce; by which fomething may be alfo faved. “ After the clay has been well beaten, fome workmen water the furface of it, and fold theep or pigs for a confiderable time upon it; the treading of which is found to be ferviceable in rendering it more compact. “Some people, inftead of ufing flaked lime, have good mortar made of lime and fand well worked toge- ther, and cover the furface of the ground with it to the thicknefs of about an inch: this, if carefully done, is thought by many to be the moft effetual mode of rendering the bottom retentive; but the mortar is liable to crack before the clay gets bedded over it: which muft be carefully guarded againft. Pounds have been made where a coat of mortar has alfo been fpread over the furface of the clay as well as under it— an approach, perhaps, as near as poffible to perfetion—but wherc lime bears a high price, the expenf is thus confiderably augmented. 5 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Cow-Keeping, 967 cattle by means of mafon’s work, as on fuch elevated regions fprings are feldom to be met with. Such{kill is difplayed in the forming of them that they fcarcely ever let the water through or prove leaky*. In cattle drinking-ponds it is a circumftance of great importance to the health of the animals to have the water as pure and free from impregnations as poffible; but it is extremely difficult to provide it in fuch a ftate except where the water is in con- fiant motion: fomething might probably, however, be done, efpecially where wafte- water pools are provided, in rendering the water more pure, by having it, in its paf- fage to the large refervoirs, percolating through a fufficient body of coarfe fandy or gravelly materials fo confined as to prevent their being carried away. Cow-keeping.—This is a praétice from which much proft and advantage may be derived in particular fituations and circumftances, as where the land lies near large towns, and is highly fertile and produive in good herbage; and where in addition to this the farmer has the means of conveniently providing various other forts of food, either of the fucculent green or other kinds. But to undertake this fort of management under the contrary circumftances could only terminate in lofs and dif- appointment. “Experience, now of many years, and the univerfal ufe of thefe ponds in this country, whereyer wanted, have proved them when carefully made, fo effectually to retain water; to preferve it of fo gooda quality, when not fouled by the treading of cattle; and to be applicable to fo many fituations, that they cannot be too ftrongly recommended in all high fituations, where water.may be much wanted, or in all other fituations where the water may be of a bad quality: they are equally applicable to our dry wolds, downs, and heaths, which are without water, as to every fenny traét which has too much of ity but of a brackith or unwholefome quality.” * It is ftated that fuppofing the dimenfions to be forty feet in length, fixteen in width, and fix feet in depth in the middle, the expenfe may ftand thus: TESS “ Digging out the foundation*-.- s A 4 Be eae Mafcen’s labour=-=~: A a DO Gh oso Three hundred bufhels of lime- E- a 3 3 2 6 Ten loads of clay and carriage-=- a z%: FES. LS Hight loads of coal-afhes and carriage=-=—€ Ta Shao 18© o ‘¢ Some perfons, whoare cautious, go to a confiderable diftance for lime made from the white /yas ttone, which is certainly a ftronger cement under water than the lime burnt on thefe hills. In this cafe an additional expenfe is incurred. “¢ A pool of thefe dimenfions, if properly fituated, will fupply eighty or one hundred acres with a fuffi- ciency of water for the ftock throughout the year, and, if well made, may be kept in repair for fixpence a year.” meee r ® In moft cafes this will furnifh a fufficient quantity of ftone for the building. 968 Cylitvation of Grafs-Land.— Cow-Keeping. But, befides thefe, there are other circumflances to be regarded in the condudiing the buGnefs of a milk-dealer, fuch as thofe of providing cows that afford the largeft poffible quantity of milk in proportion to the food they confume.‘This is a point: that does not feem to have been much fubjected to experiment, though the pro- fits of the farmer muft ina great meafure depend upon it, as where fuch cows are employed as do not anfwer in this view, a daily lofs muft be fuftained. As this fort of farming is in moft cafes, as has been obferved, only capable of being carried on with advantage in fituations where the food is of the moftrich and fuitable kind, and capable of being provided in fufficient proportion to feed the animals in a plen- tiful manner, it would appear not improbable but that the large breeds may in general be the moft proper for the purpofe. But when attempted in other circumftances, where the food is neither fo good in quality nor able to be provided in fuch abundance, breeds of a fmaller defcription may be preferable, as it never can anfwer the far- mer’s purpofe in this, or probably any other view, to have the cattle difproportioned to the nature and quantity of his keep. The inclination or tendency to feed in animals for this ufe is likewife a circumfiance to be attended to by the cow- farmer, as where it is difcovered to prevail they fhould be rejected as improper; . it being found from experience that fuch cows as poflefs this property feldom or ever afford much milk. The difpofition of cows,has alfo fome influence in refpect to the quantity of milk which they may afford, as fuch as are mild and gentle in general milk much better than where the contrary is the cafe. The fort of cow moft adapted to the intentions of the milk-farmer muft of courfe vary, according to the nature of his fituation and the means which he poffeffes of providing food. Under the firft circumftances, the large fhort-horned, or Holdernefic breed, may commonly be the moft advantageous; bat in the latter, the long-horned, the Suffolk, Polled, and the Alderney breeds may be more profitable. There are likewife other breeds of the fmaller kinds that maybe found beneficial in thefe cafes*. It has, however, been fuggefted as not improbable, but that though the large breed juft men- tioned may at firft, while there isa full fupply of green or other juicy food, afforda very large quantity of milk, the fmaller forts continue to give a more regular quan- tity for a greater length of time f. Whatever the breed of cows may be that is employed by ive milk-farmer, he fhould conftantly choofe fuch as are wide in the horn, thin in the head and neck, dewlap not too pendulous, the carcafe deep and flattifh, wide(rather pointed) hips, buttocks round and flefhy, legs thin, with fhort joints, the udder capacious, not * See Dairying.*+ Anderfon’s Recreations in Agriculture.‘ Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Cow-Keeping. 969 flefhy, but extending well backwards, the milk-veins large and prominent, and the teats long and large. A tame and gentle difpofition is alfo, as has been fhown, a circumftance of importance. The beauty of form is therefore never to be attended to in providing cows for the fupply of the milk-dealer. It is chiefly the quantity of milk that is to be regarded; of courfe, all fuch cows asdo not afford a ful] fup- ply fhould be difpofed of as foon as poffible, as being very unprofitable in this fort of management. Cows moftly come into milk about the third year of their age, and are in full milk at the fifth, and they may be continued to the eighth or tenth, according to circumftances. But in the practice of cow-keeping, from the high manner in which the animals are kept, it is neceflary to change them much more frequently. With refpect to the exact length of time that they may be continued as milkers with the moft advantage, it does not feem to be well afcertained by experiment; but it is probable that it cannot be more than two, three, or four years at the moft, though much muft undoubtedly depend upon the conftitution of the animal. It is the beft, however, not to keep them too long, as the vigour of fecretion is much lefs in old than young animals; and befides, they become more liable to fwellings and indu- rations in the udders, as well as other difeafes*. The age of cows is readily known by their fhedding the tips of their horns at three years old, and the firft rings commencing at the bottoms of them at four7. The cow-keepers in the county of Middlefex almoft wholly employ the large Holdernefie breed, which are brought from a diftrict thus denominated in York- fhire, as well as others in the fame neighbourhood, where the moft perfect of this kind of cows are met witht. It is obferved that the dealers in this fort of cattle buy them of the breeders when they are three or four years old, and in calf, ex- pofing them to fale afterwards at the fairs and markets in the county, particularly near the metropolis, where there is a frefh fupply from the country weekly, by means of which the cow-keepers are enabled to keep up their feveral ftocks. Great numbers of cows are likewife bought in the above places in lots of ten or twenty, by private commiffion, and forwarded to the refpective cow-keepers in the above neighbourhood. The prices were formerly from ten to-fifteen guineas, but forthe laft two or three years have increafed to fixteen or eighteen, and are now advanced to twenty or more.’The cow-keepers breed very few cattle, and thofe only fromcows that * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XVI.+ Ibid. Vol. XXXII, + CorreGted Report of Middlefex. 6H 270 Cultivation of Grafs-Land,.— Cow-Keeping. give much milk, and with very little attention to the choice of the bull, When keep is plentiful, the befi feafon for purchafing thefe animals, in refpect to price, is the autumn, or the beginning of winter*. The length of time which cows go with calf is nine months. It is the prac= tice with fome to keep an account of the periods of their taking the bull; and where the ttock is extenfive this is of much advantage, as it not only enables the farmer to calculate with more certainty on his fupply of milk, but to have proper attention paid to them before as well as at the time of their calving; whichis of much benefit to the animals. There is a difference of opinion in regard to the diftance of time they fhould become dry before their calving, fome contending, that they may be milked almoft to the time of their dropping the calf without injury; while others maintain, that it is abfolutely neceflary that cows fhould be laid dry from one to two months, both for the advantage of themfelves and their calves. It is probable that much in this bufinefs muft depend on the manner in which they are kept; as where they are well fed they may be continued in milk till within a week or two of their calving, with- out fuffering any injury whatever from it; but in the contrary circumftances it may be better to let them run dry fora month, fix weeks, or more, according to their condition, in order to their more fully recruiting their ftrength. It appears; however, not improbable, but that the longer the milking is continued, the more free the cows will be from indurations and other affections of the udder; which is a circumftance deferving of attention. Where only one or two cows are kept for the fupply of a family, it is likewife ufeful to know, that by good feeding they may be continued in milk without any bad confequences till nearly the time of calving. We havctried this method feveral times, without perceiving the leaft poflible injury to arife from it. And in the Agricultural Survey of the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire it is ftated, that no advantage was found on trial to refult from allow- ing the cows“ to go dry two months before calving.” They have there been kept in milk till within ten days of the time of dropping the calf. Where cows are kept in any greatenumber, it is always an advantageous prac- tice to keep bulls along with them, as by fuch means they not only take them more readily, but are prevented from its being omitted through inattention; which is otherwife often the cafe. Befides, the great trouble, inconvenience, and lofs of time in driving them to a diftance, is avoided. From twenty to fiye-and-twenty * Corrected Report of Middlefex. Cultivation of Grafs-Land.=—Cow-Keeping. 97} or thirty cows are fufficient for one bull. They fhow their inclination for taking the male by riding upon the other cows. After three or four months, cows may be afcertained to be in calf by prefling upon the off flank with the hand, as where that is the cafe the calf is found to ftrike againft it. They are fhown to be near calving by their fpringing at the udder and the bear- ing; the former becoming more fully diftended with fluid, while the latter is larger and more fwelled out. Heifers, or young cows, are faid to fpring the fooneft at the bearing, and thofe of the older kinds at the udder. From accidents and other caufes, it fometimes happens that cows /Zip or /link their calves before they are fufficiently grown. Where this occurs, it is effen- tially neceflary to remove fuch cows immediately from the cow-yards, or from mix- ing with the other cattle, for a few days. But where cows are much fubject to fuch accidents it is the beft method to get quit of them as foon as poffible, as they will feldom turn out profitable. In two, three, or four days, according to circumftances, after the cows have calved, it is the practice of the London cow-keepers to fend the new-dropped calves to be fold, as they would not be faleable before. The cows are thus left in full milk from within a few days of the time of their calving. But in other fitua- tions that cannot always be the cafe, as the demand for fuckling-calves is lefs; they mutt therefore be often fuckled by the cow-keepers. Where it is not the practice to bind up the cows in houfes for the purpofe, ef- pecially during the winter feafon, which feems by much the beft method, warm well fheltered yards, with open theds, fhould be provided, in order to protect the animals, and prevent their being expofed to the weather, as by fuch means they will afford much larger fupplies of milk than where they are left in a ftate of expofure to wet and cold in open dirty yards, as is often the cafe. The bottoms of yards for this ufe fhould be well laid with fome fort of hard materials, and the dung be fre- quently fcraped off them, fo as to keepthem as dryand clean as poflible. They fhould alfo have plenty of good clean water to drink of at pleafure. If duc attention be not befiowed in thefe refpe&s, which is feldom done, it is impoffible that the ad- vantages that might otherwife be the cafe can be derived from them. In the feeding of the animals it has been obferved, that care fhould be taken to keep them conftantly in good condition, as where they are ever fuffered to be- come very lean, and that in the winter feafon, it is impoffible to fuppofe that they can be brought to afford a large quantity of milk, by getting them into perfect 6 HZ 972 Cultivation of Grafse Land.—Cow~Keeping, condition in the fummer months; as where cows are Ican at the period of calving, no management afierwards 1s ever capable of bringing them to afford for that fea- fon any thing near the proportion of milk that they would have done if they had been fupported in proper condition during the winter*. Food of the moft nou. rifhing and fucculent kinds fhould therefore be regularly given in fuitable propor- tions in the cold inclement months, and the animals be kept: warm, and well fupplied with pure water, in the way juft mentioned?. Some advife their being cleaned by combing and other means; but this is a practice, which though ufeful in making them yield their milk more freely[, can perhaps feldom be employed on an extenfive fcale. In this fort of bufinefs the cow-keepers find great advantage in keeping the animals conftantly fed with different kinds of fucculent food, fuch as brewer's grains in a frefh unfermented ftate, turnips, cabbages, green tares, freth cut grafs, and foft green rouen, or hay that has undergone little or no fermentation in the fiack.:——By this means much juicy matter is thrown into the fyfiem, and a continual varied ftimulus kept up, by which a large increafe of milk is produced. As the different articles thus employed muft have lefs effet in exciting the fecretory organs of the animals in proportion to the frequency of their ufe, the utility of varying their food as much as poffible is rendered fufficiently obvious. On the fame principle there are probably various other fubftances, as well as thefe, that might be made ufe of with great benefit; but too few experiments have yet been made with them, in this view, to lead to any ufeful conclufions. There is another circumftance, however, that deferves the attention of the milk-farmer, in the feed- ing of his cattle, which is that of the dry food being properly proportioned to that of the green or rich fucculent kind, as, where this is not well attended to, the cows, by being kept in too lax a flate of their bowels, from the great tendency which fuch materials have to run off in that way, may afford a much lefs quantity of milk than would otherwife be the cafe. We know from repeated experiment that con- fiderable lofs fometimes takes place in thismanner. In the foddering of the cows, regard fhould alfo be had to fupply them with the food in fuch a way as to excite the fecretions in as regular. a manner as poffible. In this view too much food fhould never be given at one time, but fupplied more frequently, as three or four times or oftener in the courfe of the day. This praétice will likewife have an advantageous effect in haying the fodder more cleanly eaten up. * Anderfon’s Recreations in Agriculture,&c. Vol. III.+ Ibid, it Corrected Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkshire. Cultivation of Grafs-Land,— Cow- Keeping. 973 The met! od of giving cows their food by the milk-farmersin the vicinity of the metropolis, where this bufinefs is carried on upon the moft extenfive fcale, is thus ftated in the valuable Agricultural Survey of that diftrict:“ During the night the cows are confined in ftalls; about three o’clock in the morning each has a balf-bufhel bafket of grains; when the milking is finifhed, a bufhel bafket of turnips is given to each cow; and very foon afterwards they have an allotment, in the proportion of one trufs to ten cows, of the moft grafly and foft meadow hay, which had been the moft early mown, and cured of the greeneft colour. Thefe feveral feedings are generally made before eight o’clock in the morning, at w hich time the cows are turned into the cow-yard. About twelve o’clock they are again confined to their ftalls, and ferved with the fame quantity as they had in the morning. When the afternoon milking, which continues till near three, is finifhed, the cows are again ferved with the fame quantity of turnips, and about an hour afterwards with the fame diftribution of hay as before defcribed.‘This mode of feeding generally con- tinues during the turnip feafon, which is from the month of September to the month of May. During the other months of the year they are fed with grains, cabbages, tares, and the foregoing proportion of rouen, or fecond cut meadow hay, and are continued to be fed with the fame regularity until they are turned ont to grafs, when they continue in the field all night; and even during this feafon they are frequently fed with grains;” which are kept fweet and eatable for a con- fiderable length of time, in the following manner: This is by depofiting them in vats, or pits, below the furface of the ground, treading them tightly down into them, and then covering them over with a layer of earth, fo as to prevent the air from coming in contact with them, and thereby producing fermentation. In this way they may be continued in a perfectly found ftate from the month of March till the fummer, when the brewing is difcontinued. They are alfo capable of being preferved when well trodden down into cafks or tubs, which have perforatiens in the bottoms for the purpofe of draining off the fuperabundant moifiure: thefe fhould be raifed to fome height from the ground by pieces of timber.[n country fituations it will {eldom be neceffary to preferve them in this way, as they will chiefly be wanted in the winter feafon. Near Leeds in Yorkthire, the milk-dealers in fome inftances feed their cows with cut grafs in the fummer feafon, and brewer's grains and oat{traw in the winter. And in the vicinity of Sheffield the“ moft experienced cow-keepers give five hun- dred weight of linfeed duft mixed with three hundred weight of bran per week to fix cows; others give a quarter of a peck of beans, with a peck of grains for one feed a 974 Cultivation of Gra/s-Land.——Cow- Keeping. for one:cow, three times a day*.” Thefe are probably too expenfive methods to be generally adopted; but as they are found to anfwer well, they may be em- ployed with advantage in particular fituations. It is remarked in the Agricultural Survey of Middlefex, that“ fome cow-keepers have tried falt mixed with the grains, more with a view to preferve the grains longer in a found ftate, than from any con- {ideration as to the health of their ftock, or theimprovement of the quality of the milk. It isacknowledged that the cows eat the grains fo mixed with great avidity; but the proprictors not getting an adequate return for their trouble and expenfe, it is not found that it is now much practifed.”” It has however been contended, that themixing of common falt with the food of cows not only improves the quality but increafes the quantity of the milk, and at the fame time is ferviceable to the health of the animals; but accurate experiments are wanting to fairly determine the queftion. The obfervations of Baron D’Alton on the management of thefe animals, go to prove by various accurate calculations, that a greater profit is capable of being derived from the keeping of them in the houfe than in the ufual method of allowing them to feed in the paftures. And the author of the Agricultural Survey of the Weft Riding of Yorkthire has remarked, that by keeping cows upon red clover and rye grafs, tied up in the houfe in the day-time during the fummer feafon, and putting them out after milking in the evening for the purpofe of air and water, one acre of clover has been found to go as far as two when paftured;_befides a larger quantity of milk afforded. The large portion of rich manure that is made in this way is fuppofed to compenfate any additional trouble or expenfe that may be incurred in cutting and conveying the food to the yards. In this method of keeping cows, as well as thofe with grains and other forts of fucculent food, it is conftantly neceflary, for the reafon that has been mentioned, to combine fome fort of dry meat, fuch as hay, ftraw, or other fimilar materials, with the grafles. In foils where lucern can be grown to advantage, it may be made ufe of with more benefit than the above; and by combining other forts of green juicy food with either of them, it feems not improbable but that a ftill greater profit may be produced. Of the fuperior advan- tage of keeping milch cows in this method there can be little doubt, when con- fidered in different points of view. In the milking of cows, more attention is probably neceffary than has hitherto been befiowed upon the fubject, in order to obtain the greateft poffible quantity of milk. On the phyfiological principle of the fecretions of animals * Corre&ed Agricultural Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkshire, Cultivation of Grafs- Land,— Cow-Keeping. 975 being increafed in proportion as the fecreted fluid is more frequently withdrawn, it has been recommended to have recourfe to more frequent milkings in order to augment the quantity of that fluid in cows. And there can be little doubt but that by accuftoming the fecretory organs to a more frequent fecretion, fuch a habit may be eftablithed in them as will afford a larger proportion of milk in a given time. But in order to effet this in the moft perfect manner, it will be neceflary to have the cows highly fed, and to obferve the greateft regularity and exactnefs in the periods of milking, and to be careful that every drop of milk is drawn away each time, as without due regard in thefe refpects the defired effect will not be produced. This is fully fhown to be the cafe by the few experiments that have been inftituted with the view of deciding the matter; as while the cows were confuming the more juicy fpring food, there appears to have been an increafe in the quantity of milk both by three and four milkings in the day; but in the autumn feafon there {eems to have been rather a decreafe under the fame circumftances*. Such trials, to.afford any fatisfactory conclufions, fhould have been continued for a much greater length of time, being varied confiderably in the times of milking, and nicely compared with the nature and quantity. of the food employed;. as it is only by afcertaining how much depends upon the fimple operation of taking away the milk, and how much upon the quality and proportion of food that is taken in, that the queftion can be fairly decided. It is not to be fuppofed that merely % Inorder to afcertain the advantages to be obtained in this way, the following experiments were made by Mr. Macro, and are ftated in the twelfth volume of the Annals of Agriculture: 1789. Pints. ¥789. Pints. May 21, Firftmeal---= 95 Otober 22, Firftmeal--+=- 11 Seconddo.-+==- 13 Seconddo.-=-- G 224 17 22, Firftmeal-=-= 13 03, Firftmeal---- I2 Second do.---- 8 Second do, Sewgia og Mhird' dos==)" v5 Mhirdsdo-g.cmat=(=.)= 23 26 17 23, Firftmeal=<==- 12 24, Firft meal-++= 10 Second do. Se ee 7 Seconddo.>--= i¢ Third do.===)<2= 6 Thirddo.-=== a2 Fourtthdo.++»+ 1 Fourthd.=--- 3 | Cultivation of Gra/s-Land.—Cow-Keeping.. increafing the number of milkings for‘a few days can have much influence in altering the flate of fecretion in the animals, Some in the intention of increafing the quantity of milk have recommended milk- ing, when the cows are fully fed in the fummer feafon, three times in the courfe of the day at equal diftances, as the convenience of the bufinefs will admit, as the moft proper:—Early in the morning, about the middle of the day, and in the evening before it istoo late. The exact proportion of increafe in the milk that may be pro- duced in this way over that of milking in the morning and evening only, which is the ufual mode, has not, that we know of, been afcertained with any degree of accuracy; but fome fuppofe that it may approach to nearly one-half of the whole, while others contend that it cannot be any thing near fo much*. If a third were gained, by fuch means, it would amply repay the cow-keeper for his additional trouble and expenfe. The method of milking adopted by the cow-farmers in moft cafes, is only to have their milking performed twice in the courfe of twenty-four hours. In fuch cafes the moft proper times would feem to be about feven o’clock in the morning and five in the afternoon; but in the neighbourhood of London and other large towns it is the practice to have this work performed from four to half paft fix in the morning, and from half paft one to three in the afternoon}. It is, therefore, pro- bable that more frequent milking in the bufinefs of cow-farming, efpecially when condu@ted upon any extenfive fcale, would not only be inconvenient but impra¢ti- cable. In fuch cafes all that can be done is, perhaps, that of having the operation executed with as much care as poffible, in refpect to the whole of the milk being taken away each time, and by perfons who are careful and: perfe@tly accuftomed to the work.“Where this is neglected, much lofs may be fuftained not only in the immediate produce of the milk, but in the cows becoming much more quickly dry, as well as their being more fubject to affeCtions of the udder. The beft advice is to have the bufinefs performed in an expeditious manner, in regard to the whole of the animals, and with the utmoft-attention in refpect to cleannefs. A fufficient number of perfons fhould of courfe be employed in proportion to that ofthe cows. An expert milker is capable of performing the operation on from fix to feven or eight cows in the courfe of an hour. The profit oradvantage of this method of farming muft vary.confiderably, in pro- * Anderfon’s Recreations,’&c. Vol. IIT.+ Correéted Agricultural Report of Middlefex. + Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXII. Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Cow-Keeping. 077 ‘bortion to the fituation, in refpect to the convenience of fale of the milk, and the facility of providing the animals with fuitable kinds of food*. It is a method that requires fewer fervants er attendants than moft others in proportion to the * It is obferved in the Agricultural Survey of Middlefex, that the quantity given by each cow, on an average, is nine quarts a day, equal to, per annum, 3285 quarts. The calf takes part of the milk for the firft two or three days, during which time it would not be faleable; and there is a falling off fora few days before the cow calves: thefe occafion a deduction of about eighty-five quarts, leaving the ‘annual faleable produce of each cow about 3200 quarts, which at the medium price of feventeen-pence for eight quarts ftand thus. Dr.—Expenfes of one Cow. Cr.—Produce of one Cow. To turnips, 14 bufhels per week, s. d. By milk on an aver. 9 qts. per day, or 3285 at 23d. perbufhel---- 2 11 quarts per year Grains, 7 ditto, at 23d. per ditto 1 74 Deduéing-------- 8% Hay, 1 trufs and 4-tenths, at rs, gd. quarts for lofs before and after PCIUMMS 6 3 han) i mame 2) 4 0 calving, Etceteras=~-=-=== 3— == 3200 TORS At 17d. for 8 quarts Li23..6 8 7s. per week, or peryear£.18 4© By a calf at two or three Balance=-=-= In, 6 6 days old, average Lj 29 10 0 29 I0© ——— a leaving a balance of eleven pounds fix fhillings for intereft of ftock, loffes in cattle, the hire or fupport of horfes and waggons, rent of buildings, attendance and profit. It is remarked that“ the confumers pay three-pence halfpenny per quart to theretailers. If the latter were to fell the milk pure and unadulterated at this price, it would yield them a profit of 641. 148. per cent. But, in order to difcover the actual profit of the retailers, we muft add fixpence for hort meafure and the extraneous articles mixed with it, which increafes 2s. 4d., the ufual price of eight quarts, to as. 1od.; and, as it cofts them only 1s. 5d., there remains for labour and profit 100 per cent.: thus the retailer clears 28]. 6s. 8d. by every cow. Near Liverpool, Mr. Harper found the average produce of cows, under an indu{trious manager, to be nine quarts of milk per day the year through; which is fold at 2d. per quart with the advautage of felling cream,-but which, from other milk being brought from the country, is reduced in milk and cream to 2d. per quart. The keep and produce therefore ftand thus:— Dr.—Expenfes of one Cow for a Year. Cr.— Produce of one Cow for a Year. bf Say iB i Ue seen, To average keep of a cow in grains,&c. By milk on an average of 9 quarts for one year, at 4s, 6d. per week~ 1% 14 0 per day—3285 quarts, at 2d. per To 160 ftone of hay, at 8d. per ftone 5.0.8 Quart ee ee ee eee 6 To grafs 16 weeks, at 3s.6d. per week 2 16 Balance="=+ ee= eee 7 10 10 978 Cultivation of Grafs- Land.—Suckling of Calves. extent of bufinefs; feldom more than four or five men being employed in the at- tendance of three hundred cows, The expenfe of milking is thrown upon the milk-dealer, who contraéts for the produce of a certain number of cows, If this was not the cafe, the expente to the cow-keeper would be very high, as one woman cannot milk more than eight or nine cows twice in the day. In country fituations this may, however, not always bé the cafe. The cow-houfes in Middlefex are moftly provided with milk-rooms, where the milk is meafured and ferved out by the cow-farmer*. It has been obferved,“ that of the feveral different ways of raifing a profit from milch cows, that of felling the milk, where circumftances will allow of its being carried on to a due extent, is by far the moft eligible. In the economy of making butter and cheefe, the trouble and expenfe are daily and per- petual, Several extraordinary domeftics muft be employed where the dairy is large; and no fmall allowance of fuel is neceffary, that boiling water may be ftill at hand, to fcald the pails and other utenfils employed on the occafion. In fuck- ling, alfo, the charges are much heavier than when the milk is fold out of the pail; for fucklers are continually wanted, which are often bought in at very ad- vanced prices, and fometimes thefe are mot to be procured at any rate juft when they may be required; fo that either the calves which are ready for the butcher muft be kept a week or two longer than would otherwife have been neceffary,(in which the farmer will rarely find his account), or, if thefe calves are fold off, there will be an overplus of milk, of which it will be found difficult to make any profit, fince it will not produce a quantity of cream fufficient to make any advantage by the butter. Now the milkman has none of thefe inconveniences to ftruggle with; and, whilft the cows continue to yield an ample produce, and this goes off at a guick fale, the whole of the bufinefs is performed with little trouble; and, what is an additional advantage, each cow yields a profit before her milk is fent to market by the fale of the young calf; whereas the fuckling-farmer, as was mentioned be- fore, is often under the neceffity of purchafing fuch young calves to keep up his ftock,—a balance greatly in favour of thofe perfons who make fale of their milk-¥.” Suckling of Calves.—This is another method in which the produce of the cow may in particular fituations be turned to great advantage. It is only, however, In the neighbourhood of Lecds, in Yorkfhire, independent of ftraw or other dry food, they find to maintain a cow for the winter months requires about four pounds worth of brewer's grains, and two pounds worth of grafs for the fummer months: fo that the annual expenfe in thefe kinds of food is fix pounds, and the produce of their cows about fix to eight quarts of milk per day. In other parts the expenfe of keeping is feven pounds per annum, and the produce yields about ten pounds. * Middlefex Report. t Synopfis of Hufbandry. Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Suckling of Calves. 979 in the neighbourhood, or within a certain diftance, as twenty or thirty miles, of large towns, where the demand for veal is conftantly great, that the pratice can be attempted with fuccefs. In other circumftances it is by no means applicable, or to be depended upon by the farmer. Where the paftures are rich, and fituated near the fuckling-houfes, it may be more advantageous than in other cafes*. In this bufi- nefs, as well as that of cow-keeping, the animals fhould be well fuited to the nature and fupply of food that can be confiantly commanded. And as in the fat- tening of calves much depends both on the quality and quantity of the milk, thofe cows fhould be chofen for the purpofe which, while they afford fuch milk as poffefies rich and highly nutritious properties, may fupply it in a tolerably large proportion. On thefe accounts the large Holdernefie breed of cows may often be lefs proper for the calf-fackling farmer than thofe of other breeds that do not afford milk in quite fo large a proportion, but of fuperior quality. Where the pafturage, however, is good, and the command of other forts of food eafy at all feafons of the year, the larger breeds may be employed in this way with great profit. It has been advifed by fome, as the beft method of obtaining a fuitable breed of cows for the fuckling bufinefs, to wean every year a proper number of calves from the beft cows, which from their being raifed where they are to be afterwards kept, and at acheap rate, muft be more advantageous than purchafing them from diftant diftricts-/. But whatever the breed of cows may be that are kept for this ufe, they fhould be conftantly well fed either by grazing in the paftures or by being foddered in the ftalls. It is moftly the praCtice to feed them in the autumn, the winter, and {pring months, while tied up, with brewer’s grains, turnips, cabbages, carrots, and yarious forts of green food that are made ufe of for foiling cattle; to which a fuitable proportion of well made green rowen or meadow hay is added; and a fall fupply of pure water twice a day at leaft. It is eflential in this praCtice, that the fuckling-houfe be fpacious and airy, having a range of ties or faftenings on one fide for the purpofe of confining the cows, and-on the other a fet of cribs or pens for containing the calves.‘Thefe fhould be {o contrived, as, while they keep the calves as dry andclean as poffible, they exclude them from the influence of the light. Some advife,in the firft view, raifed moveable floors formed of narrow laths or fpars, nailed upon joifts, at the diftance of about an inch from each other, as by this means the moifiure and na(tinefs are not only immediately drained off, but a confiderable degree of venti- * Synopfis of Halepey:| Ibid. 12 980 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Suckling of Calvese. lation effeQed*. This method is probably, however, more neceflary for calves in: the{tate of rearing than thofe that are fattening for the-butcher: In thefe cafes it is moftly the cuftom to have only common floors. The pens or divifions fhould never be too large; asin this bufinefs the more quiet, and the lefs the calves move about, the better they fatten. And it is of the utmoft confequence to have them: kept perfe@ly clean, and free from every fort of difagreeable fell, as without attention in this refpect the bufinefs never goes on well: This is beft effe&ted by frequent fweeping and cleaning them out, and having recourfe to frefh clean wheat ftraw for littering them with every day.. Ht is alfo a good practice to have collars made of leather to pafs round: the necks of the calves and buckle, as by this means they may be conveniently tied in the pens when neceffary, and likewife be confined in their proper places while fuckling, by faftening the lines that are fixed in the-ceilings of the houfes, for the purpofe, to thems. Thefe contrivances not only fave much labour, but prevent that confufion which would otherwife be the cafe. In this management one perfon is fufficient to the taking care of fifteen or twenty cows. Some, however, think it better not to tie them imthe penst. ‘here are two methods purfucd in the fattening of calves; one is by allowing them to fuck the cows, and the other to give them the milk after it has been. drawn from the animals... The firft is obvioufly the moft advifeable practice, and that which is the moft commonly followed: In: this mode the calves are in general only admitted to fuck twice in the day; but it would probably be more: advantageous to let it be done three times, at as-equal diflances. as poffible from cach other, as in this way the calves would be lefs liable to have their ftomachs. overloaded, and of courfe be lefs expofed to danger from fcouring; and confequently fatten fafter.. In the latter method the milk is given them-warm from the cow in the morning and evening, being gradually increafed as the calves increafe in ftrength. and fize.‘This practice is more troublefome, and has only the advantage of keep- ing the cows more quiet. The length of time which is neceffary for perfecting the bufinefS of fattening muft vary according to circumfances; but in moit cafes it is from fix, or feven, to eight or nine weeks. Where this is not a regular bufinefs, the fattening is however enerally difpatched in a much fhorter time. It has been fuggefted, that“as it is neceffary that the calves. fhould always lie quiet, in order that they may indulge in fleep at thofe times when they are not employed in fucking, the cow-houfe fhould be fituated in the moft retired part 8 # Seétion on Farm Buildings.+ Annals of Agriculture, Vol. KXXII.} Synopfis of Hufbandry, Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Rearing of Calves. 981 of the yard, and the pens fhould be kept as dark as poffible. But notwith- ftanding this caution, the calves fhould by no means be fuffered to lie too hot in the f{ammer time; which would be apt to induce a ficknefs amongft them. To admit, therefore, an occafional draught of freth air, let a window be cut in each pen, with fhutters adapted to the fame, and Ict thefe windows be opened whenever the clofenefs of the atmofphere indicates it to be neceflary. In the fummer feafon they fhould rarely if ever be clofely fhut; and when it is required, the ftream of air may be increafed by opening the cow-houfe door at the oppofite end of the building.’ And it is added, that«as the calves are brought forth they are to be taken into the pens, and fuckled on their own dams, which at firft will yield a far greater ag of milk than is neceffary for their offspring, fo that another calf may be fuckled thereon; or the cow may be milked, and the cream be referved for butter, or applied to any other ufe that the owner may think te As the calf increafes in shes it will require a larger quantity of milk: but whilfi they are young, one good cow will yield a full fupply for two calves; and te the whole produce is wadiiaried for one calf, another new milch cow fhould be provided, and thefe two cows will abundantly fupply three calves with milk till the olde is fit for the butcher; after which, if neceffary, a frefh fuckler may be bought in, and the bufinefs be carried on progre fively by keeping the houfe con- ftantly fupplied with calves,{o that the whole milk may be fucked*.” As the bu- fincfs of ealf-fackling and dairying can feldom or ever be carried on to advantage together, it is always the beft method to prov vide fucklers whenever they-are wanted. In mot fituations, within the diftances that have been fpecified, the fuckling- farmers fupply themfelves with fucklers from the London markets, as being the moft convenient places to apply for them, fo as to be ona certainty, as thefe are “ the general receptacles where the milk-men ven id their calves; and which having been bred from the larger forts of cows generally turn out to good account for the fuckler; fuch large-boned calves, when fattened, arifing to a weight much more confiderable than the ordinary produce of the country dairy-men: and as to the fuperior quantity of milk required in fattening the larger breed of calves, this is amply recompenfed by the great increafe of weight.” As young calves when permitted to fuck their fill are often feized with a loofencfs er fcouring; in order to prevent this, for the firft fortnight or three weeks it is neceflary to ftint them in their allowance; but at the fame time due reg ai fhoul had that they do not pine or decreafe 1 in fle(th for want of milk. After this ave they thould be allowed to fuck as long as they choofe, and every means cug! it to be made * Synopfis of Hofbandry. 982 Cultivation of Grafs Land.—Suckling of Calves. ufe of to increafe their appetites, and render them more eager after their food. Chalk may be made ufe of for this purpofe, as well as for correcting the fuperabundant acidity in the ftomach, and leffening the tendency to feour. The idea of its giving to the flefh a delicate whitenefs is probably not well founded. Salt fprinkled in the troughs likewife aéts as a ftimulus to the appetite: befides thefe, it is a common practice with fome to give their calves balls compofed of flour, pounded chalk, and milk, with the addition of a fmall quantity of common gin, and fometimes a little tin@ure of opium. Of thefe balls they give two, about the fize of a walnut, once a day, or oftener, to each calf. Such balls, being very nutritious, in fome degree fupply the place of milk, and at the fame time, from the great ftimulus which they afford to the young animals, difpofe them to fleep, and thereby increafe their difpofition to fatten: but where milk can be had in fufficient abundance, it is never worth while to have recourfe to thefe aids. When the demands of the calves, however, are beyond the powers of the cows, thefe balls come feafonably to their relief. Occafional bleed- ings have alfo been advifed, to prevent loathing the food and difeafes from plethora*, In order that the calves may be provided with fufficient ftore of milk, the paftures fhould be changed whenever the cows are found to be deficient in this particular; and in the winter time they fhould be well fed in the manner dire&ted above. In this fyftem of management it is conftantly neceflary to be buying in calves at a'week or ten days old, or as'they can be procured. The prices vary, according to the goodnefs and the time of year at which they are bought. In general fucklers fetch the largeft price in fummer, when veal fells the cheapeft; and the reafon is, the fmaller number to be met with at that time than in the fpring. A good fuckler can feldom be bought for lefs than 20s. and is often fold for 25s. or 30s. They are kept till they fetch from four or five to feven or eight poundst. The bufinefs of fuckling was formerly reckoned to turn out to good advantage, when each calf throughout its fattening brought a profit to the farmer of threc fhillings a week; but at prefent the profit on fuckling is much greater. The calyes that are fuckled by their own mothers are in general found“ to fatten in a fhorter time than thofe which are afterwards bought in to fupply their places: the reafon of which is, probably, their not having been removed from the place where they were firft dropped, and having always continued to fuck the milk moft natural to them; which muft be fuppofed more nutritious, and to agree better with them, than that of any other cow. Befides, from the cows having lately calved, the milk nourifhes and fattens in a higher degree than when they become ftale milched. Cow calves are obferved to fatten more kindly than the male or bull calves; and + Synopfis of Hufbandry. * Farmer's Magazine, Vol. III. Cultivation of Grafs Land.—Rearing of Calves. 983 thefe laft are much more coarfe grained, and their fleth lefs delicate in tafie, than the former*.” In fome diftridts, barley-meal, and linfeed boiled into a kind of jelly, and fuch-like materials, are fometimes given to calves in the courfe of fattening; but the above methods are greatly fuperior, though they may be more expenfive. It is found by experience that the veal of calves when killed at fix weeks or two months old is feldom of fo good a colour, or does the fleth of fuch young calves tafte fo well, as where the animal is fuffered to live a few weeks longer.“ To attain both thefe ends of colour and flavour, it is fappofed neceflary that the calves fhould be maintained with plenty of milk, and regulated under fuch management as before directed, till they arrive to the age of eight or ten weeks, according to the feafon of the year, the more or Iefs kindly{tate of the calf, the particular demand of the markets, or other circumftances. In the fummer feafon it may be proper to difpofe of them at an earlier period than in the winter; not only on account of their growing away with greater celerity in warm weather, but likewife becaufe of the increafed demand for fmall veal, which is then moft faleable. During the laft three or four weeks, blood fhould frequently be drawn from the calf, which, it is fuppofed, will be a likely means towards rendering the veal of a colour delicately white; a circumftance fo much attended to by the butcher, that he will commonly: depreciate fuch calves as from the appearance of their eyes are likely to die black, as they term it, though in other refpects not to be defpifed+.” It is probable, however, that the colour of the veal depends upon the breed, and is incapable of being altered in this way. Mr. Marthall is decidedly of opinion“ that to fuckle calves in general after they are ten weeks old is bad management;” as from the whole of his accounts,“ thofe of nine or ten have paid as much a week as thofe of twelve or thirteen; and although a calf of fix weeks old may fuck nearly as much milk as a calf of twelve weeks old, yet the firft month or five weeks the quantity is confiderably lefs, and this advantage of their infancy is doubly as valuable to nine as it is to twelve weeks.” The advantage of this practice is very confiderable when conducted upon a large fcale. Near the metropolis the grofs produét of a cow in this way was, before the Jate advances in the price of butcher’s meat, eftimated to rife on the average to feven or eight pounds in thofe of the moderate kind, and in very good ones to nine pounds,‘The profit at prefent fiands much higher..; Rearing of Calves.—This is a practice that every farmer who is defirous of having a good cow ftock fhould be careful in attending to, by feleéting the beft cow calves from fuch cows as are the moft quiet, give the richeft milk, are the moft * Synopfis of Hutbandry.+ Ibid. 984 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Rearing of Calves. hardy, and moft adapted to the comparative goodnefs of the farm,—and rearing them with every poffible attention. There are different modes of conducting this bufinefs: but the moft natural and convenient, as well as that which is moft advan- tageous to the animals, is permitting them to fuck for a fufficient length of time to get into perfect order before they are put to other food, as in this way they become much ftronger, and more difpofed to thrive, than where brought up from the firft by the hand; and, befides, the trouble is infinitely lefs. The proper method would therefore feem to be, that of letting the calves be fuckled twice or oftener a day for fome length of time before they are weaned. But this is a practice that is not by'any means general, different diftris having particular methods, which they confider as the beft. In Yorkfhire the ufual method is, for the firft two or three weeks, for them te get milk warm from the-cow; but for the next two or three weeks half the new milk is withdrawn, and fkimmed milk fubftituted in its ftead; and at the end of that period the new milk is wholly withdrawn; they are then fed on tkimmed milk alone, or fometimcs mixed with water, till they are able to fupport them- {elves by cating grafs or other food of that fort. They are very feldom allowed to fuck. But in Chefhire the practice is to allow the calves to fuck for the firft three weeks. They are then fed on warm green whey, or{calded whey and butter-milk mixed: with the green whey water is frequently mixed, and either oatmeal or wheat and bean flour added. A quart of meal or flour is thought fuf- ficient to mix with forty or fifty quarts of liquid. Oatmeal gruel and butter-milk, with an addition of fkimmed milk, are alfo ufed for the fame purpofe. Some one of thefe prepared kinds of food is given night and morning for a few wecks after the calves are put on that dict, but afterwards only once a day, till they are three months old or more. Calyes in Gloucefierfhire are not allowed to fuck above two or three days; they are then fed on fkimmed milk, which is previoufly heated over the fire. When they arrive at fuch an age as to be able to eat a little, they are allowed fplit beans or oats and cut hay, and water is mixed with the milk. And the Suffex method is ftill materially different from any of thefe. Itis common there to allow the calves either to fuck for ten or twelve weeks, or to wean them: at the end of three or four, and to give them a liberal allowance of fkimmed milk for fix or eight weeks longer. It is the cuflomin Suffolk to let the calves fuck fix or feven weeks, and then to give them coarfe pollard and oats with fkimmed milk and water, Ictting them have fome nice green hay conftantly till they are turned to grafs. Carrots might likewife be ufed with advantage as a fubftitute for the oats. In 3 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Rearing of Calves. 985 Norfolk, with early calves, the method is for them to fuck twice a day for a fortnight then to have the pail twice a day for an equal length of time, afterwards once a day for a month or fix weeks longer; cut hay, turnips, and fometimes other materials being put in the racks and mangers.‘The latter is an excellent food where they take well to it, as they require but little water with them. With this combination of milk and turnips the calves are generally found to thrive extremely well. In Scotland they have two methods for rearing calves: the firft is by giving them a pailful, containing about a gallon, of milk warm from the teat of the cow, morningand evening, for eight or ten weeks; and the fecond is to allow the calf to fuck its dam. Where calves are reared with fkim-milk, it fhould be boiled, and fuffered to ftand until it cools to the temperature of that given by the cow, or a trifling degree more warm, and in that{tate be given to the calf. Milk is frequently given to calves when made warm only; but that method will not fucceed fo well as boiling it. If the milk be given over cold, itis apt to caufe the calf to /2it or purge. When this is the cafea little rennet may be put in the milk. If, on the contrary, the calfis bound, bacon or mutton broth isa very good and fafe thing to put into the milk. Froma gallon to a gallon and ahalfof milk per day will keep a calf well till it be thirteen weeks old. It may then be fupported without milk, by giving it hay anda little wheat-bran once a day, with about a pint of oats. The oats will be found of great fervice as foon as the calf is capable of eating them. The bran and oats fhould be given about mid-day: the milk in equal portions, at eight o’clock in the morning and four in the afternoon. But whatever hours are chofen to be fet apart for feeding the calf, it is beft to adhere to the particular times, as regularity is of more confequence than is commonly fuppofed. If calves go but an hour or two beyond their ufual time of feeding, they find themfelves uneafy, and pine for food. It is al- ways to be underftood, that calves reared in this manner are to be enticed to eat hay as early as poffible; and the beft way of doing this is to give them the fweeteft hay that can be procured, and but a little at a time. Turnips or potatoes are: very good food as foon as they can eat them; and they are beft cut{mall and mixed with the hay, oats, bran, and other fimilar fubfiances. There is another mode that may fometimes be adopted, which is that of facri- ficing the milk for the benefit of the calves, by letting one: or more run with the cows in full milk till they are capable of providing for themfelves; but this is a me- thod that has been objeted to, as not letting the cows take the bull; which is pro- bably a miftake. The more rapid growth of the calves, and the great convenience of the method, are however greatly in its favour. 6% 986 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Weaning of Calves. When the calfis fuffered to fuck the mother, it fhould have the firft of the milk, the reft being afterwards milked. It will thus have the thinneft part, which is the leaft liable to injure it by producing a fcouring. As calves are frequently fubje& to be affected with loofenefs from a fort of indigeftion being produced in their ftomachs, which, when it proceeds to any great length, is termed the kit; great care fhould be taken, efpecially where they fuck ftale milched cows, or when taken from fucking and put upon other food, to guard againft this effect; which may in moft cafes be accomplifhed by not Ictting them have too much at once, and gradually accuftoming them to the change. When this effect rifes to the fiate of difeafe, the beft remedy is probably that of boiling pounded chalk, in the proportion of halfa pound or more to four quarts of water, adding a couple of ounces of the fhavings of hartfhorn, with a quarter of an ounce of bruifed caffia, for a few minutes, and then firaining off the liquid, which may be given with the milk or other food, fuitably warm, to the quantity of from halfa pint to a pint, once or twice a day, according to circumfiances. In thefe cafes the calves fhould always be kept dry and warm under fhelter from wet. If other materials be neceffary to be mixed with the milk, wheaten flour will probably be found the beft. Weaning of Calves.—It is better in general to wean early than late, as calves that are weaned late in the feafon feldom rife to any great fize. In January, or February, and till the beginning of March, may anf{wer very well, but, except where the large- nefs of growth is of no confequence, it fhould not beattempted later: however, under fuch circumftances it may be continued till the early part of May. The beft mode of doing this is to let the calves have new milk at the beginning, afterwards a mixture of new and fkimmed milk, then fimply fkimmed milk, and ultimately a mixture of water and fkimmed milk with a little barley or oat meal, or flour fiirred into it. A fmall lock of fweet hay is alfo to be kept tied up within their reach, to induce them to eat that fort of food as foon as poflible. The calves are foonett learned to drink their milk or other liquid food by the dairy-maid putting her finger in the pail that contains thefe fubftances while they are feeding. When they are once taught in this way to drink, no further trouble will be neceffary. It is not abfolutely neceflary to continue the giving of milk after the calves are a month or fix weeks old; but they are certainly the better for it when it can be done. From the increafing fcarcity of milk, great attention has lately been beftowed in difcovering fubftitutes that may anfwer the purpofe without that valuable food, as by fuch means a greater number of calves might be reared; which would be of yaft Cu.trvatton of Grafs-Land.—Weaning of Calves. 987 importance to the farmer, as well as in other points of view. Various experiments have been inftituted in this intention, but without any very complete fuccefs. It has been advifed by Mr. Varlo to have recourfe to a ftrong infufion of hay, made by pouring boiling water on good freth hay, covering the veffel up clofely during the operation, and letting it remain till the virtues are fully extra@ted; with the proportion of one pint of oatmeal, the fame quantity of flax-feed, and a quart of {kimmed milk; the flax-feed being bruifed and put in with the hay, and the meal and milk added afterwards to the clear infufion*. In this way, it is contended that a buthel of flax-feed, worth about three fhillings, will be fufficient for rearing two calves. A fimilar method has been attended with fuccefs for young calves that have been kept with milk in Lincolnfhire; but in this cafe the bruifed flax-feed is boiled to a kind of jelly of light confiftence, which, after being fufficiently diluted with warm water, is then rendered of the thicknefs of cream by barley meal being ftirred in. When a great number of calves are to be reared, and the fupply of milk is inadequate, by being ufed in combination with this compofition it may be made to fupport nearly twice the number of calves+. The advantage that may be derived in this way has not however been fully afcertained by accurate experiments. A method recommended by the Duke of Northumberland was found to fucceed wellin his trials, and thofe of others fince. It is by preparing fkimmed milk with other ingredients, fo as to anfwer the purpofe where new milk is given, at about one-third the ex- penfe. The{abftances that are made ufe of are treacle and linfeed-oil cake, re- duced by the operation of grinding to the ftate of almoft an impalpable powder; being employed in fuch flight proportions as, exclufive of the milk, to come to no more than about fixpence for thirty-two gallons. The manner of preparing it is this: “ Take one gallon of fkimmed milk, and to about a pint of it add half an ounce of common treacle, flirring it until it is well mixed; then to take one ounce of linfeed- oil cake, finely pulverized, and with the hand let it fall gradually, in very fmall quantities, into the milk, flirring it, in the mean time, with a fpoon or ladle, uatil it be thoroughly incorporated; then let the mixture be put into the other part of the milk, and the whole be made nearly as warm as new milk when it is frft taken from the cow.” In this ftate it is fit for ufe.“ After atime the quantity of oil-cake powder may beincreafed.”‘This fhould be done as occafion may require, and as the calves become inured to the flavour of fuch food. Mr. Crook has been in the habit of weaning calves with fuccefs withoutany milk, * New Syftem of Hufbandry, Vol. Ill.+ Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXIII. 6kK2 988 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Weaning of Calves. by making ajelly of one quart of linfeed boiled ten minutes in fix quarts of water, which jelly is afterwards mixed with a{mall quantity of the beft hay-tea. It feerns not improbabie, from the trials which we have made, that potatoe-meal may be ufed this way with benefit, as it mixes well with either milk, water, or weak ‘broth, and is highly nutritious. By this means the great expenfe of oats, meal,— and other fimilar fubfiances may be avoided. There are many other fubftances that might prove ufeful in this intention, if proper trials were made with them. In regard to the period of caftrating or gelding the calves, it is probably the beft to perform the operation pretty foon after the calves have been dropped, as there will be lefs danger from bleeding, and of their taking on too much inflammation, at that period than afterwards, whea they have attained a greater degree of health and vigour Some advife three weeks or a month, but a week or a fortnightat moft is perhaps much better. In the male calves, the cutter, when expert, after dividing the fcrotum, or bag, and feparating the tefticles, draws out the fpermatic veffels, by introducing his fore-finger and thumb. It is probable, however, that fimple excifion may. be equally effectual, and muft always be lefs hazardous.‘The /paying of the female calves, which is frequently performed, is an operation of greater nicety, and re- quires more dexterity in its management. Such calves as have been fpayed are found from experience to be more quiet in the paftures, and afterwards to fatten more expeditioufly. Much care and attention is neceflary, efpecially in the more early weaned calves, to keep them perfectly dry and warm, as their thriving will in a great meafure de- pend upon this being effectually done. The fubftances, of whatever kind they may be, fhould be left off in as gradual a manner as poffible, as the calves become inca- pable of fupporting themfelves on hay or grafs. The following advice of a practical writer* is judicious: After the calves have been weaned, efpecially the later ones, they fhould be turned abroad, in the day-time, into a fmall clofe or orchard near the farm yard, where there is a good bite of grafs; and, as there is generally more than one calf weaned in a feafon, they will each be company for the other, and become in a fhort time reconciled to their fituation. This pafture fhould be at fome diftance from that whereon the dams are turned, and have neither ponds or ditches, or any annoyance which may endanger the lives of thefe youthful animals; and in order to habituate them ftill more to their pafture, the food fhould be carried clean to them at each of their feeding-hours. For the firft month or fix weeks, they ought every night to be brought out of the meadow, and lodged in the pens; but, %* Mr. Bannifter, Cultivation of Grofs-Land.—— Weaning of Calves 939 after this time they may be left in the pafture as well in the night feafon as in the day: and their food may now be lewered| by degrees, tll it be at leneth reduced to fimple water only; for, when the calves get to the age of twelve or fourteen weeks, they will no longer require the aid of this fuftenance, but be able to fatisfy their ap- petites by g orafs. Care, however, muft be. taken throughout the fummer that they he frequently fhifted from one pafture to another, in order that they may be kept up in good flefh, and enabled to grow away with the utmoft celerity. At Michae mas, or foon after, they fhould be taken into the yard; and if they were allowed the indulgence of a{mall clofe to themfelves it would be ftill better. And here their tafte muft be gratified with the beft and fweetefi hay that can be procured, with an outlet on a dry pafiure, where in fine open wea ither they may be fuffered to enjoy themfelves: it would redound greatly to their advantage, if, on the ap- proach of winter, a fhed was to be erected for them to repofe in during the night, and for fhelter in tempeftuous days. So effential are warmth and good= ng to young animals of every denomination, that the care which bas been taken of tei in their early life will be manifeft in every ftage of their future growth. Nor is there any ftock which will pay better for this cautious management in Ga youth than thofe of thecow kind; for if thefe are ftinted in their feed, or carelefsly at- tended whilft in their growing ftate, they will never arrive to that fize which they would otherwife have done, and confequently the Jofs will be perpetually felt by the farmer who attempts to raife milch cows of his own breed without giving them a due attendance in the firft year*. It is added by the fameaut hor, that“* when calves have attained their firft year they are called duds or yearlings; and though at this time they may be able to mix with the herd, yet it would be moft prudent, if not attended with too great an in- convenience, to fuffer them to remain in a pafture by themfelves. But if this can- not be done, let them be turned out with the dry ftock, and not permitted to run with the cows, as this might probably be the caufe of their taking the bull—a meafure which fhould at this age be cautioufly guarded againft, as fuch duds as propagate at this early age mofily receive a check in their growth on this account« and if, during the fucceeding winter, they were to be managed as before directed, their future growth would be found to pay ample intereft for the fodder that is now given them: ony this is to be obferved, that as theirflrength is now confiderably coco ieee a efs valuable fodder may fuffice, and good pea firaw may fupply the place of ha: * Synopfis of Hyfbandry. 990 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—-Dairyi: Such farmers as have low rufhy meadows, where there is frequently a length of old grafs in the winter, may, in this fecond year, turn the calves into them, as they will meet with plenty of nourifhing food, whilft the weather is fair and open.” At two years old fome fuffer heifers to take the bull, and think it the belt method; but others fuppofe it a better practice for the cows, and more to the intereft of the farmer, to wait a year longer before they are put to the males, as they will make much better cows by fuch a delay. It is in all cafes by much the beft practice to feed the young cattle flock both the firft and fecond year, efpecially in the winter feafon, as well as poflible,—as, when the contrary method is adopted, their growth is fo reftricted that they can after- wards fcarcely be brought into a proper ftate of thriving by the beft food: fuch as turnips; hay, with root food, carrots, and potatoes, may be the moft beneficial in the fecond winter, great care being taken to keep them clean by proper littering. When ftraw is the common food, fuch roots fhould be employed in a larger proportion. The two-year old cattle, whether of the male or female kind, fhould be fed with hay orgood flraw, according as they can be more conveniently afforded, interpofing feeds of turnips, cabbages, or other fimilar forts of food. In general it may be a good rule to keep cattle of the fame age and kind as much together as circumflances will permit; as by fuch means they feed better, are lefs liable to accidents, and are capable of being fed more properly, as they moftly require the leaft feeding while young. Dairying.—There are fome forts of grafs lands that anfwer better in this manage- ment than others. It is not well decided, though general experience feems to fa- your the opinion, that the very fertile pafture lands may be more profitably applied to the purpofe of grazing or fattening animals than that of dairying; but fuch as are not capable of bringing the larger forts of cattle to a complete ftate of fatnefs, and which ufually let from twenty to five-and-twenty fhillings the acre, may be more profi~ tably employed in this way. And moft of the low and more moift kinds of meadow lands, which though the value may be high, as they do not fucceed fo well for the purpofe of fattening, may be found highly ufeful for the dairy. The high, open, and expofed uplands are always lefs proper for this fort of practice than thofe which are fituated lower, are more inclofed and warm. In the management of the bufinefs, the nature of the paftures and other forts of food which the farmer has at command, muft direct him in the extent and kind of dairying which he is to purfue. Where the grafs lands are of the older kinds, aha tolerably rich and fertile, but- ter fhould probably, in general, be the principal objet; but where they have been Cultivation of Grafse Land.— Dairying. 99) more recently converted to the ftate of fward, and are of a more cool as well as lefs rich quality, cheefe may be the moft depended upon. It is perhaps only under parti- cular circumftances and fituations that the different methods can be combined with profit and convenience. There are, however, cafes in which this may be attempted with great advantage. It has been an obfervation in dairying, founded upon long experience, that fuch lands as have been for a great length of time in the ftate of pafture afford milk that abounds more in the oily material, or cream; while thofe which have been a lefs time in that ftate, and are of a more cold nature, are more productive in fuch milk as has the cafeous matter in a large proportion to that of the cream*. In Yorkthire the dairy-farmers are in many cafes in the habit of preferving their old paftures in their original ftate, as they find the milk produced on them churns with more facility, and the butter is capable of being kept better than if fuch natu- rally rich grounds were highly improved. In fome cafes it has been found that there was great difficulty in making as well as preferving the butter, efpecially in the more warm months, where the land had been wholly ploughed up and improved by manure, particularly of the calcareous kind, where there was previoufly no diffi- culty of that fort, and the butter was of the beft fort T. Old paftures have therefore, befides the property of fupplying the butyraceous~ material in greater abundance, that of rendering the butter more firm and waxy. It has likewife been obferved that the richnefs of the butter in the Highlands of Scotland has been univerfally attributed to the cows feeding upon the old grafs in their remote glens; though it is fuggefted that this may partly depend on the ma- nagement that is adopted in making it+. In Chefhire they find that the inferior forts of pafture lands are the beft fuited for cheefe||. But though this may in fome degree be the cafe, there cannot be any doubt but that good butter may be made in many inftances where the cows are kept in new paftures, and that excellent cheefe may alfo be prepared where the lands that are employed as paftures have been long in the ftate of herbage. Butter equally rich and good with that made while the cows were grazed on the rich old paftures, has indeed been known to be fometimes prepared when they were fed with cut clover and dry grafs in the ftall§. In commencing this fort of bufinefs, the farmer is therefore, as has been juft ob- * Marfhall’s Midland Counties.+ Correéted Report of the Weft Riding of Yorlfhire. $ Anderfon in Bath Papers, Vol. V..| Young’s Six Months Tour, Vol. III.§ Ibid. 2, 992 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Dairying. ferved, to determine, from the nature of hisland, the fituation and other circum- flances, which fort of dairy management it may be the moft proper and advan- tageous for him to adopt, whether that of the cheefe or butter kind. It has not been. fhown by any fet of experiments that can be fully depended upon, whether the butter or cheefe dairy affords the largett profit to the farmer, when conducted under equally good management. The moft valuable part of the milk is in each cafe con- verted into a fubftance of great utility; and though the former fells for a confidera- bly higher price than the latter, from the differences in the quantity of the produéts, in the expenfe and trouble of management, and various.other circumftances, it feems that the real advantages are nearly equal. It has been ftated, before the late rife in the prices of thefe-different articles, to amount, whether of butter and butter- milk, or of cheefe and whey, to nearly fourpence-halfpenny for each gallon of milk*; at prefent, perhaps, little lefs than from fixpence to fixpence-halfpenny. In the vicinity of large towns, and wherever butter is conftantly in great demand, it may however be more profitable to have a butter dairy inftead of that. of the cheefe kind. It is obvious that much of the profit in this fort of management muft conftantly, depend upon the care and affiduity that is. beffowed in conducting the different proceffes of the bufinefs, And it has been obferved that this kind of management fhould only be undertaken by thofe who are capable of paying the moft minute attention to every department of it; as, unlefs this becomes a fixed and efta- blifhed principle in the farmer’s mind, the chance of fuccefs is precarious and un- certain.‘To truft wholly to common fervants, in. this fort of bufinefs, is always hazardous, and never to be practifed where it is carried on to. any extent. The firft thing that is neceffary is that of being provided with a-fufficiently large and convenient dairy-houfe,. whether the object be cheefe or butter. It fhould be fo proportioned to the number of cows, as that there may be fufficient conveni- ence for performing all the neceffary operations without embarraffinent; and much. attention muft be paid to cleanlinefs in every thing that relates to it, fuch as the fhelves, floors, and different implements which are made ufe of, by daily fcalding, {crubbing, rinfing, and drying, in order to prevent any fort of acidity taking place, as, without due regard in thefe refpects, it is impoflible that the produce can be of faperior quality, or fach as will keep fweet and good for any length of time,&c. Cleanlinefs may indeed be faid not only to be neceflary in dairy-hufbandry, but to * Corre€ted Agricultural Report of Mid-Lothian. 3 Cultivation of Grofs-Land.—Dairying. 993 be the foundation of it, and the mott effential and leaft indifpenfable part of good ma- nagement. It is obferved that‘‘a farmer may be in poffeffion of the moft valuable breed of cows, and thefe be fed on the richeft paftures; but unlefs cleanlinefs pre- vail in the dairy, his butter or his cheefe will never ftand high in general eftima- tion.” Next to the fize and fituation of the dairy-houfe, and to keeping it and the utenfils clean, is that of{kill and attention in the general management. In fhort, without a knowledge of the beft modes proper to be adopted under different circum- fiances, and a regularity, method, and prompt attention to their execution, it 1s ob- yious that the bufinefs muft foon run intoconfufion, and become unprofitable. The neceffary apparatus, fuch as churns, milk-pails, cheefe-cloths, trays or pans, brafs milk-kettle and boiling copper,&c. exclufive of the cheefe-prefs, for a dairy of twenty cows, will coft about fifty pounds. For fuel either coal or wood will anfwer, but faggots preferved in the ftack one year are the beft*. The next cireumftance is that of providing cows of the moft proper kinds, ac- cording to the method of dairying that may be practifed. It has been found by long experience, that fome kinds of cows give milk of a much thicker confiftence andricher quality than others; and that this richnefS of quality is not neceflarily conneéted with the fmallnefs of the quantity yielded by thofe of nearly an equal fize; it is therefore of confequence to the owner of a dairy to be peculiarly atten- tive to this circumftance. In choofing cows for the purpofe of butter, it ought rather to be the quantity and the quality of the cream produced from the milk in a given time, than the quantity of the milk itfelf, that ought to be regarded:—this is a circumftance of more importance than is generally fuppofed; but where cheefe is the object of the dairy, quantity of milk as well as goodnefs fhould probably be at- tended to. As there are cows in every diftri@ to be found, by a careful felection, that afford much thicker milk than others, thefe ought to be fearched for with care, and their breed reared with attention, as being peculiarly valuable. In comparing the milk of two cows in order to judge of their refpective qualities, particular attention fhould be paid to the time that has elapfed fince their calving; as the milk of the fame cow is always thinner foon after calving than it is afterwards, as it gradually becomes thicker, though generally lefs in quantity, in proportion to the time the cow hascalved. The colour of the milk, however, foon after calving is richer than it afterwards becomes; but this, efpecially for the firft two weeks, is a faulty colour that ought not to be regardedf. # Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXII.+ Anderfon in Bath Papers. 6.4 994 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.— Dairying. On'the richer and more fertile paftures it is probable that the large and middle breeds of cows may be the moft beneficial, efpecially where both cheefe and butter are' made; but in fuch as do not poflefs fuch a high degree of fertility, the middle and fmaller breeds may prove more profitable to the dairy farmer. Some fuppofe the long- horned breed not well fuited for the dairy; but experiments that have been care- fully made fhow, that more cheefe may be produced from the fame quantity of milk in that breed than in thofe of the fhort-horned, as well as more butter from the fame quantity of creaam*. And in Ireland the Craven breed afforded more butter than the Holderneffe+. Of the finaller breeds, the Alderney, the Suffolk polled, and the Kiloe or Scotch breeds, may be found the moft profitable. In thedairies of the Ile of Wight, as well as thofe of fome parts of Hampfhire, the Alderneys prevail much, and are highly efteemed for butter. Two-thirds of the Suffolk polled breed, and one-third Alderney, have been recommended as conftituting an excellent dairy, the milk being mixed. But befides the milk there is another object to be attended to in forming a cow ftock, which is, that they be fufficiently hardy for the fituation. In this refpect the long-horned breed is much fuperior to the fhort-horned cattle, from the difference in the thicknefs of their hides; and the Scotch is probably better than either. This breed and thedong-horned are therefore the moft proper for bleak, expofed fituations. As many of the mixed breeds afford excellent milkers, and in moft of the ge- nuine breeds there are great differences in the individuals, it may be the beft mode, in order to eftablith a good dairy, whether for cheefe or butter, for the farmer to breed from fuch cows, of whatever kind they may be, as he has found from experience the beft for the purpofe, without being at the trouble of purchafing the more expen- five breeds. In this cafe good bulls fhould always be procured, as much is fuppofed to depend on the male. In order to produce abundance of milk, and of a good quality, cows muft at all times have plenty of food. Grafs is the beft food for this purpofe, and that kind of grafs which fprings fpontaneoufly on rich dry foils is the beft of alll]. In the winter keeping of the cows, there are different methods in ufe; but in the fouthern parts of the ifland they do extremely well in warm fheltered yards, with open fheds, efpecially when plenty of litter, fuch as ftraw, ftubble, fern, or other fimilar materials can be afforded for keeping the whole well bedded. In the * Young’s Six Months Tour, Wol. II.+ Irith Tour, Vol. f. + Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXII. jj Anderfon in Bath Papers. Cultivaticn of Grafs-Land,— Dairying. 995 northern diftri&s, however, and wherever a proper fupply of litter cannot be ob- tained, it is better to have them tied up in ftalls, with raifed(landings, and funk paved floors immediately behind them for receiving the dung and urine, as by thefe contrivances they may be kept Bee Y clean without litter, and at the fame time be more warm, as two cows may be confined in the fame ftall. The ftalls should be kept conftantly clean and sti fweeped out. In the management of the cows, it bas been obferved that,“if the temperature of the climate be fuch as to permit the cows to graze at cafe throughout the day, they thould be fuffered to range on fuch paftures at freedom; but, if the cows are fo much ineommoded by the heat as to be prevented from cating through the day, they ought in that cafe to be taken into cool fheds for protection; where, after allowing them a proper time to ruminate, they fhould be fupplied with abundance of green food frefh cut for the purpofe, and given to them frequently, in{mall quantities, frefh and frefh, fo as to induce them to eat it with pleafure. When the heat of the day is over, sa they can remain abroad with eafe, they may be wa turned into the pafture, where they fhetld be allowed to range with freedom all night during the mild veather of fummer.’ Cows are in general only milked twice a day; but, when“ abundantly fed, they fhould probably be milked three times a day during the whole of the fummer eafon: in the morning early, at noon, and in the evening jot before night-fall. For, if they be milked only twice in the twenty-four hours, while they have abundance of fucculent food, they will, as kas been obferved, yield a much finaller quantity of milk in the{ame time, than if they were milked three times. “Tn the choice of perfons for milking the cows, great caution fhould likewife be employed: for, if that operation be not carefully and properly performed, the quantity of the produce of the dairy will be greatly diminifhed. It fhould be a rule never to allow this important department to be entrufted without control to the management of any Bal very trufty fervants; as the cows fhould always be treated with great gent! lenefs.’ It has been obferved to be of great confequence to the produce of adairy, that the cows fhould not drop their calves too early in the feafon. When that happens, they fall off in the quantity of milk in the autumn, when, owing to its fuperior rich- nefs, it is more valuable than at any other period. From the end of March to the end of April is the beft time in the more northern diftricts that a cow can drop her calf, as fhe foon gets into good condition on the early grafs, and yields a greater quantity of milk in the courfe of the feafon than thofe that calve either confiderably 6L2 996 Cultivation of Grofs-Land.— Dairying. earlier or later. But in the fouthern parts of the ifland it is an advantage for the to calve much earlier. In the management of cows in fummer, there is a famenefs in almoft every di- firid. They are ufually kept on the oldeft paftures on the farm: when thefe are at a diftance from the farm-houfe, they are milked on the paftures; but otherwife they are brought home morning and evening for that purpofe. In winter the dry cows, that is, fuch as do not give milk, are fed on ftraw in the ftraw-yard; while thofe that are in milk, or are near calving, are kept in fome inclofed pafture, or in fheds erected for the purpofe, and maintained chiefly on hay. Where artificial graffes, turnips, cabbages, or potatoes, are cultivated on a large fcale, the milch cows have a daily and regular allowance of one or other of thefe forts of food during the winter and fpring months. Potatoes in particular are admirable food for cows; as, while they tend to keep them in good condition, the quantity of milk is generally abundant and of good quality, both in refpect to richnefs and flavour. In fhort, the dairy-farmer, in every part of the ifland, will find it for his intereft to be attentive in feeding his cows*. Thefe different forts of food may be difiributed for fummer and winter in this manner: In fummer red clover, faintfoin, lucern, burnet, and tares may be made ufe of with great advantage. But in employing the firft, great care fhould be taken to guard againft injury either to the animals, or the quality of the butter or cheefe being rendered of a bad kind or flavour by it. On poor chalky hills the fecond will be of the greateft importance to the dairy-farmer. Lucern and tares fhould always be employed in the way of foiling; in which method, where the cows have proper fhade and fufficient water, they will be found of the utmoft ufe, as they afford a very certain fupply of food and go a great way. Befides, the cows are found to milk well in this management where proper attention is beftowed in the foddering of them. Some fuppofe it a method that can hardly be too ftrongly advifedt. In Mr. Baker's experiments, a middle-fized cow was found to confume in the proportion of from go to 100 pounds of green lucern in the courfe of twenty-four hours. For winter, bay, ftraw, cabbages, turnips, carrots, potatoes, cole, malt-grains,&e. may be made ufe of. The keeping cows with hay is in general too expenfive to afford the dairy-man an adequate profit: therefore, in order to leflen the expenfe of this fort of keep, other articles of the green and root kind muft be had recourfe to: till near the * Modern Agriculture, Vol, III.+ Annals of Agriculture, Vol, XXXII. Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Dairying. 997 period of calving they may be fupported on frefh threfhed ftraw in cribs in the fold- yard, beginning with the worft and gradually proceeding to that which is of a better quality. Thofe in good condition fhould have the worft firaw; but when it is not of the beft kind, and the cowsareof a valuable fort, they may be fed once a day with cabbages, turnips, or other fimilar forts of food, in bins for the purpofe. When within about a month or fix weeks of calving, a little hay fhould be given at night, or the allow- ance of green food increafed, and on the day of calving they fhould be confined, and have warm water; and fora fortnight after calving be very well fed with both hay and green food, in fuitable divifions for the purpofe. In this. view the cabbages are extremely valuable, as the produce on the acre is large, and they afford much milk; but care muft be taken to pick off all the dead and decayed leaves, which may be given tothe young ftock. A middle-fized cow will confume from one to two hundred poundsin a day, but feventy is fuppofed as much with ftraw as can be paid for by the produce*. In Mr. Dodfworth’s trials, a cow of fifty ftone was found to eat twelve ftone of this fort of food in the fame time. An extent of this kind of crop proportioned to the dairy fhould always be provided-+. The only objection to turnips as food for milch cows is their impairing the flavour of the butter: but they are a fort of food that affords mnch milk; and without this, or the preceding green food, a large dairy cannot perhaps be fupported to much profit, A larger weight of this food than the former is confumed in the fame time*. Carrots and potatoes are very advantageous forts of food for cows where they are raifed in great abundance; but even in fuch cafes they can only be made ufe of with profit as a feed once or twice in a day with other forts of food. It is out of the queftion that a cow could pay for being kept wholly on them. Cole, as being fed off in the field, can only be had recourfe to on the firm dry foils; but in fuch fituations it is a very profitable crop applied in this way, efpecially when ufed in fucceffion to turnips in the fpring months§. Malt-grains, where they can be had in plenty, are ufeful with other forts of food, as producing a large proportion of thin milk, They are confequently better for the purpofes of the milkman than the dairy-farmer. Whatever kinds of green or fucculent food may be ufed in the way of feed- ing dairy cows, experience has fhown that great advantage may be derived from varying it as much as poffible||, probably on the phyfiological principle that the * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXII.+ Young’s Six Months Tour, Vol. If. t Ibid. § Ibid.|| Wedge’s Agricultural Report of Chethire, 4to, p. 59. 998 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.-— Dairying. novelty of ftimulus is the moft powerful in exciting the action and promoting the fecretions of the fyftem. The ufe of day and night paftures, which is a method employed in fome difiri€ts, may alfo partly depend on this principle, and partly on that of better fhade and water*. In the ftocking of paftures with cows, it fhouldalways be done according to their goodnefs: fuch grafs lands as afford in rent, tythe, and taxes, twenty-feven or eight fhillings may fupport during the fummer feafon in the proportion of a cow of fifty {tones to an acre and a half with a few fheep. But in fuch as are not worth more than twenty fhillings, one cow to two acres may be often fully fufficient. In this management the rule fhould be for the paftures never to be too clofely fiocked. In regard to the labour neceffary in the management of dairy bufinefs, it will of courfe be different according to the difference of convenience and other circum- {tances; but acommon dairy-maid can feldom manage more than twelve or fourteen ows in a perfect manner, efpecially where both butter and cheefe are made. If fhe undertake more, fhe will require affiftance in the dairy. As the cows fhould not be more than an hour in milking, the maid cannot milk more than five or fix; in a dairy of about eighteen cows, two afliftants‘will con- fequently be required at fuch times; which in fummer, when two milkings only are practifed, fhould be at five o’clock in the morning and fix at night. The work of the dairy muft therefore be regulated in this proportion. It isa good pratice for the dairy-maid to conftantly examine the cows fepa- rately after the milkers, efpecially when they cannot be fully depended upon; to fee that the bufinefs has been perfectly performed; as, where the contrary is the cafe, lofs may not only be fuftained in the richeft part of the milk+, but the cows be more fubjected to difeafe. * Wedge’s Agricultural Report of Chefhire, yto, p. 59- + The following fa&ts flated by Dr. Anderfon as the refult. of accurate experiments, in refpeét to the nature of milk and the proportion and feparation of cream from it, are deferving of the particular attention of the dairy-farmer, It was found firft, that of the milk that is drawn from any cow at one time, that which comes off at the firft is always thinner, and of a much worfe quality, than that which comes afterwards; and that the richnefs goes on, continually increafing, to the very lafl drop that‘can be drawn at that time.—Feéw perfons are ignorant that the milk which is taken from the cow laft of all at milking is richer than the other parts of it; but very few are aware of the greatnefs of the difproportion between the quality of the fir and the laft drawn milk from the fame cow at one milking.© The follow- ing facts in refpect to this circumflance were fcertained many years ago, and have been confirmed by fubfequent experiments and obfervations. Having taken feveral large tea-cups, exactly fimilar in fize and fhape, and filled them at regular intervals, the laft being filled with the dregs of the milk; thefe 3 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.— Dairying—Management of Milk. 939 Management of the Milk.—'The proper care of the milk, which is the next circum- fiance to be attended to, is of the greatelt importance to the fucceis of the dairy. After being brought from the cows, it fhould be paffed through a fieve or firainer of hair or Oo 5) 5 were each weighed, fo as to afcertain that the quantity of milk in each was precifely the fame. From a great number of experiments, frequently repeated with many different cows, the refult was in all cafes thus:—The quantity of milk obtained from the firft-drawn cup, in every cafe, was much{maller than from that which was laft drawn; and thofe between afforded lefs or more as they were nearer the beginning or the end. It is unneceffary to fpecify intermediate proportion$; but the quantity of cream obtained from the laft-drawn cup, from fome cows, exceeded that from the firft in the proportion of 16 to1. In other cows, however, and in particular circumftances, the difproportion was not quite fo great; but in no cafe did it fall thort of the rateof 8 to 1. Probably, upon an average of a great many cows, it might be found to run as 10 or 12 tol. In the next place, the difference in the quality of the cream obtained from the two cups was much greater than the difference in the quantity. In the firft cup the cream was a thin tough film, and very white; but in the laft of a thick butyraceous confiftence, and of a glowing richnefs of colour, that no other kind of cream is ever found to poffefs. And the difference in the quality of the milk that remained after the cream was feparated, was perhaps ftill greater than either, in refpe& to the quantity or the quality of the cream. In the firft cup it was a thin blueith liquid, as if a very largeportion of water had been mixed with ordinary milk; while in the laft cup it was of a thick confiftence and yellow colour, more refembling cream than milk both in tafte and appear- ance. From this experiment it appears, that the perfon who, by bad milking of his cows, lofes but half a pint of his milk, lofes in faét about as much cream as would be afforded by fix or eight pints at the beginning; and befides, that part of the cream which alone can give richnefs and high flavour to the butter, where that is the obje€t, is loft. Secondly. That if milk be put up in a difh, and allowed to ftand till it throws up cream, that portion of cream which rifes firft to the furface is richer in quality and greater in quantity than what rifes in a fecond equal portion of time; and the cream that rifes in the fecond interval of time is greater in quantity and richer in quality than that which rifes in a third equal fpace of time; and that of the third than the fourth, and fo on, decreafing in quantity and declining in quality continually as long as any rifes to the furface. Thefe experiments not having been, in this cafe, made with fo much accuracy as in the former, the writer has not been enabled to afcertain the difference in the proportion that takes place in equal portions of time; but they have been fo often repeated as not to leave any room to doubt the fat: and it will be allowed to be a fact of no{mall importance in the management of the dairy. It is nog clear, however, but that a greater quantity of cream may upon. the whole be obtained from the milk by taking it away at different times; but the proce{s is fo troublefome as not to be counter balanced by the jncreafed quantity obtained; if, indeed, an additional quantity be thus obtained, which is not as yet fully afcertained. ‘Thirdly. That thick milk always throws up a fmaller proportion of the cream it a€tually contains to the furface than milk that is thinner; but the cream is of a richer quality: and if water be added to that thick milk, it will afford a confiderably greater quantity of cream than it would have done if allowed to remain pure; but its quality is at the fame time greatly debafed.—This is a faét that every perfon attentive to a dairy muft have remarked; but noexperiment has been made that could afcertain either the precife amount of 10C0 Cultivation of Gre/s-Land.—Dairying— Management of Milk. filver wire, fixed in the bottom of a large wooden bowl into the veffels that are defined for its reception. But few experiments have hitherto been made with the view of deciding the moft advantageous method of difpofing the milk for the pur- the increafed quantity of cream that might thus be obtained, or of the ratio in the decreafe of its quality: but it afcertains the effects, at leaft, of mixing water with the milk in a dairy; and the knowledge of this fact will enable attentive perfons to follow that praGtice which they think will beft promote their intereft, Fourthly. That milk which is put into a pail, bucket, or other proper veffel, and carried in it to any di- flance fo as to be much agitated, and in part cooled before it be put into the milk-pans to fettle for cream, never throws up fo much nor fo rich cream as if the fame milk had been put into the milk-pans dire&tly after it was milked.—In this cafe it is believed, that the lofs of cream will be nearly in proportion to the time that has elapfed, and the agitation it has fuftained after being drawn from the cow: but the author is not yet in poffeffion of any experiments that fufficiently afcertain how much is to be afcribed to the time and the agitation taken feparately, From the whole of thefe fa&ts and circumftances, the following corollaries are deducible: 1ft, That it is of importance that the cows fhould be always milked as near the dairy as poflible, to prevent the neceflity of carrying and cooling the milk before it be put into the difhes: and as cows are much hurt by far driving, it muft be a great advantage in a dairy-farm to have the principal grafs-fields as near the dairy, or homeftead, as poflible, 2dly, That the practice of putting the milk of all the cows of a large dairy into one veffel, as it is milked, there to remain till the whole milking be finifhed before any part of it is put into the milk-pans, feems to be highly injudicious, not only on account of the lofs that is fuftained by agitation and cooling, but alfo, more efpecially, becaufe it prevents the owner of the dairy from diftinguifhing the good from the bad cow’s milk, fo as to feparate thefe from each other where it is neceffary. He may thus have the whole of his dairy produét greatly debafed by the milk of one bad cow, for years together, without being able to difcover it. 3dly, That if it be intended to make butter of a very fine quality, it will be advifable in all cafes to keep the milk that is firft drawn feparate from that which comes laft; as it is obvious that if this be not done the quality of the butter will be greatly debafed, without much augmenting its quantity. It is alfo obvious, that the quality of the butter will be improved in proportion to the fmallnefs of the proportion of the laft drawn milk that is retained; fo that thofe who with to be fingularly nice in this refpeé will do well to retain only a very fmall proportion of the laft-drawn milk, To thofe owners of dairies who have profit only in view, it muft ever be a matter of trial and calculation, how far it is expedient for them to carry the improving of the quality of their butter, at the expenfe of diminifhing its quantity. In different fituations, prudence will point out different kinds of practice as moft eligible; and all perfons muft be left, after making accurate trials, to determine for themfelves. It is likewife a confideration of no{mall importance, to determine in what way the inferior milk that is thus to be fet apart, where fine butter is wanted, can be employed with the greateft profit. 4thly, That if the quality of the butter be the chief obje&t attended to, it will be neceflary not only to feparate the firft from the laft-drawn milk, but alfo to take nothing but the cream that is firft feparated from the beft milk, as it is this firft rifing cream alone that is of the prime quality. The remainder of the milk, which will be{till{weet, may be either employed for the purpofe of making fweet-milk cheefes, Cultivation of Grafs-Land.— Dairying— Management of Milk. 1CO01 pofe of raifing the cream in the largeft proportion, and the fhorteft{pace of time: bowever, as the oily or butyraceous part of milk would feem to be diffufed through the whole fubftance of the milk, and entangled among its particles, betwixt thofe of the ferous and cafeous kind, fo as to be thrown up only in confequence of its pof- {effing lefs fpecific gravity than the portion which is ufually termed milk, from its becoming in a ftate of reft; it would feem that the moft fuitable method of placing it for the purpofe of creaming well, and in the moft expeditious manner, is that. of very fhallow pans, leads or trays, fo as that it may not fiand deeper than three or four inches at the moft; as in this way there will not only be the leaft refiftance afforded, but the greateft poflible extent of furface for it to colle& upon: by which means a larger proportion of cream is not only produced, but it is found from experience in the beft dairy diftridls, that in confequence of the more expe- ditious cooling of the milk, the tendency to acidity in warm feafons is confiderably or it may be allowed to ftand to throw up cream for making butter of an inferior quality, as circumftances may direét. sthly, That, from the above facts, we are enabled to perceive that butter of the very beft poflible quality can only be obtained from a dairy of confiderable extent, when judicioufly managed; for when only a very fmall portion of each cow’s millk can be fet apart for throwing up cream, and when only a very fmall proportion of that cream can be referved asof the prime quality, it follows that, unlefs the quantity of milk were upon the whole very confiderable, the quantity of prime cream produced would be fo{mall as to be fcarcely worth the while for manufa¢turing feparately. O6thly, That from thefe pre- mifes we are alfo led to draw another conclufion, extremely different from the opinion that is commonly entertained on this fubjeét, viz. That it feems probable that the very beft butter could only be with ee nomy made in thofe dairies where the manufacture of cheefe is the principal objet. The reafons are ob- vious:—If only a fmall portion of the milk fhould be fet apart for butter, all the reft may be made into cheefe while it is yet warm from the cow and perfectly{weet; and if only that portion of cream which rifes during the firft three or four hours after milking is to be referved for butter, the rich milk which is left after that cream is feparated, being{till perfeétly fweet, may be converted into cheefe with as great ad- vantage nearly as the newly-milked milk itfelf. But as it is not probable that many perfons could be found, who would be willing to purchafe the very fineft butter made in the manner above pointed out, at the price that would be fufficient to indemnify the farmer for his trouble in making it, thefe hints are thrown out merely to fatisfy the curious in what way butter poflefling this fuperior degree of excellence may be obtained, if they choofe to be at the expenfe; but, for an ordinary market, the writer is fatisfied, erience and attentive obfervation, that if in general about the firft drawn half of the milk be fe e- from exp parated at each milking, and the remainder only be fet up for producing cream, and if that milk be al Jowed to ftand to throw up the whole of its cream, even till it begins fenfibly to tafte fourith, and if ¢h j h, and-if that cream be afterwards carefully managed, the butter thus obtained will be of a quality greatly fuperior to } what can ufually be obtained at market, and its quantity not confiderably lefs than if the whole of th aie? 1¢€ milk had been treated alike.‘This, therefore, is the practice that is thought moft likely to fuit farmer, as his butter, though of a fuperior quality, could be afforded at a price that would always infu: it a rapid fale. 6™ 1002 Cultivation of Grafs-Land,— Dairying—Management of Milk, checked and retarded. No trials have been inftituted fo as to decide what fort: of material is the moft appropriate and conducive to this end: it is probable, however, that wood or ftone is much better than lead, as being not only more eafily kept clean and fweet in confequence of their being lefs difpofed to fur, but from their being more fafe, on account of their not being acted upon by the acid of the milk. This is in fome meafure proved to be the moft advifeable praétice, from its being almoft generally adopted in the beft dairy management. There is likewife another point on which further experiments are wanting, which is that of afcertaining the degrees of heat in which the different changes may take place with the greateft certainty and fuccefs at different feafons. From the few trials that have been made on this fubje@, it is believed, that when the heat is from 50 to 55 degrees on Fahrenheit’s thermometer, the feparation of the cream from milk, which is the moft important operation of the dairy, proceeds with the greateft regularity and in the moft favourable manner. It is therefore thought that this will be found to be the temperature that ought to be aimed at: but it is not pre- tended to decide with precifion; a confiderable degree of latitude in this refpect may perhaps be allowable: from the beft obfervation it feems to be highly probable that when the heat exceeds 60 degrees, the operation becomes difficult and dan- gerous; and when it falls below the goth degree, they can fcarcely be carried forward with any degree of ceconomy or propriety.‘Till further experiments therefore afcertain the exact point, it may be taken as a fafe rule, that the heat fhould be kept up, if poflible, between the soth and 55th degree; and in order to afcertain this, a thermometer, graduated by Fahrenheit’s{cale, fhould be hung up perpetually in the milk-houfe, to give notice to the owner of any alterations in the temperature of the air, that may affect his intereft*. It has not been yet fhown, by any trials that can be fully depended upon, what is the length of time that the milk fhould remain in the pans or trays inorder to afford the cream in the largeft quantity before it is feparated. Some fuppofe that this fhould depend upon the particular views of the dairy-man, and the degree of heat that is prefent at the period. In amoderately warm temperature of the air, if very fine butter be intended, it fhould not be allowed to ftand more than fix or eight hours. For ordinary good butter it may fafely be let ftand twelve hours or more; but where the dairy is fo large as to afford a fufficient quantity of cream, and where the very beft butter is * Anderfon in Bath Papers. Cultivation of Grafs- Land.—Dairying—Managzement of Milk. 1003 intended(the milk being to be converted to fome other ufe while yet fweet), it may be feparated after ftanding only two, three, or four hours*.“In the general manage- ment of dairies, milk is never fkimmed more than once; but in the county of Effex, as well as fome others, it is the common practice to fkim it three or four times, or till no more cream rife. Inthe bufinefs of feparating the cream from the milk there are two methods purfued; that moft generally practifed is to{kim it off with a fkimming-dith, made either of tin or of-wood. The other is adopted only where leads or cifterns are common, and where the milk is ufed for making fkim-milk or two-meal'cheefes; and, of courfe, before it coagulate, or acquire any degree of acidity. Towards the centre of the ciftern there is a hole or pipe, which, before the milk be putin, is fhut with a wooden ftopper that rifes feveral inches above the furface of the milk. When the milk is wanted for any of the purpofes above mentioned, a veffel is placed under the pipe, and the{topper drawn up fo far as to allow the milk to run off, but fo gently, as that the furface of the cream may not be broken. The milk being thus gradually drained off, the cream finks down, till it at laft refts on the ciftern; when the veftel containing the milk being removed, and another placed for the purpofe of receiving the cream, the fiopper is entirely drawn out, and the cream drops into the veflel+”. The firft of thefe methods“ re- quires a dexterity of manipulation that can be-acquired by practice alone: but it is of great importance to the fuccefs of the dairy that it be well done; for, if any part of the cream be left, the quantity of butter will be diminifhed; and if any part of the milk be taken, its quality will be debafed peat When the cream has been“ thus feparated from the milk, it ought to be im- mediately put into a veffel by itfelf, to be kept till a proper quantity be colle&ted for being made into butter: and no veffel can be better adapted for that purpofe than a firm neat-made wooden barrel, in fize proportioned to the extent of the dairy, open at one end, with a lid exactly fitted, to clofe it. In the under part of this veflel, clofe to the bottom,{hould be placed a cock, for drawing off from time to time any thin ferous part of the milk that may chance to be generated; for, fhould this be allowed to remain, it a¢ts upon the cream in a powerful manner, and greatly diminifhes the richnefs of the quality of the butter. The infide of the opening of the barrel fhould be covered with a bit of clofe fine wire or filver gauze netting to keep back the cream, while the ferum is allowed to pafs; and the barrel on its ftand fhould be inclined a little forward in the top, to allowthe whole to run off§. * Anderfon in Bath Papers,+ Ibid. t Modern Agriculture, Vol, III.§ Ibid. 6M 2 eee 1004 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Dairying—Management of Milk. “ Tt ig d-fficu't to Mate any rarticular period for its being kept in thefe refervoirs before churning, fo different is the management in this particular in different places. About Epping, in Effex, which has been long in high repute for the fuperior quality of its butter, the cream is teldom kept above three or, at furtheft, four days*,” but always till there is a certain degree of acidity in the cream, either natural or arti- ficial, as without that they cannot infure a good churning of butter: fome keep a little old cream for this ufe; others ufe alittle rennet, and fome a little lemon juice}. And it was the practice in a large dairy in Suffolk, which had a high cha- rater for making butter of a fuperior quality, when the butter was to be fent di- rectly to market, to churn the cream the fecond or third day; but when it was to be {alted, to keep it a day or two longer, or till it had acquired a certain degree of aci- dity. The dairy-woman, who had had a long and extenfive experience, accounted for her conduét in this refpe&t by obferving, that butter made from frefh cream was much better and pleafanter to the tafte, but that it would not take in the falt fo: well, or keep fo long, as that made from cream that had been longer kept f. It has been obferved that thofe‘ who have had little experience in the dairy, believe that no batter can be of the fineft quality, except that which has been made from cream that has not been kept above one day; but this is a very great miftake. So far indeed is this opinion from being well founded, that it is in very few cafes that even tolerably. good butter can be obtained from cream that is not more than one day old.‘The feparation of butter from cream. only takes place after the cream has. attained a certain degree of acidity. If it be agitated before that acidity has begun totake place, no butter can be obtained, and the agitation muft be continued till the time that that fournefs is produced; after which the butter begins to form: In fummer, while the climature is warm, the beating may be, without very much dif- ficulty, continued until the acidity be produced, fo that butter may be got; but in this cafe the procefs is long and tedious, and the butter is, for the moft part, of a {oft confiflence, and tough and gluey to the touch. If this proceis be attempted during the cold weather in winter, butter can. fearcely be in any way obtained, unlefs by the application of fome great degree of heat, which. fometimes aflifts in producing a very inferior kind of butter, that is white, bard, and brittle, with very little tafte, and almoft unfit for any culinary purpofe whatever§.” The judicious: farmer.{hould not attempt to imitate this practice, but allow bis cream to remain in. the veflel appropriated for keeping it, until it has acquired that proper degree of; * Modern Agriculture, Vol. III. t Abdy in Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XL $ Modern Agriculture, Vol. IIL.§ Anderfon in Bath Papers. 4 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.— Dairying— Management of Milk. 1008 acidity that fits it for being made into butter with great cafe, and by a very” oderate degrec of agitation; by which procefs only very fine batter can be prepared. The length of time cream may be kept befcre it attains the precife degree of acidity that is neceflary to form the very befi butter, and after that period before its quality be fenfibly diminithed, bas not yet been well afcertained by experiment. It is remarked by Doétor Anderfon that‘fo little nicety has been obferved in this refpect by practical farmers, even thofe who have a high reputation for making good butter, that few of them ever think of obferving any precife rule in this refpect with regard to the different portions of their cream, feeing they in general make into butter all the cream. they have colleG@ed fince the former churning, fo that the new and the old is all beaten up.together; and he can. find nothing like an uniform rule eftablifhed among them as to the time that fhould: intervene between one churning and another, that being ufually determined by local or accidental circum- Giances. He is himfelf inclined to believe, that if the cream be carefully kept, and no ferous matter allowed to lodge about it, a very great latitude may fafely be ad- mitted in this refpect;” and though the exadt length of time has not been deter- mined,“ it is certain. that cream which has been kept three or four days in fammer is in excellent condition for being made: into- butter; and he is-inclined to believe, that from three days to feven may be found in general the beft time for keeping cream before churning; though, if circumftances make: it neceffary, a confiderable Jatitude in this refpet may. be allowed. If the farmer has fuch a quantity of cream as may be worth his while to churn once every: day, there is nothing to prevent him. from doing it. He has only to provide a feparate veffel for holding the cream for each day he means it(hould ftand before churning; if three days, three veffels; if four days, four veflels; and fo on. Thus he may churn every day cream of three days old, or of four, or any other number of. days oldithat he: may incline. In the fame manner,, if it were found that. the cream of two, of three, or of a greater number of days gathering, was required. to make a proper churning, it might be eafy fo to contrive‘t as to churn every day, as will be obvious to any one who thinks upon the fubject. In this way the operations of a dairy may be kept per- fe&tly regular and eafy my It is frequently a practice in Chethire to churn the whole of the milk without fepa- rating any part of the cream fromit. After milking, it is cooled, according to the heat of the weather in fummer, in feparate veflels for the purpofe, and a certain degree of acidity brought on, and warmed in the winter by being fet by the fire. In this way-they * Anderfon in Bath Papers. 1006 Cultivation of Gra/s-Land.—-Management of Milke=Churning. obtain a greater quantity of butter, though of an inferior quality. By careful management, however, efpecially if a portion of the firft-drawn milk be feparated, very good butter may, it is fuppofed, be obtained; but the practice, on many ac- counts, is not to be recommended*, In fummer, or while the cows are fed on grafs, no art is requifite to give butter that colour which is agreeable to the purchafer or the confumer; but in the winter and fpring months the dairy people find it neceflary, in order to pleafe their cuf- tomers, to alter that tallowy appearance which is natural to butter in thefe feafons. This is effected by means of alittle arnetta, which, after being reduced by trituration to as fine a powder as pofflible, is mixed with the cream before it is put into the churn, and in fuch quantities as, from experience, has been found. neceflary for giving the requifite appearance. Churning.—As while the oily or butyraceous part of the milk is in the ftate of cream, the particles are not in a fufficiently concentrated ftate for producing an uni- form fubftance, on account of the large portion of interpofing ferous fluid; in order to produce butter, it is therefore neceffary to force out this by means of con- tinued agitation in the procefs of churning. The cream or milk, after being fepa- rated and prepared as above, is to be put into the churn of the kind which jis preferred, as there are feveral different forts employed in different places, and agi- tated for fome time, in order to effect the feparation of the butter.“From the prac- tice generally adopted in the beft managed dairies of cooling the churn, by filling it for fome time with cold water before churning in fummer, and of warming it with fcalding water when the weather is very cold in winter, and of putting in alfo cold or hot water among the cream in the churn occafionally, according to the feafon of the year,” it is concluded“ that cream poffefling a proper temperature, whatever that temperature may be,is, among the moft exact dairy farmers, confidered effentially neceflary in the making of good butter; which being admitted, it muft follow that fome churns may be better fuited tothe purpofe than others—as fuch as admit a free fupply of atmofpheric air, and permit that which, from the violent agitation, has become overheated to efcape, from their preferving that medium temperature which, it would appear, cream, in the courfe of making into butter, ought to poflefs, than fuch as are kept conftantly fhut up, or in which the air is only allowed to enter or efcape occafionally by means of a fmall aperture+.” It is probably on this ac- count that the upright churn is ftill preferred in fome dairies. In this procefs much greater nicety is required than moft perfons feem to-be * Anderfon in Bath Papers. ‘+ Modern Agriculture, Vol. III. Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—- Making of Butter. 1007 aware of. It has been obferved,“ that a few hafty irregular ftrokes may render the whole of the butter of fcarcely any value,—that which, but for this circumftance, would have been of the fineft quality. The owner of an extenfive dairy fhould, therefore, be extremely attentive to this circumftance, and be at great pains to pro- cure a proper perfon for managing this branch of the bufinefs*.” Making of Butter—W hen, by the procefs of churning, or keeping the cream con- fiantly in a ftate of motion, the butyraceous particles are feparated from the milk, and united to each other, the mafs is taken out of the churn and put into a large wooden bowl, or other convenient veffel, with fome cold fpring water which is perfectly pure; after’ which the dairy-maid kneads it well with her hands, or, what is better, a wooden fpoon with a thort handle, afterwards breaking it into as minute divifions as poflible, and, by rolling and preffing it againft the bottom and fides of the veffel, expreffes and forces out any milk that it may contain. Upon this being well per- formed the goodnefs of the butter in a great meafure depends. When it has been thus worked, the milky water is poured off, and an additional quantity of pure clean water put in; and the operations of kneading, breaking, and preffing, are again renewed, and continued till the water at laft appears fcarcely tinged with milk, whichis the only proper criterion by which to determine when the butter has been fufficiently worked. It has been obferved by the above writer“that a confiderable degree of ftrength, as well as of dexterity, is required inthis manipulation. The thing wanted is to forceout the milk entirely, with as little tawing of the butter as poflible; for, if the milk be not entirely taken away, the butter will infallibly fpoil in a fhort time; and if it be much worked, the butter will become tough and gluey, which greatly debates its quality t.” In moft cafes a fmall quantity of falt is mixed with butter which is intended for immediate ufe; and when butter is falted, whether it be with a view to keeping of * Anderfonin Bath Papers. + In Holland the method of making butter, according to the account of Mr. Carew, as ftated in the Agricultural Report of Middlefex, is this:—After milking the cows, the milk is not put into pans till itis quite cold. It is then ftirred two or three times a day with a wooden fpoon, to prevent the cream from feparating from the milk; and if it can be ftirred till the fpoon will almoft ftand init, it is deemed fo much the better. When it is found to be fufficiently thick, it is put into the churn and beaten for an hour, When the butter begins to form, a pint or more of cold water, according to the quantity of the milk, is poured in, to feparate the butter from the milk. When the butter is taken out of the churn, it is wafhed and kneaded till the laft water is perfetly clear and free from milk. By this meihod it is fuppofed that a greater quantity of butter is made from an equal quantity of milk. And the butter is faid to be firmer and fweeter, and to keep longer, than that which is made in the ordinary mode which is in ufe in England. The buttermilk is alfo thought preferable. A churn is there thought better adapted to the purpofe than a barrel. 1008 Cultivation of Grafs- Land.—Making of Butter—Produce of. for immediate fale, the falt is applied as foon as the milk has been extrated or re- moved in the manner juft defcribed. Part of the butter is fpread on the bottom of another bafon or /£ee/, which has been previoufly wafhed and prepared for the pur- pofe; and a quantity of falt being ftrewed over it, an additional layer of butter is then laid on; over this another fprinkling of falt, and fo on alternately till the whole be falted to the proper degree, according to the ufe for which the butter is in- tended. When the whole is thus falted, the dairy-maid again kneads, breaks, and works it in fuch amanner as to make the falt mix intimately with it; and when fhe thinks fhe has fully effeGled this purpofe, fhe pours fome fpring or other cold water over the whole; and, by again working the butter, wathes it free from the brine, and from any milky fubftance, which by the falting, and the repetition of kneading, preffing,&c. may have been expreffed. The different operations of butter-making being thus performed, all that remains is to weigh and make it up into the form in which it is moft faleable. The ufual form in which it is expofed to fale is in rolls; but it is fometimes made into circular cakes of about three or four inches diameter, and about an inch thick, and on the top of which figures are impreffed by means of a wooden print carved for the purpofe. After the butter, in well-managed dairies, js weighed and made up for market, it is ufually placed in cold water till the period tor fending it to market arrives. The quantity of butter produced from a given quantity of milk depends on a variety of particulars; as the quality of the milk, the age and quality of the paftures on which the cows are maintained, and whether the milk be allowed to ftand a fuffhi- cient time to throw up the whole cream which it contains. But on a medium four gallons of milk will produce fixteen ounces of butter; and the quantity which a dairy of cows of any magnitude, in regard to numbers, may be fuppofed to yield, may be rated at fix pounds each per week in fummer, and from four to five in winter, according to the manner of feeding them. In Suffolk they find that four gallons and a halfof milk afford a quart of cream, which, when made into butter, weighs one pound and three quarters. Mr. Abdy found the average quantity of butter made by a cow per week to be four pounds, of fixteen ounces, and the whole in nine months, one hundred and fifty-fix pounds*, befides the advantage of fix fhillings a-piece for three pigs. Ibs. d. aati god Les de * 156 at r1operlb. 6 10 o—Butat the prefent price, 1 3- oor Calf- Bf} ve) ditto-- 2= Le Bric.= o-18 o ditto-- en eee yin(Sh Yo) Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Making of Checfe. 1009 An inferior fort of butter is often made from whey, where checfe is the principal obje&t of the dairy*. Making of Cheefe.—In the procefs of cheefe-making, as in moft of the other opera- tions of the dairy, there 1s a want of precifion, from few experiments having been made, and thofe with but little chemical exaétnefs. Asthe bufinefs ftands at prefent, the whole is conducted at random by mere cuftom. The circumftances that would feem to particularly demand attention in this art are, the /ea/on; the method of milk- ing; the nature of the milk; the preparation of the rennet; the mode of colouring; the breaking and gathering the curd; the management of the cheefe in the cheefe-prefs; the method of falting; and the management in the cheefe-room. Sea/on.—It is fuppofed that the beft feafon for making cheefe is during thofe months *[The methods of conducting the procefs in this cafe are thus ftated by Mr. Donaldfon:— < In fome dairies the whole whey, when taken from the cheefe-tub, is put into{keels or other veffels, where it remains about twenty-four hours, when it is creamed, and the whey applied to the ufe of the calves and pigs, the latter of which are{aid to thrive as well on it after the latter has been taken from it as before. And the cream, when fkimmed off the whey, is put into a brafs pan and boiled, and afterwards fet in pans or jars, where it remains till a fufficient quantity for a churning be procured, which in large dairies happens generally once, but fometimes twice, in the week.” Inothers“the green whey is put almoft immediately from the cheefe-tub into the furnace-pan, where it is fcalded. When it acquires the proper degree of fcalding-heat, cold water, or fome white whey is occafionally put in; this caufes the whey to break, and throw up a thick white fort of fcum, fomewhat refembling cream, which the dairy-maid keeps conftantly fkimming off as it rifes, and which fhe puts into cream-jugs or jars, where it remains till the ufual time of churning. In the dairies where the green whey is fcalded, the runnings, except a little that is kept for the purpofe of forcing the green whey when{calding, to throw up the cream, are ufually fet in fkeels or jars, in the fame manner as the milk from the cows; and the cream, when taken off, being added to that procured by{calding, is churned in the ordinary way.” «¢ In two experiments made for the purpofe of afcertaining the nature of making butter from whey, Mr. Robertfon found the refult the fame, though the procefs was differently conducted. In one, the whey had ftood twenty-four hours after being taken from the curd before it was put to the fire; but in the other it was put on quite warm and frefh immediately from the curd; the quality as well as quantity were alike in both thefe methods.” “ The quantity of butter procured from whey is confiderable: in two inftances, where particular atten- tion was beftowed toafcertain the faét, not lefs than about an ounce and ahalf from the gallon. In re- jueftionably inferior to that of butter made from the cream of milk, or from the milk and cream churned together, but not fo much fo as flated by Mr. Marfhall in his Rural Economy of Gloucefterthire, which is one-third. In the Report of the County of Leicefter it is indeed obferved,“ that whey butter fells for nine-pence per pound, when other butter f gard to the quality, it is unc ells from ten-pence to eleven-pence; and alfo, that eighteen cows will make about feventeen pounds”(fixteen ounces each) of whey-butter per week; which is a circumftance, Mr. Donaldfon thinks,“that certainly merits the attention of thofe who are in the practice of making either one-meal or two-meal cheefes.” 6N 1010 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—-Making of Chee when the cows can be fed on the paftures; that is, from the beginning May till towards the end of September, or, in favourable feafons, the:| yber, On many of the larger dairy farms in feveral diftricts, cheefe is ntly made throughout the year; but that made during the winter months is faid to| ynfider- ably inferior in quality, and much longer in becoming fit for fale, or for ufe, than that which is made within the above period*. In Gloucefterfhire the feafon of makin g thin cheefe is from April to November; but the principal one for making shick is during the months of May, June, and the beginning of July. Ifmade laterin the fummer, they are found not to acquire a fufficient degree of firmnefs to be marketable the enfuing fpring+. But where the cows are well fed in the winter feafon, in the manner advifed above, good cheefe may undoubtedly be made at that time Milking.—The times of milking are different in different cheefe-diftri€ts: in Che- fhire they are in the fummer feafon at fix o’clock both morning and evening, and in winter at day-light in the morning and immediately before dark in the evening. But in Wilts, Suffolk, and fomeother counties, the people are frequently employed in milk-. ing by four o’clock in the morning in fummer; and the bufinefs in a dairy of forty or fifty cows is nearly completed before the period at which it commences in Chefhiret. The latter would feem the moft preferable practice; as when the cows are brought home to the farm-yard, which is the beft method where the paftures are within a fhort diftance, they are milked unfettered, and the bufinefs is over be- fore the heat increafes fo much as to make the cows reftlefs and unruly. The farmer himfelf, or fome careful perfon, fhould always attend the milking of the cows, for the double purpofe of feeing the work properly done, and carrying the milk in large buckets, into which it has been occafionally emptied from the pails, to the dairy, to be poured through a ftrainer into coolers for the purpofe, or the cheefe- tub, preparatory to applying the rennet. In all well-managed dairies particular attention fhould be paid to the thorough milking of the cows; as where this is omitted the cows are not only apt to go dry, but become more liable to be difeafed. Befides, it has been fhown that the laft part of the milk is very greatly fuperior in quality to that which is firft drawn from the bag. The expeditious cooling of the milk, by putting it into leaden or other pans, is found of much utility in retarding the procefs of fermentation in the fammer feafon, and thereby preventing the milk from turning into a ftate of acidity. But in winter jt is obvioufly unneceflary. It has been fuggefted, that when the feafonishot the * Modern Agriculture,{ Ibid, t Marthall’s Rural Economy of Gloucefterthire. Cultivation of Grafs-Land,— Making of Chee/e. 1011 quality of the cheefe might be improved, and the difficulty of its being made leffened, by cooling down the milk as foon as poffible by repeatedly drawing off and returning it to the cooler. Quality of the Milk.—It is obvious that on the quality of the milk the goodnefs of the cheefe, with common management, mult in a great meafure depend. The quantity of cream that is ufed is generally in practice different, according as they are one-meal or two-meal cheefes. In Chethire“ the general cuftom, however, in the beft dairies, is to take about a pint of cream, when two-meal cheefes are made, from the night's milk of twenty cows. In order to make cheefe of the beft quality and in the greateft abundance, it is admitted that the cream fhould remain in the milk; but whether the cream that is once feparated from it can by any means be again fo intimately united with it as not to undergo a decompofition in the after-procefs, admits of fome doubt. There is, at leaft, no abfurdity in attempting to prevent the feparation of two bodies which it is the profeffed intention to unite again. If a cheefe made en- tirely of the night’s milk on which the cream has rifen be as rich as one made of new milk, all other cireumftances being alike, it is a proof that milk and cream after being feparated may, by heating alone, become as it were new milk again. Experiment alone can decide this point: but the practice here is to unite the milk and cream, as will be fhown hereafter; and the dairymen fay, that when fo united it differs not from new milk as to the purpofes of cheefe-making*.” If the whole milking be directly made ufe of in its fimple ftate for the cheefe, it is denominated a one-meal cheefe; but where two milkings are blended,,or ¢wo-meal cheefe made, the quality of the milk ufed differs confiderably; in fome cafes the whole of the cream of the firft meal is abftracted, and in all cafes a certain portion. In fome dairies the milk of the firft meal is fet in the leads or other veflels as ufual; and as it is the evening’s milk that is in common added to the fucceeding morning’s, the operation of cheefe-making begins immediately after that of the morning milking is completed, as about five or fix o’clock.‘The cream of the evening milk being fkimmmed off, the milk is carried and put into the cheefe-tub, referving fome-— times a half, fometimes a third, but more frequently only three or four gallons, to be applied as below. The milk referved, in any of thefe proportions, after being put intoa brafs pan and made fealding hot, by placing the pan on a furnace or in a veflel of hot water, is one half of it poured into the cheefe-tub among the cold milk, and the other into the pan in which the cream had been put, The cream * Agricultural Report, sto. 6N2 1012 Cultivation of Gra/s-Land.— Making of Cheefe. and the hot milk being intimately incorporated, the whole is poured into the cheefe- tub, which by this time has received a great addition, if not the whole of the morning’s milk, warm from the cows,- Thus the different meals’ milk forms, as it were, a fluid of the fame nature, equal in quality and temperature, and to which the rennet is applied in the ufual manner. This re-union, or, in the dairy phrafe, melting the cream, is probably the beft method praétifed; but it is, we believe, not fo effectual in forming cheefe of the beft quality as that where the milk is entirely new, In making /Rim-milk-cheefes the milk is fet in the leads or pans as ufual, in which ftate it remains longer. or fhorter, according to the weather, care being taken to fkim off the cream, or to drain off the milk, in proper time, before it begins to acquire a fourith tafte. If that fhould at any time happen, either from the exceffive heat of the weather, or owing to fome inattention in the ge- neral management; in place of putting the fkim-milk upon the furnace to give it that degree of heat fuppofed to be neceffary for facilitating the coagulation after the rennet is applied, and which is the ufual practice, the method is, to put it directly into the cheefe-tub, and to pour in fuch a quantity of hot water as will give the wifhed-for temperature. By this means, the rifk of the milk breaking while heat- ing on the furnace, which when not quite fweet and frefh it isapt to do, is avoided without inconvenience in other refpeéts. In this fort of milk it is neceflary to add fomewhat more rennet than is ufually applied to a fimilar quantity of milk, which contains either the whole or a great portion of the cream. Preparing the Rennet.—Milk may be coagulated, or turned into a curdled ftate, by the application of any fort of acid; but that fubftance which is moft commonly ufed in the making of cheefe is the maw or ftomach of a young calf prepared for the pur- pofe, and which is generally denominated rennet. The maws, which ufually containa curdled kind of fubftance, on being purchafed from the butcher, are opened, and the curd or thick fubfiance taken out: this, having been repeatedly wathed in cold water, as well as the bag which containedit, is again replaced with a confiderable addition of falt, and then packed in ajar, into which is poured a very firong brine of falt and water. In many inftances the maws are allowed to remain in this ftate for about twelve months before ufing; in others, after having remained for fome time covered with the brine, they are taken out; and an additional quantity of falt being applied, they are hung up in the dairy, or fome other convenient place, to dry, and remain in that ftate till wanted for ufe. But, from the preparation in this mode being made at different times, there Cultivation of Grafs- Land. Making of Cheefe. 1013 muft be a great difference in their ftrength, and of courfein their effects, cither when made ufe of after being fieeped in fome fort of liquid, or in the piece. Whether the proportion of rennet neceflary fora feafon be kept in drine or pickled, and afterwards dried, the beft method, as attended with the greateft degree of certainty in regard to its being of equal ftrength and quality, 1s to extract the fubftance from the whole at once. Thisis frequently the cafe in Chefhire, but in few other diftricts. In preparing thefe fubftances it is therefore, probably, a better praétice to put the whole of the maws into an open veffel, and to pour in two or three pints of fpring water for each, according tothe number. In this ftate they fhould be allowed to{tand about twenty-four hours. They then may be taken out and put into other veflels, with about half the quantity of water, and allowed to remain for a hike period, then wholly removed and thrown afide as no longer of ufe,and the firft and fecond infufions mixed together, and ftrained through a fieve into ajar or other veffel, a confiderable quantity of falt being added. This liquor is then fit for ufe, and requires no after- management beyond that of taking off the fcum that ufually rifes to the top, and of adding a little falt when that already in the jar is nearly diffolved. About half a pint of this preparation, wine meafure, is moftly fufficient for coagulating fuch a quantity of milk as will make fixty pounds of cheefe. When a portion is taken out, the liquor fhould be well ftirred up. Other modes of preparing this fubftance are in ufe, but perhaps without affording any fuperiority. Colouring—From the practice of colouring cheefe having been fo long common in the cheefe-diftriA’s, it is probable that thofe of the beft quality would be in a great - meafure unfaleable, if they did not poflefs the requifite colour. he degree of colour is regulated chiefly by the name under which it is intended the cheefe fhould be fold. The introduction of this praétice originated in the intention of conveying an idea of richnefs; but the leaneft cheefe always requires the greateft quantity: of colour to bring it to the proper appearance*.‘The material which is ufually employed for this purpofe is Spanifh arnetta. The weight ofa guinea and a half of it is confi- dered in Chethire fufficient for a cheefe of 6o0lbs.; and in Gloucefterfhire an ounce is the common allowance to the hundred weight.—There are different ways of prepar= ing as well as of applying it. The method ufed in Chefhire is, when the dye is wanted in the morning, to tie up the neceflary quantity of pounded arnettaina linen rag, and to put it into about half a pint of warm water in the preceding evening. In the morning, immediately before applying the rennet, the infufion of arnetta is poured into the milk, and the mixture is then well ftirred about, fo as to make the * Chefhire 4to Report. 1014 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Making of Cheefe. milk and the dye incorporate intimately together. In other diftricts it is common to rub a piece of unpounded arnetta, after having been previoufly dipped in milk, on a fmooth ftone, in the fame manner that paint is ground.‘The colouring thus obtained is mixed with the milk in the cheefe-tub, in the manner and at the period before mentioned, care being taken to prevent any of the unreduced particles of arnetta from falling into it. Setting the Curd.—The degree of temperature which milk ought to poffefs, fo as to be in the beft poffible condition for applying the rennet, is a point by no means fully decided. It is, however, admitted that the quantity and quality, or texture of the curd, depend much on the length of time the curd is in forming, and that on the quantity and firength of the coagulum employed, the ftate of the atmofphere, and the heat of the milk, at the period of its being. mixed*. In this matter the * Mr. Marfhall obferves that“it is known from daily experience, that the warmer the milk is when the rennet is put to it, the fooner it will coagulate with a given quantity of rennet of a given firength. It is equally well known, that the cooler the milk, and the longer it is in coagulating, the more tender and delicate the curd becomes: on the contrary, ifthe milk be too hot, and the coagulation takes place too rapidly, the curd proves tough and harfh. But it feems to be a fact equally well efta- blifhed, that a cheefe made from milk which has been coolly and flowly coagulated, is longer before it be- comes marketable than one made from milk which has undergone a lefs deliberate coagulation; and which being drier, and of a harfher texture, fooner becomes cheefey and fit for the tafter. Therefore, the great art in this ftage of the procefs lies in the degree of warmth of the milk when fe‘; that is, when the rennet is put to it; or in the degree of heat retained by the curd when it comes, that is, when the coagulation has fufficiently taken place; or in the length of time between the fetting and coming. Which length of time may be regulated either by the degree of the warmth of the milk when fet; or by the ftate of warmth in which it is kept during the time of coagulation; or by the quantity and ftrength, taken jointly, of the rennet.” With a view to obtain fome information on this fubjeGt, he made the following experiments:— “ In 1781, June 5, twenty-three gallons of milk, heated to ninety-fix degrees of Fahrenheit’s fcale, with two tea-cupfuls of weakifh rennet, came in one hour; the curd delicate and good. 6th. The fame quantity of milk, of the fame heat, with one tea-cupful of rennet, came in nearly the fame time; the curd fomewhat tough; owing, probably, to the milk having been burnt to the kettle in which it was heated, 7th. Twenty-feven gallons of milk, heated to ninety-four degrees, with the fame quantity of rennet, came in about two hours; the curd very good. 8th. Twenty-fix gallons of milk, heated to one hundred and two degrees, with one tea-cupful of rennet, came in two hours and a half; curd very good. 9th, Twenty-five gallons of milk, heated to-one hundred degrees, with a tea-cupful and a half of rennet, came in about one hour anda half; the curd good, but fomewhat tough; owing, perhaps, to the milk being kept too warm in the cheefe-tub, by being covered up clofe with a thick cloth. It 1s noted, that on the feventh and eighth the whey retained a heat of about eighty-eight degrees, whereas the whey this morning was ninety-two degrees: fo that, perhaps, it is not the heat when it is fet, but the heat when it comes, which gives the quality of the curd. roth. Twenty-five gallons: ninety-fix de- grees: two cups, uncovered, came in two hours and a quarter: whey eighty-feven degrees: curd very Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Making of Chegfe. 1015 practice of almoft every particular dairy differs from that of another, That which is adopted in Chethire is, that the loweft degree of heat which milk ought to poflefs, when the rennet is applied, is one half of that of the milk from the cow; tender. rth. Twenty-three gallons: one hundred degrees: more than a tea-cup: uncovered: did not come in two hours; owing to the rennet being lower in ftrength than before: therefore, added a little more rennet: which brought it in about three hours from the firft fetting: the whey eighty-feven degrees; the curd uncommonly tender, 12th. Twenty-four gallons of milk: one hundred degrees: two cups of rennet: uncovered: came in two hours:. whey eighty-nine degrees: curd uncommonly tender. 13th. Twenty-eight gallons of milk: ninety-two degrees: three cups(fay ftrongly renneted) covered up with a coarfe linen cloth: came in one hour anda half: whey eighty-fix degrees: curd very good, and of a very fine colour: though perhaps would have handled tenderer if it had not ftood fome time after it came before it was broken up. Perhaps, fays he, much depends on its being broken up in the critical minute. r4th. Twenty-eight gallons: one hundred degrees: two cupfuls: uncovered: came in one hour and a quarter: whey ninety-four degrees: curd fomewhat harfh, but of a good colour. The change of colour, therefore, he thinks owing to the change of pafture. «¢ He here notes, that the milk fhould be covered to make it come together: this came and grew hard at the bottom half an hour before it was fet at the top. 15th. Twenty-eight gallons: milk heated to ninety-five degrees: with two cups of rennet; and covered after it had ftood three quarters of an hour: came in one hour and a half: whey eighty-nine degrees(the morning warm): curd very good and tender. 16th. Thirty gallons of milk heated to one hundred and three degrees, but lowered by two pails fuil of cold water to ninety-fix degrees; with two cups and a half of rennet; and kept clofe covered: came in one hour: whey ninety-four degrees: curd pretty good, but not fufficiently tender. 17th. Twenty- eight gallons: ninety-feven degrees: two cups and a half: covered; but not clofe: came in one hour and a half: whey not tried: curd fomewhat tough. It is noted, that the toughnefs was owing, perhaps, to fome milk of a new-calved cow being among it. And, alfo, to try the exaét heat of milk im- mediately from the cow, immerged a difh in the pail while milking. After it had lain long enough to receive a cegree of heat equal to that of the milk in the pail, emptied it, and immediately milked into it from the teat(the cow being at this time about half milked); the heat ninety-five degrees; and like=- wife, that the cheefes of yefterday(the 16th of June) prefs remarkably elaftic, and fpungy, like a fungus: perhaps owing to the milk’s coming too hot; or perhaps to two or three of the cows being then a-bulling; or perhaps, being made thicker than ufual, the prefs was not heavy enough for them: or perhaps this ill quality is owing to the cold water being put into the milk. He afterwards found that milk of a cow, on the day of amour, retained, after having ftood for fome time in the pail after milking, ninety-eight degrees of heat. This fhows that the ftate, if not the quality, of the milk is altered by the heat of the cow; anda cautious dairy-woman always endeavours to keep fuch milk out of her cheefe- tub.‘ “ June 18th. Thirty gallons: ninety-five degrees: covered: came in one hour and a half: whey ninety-two degrees: curd pretty good. 19th. Thirty gallons: ninety-two degrees: two cups covered: curd very good. 21ft. Thirty gallons: ninety-eight degrees: lowered by half a pail of cold water to ninety-five degrees: the curd good; but the cheefes, like thofe of the 16th prefs, hollow and fpungy. Therefore it is probable, from thefe two incidents, that lowering the heat of the milk with cold water has an evil effect. 23d,(Evening) fifteen gallons of new milk warm from the cow, retaining I 1016 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.— Making of Cheefe. the higheft about twice the natural warmth. From this it is inferred,“ that by the time a large dairy of cows can be milked, and the milk be put together for the purpofe of artificial coagulation, the dairy-maid will not err materially by applying the rennet immediately afterwards*.” This rule is however very uncertain, and liable to exception, on account of the variation in the feafons, and the frequent and great changes that take place in the ftate of the weather in the fame feafon. Accordingly,‘in all dairies remarkable for cheefe of a fuperior quality, the heat of the milk, before the rennet is applied, is raifed or lowered, by the addition of warm milk or of cold water, to that degree which, in the practice of the particular dairy, is found from experience the moft eligibie}.” The milk produced on poor clayey lands is found to require more warming than that afforded by fuch as are rich, for where this is much heated the procefs is rendered more difficult. The frothy matter arifing in confequence of the air that is entangled with the new milk in pouring it into the cheefe-tub, is in all cafes carefully{kimmed off, and put into the cream- veffels. It is thought“ furprifing that in large dairies the ufe of the thermometer is not as well known as that of the /Aimming-difh of well-conducted experiments, the temperature the moft proper for milk to poffefs as to afcertain with precifion, by a courfe at the time the rennet is applied, could not fail to be greatly in favour of the quality of the cheefe, and would, in all probability, tend to prevent the cracking, blifiering, a heat of ninety-two degrees, with two cups and a half of new weak rennet, and clofely covered, came in three quarters of an hour: whey eighty-eight degrees: curd very delicateand good, 25th. Forty gallons of half-fkimmed milk, heated to eighty-feven degrees, with three cups of rennet, flightly covered, came in three quarters of an hour: whey feventy-nine degrees: curd remarkably good of this fort. On September 8, in obferving the effeét of fome remarkable ftrong rennet, he found that an ordinary tea- - 202 10 oO changing their pafture, felling cheefe,&c. 4©©O By calves-* TS) cOut.e To dairy women, 4s. 6d. per week- 1114 0 By butter---£0) 16) O To dairy utenfils, candles, falt, brufhes, By hogs«®~ 25 0@ mops, and all other articles- mie AO) O pa i fc tes To arnetta-==: See lee On Oo 252 10 O To rent, thirty acres of fummer pafture, eet 40s.=---- oh 601.0.- 0 To fkimming the fame, and making fix tons of hay---= 350... 0 To rent of fifteen acres mown ground, 40s. 30 0 QO To making the hay, fay thirty tons, at 12s. per acre-=-= 9 9 fo) To tithe, taxes,&c. fay-- NO= On06 139 0 O To profit, intereft of money, and the decreafing value of cowsincluded- 113 10 0 252 10 Oo N. B. A large dairy might be kept for 25s. per cow. * At this time(January 1797) cheefe of laft year’s making is worth three pounds per hundred. + Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXII. t Ibid. 1024 Cultivation of Grafs-Land—Making of Cheefe. et four orfive months old,(which in the year 1788 cofi about 18s. a piece,) and keep them on fkimmed milk for the fpace of a month, and then fell them at the profit of about 6s. The proportion in which they are kept is about that of one to every three cows in milk; which, as their long-horned Derbythire breed of cows moftly continue to milk for nine months, will be in the ratio of three pigs to each cow, or eighteen fhillings, but at the prefent prices more than thirty fhillings. Grazing.—There are particular fituations and kinds of grafs land on which this fyftem of management may be had recourfe to with much more profit and fuccefs than that of dairying. This is moftly the cafe in all thofe diftricts where the extent of arable land is inconfiderable when compared with that which is in the ftate of pafture, and of courfe the value of grafs-produce but fmall, in comparifon to that of fattened animals. In all the traéts of grafs land that are fufficiently fine and rich enough in quality to fatten oxen or other large cattle, this practice may be adopted and carried on with profit and adyantage, and is probably the beft application of {uch lands that can beattempted. This indeed is fully fhown by moft of the rich, fine, marfhy, or other tracts of grafs land in different parts of the kingdom being almoft invariably condu@ted under fome branch of the grazing tyflem. The fuccefs of this practice, like thofe of moft others employed in the art of huf- bandry, will depend on different circumftances; as the fituation and quality of the land, the accuracy of the management in regard to the method of fiocking and feeding it; the nicety of the farmer’s judgment in adapting the animals in nature, fize and quality to its particular condition; and, above all, to his difcernment in feleGing fuch ftock, of whatever kind it may be, as is perfectly healthy and difpofed to fatten, as well asin obtaining it at fuch price as that it may pay well for the keep beftowed upon it; and in ultimately difpofing of it, when brought into proper con= dition, to the beft advantage. The ftoc.. ng of grazing lands with a proper kind of animals is probably one of the The encouragement of the dairy is on the whole ftrongly recommended, but only on condition that a different fort of management be adopted from that now praétifed, in refpe&t to the feeding of the cows, which are almoft univerfally depaftured in the fields both fummer and winter: in confequence of which, the dung produced even by a large dairy is trifling indeed; whence arifes a manifeft declenfion in the fertility ofthe land, and a grazing farm may be diftinguifhed at a great diftance from a dairy one- *< In this exhaufted ftate({ays the author) the dairy land muft remain, unlefs a different fyftem of manage- ment be fuccefsfully inculcated.” It is therefore fuggefted that all dairy farms fhould be accompanied with a ove proportion of arable, as perhaps a fourth part, for the purpofe of raifing various kinds of crops as winter food, fuch as have been noticed; and that proper ftalls and bartons be ereted as a refidence for the cows during the winter months, in which they may be foiled with thefe produétions. I Cultivation of Grafs-Land.— Grazing, 1025 moft nice and difficult points in the whole range of farming. Inthenatural ftate, fuch animals are in general produced on the lands as are fuited to the ftate and nature of their herbage: thus, in the mountainous diflrid’s, where the grafs is{hort and light, the{mall breeds of both cattle and fheep prevail; while in the low, rich, marfhy, or other paftures, where the grafs is more full and luxuriant, we have the larger breeds of thefe different animals. It will therefore be neceffary, in this bufinefs, for the farmer to confider two things: firft, what fort of ftock may be the moft proper for the particular kind of land on which they are to be grazed; and, in the fecond place, what forts may afford the greateft profit in the confumption of the herbage. It will probably in moft cafes be found, that upon the ftrong and more dry rich paf- tures the larger forts of cattle and fheep will be the moft proper, and turn out te the greateft advantage; but that-on fuch as are lefs dry and luxuriant the different fmaller breeds of cattle, as well as fheep, may be found to pay the beft. This is in fome degree proved by the practice of the graziers in different ditri@s. On the rich lands in Suffex* and Lincolnfhire, as well as other grazing counties, they pre- fer the large breeds of cattle as well as fheep for the purpofe; while in many others that are lefs fertile, the fmaller forts are found more to the advantage of the grazing farmer. In paftures where the grafs is fhort, fheep are moftly the proper fort of fiock. But befides this circumftance of adapting the ftock to the nature and fituation of the land, the properties of the breeds muft be attended to, Thofe forts, whether cattle or fheep, which have the property of keeping themfelves fat, or intolerable condition, with the leaft expenditure of food, fhould be conftantly preferred, what- ever the fize or breed may be. It is a quality that has been obferved to be of much greater importance to the grazier than thatof fize, abfiraG@edly confidered f. It has been well obferved, that where the grazier has fine and rich paftures, he may“ choofe his beafts as large as he can find them, provided they are of the right breed and fhape; but let him always prefer fhape to fize; for it will affuredly pay him better.” And it is added that‘ thofe who are upon indifferent grafs muft take care to proportion the fize of their beafts to the goodnefs of their pattures; their cattle had much better be too fmall than too large; there are vaft tracis of Jand that will” anfwer well in grazing, which are not good enough to fupport large breeds.” The fame thing, probably, holds gocdin agreat meafure with refpe& to theep. Where the ftock is bred upon the land, there will be little difficulty in fixing * Synopfis of Hufbandry.+ Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXII.+ Ibid. 6P 1026 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.— Grazing. upon fuch animals as are the moft fuitable in thefe different intentions; but as it will frequently be neceffary for the farmer to purchate his fiock at fairs and other places, much care and attention, as well as knowledge, will be requifite for him to do it in the moft advantageous manner. It is of great importance in this bufinefs to provide fuch as have been kept in a proper manner, and are in ahealthy, thriving condition; as, where the contrary is the cafe, they are dificult, and require a much greater length of time, to be brought into the ftate proper for fale than would other- wife have been neceflary. It is perhaps experience alone that can qualify the grazier to form a correct judgment in thefe refpeéts: in general, however, he is led to the choice of ftock by no fixed or fcientific principles, but by the impreffion the ap-~ pearances of the animals bave upon him. It has been obferved that the experienced grazier, who has been accuftomed to attend fairs and markets, knows at fight, or by the afliftance of the flighteft touch, whether the animals he is about to purchafe will fuit him.‘Their general form and looks pleafehim.‘They are every where clean; have little offal about them; their eyes are full and vivid; their countenances brifk; their fkins alive, and their flefh mellow. On the whole, they have the refemblance of thofe which have been grazed before with fuccefs. Others are rejected, from the grazicr not having found any fuch as they refemble to have done well, but many to have turned out in an unprofitable manner*. There are, however, principles in this branch of the farmer’s bufinefs which may be attended to with great advantage, as the animals have certain points or parts, the proper or improper forms of which denote them to be valuable or the contrary for this purpofe. Thefe are, that the legs fhould be fhort in proportion to the fize of the animal; the back very ftraight, broad and flat; the loins wide; the carcafe deep round, or rather barrel-fhaped below; the fore-quarters round, full, and fpreading; the bones fmall; the fleth affording an elaflic fee); the fkin thin, and a difpofition to fatten well, and on the beft parts, Where thefe marks are predominant, the ftock is mofily fuitable for the purpofes of the grazier. It bas likewife been remarked, that where the hair of the bide, in fattening cattle, js inclined to curl inftead of being ftraight, they are moft difpofed to thrive. This has heen found to be the cafe in pra¢tice in different parts of the kingdom f. In lean beafts alfo, when the hair of the hides is curled, they commonly keep themfelves in better condition than where the contrary is the cafe. In all eafes a difpofition in the animals, of whatever fort they may be, to wildnefs, and not remaining quietly in * Marthall’s Rural Economy of Midland Counties, Vol. I. + Annals of Agriculture, and Weight’s Hufbandry in Scotland. Cultivation of Grafs-Land.——Grazing. 1027 the paftures, forms an infurmountable objection in this fyftem of management; as no animal ever fattens well that has a tendency to ramble: itis quictnefs, feeding quickly, and lying much, that has the greateft tendency to make them become fat ina fhort time. From the refult of aStual experiment with four different beafts, in which the leaft poffible difference could not be difcovered on the moft minute examination, it has been fhown that too much attention cannot be beftowel in the choice of the breed of fattening ftock, as, though they were in every refpe& the fame in appearance, two, from their fuperior difpofition to fatten, were found to af- ford a profit in the proportion of fifteen fhillings the week, while the other two did not yield more than about five fhillings and tenpence*. In different fituations different forts of both cattle and fheep mufi often be pre- ferred from the eafe and convenience of procuring them; but the graziers in the midland difiriéts for the moft part find that variety of the long-horned, termed the Craven breed, to anfwer the beft, as having the moft advantageous form, and the greateft difpofition to fatten readily, efpecially as improved by Mr. Bakewell. In Lincolnfhire fome prefer the large fhort-horned breed, others long-horned, with a mixture of other kinds; as the different forts of Scotch, and fuch as are bred in the neighbourhood. In Somerfetfhire the dark red Devonfhire breed is the moft pre- vailing fort, which have alfo of late been more in demand by the beft graziers in Lei~ cefterthire, Oxfordthire, and Warwickthire. In the London markets thefe are faid to come next to the Galloway Scots that are fattened by the Norfolk and Suffolk graziers, in the finenefs of the grain of their flefh and their internal fatnefs+. The -Cumberland and other North Country graziers moftly employ the home breeds, which are in general of the long-horned kind, with both the Scotch breeds, the Kiloe and Galloway. They find the Kiloes the quickeft feeders, the Galloways the next, and their own the floweft- The Herefordthire, Glamorganfhire, and Suffolk Polled. brecds are all found valuable as grazing flock in different fituations§. The breeds of the particular neighbourhood, as well as cattle of the finall Welth or Scotch kind, may often be the moft profitable where the grafs lands are not ofa rich or fertile nature, as the fize of thefe may be more eafily proportioned to the qua- lity or goodnefs of the lands; and there are fcarcely any fo indifferent as not to be capable of bringing the fmalleft to a fufficient fiate of fatnefs for the market. In regard to the defcriptions of this fort of ftock that may be employed with the * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XIV.+ Billingfley in Somerfetfhire Report. 3 CorreSted Report of Cumberland and Northumberland,§ Ibid. GP2 1028 Cultivation of Gra/s-Land.— Grazing. greateft profit by the grazing farmer, they are unqueftionably oxen and fpayed heifers, the latter in general fattening not only much better, but more expedi+ tioufly*, but are not capable of being procured with fuch facility; and of the former kind, fuch as have been accuftomed to work are preferred in almoft every grazing diftri@, as both fattening more kindly, and making better beef than others that have not been employed in that way+. When killed at a great age, after being kept to work, the beef has been found extremely good{. In fome cafes cows that have become dry, as well as fuch old cows as are found unfit for other ufes, are purchafed by the grazier for the purpofe of fattening; but the danger of fuccefs in thefe inftances is always confiderably greater: of courfe, though they occafionally turn out to much advantage, fuch as have been mentioned above are conttantly to be preferred. Cows, efpecially thofe that are of much age, fcarcely ever fatten well, and never in a quick manner: they can therefore hardly ever be equally profitable for the ufes of the grazier as thofe of other fort of young ftock. Whenever cows are employed forthe purpofe of grazing, they fhould conflantly be let take the bull either before they are turned into the paftures, or as foon after as poffible, and be always in a flate fit for the market at leaft three months before the period of their calving. In this bufinefs, rather young or middle-aged cattle ftock are perhaps always to be as much preferred as poflible, from their having in general a greater propenfity to thrive and become fat. And it is of material confequence, as has been juft men-~ tioned, that they. are in a good thriving condition when bought in;.as_ when this is the cafe they become fat with lefs food, and in a much fhorter fpace of time. In regard. to fheep f{tock, it is probable that in general the large improved long- woolled breeds may be the mofi profitable on the more rich and produtive paftures; bat on thofe where there is a lefs degree of fertility, and the grafs is fhorter, the more finall fhort-woolled improved breeds are preferable for the ufes of the grazier. In the firft of thefe cafes, that fort which is termed the New Leicefter has of late years had numerous advocates, and is, perhaps, when all. its. properties are confidered, to be in general preferred.to any of the other long-woolled breeds: though, in particular inftances of very. rich grazing lands, in the view of wool, there are, other forts that may probably be more advantageous.. Where wethers.are capable of being procured of the New Leicefier kind, they moftly turn. out an excellent {tock for the grazing farmer. Jn the latter inftance the South, Downs are in, common the moft advantageous fort, as net being.exceeded, perhaps, by any of * Lifle’s Hufbandry, Vol. IL+ Ibid.+ Annals of Agriculture, a are Cultivation of Grafs-Land.— Grazing. 1029 the fhort- or middling-woolled breeds. There are many other breeds‘of both the long and the fhort-woolled kinds that may be employed with equal if not greater advantage in particular fituations, and under particular circumftances. In Somerfetthire the Polled theep of the lower part of that diftri& have lately gained ground over thofe of the Dorfetthire fheep, formerly the prevailing fort by the beft grazing farmers, They afford a large fhear of wool, fatten quickly, and particularly on the internal parts. They are fuppofed capable of improvement by crofling with the new Leicefter breed*. The Romney Marfh graziers principally employ the white-faced Polled and the South Down breeds, both of which they find profitable on their lands.‘The Cumberland graziers chiefly ftock with the true black-faced Heath and Cheviot breeds of fheep, the former of which they find the more quick feeders, as well as more hardy+. It has been obferved to be an advantage in the grazing of fheep, to procure them from fituations where the lands are lefs rich than thofe on which they are to be fat- tened, as under fuch circumftances they are found to thrive in a more rapid manner, and, from their bearing the pen or fold with lefs injury, become fat in a fhorter fpace of time f. In the fyftem of grazing management, many different methods of practice are employed, both in refpect to neat cattle and fheep. With fomegraziers it is a method to purchafe their cattle in the fairs in theautumn feafon, about October orin the following month, fupporting them, during the winter, principally with ftraw, or fometimes, which is a much better practice, witha little hay mixed with it, tilltowards the beginning of March, continuing their fattening through that and the fucceeding month with fome fort of fucculent food, fuch as turnips, potatoes, or other fimilar kinds, until the grafs be in a ftate fit to be turned upon in May, on which they may be carried forward and completed according to circumftances about Augufi, orin the following month. Another method of management is to purchafe the beafts lean, as foon as the grafs lands are in a flate fit to be turned upon in May, wholly completing their fat- tening on the grafs about the latter end of October, or later in the autumn, ac- cording to their quicknefs in feeding. In this fyftem of practice the fmaller forts of cattle ftock may be found in general the moft advantageous, efpecially where the lands are not of the moft fertile or luxuriant kind. The grazier has alfo fometimes recourfe to another mode of procceding in his * Somerfet Report.+ Cumberland Report.+ Kent’s Hints, 1030 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Grazing. fy ftem of fattening neat cattle; but which is, we believe, in general lefs profitable than either of the preceding methods: this is that of buying in his ftock at fuch periods, according to the difference in their fizes, as that they may be ready to be difpofed of about April, or in the fucceeding month, a period at which they ufually fetch a high price. In this fyftem, with large oxen or other forts of beafts, it is fometimes the practice to keep them through two winters, giving them only one faummer’s grafs; being in the firft winter not fully fed, but kept in good grafs in the fummer. feafon, and forced on with the beft feeding in the fecond; but with the fmaller forts of ftock, one fummer’s grafs and a winter's ftalling is the ufual mode; the cattle being bought in as foon in the{pring as the grafs is rifen to a good bite. In fome diftrits heifers are preferred to oxen, in which cafe they buy them in about March or April, and, after keeping them through the fummer, fell in Odober and November. This method is thought by fome a profitable fyftem of ma- nagement. All thofe methods may probably be pratifed with advantage under dif- ferent circumftances; but it is obvious that the firft can only be had recourfe to with propriety where green winter food is raifed in fufficient abundance, and the grazier has a ftore of litter for being converted into manure. Under other cir- cumftances the fecond mode of management will be much more profitable. The two laft methods are the leaft convenient, and, probably, on the whole, except in very favourable circumfiances, the leaft profitable, efpecially the former of them, as, from the great length of time which they are kept, much management and at- tention to food becomes neceffary to render them advantageous; which, with com- mon fervants, is feldom fufficiently regarded. Befides thefe, there is another practice that deferves attention in particular cafes, fach as that of buying in fmall cattle in tolerable condition in the autumn as foon as the after-grafs isready, in order to their being fattened out on‘the rouens, and dif- pofed of towards the latter end of C&ober or beginning of the following month. This isa practice fometimes beneficially purfued on the rich hay-farms in the county of Middlefex. Witb theep fiock different fyftems of grazing are likewife in ufe. In fome cafes, where the Jands are in a ftate of inclofure, it is a profitable practice to buy ewes in lamb in the latter end of fummer or beginning of autumn, keeping them on the inferior forts of grafs lands, ftubbles, or fallows till the beginning of January, and then by giving them turnips or cabbages to keep them in good condition through the period of their lambing, and afterwards in the beft manner that can be contrived, in order that the lambs may become fit for the butcher fufficiently early to 3 eee ableai SMES ames Cultivation of Grafs- Land.—Grazing. 1031 admit of the ewes being afterwards fattened, and difpofed of in the beginning of the autumn. Another method of grazing theep is to purchafe wether ftock about the beginning of May at the age of twoor three years, keeping them{cantily till fome weeks after the grounds have been cleared from hay, then bringing them to good keep in the rouen, afterwards fattening them by means of turnips or cabbages fo as not to have them ready fooner than the beginning of March, which is ufually the feafon in which they fetch the beft price.‘Fhis is a fpecies of grazing-manage- ment that moftly affords a good profit to fuch farmers as are fufficiently attentive to it. In addition to thefe methods, there is another practifed in fome cafes with great profit and advantage, which is that of buying in lambs of the wether or other kinds about the beginning of September. Thefe are kept in different methods by dif- ferent managers: by fome they are brought forward with the greateft poffible expedition by the beft keep, fo as to be ready to be difpofed of as foon as pof- fible. Others, however, adopt the contrary method, keeping them only in a middling way during the winter till about the beginning of April, and then forcing them by good keep fo as to have them ready for the butcher in Auguft, or conti- nuing them in the following month, and then clearing the whole of the ftock from the land. This is a praCtice from which great profit is often derived*. The providing of gra‘s-lamb for the markets as early as poflibie in the fpring months is an object of great importance, and which pays the grazier well in many fituations, efpecially near large towns, In this view it is the practice to procure the more forward ewes, fuch as thofe of the Dorfet kind, which may drop their lambs in the beginning of January, if not before. In Middlefex, where this ma- nagement is much attended to in confequence of the great demand, it is the cuftom to purchafe this fort of ewes at Kingfton, Weyhill, and other fairs in the neigh- bourhood. The ewes, in order that they may have a plentiful fupply of milk, are ex- tremely well kept on turnips and fine green fweet rouen hay, and the lambs thereby forced forward in fuch a rapid manner as to be ready for the markets in the beginning of March or April. The ewes, fromtheir becoming dry fo early, are capable of being fattened and difpofed of towards Michaelmas, ufually fetching the prices at which they were purchafed in at: as the whole of the ftock is in this fyftem cleared * Corrected Report of Middlefex. 1032 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.— Grazing. within the year, the farmer has the opportunity of fully afcertaining its advantage or difadvantage*. In this management very much depends upon keeping the ewes perfectly well fed, and in dry warm inclofed pafiures, as without fuch attention the ewes are apt to become thin and lean in confequence of the greatnefs of the evacuation, and afterwards to require a much longer time in being made fat. In the fattening of grafs lambs Mr. Marfhall, in his Midland Counties, has men= tioned a practice which in particular cafes may be advifable; this is that of re- inoving the lambs from the ewes when they decline much in milk, before they are perfectly fattened, in order to complete them on young clover or other forts of ** prime keep.” The principle in this cafe is that of the ewes becoming fooner ready for the butcher: befides, it is fuppofed by fome, that after the firft Juth of milk is gone and it begins to be feanty, the lambs thrive better“ on grafs alone away from the ewes” than when kept along with them, as the hankering after the Jittle milk that is afforded prevents their feeding freely on the grafs.| Where this method is followed, which can probably be with advantage only where the milk of the ewes is greatly deficient in iupporting and bringing the lambs forward, much atttention muft be paid to having the keep early and in abundance. In this view rye-grafs and white clover for early ufe, and broad clover at a later period, may be the moft proper and, ufeful crops. In this management the ewes fhould be carefully examined occafionally; and, where much deficiency in the milk is found, the lambs be immediately removed to the paftures. The proportion in which different forts of cattle and fheep ftock fhould be in- troduced upon the grafs lands with the view of being fattened, muft depend chiefly upon the goodnefs of the land, the fize of the ftock, and yarious other * The account is thus flated by Mr. Middleton, in his Survey of the Agriculture of the County of Middlefex: Beg ads Lamb, fold at=-- T TO: 0 Ewe, do. do,--- If1o- oO Wool, 2s. 6d. or-== One Together B20 Dedu& prime coft 1 120 Remains the increafe of an ewe in one year eee Cultivation of Grefs-Land.—=Grazing. 1033 eircumftances that have been already noticed*. In Somerfetfhire, when at grafs on the rich.and middling forts of land, they allow from one acre to an acre and a half to anox, and fome add one fheep to each ox. The great principle is never to ftock in fuch a way as to reftri&t the animals in the leaft degree; as it is by filling themfelves quickly, and lying down much, that the greateft progrefs in fattening is made, whether in cattle, fheep, or any other fort of animals when at grafs. On the weaker grafs lands a much fmaller proportion of ftock than on thofe of the rich and fertile kind can only be admitted. Often not more than an ox and a fheep or two, to two acres or two acres anda half. There is allo another circumftance that is neceffary to be attended to in bringing the fiock properly forward in the paflures, which is that of changing them more fre- quently than has generally been the cafe with graziers. On this principle, as well as thofe of their affording greater degrees of warmth and fhelter, and thereby pro- moting the growth of the herbage more abundantly, fmall inclofures may be * In the able Agricultural Survey of Lincolnfhire, Mr. Young, in order to afford a more clear idea of the various proportions, has drawn them into the following tabular form for the richer paftures in that diftridt; Sheep in{Acres per bul-|Sheep 11 Places. fummer|lockinfummer,| winter Rent. per acre.| with the fheep.}oer acre. Long Sutton 54 at Mr. Scroop eae. It No bullocks. Potton riccCaa sisies dakel ies,« 4 it 2 Skirbeck.. oh hee 5 rh 2 Bolton 4h 87 ake se. 5 I 34 Deeping Fen, Mr. Graves is 2) 14 40 Alderchurch, Mr. Berridge 74 2 B Smimeihead te ser. tise) pee I 2 BiyerDyen epee iy sys 60 Be 24 2 30 Mlonblingy 6G. 4 3). 3 2 2 Howel yy: Be Sees 2 3 2 Immingham I i4 2 Grainthorp,&c.:. 3 3 14 Stallenborough. BS Perey 2 Z 2 Skidbrook~~; iis it 4 Dittoxiscc. 6 eee eae 2 2 2 35 Addlethorpe Ig ao 5 it 2 40 Gofberton are eee ot ae 6 I Bram Sachs. est)) sh) 5 2 2 40 Wisangles s oden. ys 6 9) 2 a 36 Hundred of Skirbeck 2 11 at 45 DVIDGERLONG SSaerete: athe: 5 2 2 Marth Chapel jo ae 3 2— 35 Ditto Aaa oo, cats s Xe 3 I ae 45 Grimibyin es ee 22. I 23 Average Cultivation of Grafs- Land.— Grazing. more advantageous in the grazing of live ftock than large ones 5 but to have thena varying in fize from ten or fifteen to twenty-five acres or more} according to the nature of the paftures, may be the perfection of the fyftem: the matter is not, however, eafily decided by experiment, as no two pieces of grafs land can{carcely be met with that are precifely equal in all their different circumftances. In the difpofal of the ftock after it has been made fit for the butcher, confiderable care is neceflary to perform it in the moft advantageous manner. It has been obferved, that though this is a lef difficult part of the bufinefs of the grazier than that of buying in, it demands much judgment and experience to manage it in the beft way*. Some utility in directing this matter may be derived from a careful attention to the manner of fattening in the animals during the time they are at full grafs, and from the con- fideration of the length of time they have been; bat the moft correct judgment may probably be formed by the occafional ufe of the weighing machine, by making accu- rate comparifons of the living with the dead or profitable weights of different forts of animals that are fold on the farm; as by this means, after a few trials, a facility in correctly deciding on the dead weights of fuch parts of the ftock as the living weights have been fully afcertained in, may be attained. It is in this way that the butcher has afuperiority over the grazier. All the fmaller forts of animals, {uch as calves, fheep, and hogs, may have their living weights afcertained with great eafe and convenience by the fimple means of a pair of large fleelyards be- ing fixed up in any convenient place, anda fort of contrivance for containing them, with doors at the different ends, ufually termed a cage. The frequent weighing of all forts of fattening animals may alfo be beneficial in other ways; it will fhow with exactnefs the progrefs that is made in the feeding of any fort of animals, and the proper periods of difpofing of them, as well as any changes that may be neceffary in their pafture or other food, and at the fame time afcertain the pay of eachf. In this bufinefs it is moftly, however, the cafe for the grazier to decide by the eye, and the feel of the animal, but this mode is extremely fallacious, even with thofe who have had a large experience. In the mode of difpofing of his fat ftock, the grazing farmer muft be directed by the nature of his farm and the circumftances of his fituation. In the fouthern parts of the ifland, Smithfield is the principal market; but in the northern parts of the kingdom the feveral large towns, In the firft cafe, on the fmaller forts of farms, the fattened{tock is moftly fent up by men who are folely employed in the bufinefs, ® Marthall’s Midland Counties, Vol. I.+ Correéted Report of Somerfet thire. Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Grazing. 1035 and who are termed diftri@ drovers, being regularly employed by different graziers in the fame neighbourhood, and in whom they have the moft perfect confidence. But where the farms are very extenfive, fo as to enable the graziers themfelves to regularly tend droves of cattle or other ftock to this market, the common practice is to depend upon fulefmen for the difpofal of them. On very{mall farms, where the lots are not fufficiently large to make it an object to have them brought up in thefe ways, it may be more profitable to difpofe of them to the butchers at home. The advantage of thefe different markeis mult depend much upon the particular circumftances of the cafes. It has, however, been fug- gefted that amongft the Somertfetthire graziers it is a prevailing opinion that the Lon- don market, from the great fluctuation in the prices on account of the differences in the fupply, is only calculated for thofe who pay a regular weekly attendance*. The differences in the expenfes, including the falefmen’s commiffions, are very confiderable, as amounting in London to twelve thillings per head, while in the country markets they are not more than from three to five fhillings fT. It is evident, from what has been advanced, that the advantage of grazing muft be influenced by a variety of circumftances and be very different in different inftances and fituations; but that in all cafes it muft very materially depend on the goodnefs of the fyftem, and the excellence or fuperiority of management that is praCtifed. It has been obferved, in fpeaking of Romney Marfh grazing, that no regular me-~ thod can be adopted in that fort of management, and that the profits of no two graziers are perfectly“ alike on the fame given quantity of land,” nor could they be“ upon the fame land,” as years, prices, and abilities differ with each indivi- dualt. It is confequently impoffible to give any ftatements that can be generally applicable§. * Correéted Report of Somerfetfhire.+ Ibid. t Price in Annals of Agriculture, Vol. KXT. § In Somerfet(bire the profit of grazing is thus ftated by Mr. Billingfley, after obferving that a grazier occupying two hundred acres of land may fat yearly one hundred head of oxen, to which add two hundred and feventy theep and ten colts, conftituting altogether a profit comlortable, but by no means exorbitant. GRAZING. Jiyp, oe 5 ds Cr. fier aser de "Tro rent of 200 acres, average value 4os. O#. By fifty oxen, ata8l... goo o o an acre bree ae ae epee 400,©.«0, Daye By fifty exen\at, 1h f= 7650.,0. 0 Carry forward 400 9 O Carry forward N50) 101 0 6 a2 Cultivation of Grafs-Land,— Grazing. In other diftricts the profits of this practice appear to much greater advantage*, In the Romney Marth fyftem of grazing, which is’chiefly by theep, the advantages Dr. Brought forward To tithe and taxes, fay Feb. To fifty oxen, at r1l. July. To fifty oxen, at 71, To mowing and making ay hay, at Ios. acres of To fkimming and mz aking fifty acres 4h fummer- no Ze, rates: To wages throughout the year the farmer’s labour To accidents ee By profit on feventy ae fummer By profit on two hundred theep winter fatted, and fold in April Cr. Brought forward e GRAZING. Lites ds Aisyoy FS) 50.10) 70 559 9 O kept 350@ o By profit on ten colts. D550) 10 unthorn 7 Ue).©) Ise).{o).(@) Boy)©) 1462 10 70 To profit(intereft of capital and acci- dents included) 277410 70 1730 ge OO) 1730)¢ 0.10 Li ae 1550.10 9 40 oO[e) 4O7 0, a 100 0 0 * In Lincolnthire, on the authority of f. Fydell, Efq. the following account is given by Mr. Young of the profits of grazing the rich lands:— Dr. To 18 beafts, at 121]. each To 80 fheep, at 46s. To Expenfes viz. Tithe Dyke-reeve Rates 6 C Be| Shepherding Expenfes Lofs, fuppofed one fheep Intereft one year One year’s rent’ Hire of a clofe for the peer for 35 fheep Profit,._ O00 004g Grazine Account for 20 Acres, 1796. Lice Sop id: Ga 216 0 oO By 18 beafts, at 19]. 5s.: 184© O By 80 fheep, at 55s. _ By 52 tod of wool, at 17s. BOO FO 19 22 10.© ee(BC) 424 16© Dit fi (CO) Ke) 500] 20: 17310) O 523 TOO Og AO Oe) wt) It is added that the difference between the buying and felling price, lofs deduéted, 2081, 8:., Pt Se ade 346 10 O W204 vOVeO) 44 4 0 610 14 o is the Cultivation of Gra/s-Land.—Grazing. 1037 are fated in the following way by Mr. Price*; but in confidering them proper additions are tobe made for the advances that have taken place fince they were drawn up. They in fome meafure fhow the fyftem that is purfued in thefe rich marfhes. In fome cafes the young horfes may be grazed upon the coarfer forts of paftures with advantage; but in general, except under the breeding fyftem, it will be more profitable to keep them on green food cut frefh as it is wanted during the fammer feafon: the benefit in the way of manure is very great in this method. Some advife the grazing of young horfes in the fame paftures with the fatten- ing ftock, in order that the grafs may be more evenly fed down; but this is pro- bably a miftake; and as they are very apt to difturb and drive the cattle about, it may be a better practice to let them follow the feeding ftock, or be put inte a feparate pafture. The fuperiority of eating down grafs lands by fheep in com- parifon to horfes was found very remarkable by Mr. Young, in Lincolnfhire. In Somerfetthire, where any horfes are admitted on the grazing grounds, it is very je fparingly, not more than in the proportion of one to twenty acres T. It has long been a practice to turn hogs upon pieces of grafs land adjoining the produce of the land, or rol. 8s. per acre, which is very greatindeed, and fhows that this land would let at sl. 4s. an acre, /uppofing this year to be an average one.‘This difference of rent would deduct 441. from the profit of 87]. and leave 43).; which, with 211, charged, makes 641. intereft on the year’s advance of 5461. or 114 per cent. * An Acccount of Stock bought in for Fifty Acres of Stock fold off Fifty Acres of Pafture Land, Pafture Land, for the Year 1778. in the Year 1788-89. Looe Ss d. Ve Sore d. gio barren ewes, atil.1s.each. 325 10© 310 barren ewes, at 318. each TAs A805 ORO go South Down wethers, at do. 94 10© 90 South Down wethers, atdo.. 139-10 40 Io fleer runts| 2 4 ga 15© Io fleer runts, at 131. each 130m On ro Suffex oxen- c: i 5! Oo TOMSuflex oxen,"at Tals'edch GO} Oly O 8 fteer runts f C S ADy 1OWs.O, 10 ditto, to keep 18 weeks, at 2s. per Rent, at 30s. per acre 0 5 Gig(| week each: 5: TSE OO Expenfes, at 5s. per acre:: IZ 10 0 8 fteer runts, fold at gl. each. 7 ae 2 ditto, to keep 12 weeks, at 1s. 6d. af. 1s 6 Xo) per week each 5: In 16© — 8 packs 3 draughts of long wool, at 81. Los. ae: c. eg) 34 ditto of fine wool, at 12]. Toon oO Total: 7 TOSHe ay 16 Deduct 5 Li 7G,© Clear profit. eae!+806 + Billingfley’s Agricultural Survey. 1038 Cultivation of Grafs- Land-Graxing. farm yards during the fummer feafon; but this has moftly been done without any diftinGion of their kinds or ages. But the improved praCtice is to feparate thofe that are advanced in their growth to one half or more from the fows and young pigs, turning and confining them about the latter end of May on the clover, Profits on Fatting Land, allowing 10s. Profit for each Sheep. ONE ACRE. lees 6 dain Bisse. dp Winter, 2 i sone off in May ro 0 Brought from bottom 7 oo oC Summer, 5 wethers, off at Michaelmas 7105.0' ‘Woolof 7 theep, at i2l.perpack 2 2 0 chai Aa' ae ae One bullock to fat. 3 hase Clear profit: oh One LL 06 GE MV TOYS sn:° a we 2 Profits on Breeding Land*. Adfeffes and taxes 0 5 O: ONE oer ey eae Winter, 24 ewesand3lambs, atr4s. 2 2© Wool of 24 ewes Cry izle, Clear profit:> 6 12 0 Wool of 3 lambs 9547 ne Wool of one teg 2-4 8 ne tie: The fummer improvement of do. Se bake, ‘Three wethers, on at Michaelmas 1m iO 6 Joift bullock keep ers ied Nag Two ditto, in May I O80 Laas: Wool é f° 7: rt N00 R 3.18 6 One bullock to fat..° BOD sai a ates Expenfes: d O57 1G Hiv Gives One in twenty lofsby deaths 0*7 0 — 112 06 Clear profit; f 2 6.6 On the firtt of thefe ftatements it is remarked that the year was favourable for vegetation; and that fuch profits could not probably be made feven years together, which is the moft accurate method of calculating profits on land.‘There being no affeffes on the land alfo makes it more profitable. In regard to the profits on fattening land two methods are given; the firft means uled by the beft graziers; the other, the moft common: fome take bullocks in to keep, others buy runts; the profits of which mult depend on their judgment; but gl. is the medium profit between the whole: 108. each fheep is generally allowed as the gained profit by fattening. The writer obferves, that‘‘ it cannot be fuppofed that this profit will always amount to fo much, as the years differ; therefore dry feafons will abate it, _ anda large traét of land cannot have the fupply of ftock to make it fo great. There are lofles to be taken out; but, upon the whole, it is very profitable, as the expenfes are fo moderate, as ome fervant man can manage a thoufand acree of pafiure Jand. The value or rent of land is put too low, except for long leafes unexpired, or where a large quantity of land is taken. The average price of rent is from 4os. to 31. for fattening land, unlefs four or five hundred acres of breeding and fattening, perhaps about jos.; and fome old leafes 11. breeding land.” There are other modes of grazing in which the fame author has formed eftimates; but they muft vary {o much by circumftunces as to be of little ufe. ® Inferios breeding land maintains 24 fhecp on an acie during winter, but good breeding land always three. A. ee Cultivation of Grals-Land.—Soiling and Stall-feeding. 1089 chicory, or other fimilar crops, without fuffering them to return to the yards to be fed with other forts of food, water being provided for them in the fields.— They are let remain on thefe paftures till the beginning of the autumn, when they are found to returain excellent condition for being put to fatten. Herbage of thefe kinds is found not only to agree perfectly with them, but to promote their growth in a remarkable manner. But, much as this fyftem of management has by fome been extolled, there feems to be one principal defect in it, which is that of the lofs of the manure, a circumflance of great importance to the farmer. The practice would, therefore, probably be improved by having the yards connected with the pafturcs, and well littered down, or, where on an extenfive{cale, cheap temporary yards made for the purpofe and kept in litter for them to retire to and evacuate themfelves in dus ring the night by being{hut up in them. In this way vaft ftores of manure would be produced, which mutt otherwife be in a great meafure loft, and at the fame time the thriving of the hogs be promoted by their being kept more warm and fheltered in the night. By this management the farmer has great advantage, in being left at full liberty to convert the whole of his other forts of food to the fupport of the young and breeding ftocks. But, profitable as this practice may be, it would feem to be lefs fo than that of foiling them in properly-prepared yards, efpecially where they are left in the fields without being confined during the night. Soiling and Stall-feeding.—Befides the above, there are other tyftems of feeding and fattening animals that feem properly to come under confideration in this place, fuch as thofe of /eiling during the fummer feafon with various kinds of luxuriant green vegetable crops, and fall feeding in the winter months with roots, cabbages, turnips, and, other forts of food of a fucculent nature, in combination with various kinds of dry meat. The former of thefe modes appears to have had much lefs attentioa beftowed upon it than its utility and importance would feem to demand. Without attending fufficiently to the economy and advantage of the practice, it has been the common hufbandry in almoft every part of the ifland to allow all forts of neat cattle to be grazed in the paftures. In fome cafes of improved farming it has indeed been lately purfued in fome degree in the table, but without being applied to the cattle ftock. The principal circumftances that recommend this fyftem of prac- tice, are thofe of the food being confumed with much lefs wafte, and of courfe going vattly further than when fed upon the land; the great increate of good ma- nure that is produced, and probably that of the{tock feeding with lefs interruption and inconvenience, in confequence of their being more effectually thaded from the heat of the fun and better protected from, the harafling attack of flies, In,all thefe if 1040 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Sciling and Stall-feeding. points, this method would indeed feem to have a vaft fuperiority overthat of letting the animals range over the paftures. It has, however, been objected againft this fcheme of feeding, that the expenfe of conducting the bufinefs is too confiderable. The experiments of Mr. Mure, which were conduMed upon a very‘extenfive fcale, as well as thofe of Mr. Young, fhow that this with the care of the cattle may be per- formed at an-expenfe in proportion to each, that can never afford any folid argument againtt the praétice*. It has likewife been fometimes contended, in oppofition to this management, that fuch part of the ftock asare in milk do not afford it fo abun- dantly as when fed in the paftures. This is, however, probably a mere fuppofition, unfupported by facis; at leaft we have not met with any well-conduted experi- nent that bas proved its truth, and it is obvioufly at variance with the experience we have of the effects of fuch forts of green food, in other cafes; for it has been, we believe, almoft invariably found, that moft of the green crops that are cut and employed in this way have greater effect in exciting the fecretory organs and pro- moting their fecretions than the common pafiure grafs. And it is generally allowed that the urinary fecretion is greatly augmented in all cafes of this fort of feeding, fo as to conftitute one of its advantages. But as particular forts of vegetables, as well as other fubfiances, act more powerfully on fome of the glandular organs than others, it is evident that fome kinds of plants may have a greater tendency to promote one kind of fecretion than another, and on this account cows fed on one fort of food, in the practice of foiling, may afford lefs milk than on another+. The practice of foiling has alfo been oppofed, on the ground that the animals do not thrive fo well as when grazed in the paftures. But when it is confidered that the more quiet and free from difturbance cattle are kept, the better they in general thrive and improve in their flefh, it is not probable that green food, when pro- perly confumed in the fheds of a farm-yard, will be lefs advantageous in promoting the growth and fattening of ftock than when eaten in the field, where expofed to the great heat and the conftant attacks of flies, and of courfe kept in a continual ftate of refilefsnefs and inquietude. Befides, in the experiments noticed above, the cattle were found to go on better than ftock of the fame kind fed in the paftures in the moft favourable feafons for the purpofe of grazing. And in many trials, carefully made by Mr. Young, and detailed in the Annals of Agriculture, the refults were the fame. The fuppofition of the cattle not thriving fo well under this fyftem does * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XIV. + A fet of well-conduéted experiments made in thefe different views would probably lead to much ufeful difcoyery in refpeét to the feeding, fattening, and milking of animals. iis i TORI 2. TI Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Soiling. 1041 not therefore appear to be well fupported by fads, or to have had any founda-~ tion in the experience of farmers. The fuperiority of the foiling method in refpect to the economical confumption of the food cannot be difputed. In various experiments that have been made in proof of the great faving in this way, it has been found to go from twice to four or five times as far as when fed on the land; and in fome trials it has been a great deal more. With grafs, clover, lucern, and tares, in the trials of an able cul- tivator, three times as many cattle were found capable of being fupported in better condition than in the pafture mode of feeding*. But in thofe of other experi- menters it has been fhown to be equal to five, fix, or even more times, as we have already feen in fpeaking of clover. In the field, it is obvious that great waite muft be committed by the grafs being trampled down, dunged upon, and in many other ways,efpecially where a great number of cattle are paftured toge- ther, moft of which are avoided in the ftall method: butit has been remarked that itis“an error to fuppofe that all the wafte is in feeding in the field and none in the ftalls: there is on the contrary a wafte in foiling,” as in cafes where the tares become podded, from the butt ends of the plants being coarfe and ina ftate of decay, by lying on the ground, and of courfe rejected by the animals: the fame thing alfo occurs with lucern when in blofforn. In the heating of the food by its remain- ing heaped together, lofs may likewife be fuftained-~. Proper management in refpect to the crops and the manner of employing them, as we fhall fee below, will, however, in a great meafure, prevent wafte in this method. But whatever the wafte in thefe different ways may be, the various trials recorded in the Annals of Agriculture clearly demonftrate that a vaftly increafed ftock may be kept upon the fame extent of land inthe method of foiling, over that of the common mode of grazing the cattle in the fields. The great point however, in which this practice excels that of pafiure feeding, is, probably, in the immenfe quantity of excellent manure that is raifed and provided for the production of increafed crops of various kinds, and the additional improve- ment of the lands; while in the ordinary one fcarcely any thing is contributed in this way, from the dung being{cattered about the fields and diflipated by the heat of the feafon, flies, and other caufes. In fhort, it would feem injurious rather than * Clofe in Communications to the Board, Vol. III.+ Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XIV, OR 1042 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Soiling. ufefal, from its blanching and tendering the grafs plants in the{pots where it remains, which are long in recovering and producing good grafs again. Soiling with green food in fammer is a method admirably calculated for producing an abundance of manure; as from the great increafe in the urinary difcharges in the confumption of green food in this way, and the heat of the feafon, the littering ma- terial, whatever it may be, is fpeedily converted into manure; by which means, with proper attention, vaft ftores of dung may confequently be raifed, where there would otherwife be none; which is a circumftance of the greateft importance, and which abundantly fhows the great utility and fuperiority of the practice. By thefe means the fummer produce in manure may, probably, be made to exceed that of the winter, and at the fame time be fuperior in quality, as there is reafon to fup- pofe, that the manure produced by any kind of cattle fed in the fame way, when not ina ftate of fattening, is much better in the fummer than in the winter feafon. The proportion of valuable manure that the careful farmer may be capable of pro- viding by this fyftem of management is fcarcely to be conceived, except by thofe who have been in the pradtice. In this view it is of much importance to have yefervoirs for the reception of the urine, in order that it may be occafionally thrown up over the litter, and thereby promote its more fpeedy converfion into manure. The manure afforded by fattening animals, fuch as hogs and neat cattle, is in all feafons ofa rich and valuable quality. In order to enfure the fulleft benefit and advantage from this fyftem of manage- ment, the moft ftrit attention is neceflary to different circumftances; fuch as thofe of having convenient fheds and yards for the purpofe; the providing fuitable crops in proper fucceffion to the proportion of ftock to be kept; the feeding and managing the animals in a proper manner; and the making a full provifion of materials for the purp ofe of litter. As much depends on the convenience of the yards and fheds, both in refpect to the economy of labour in feeding the ftock and the making of manure, care fhould be taken to have them upon fuch plans as may afford the greateft advantage in thefe ways. It has been a practice faggefted by fome, in order to fave the labour and expenfe of cleaning and feeding, to have the cattle in this management left loofe in the yards fo as to confume the food from racks or cribs, the bottoms of the yards being prepared by marl or other fimilar materials, and a coat of litter applied, fo as that the urine may be retained, and contribute to the converfion of them into manures Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Soiling. 1043 but a better method is probably that of having them tied up in ftalls in fheds for the purpofe; for though fomething may be gained in the former mode in the labour of cleaning, the latter has confiderable fuperiority in the goodnefs of the manure, and in the animals being kept more quiet and lefs expofed to diflurbance from flies*. In the firft method the ftock fhould always be forted, and thofe of the fame age or fize be fed together. A cultivator of much experience foils his horfes in cheap thatched fheds in which they have room to walk and roll; and his bullocks and cows in ftalls feven feet wide, each ftall holding two head of cattle, which are faftened by the necks to the fides of the fiall, by which they are prevented from inconyeni- encing each other-f. That the farmer may enter upon this management with the greateft advantage, it will be requifite for him to attend to the culture of fuch various crops as can be beft applied in this way, on a fcale amply fufficient for the purpofe. In the view of early application, a full proportion of lucern fhould be raifed on the moft deep and fertile foils; and on the better forts of the lands that may be in the condition of fallow, clover and tare crops may be grown. Thefe muft be fown fo as to come into ufe at different times; the firft crop of winter tares fucceeding to the early cut lucern; the later put in winter tares following, after which the clover will moft probably be ready, to which the third crop of tares and the fecondcut of lucern may fucceed. At aftill later period the fpring tare may be employed; and in fucceflion to this the third cutting of lucern will in general be ready. There are many other plants that may perhaps be made ufe of in this way. It will be feen from what we have obferved on chicory, that it may be had recourfe to with advantage in this management; as in foils that are tolerably fertile it admits of repeated cutting, With thefe different crops, there will probably be feldom any neceflity for the ufe of common cut grafs, though this may be employed if there fheuld be occafion. On the mode of condudting the bufinefs of foddering the animals in this prac- tice a great deal depends. One great object is never to fuffer them to have too much at once, as when this is the cafe, from the heat of the feafon, it quickly takes on a degree of fermentation, and is rejected, or only picked among by the cattle; in confequence of which much wafte may be committed, which would otherwife be avoided ¢. But, befides this, it is not improbable but that the{tock may thrive better by having their food more frequently, and of courfe in a more freth fiate, * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XIV.+ Clofe in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol. IIT. + Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XIV. 6R2 1044 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Soiling, And it fhould never on any account be left packed in the carts for any length of time. The beft mode would feem to be that of adapting the fize of the cart to the exa&t confumption of the flock, as in this way the whole may be conveniently iMributed in the cribs or racks at once, the moment it is wanted, before it becomes unpalatable by fermentation, and the Jeaft poffible-lofs be incurred. It is conftantly neceflary to watch the condué¢t of labourers in this particular, as they are in general much difpofed to overfeed. There ts another matter in this fort of feeding that fhould not be difregarded, which is that of not fuffcring the crops that are ufed in {oiling to advance to too great a head, as by attention in this refpect the food may be more cleanly eaten up. In this fyftem litter becomes an object of the greateft importance; as the large quantity of urine that is made by cattle when foiled on thefe luxuriant forts of green food is capable, by its moiftening property, of aiding, in the hot feafon, the more quick fermentation of fuch materials, and of reducing a very large proportion into the fiate of manure. In this view, the attentive farmer fhould therefore make an abundant provifion in the winter time of other forts of materials, where a proper fapply of ftraw cannot be referved for the purpofe. There are various matters that may be made ufe of in this intention, fuch as ftubble, fern, rufhes, and other aquatic plants, which may be cut and raked together in the places in which they are moft abundantly produced, in order to be ftacked up for future ufe. Leaves might alfo in woody fituations be ufeful for the fame purpofe. And in addition to thefe vege- table matters there are other fubftances that are capable of being employed with utility, fuch as peat or bog earth, freth vegetable mould, fand, and the fcrapings of roads; as during the decompofition of the various vegetable materials made ufe of in this practice, not only much hydrogen and carbonic gas is fet at liberty, but am- monia is formed in large quantities in the manner that has been already explained, which, from its aétion upon fuch earthy materials, is highly ufeful in bringing them into the ftate of manure. There can{carcely be any doubt of the advantage of this mode of management, where that clofe fort of attention which is requifite in moft of the operations of farming is beftowed: but in order to the complete fuccefs of the practice, it is abfolutely neceflary that the cattle be kept perfectly clean and free from all forts of dirt, in the cribs, racks, or other places; that there be plenty of pure water for them to drink whenever they are difpofed; that the green food, of whatever fort it may be, is given to them frequently in due portions, without its becoming injured by Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Stall-feeding. 1045 keeping; and that they be turned out into the open air for a few hours in the cool of the evening during the fummer feafon, and in the middle of the day when the weather becomes more cold. It might alfo be of additional advantage, where different kinds of green food can be eafily provided, to vary them occafionally. By thefe means the thriving of the animals may be the moft effeQually fecured. This kind of management is equally applicable to cattle, hogs, and horfes; with the laft it has however been the moft common. It is obvious, that by a judicious attention to this fyftern many advantages may be derived to the farmer. It admits of greater extents of land being kept under both the plough and the feythe. And in the keeping of both cows and horfes the faving in this method forms an object of vaft importance. In the winter fattening of animals, different methods are purfued im different di- ftrids: in fome it is the prevailing practice to confume the food upon a dry found piece of land, to which it is conveyed for the purpofe. It is evident, however, that this mode can only be had recourfe to, efpecially with heavy flock, where the nature of the ground is fufficiently dry to prevent injury being done by poaching, which is the cafe only on very few foils in the winter feafon. In fome cafes, efpecially with turnips, the crop is eaten on the land where it grows, the cattle being turned upon it.‘Fhis is a practice that occafionally takes place in Norfolk with the lefs perfect managers. It is a great objection to this mode, that the quantity of valu- able manure that might otherwife be produced is in a great meafure loft by being fpread about in the field. And it is probable that the ftock does not thrive fo well from being more expofed to the weather and kept lefs warm and quiet than in other methods. With fheep this hufbandry may be lefs exceptionable, efpecially where the crops are drawn and put upon a clofe fed dry pafiure, as great improvement of the land may be effected without the danger of injury by poaching.: There is another practice often adopted in fattening cattle in the winter, which is that of confining them to the yard, and letting them have their food in troughs or boxes for the purpofe in open fheds.‘This, though a better method than that juft noticed, is probably, from the ftock being left too much at liberty, lefs advan- tageous in the point of fattening than that of wholly confining them to the ftalls, ox what is ufually termed /rall_feeding, as by this means they are kept more quiet, and free from interruption, and of courfe feed more quickly, and with greater regu- larity; which feem to be points of great importance in this fyftem of management. Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Staill-feeding. The fubftances that may be employed in the way of winter fattening animals are very numerous; but the principal of the more fucculent kinds are carrots, parfnips, potatoes, cabbages, turnips, grains,&c.; and of the more dry forts, oil-cake, oats, barley-meal, rye-flower, bean-meal, and other fimilar materials, with various forts of ftraw cut into chaff by means of machinery. In the application and management of thefe articles, confiderable care is neceflary to enfure their fulleft effet. For as the art of fattening, whatever the nature of the animal may be, would feem to depend in a great degree on regularly keeping up the excitement of the fyftem, by the ufe of fuitable rich food, to that high pitch that tends towards in- direct debility, which is probably the point moft fuitable for inducing reft and a difpofition to fleep, which experience has fhown to be the conditions the moft favourable to the depofition of the fatty material in the cells of the adipofe mem- brane; it is obvious that the fattening procefs may be greatly accelerated or retarded by the method of diftribution that is adopted in refpect to the food. If much nice attention be not beftowed in this way, great lofs may be quickly fuftained, efpecially where the more expenfive forts of dry food are made ufe of. On the fame principle of promoting the full and equal excitement of the fyftem, it will be of the greateft utility and importance not only to keep the animals warm, perfectly clean in themfelves, and free from all kinds of filth; but alfo their fheds, ftalls, mangers, troughs, or other places from which they take their food; as by fuch means that confriGtion of the hide which is the fure indication of their not thriving in a proper manner, may be avoided, and at the fame time that difguft, which probably arifes in confequence of the parts of the food left upon the places where the cattle feed taking on or running into a ftate of fermentation, be prevented; and of courfe, the feeding of the animals proceed in the moft expeditious and uninterrupted manner. And where both moift and dry food are given at the fame time, it may be neceflary, in the view of promoting the more quick fattening of the cattle, to combine them in fuch proportions, according to the conftitutions of the animals, as that the too laxative effeéts of the former may be kept in order by the conftipating powers of the latter; and thus a due balance be preferved, which is the ftate moft adapted to the purpofe of fattening. But befides this effect, the combining of dry food with thofe rich and juicy fubftances, which have their nourifhment in a clofe or concentrated ftate, may be advantageous in another point of view, which is that of affording a due degree of diftention to the ftomach, a condition that is alfo probably neceffary to the expeditious fattening of animals, Without Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Stall-feeding. 1047 this, that fort of fulnefs or fatiety which induces the animals to take their reft cannot, perhaps, be fo completely produced. Itis on this principle, that in man a fall meal cannot be made on fleth meat alone without the affiftance of bread, or fome other fimilar fubftance. On this ground, hay or cut dry meat muft therefore be confiantly ufeful in ftall feeding, with fuch rich roots and plants as are not capable of being employed fo as to produce the neceflary degree of fulnefs. In order to accomplith thefe different objects in the moft perfect and effectual manner, it is effential that the clofeft attention be beftowed by the farmer to fee that the ftock, whether foddered in open fheds or tied up in ftalls, be regularly fed, adapt- ing the proportion of food employed each time to the flate of the digeftive organs of the animal; cautioufly avoiding, as much as the nature of the bufinefs will admit, either giving too much or too little, as from both extremes injury may be produced: but it is better, as fattening animals are very nice, to let them have rather too little than too much; for,where any difguft is occafioned, they never feed fo well afterwards. It is ufeful alfo, on the principle formerly explained, to vary the kinds of food fre- quently, fo that there may be lefs danger of their lofing their beneficial effects. This circumftance is much attended to in other countries: fattening ftock that is neglected in thefe refpects never fucceed well, or afford the farmer a juft profit. It is confequently of vaft importance to have this bufinefs conducted by a perfon accuftomed to the practice. The cattle fhould likewife be kept conftantly free from ftanding in any fort of dirt, by having the dung daily removed, and their ftandings fwept out quite clean, and well littered down with dry clean litter of fome of the kinds that have been already recommended, fo as to prevent any fort of naftinefs from adhering to their fkins. To do this completely, as much fhould be made ufe of as can be converted into manure, probably the proportion of from one to two or three tons to a beaft may not be too much, as the dung will amply repay its expenfe in the improvement which it affords to the lands. And by this, with the above means, all forts of difgufting f mells may be wholly removed. It is alfo ufeful in the intention of fattening to have the animals fheltered and kept in a due degree of warmth, without being too hot; as, where the heat is confiderable, there may be difadvantage by too much perfpiration being excited. Where it is neceffary to make ule of cut dry meat, the beft practice is probably that of keeping fome of fuch food always in the cribs or mangers, fo that the animals may be induced to take it at pleafure. 2, 1048 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Stall-feeding. The bufinefs of fattening in the fiall, or the farm-yard, ufually commences on the decline of the pafture and after-grafles, towards the latter end of October, continuing through the whole of thewinter, until about the beginning of May. When fucculent food is made ufe of with cut dry meat, which is in general a more profitable method to the farmer than that of having recourfe to corn and oil- cake, carrots, parfnips, and potatoes would feem to ftand the higheft as articles for this purpofe; cabbages and turnips having been found inferior in their fattening qualities; the two firft are equal to almoft any fort of foed in this view, being capabie of fattening large cattle.‘The moft general practice is to ufe thefe roots and plants without any preparation, except that of being fometimes cut, fliced, or chopped, giving only a{mall proportion at once, three or four times in the courfe of the day, in cribs or mangers properly contrived for the purpofe; proper fupplies of cut ftraw in mixture with hay being in moft cafes provided and given in the intervals of fuch feeds. In this method lefs water will be required than when dry meat is wholly made ufe of. This mode of feeding muft be purfued with as much fteadinefs and regularity as poffible, varying the kinds of moift food occafionally where it can be conveniently done. A great deal of the fuccefs of the practice refts upon proper attention to thefe circumftances, Some have fuppofed that great advantage may be derived from the application of fire in the preparation of fome of thefe roots for the feeding of the animals. In the trials of an intelligent cultiyator*, turnips were found to anfwer well in the feeding of cows in combination with cut chaff when prepared by means of fteam; and in various experiments, detailed in the Annals of Agriculture, potatoes have been found to be better fuited to the feeding of horfes and fome other animals by undergoing the fame procefs-~. This mode of preparation is probably much more neceffary in the potatoe than the turnip, as we believe, from trials that we have made, that they not only agree better with the animals, but are more fattening when given in this ftate. Befides, there is much lefs lofs fuftained in the operation of fteaming in the potatoe than the,turnip. However, as there muft conftantly under this mode of preparation be a con- fiderable expenfe in labour and fuel, it is better to avoid it wherever the nature of the vegetables will admit of being made ufe of in their raw ftate, which is certainly the cafe with the turnip and feveral other vegetables noticed above. * Rey. Mr. H. Clofe. ; An excellent apparatus for this purpofe, contrived by Mr. Stares, is defcribed and reprefented by a plate in the Eighteenth Volume of the Annals of Agriculture, Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Stall feeding. 1049 The proportions of thefe different forts of food that an animal will confume in any given time cannot be eafily afcertained, as much muft depend on circum- ftances—the modes of feeding, the fize of the animal, the nature of the feafon, and various other caufes. In fome trials carrots have been found to be confumed in the proportion of about {en ftone per day for an ox of fixty ftone, cut chaffor hay being given in addition*. As the parfnip contains an equai ifnot larger proportion of the nutritious principle, nearly a fimilar quantity of that excellent root may be neceflary; but we believe experiment has not yet fhown the exa& difference in the fattening.properties of thefe two roots. The latter can however only be cultivated to advantage on a deep rich foil; but in fuch cafes it fhould never be neglected. An acre of either of thefe roots would complete the fattening of two fuch beafts as the above, if taken from the paftures in a half-fattened condition.‘Thefe two roots and the potatoe, probably, approach the neareft that of oil-cake in their fattening pro- perties, but are certainly inferior to that fubftance. The experiments made on potatoes in the intention of fattening animals have been fufficiently numerous to fhow that they are capable of that application with great advantage. In the trials of Mr. Abdey, with fmall Welth and Scotch runts, the confumption per day was about a bufhel each, given in their unprepared flate, with a quarter of a trufs of hay.‘Their powers of fattening in thefe trials appear to much advantage. When given in their raw ftate, hay or fome other fort of dry food is, however, conftantly neceffary to correct their laxative quality. And when given after being prepared by fire, it is the practice of many to mix them with cut chaff. Where the cabbage is made ufe of, the confumption is in general found to be fomething lefs than one-fifth the weight of the animal in the courfe of the day: therefore an animal weighing fixty ftone confumes in the ratio of twelve ftone each day. In the trials of Mr. Turner, an ox of eighty ftone was found to eat fifteen ftone of cabbages with half a ftone of hay. And in refpe¢t to their power of fattening, it was found that oxen put to them in low condition about November became in a ftate of fatnefS fit for fale in the following March, weighing eighty ftone; ufually improving in the courfe of four months in value about five pounds ten fhillings}-. In this proportion, an acre of thirty tons of this crop would be adequate to the fatiening of three beafts of the above fize. # Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXII,+ Turner in Young’s Six Months Tour, Vol. I 6s 1050 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Stall-feeding. Grains can only be made ufe of in this way in particular fituations, as near large towns, where they can be obtained at a reafonable rate. Thofe procured from diftilleries are found the moft beneficial in this ufe. The quantity made ufe of for moderate fized beafis is ufually from a bufhel to a bufhel and a half three times in the courfe of the day, hay or cut dry food being given between the periods of feeding with thefe fubftances. Grains feem to be much lefs powerful in their fattening properties than any of thofe articles that precede them, But turnips, though very frequently employed in this manner, are greatly inferior to cabbages, as, befides their being more liable to injury, they probably poflefs the fattening property ina lefs degree than any of the fubftances that have been mea- tioned. The pr appre tion in which they are confumed by the fattening animals has by fome been found to be fomething more than a-third of their weight, but by others about a third in the day*. In other experiments, an ox of from feventy to eighty fione bas becn afcertained to eat fomething lefS than three hundred weight in the courfe of the day, befides chaff and hay; and finall cows of about thirty ftone, one bundved weight and three quarters in the fame fpace of time. An experienced agri- cultor has found, that when confumed in ftalls or fheds, an acre of good turnips will‘‘ completely winter-fat an ox of fifty{core,’ befides affording manure for an acre and a half of land; but if fed upon the land, two acres will not fatten one fo well, and the drefling will be partial and of little value f. Much dry food is conflantly neceffary during the ufe of this fort of food in order to the expeditious fattening of the animals. The turnip is often employed in the fattening of fheep; and in this application it is frequently advantageous, where the management is conducted with judgment: but to derive the greateft profit from this practice, it is probably the beft method to only make ufe of them for fuch fheep as are in a confiderable ftate of forwardnefs; as fuch as are poor when turned to this fort of food are feldom found to pay well for it. Every farmer who has applied turnip crops in this way muft have found this to be the cafe. Where the foils are fufficiently dry, the beft method of confuming them may be on the lands, by means of hurdling; but, under the contrary circum- (tances, they may be drawn and eaten upon adry piece of fward. It is the practice with good farmers, in many cafes, to have recourfe to oil-cake, oats, barley-meal, * Baker’s Experiments and Kames’s Gentleman Farmer. + Clofe in Communications to the Board, Vol. IIL Cultivation of Grafs-Land.— Stall-feeding. 1051 pollard, bran, malt-dutt, and other matters of the fame fort for the fattening fheep when at turnips; as by thefe means the watery quality of that food 1s corrected, and the fattening of the animals, of courfe, much promoted. It is per- haps only the beft fort of fheep that can repay the expenfe of this fyftem of fattening. Thefe articles are not however abfolutely requifite in the fattening of fheep on this root, as vaft numbers are made fat without them; but they greatly promote the pro- cefs. Andit is often ufeful to have recourfe to other forts of dry food with them, fucli as hay, cut chaff, or other fimilar fubftances,-which fhould be placed in racks, cribs, or troughs made for the purpofe, the latter of which fhould be fo guarded by board- ing as to prevent the wind from blowing fuch light fubitances out ofthem.‘Ther is another point that deferves attention in the fattening of fheep on turnips, in order to prevent the wafte which muft otherwife be incurred, which is that of letting the portions of turnips that are left by the fattening fiock be cleanly eaten up by lean followers. Of the dry kinds of food employed in the fattening of cattle, there is, perhaps, none equal to ail-cake in the property of fattening. It is, however, linfeed-cake that muft be employed in this way. The late advances in the price of this article have probably rendered it incapable of being made ufe of with much profit except in particular cafes, and where manure is a principal object. With this fort of food, as well as thofe that have been noticed above, it is alfo the common practice to give fome other fort of meat, fuch as hay, cut chaff, and other fubftances of the fame nature. In this mode of fattening, fome begin by giving, toa beaft ofa hundred ftone, two cakes per day, of about fix pounds each, for fix or eight wecks, and then increafe them to three, till the animals become fat*. In addition to the cake, from half a flone to a ftone of hay is given each day: the whole confumption in cake being about 21 ewt., and in hay 26 ewt.; which, at the prices previous to the late advance on thefe articles, rendered the expenfe of winter-fattening an animal of the above fize fomething more than feven guineas. Lean cattle of the finaller kinds have been made perfectly fat in the courfe of eight or ten weeks by this fubftance, in the trials of Mr. Moody f, The cake, in this application, is broken down into fmall parts, and frequently blended with the chaff or other fubflances that are made ufe of with it. On ie continent, according to Mr. Young, linfeed-cake is fometimes exhibited in a liquid fiate, being diffufed in hot water and drunk by the cattle, hay and other fubftances being given at the fametime. In the Lincolnfhire Report a method is fuggetied, * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. iad+ Young's Eaftern Tour, Vol. I. $2 1052 Cultivaticn of Grafi-Land.—Stall feeding. of giving cake to cattle while in the paftures, in a fmall proportion, with great fuccefs; a practice which may be applicable where the cake-fed beafts are not fully fattened for fale in the early{pring months, It is an advantage in fattening with this and other fimilar fubftances, that the animals may be completed with them at much more advanced ages than in cther modes. The ufe of linfeed-oil and bran has been attempted on the fame principle asethat ot cake, but probably with lefs fuecefs. The confumption in this method for beatis of the fmaller fize is fomething more than half a peck of bran three times in the day, with a third of a pint of linfeed-oil well ftirred into it; with this good hay or cut chaff is ufually given. This method is attended with more trouble than that of cake-fecding, without any fuperiority in the effe@. It can only be employed when the oil is cheap.: When fheep are fattened with cake, they require it to be reduced into a much finer ftate than for beafts, and it may then be mixed with bran or other fimilar fubftances, and put in the troughs or cribs. Oats are excellent for fiall-fattening cattle, but the price has lately been too high for their being made ufe of to any extent in this way. They are moftly given in the ftraw when applied in the fattening of cattle. Bran, in mixture with pea or other forts of meal, had likewife been found ufeful in ftall-fattening, as well as barley and other meals, in combination with various fubftances of other kinds; but their ufe muft conftantly be regulated by the prices which they bear at the market. When materials of this fort are employed, it will be found particularly neceffary, on the principles that have been already explained, to let the animals have a plentiful fupply of hay or cut chaff. It has long been contended by fome, that food in the flate of acidity is the moft advantageous in the feeding and fattening of fwine, while others have as firenuoufly maintained the contrary pofition. The point has not, however, fo far as we know, been fully decided by any fair experiments. That there may be ‘omething in it, feems probable from the circumftance being fo frequently noticed, and frou Mr. Young having found the fame principle applied in the fattening of cattle in France, where they finith the procefs by the ufe of four rye pafte, brought into a liquid ftate by the addition of water, and afterwards rendered fufficiently thick by fome kind of cut meat. The principle on which this depends feems involved in fome difficulty; as it has been long a popular notion, that acids have a direlly contrary tendency. It would appear, however, not 3 Cultivation of Grafs- Land.—Stall feeding. 1053 improbable, but that acid fubftances may have fome power in ftrengthening the digeftive organs, and thereby promoting the confumption of a larger proportion of food in a given time, in confequence of which the animals become fat more quickly. Befides thefe fubftances, various others have been employed in particular fitua- tions for the purpofe of fattening animals. The wath of malt-diftilleries, which has long been principally employed in the fattening of hogs, has now been found applicable in the ftall-feeding of cattle. The method of ufing it is in conjunétion with fome farinaccous fubftances, fuch as thofe that have been already mentioned. It is then given in{mall proportions, three or more times in the day: a little hay or firaw being given them to enable them to chew the cud*. On the principles ex- plained above it is probable, however, that fuch dry kinds of food might be made ufe of more fully with advantage. In the Weft Indies, Mr. Millington found mo- laffes to poffefs an expeditious fattening quality, when joined with other articles of the common food of cattle. It was made ufe of in his trials in the proportion of from half a pint toa pint, twice a day, in mixture with different farinaceous or mealy fubftances; and, where thefe were not in ufe, with various kinds of dry food, fuch as cane-tops, and guinca grafs well dried by expofure to the fun, and with oil- cake. Thefe are moiftened with the fame quantity of molaffes, to which water with alittle falt is added+. With thefe articles a little hay, or not too. fucculent green fodder, was employed. Their effects in fattening poor worn down oxen were found very confiderable.. They are not, however, from their great expenfe, capable of any general application in this way. Whatever the nature of the food may be that is employed for the purpofe of fat- tening animals inthe yard or the-ftall, the greateft care is neceflary to fee that it is regularly given to them, that they have it in due proportion and fufficiently varied; that pure water be amply provided, and that they have litter fo as to keep them perfe@tly dry and clean. Where this fort of bufinefs is conducted on an extenfive {cale, it is alfo of the greateft utility to havea machine for the occafional weighing of the cattle as they advance in their fattening, as without fuch afliftance it is but few perfons who are capable of judging whether they go on ina profitable manner or not. But, by weighing them from time:to time, at the diftance of every eight or ten days, in the morning before they are fed, this may be correétly afcertained; and where they fall off, or do not advance in a fufficient degree to the preceding weighings, * Middlefex Corre&ted Report,+; Ibid. 1054 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Stall-feeding—Houfe-Lamb Suckling. fuch changes may be made in their food, water, and management, as are the moft likely to promote their fattening in the moft perfe& manner*. There is another fcheme of feeding that may be neceflary to be confidered in this place, which is that of fattening lambs in the houfe for the purpofe of early Agriculture, No.& Sort of Bullocks. 19 Irith 1 ditto 10 ditto 8 ditto 12 Irifh; 1 bull; 12 Irifh 1 bull 30 Inifh y Highland Scots 3 home breds 40 Scotch runts 10 home breds 24 fhort-horn beafts x bull 2 bulls 2 bulls i 4 bulls. * The following table exhibits the refults of various experiments made by Mr, Mure in fattening cattle with different forts of food, in the ftall and field, as ftated in the 19th volume of the Annals of When weighed.} Weight. Sort of Food. Time fed In-| Increase crease} perHead. Stones. Wks.| Days.) Stns.| St. Ibs. June 2411650: July 12/1729|Tares: 4. ee ae Aa Ol Ae 29|1748|Mowed grafs Zee 8 Eig Jaen Augu& 29/1781|Ditto;- A 4 Ale Bulge|, 1 ho .;Auguft 30] 969 jJanuary 5 coast Cabbages and hay age 17)—-(113| 6. 6 Meda 1894 .|Auguft| 829 : go .|January 30| 983[Grafs and tec 24|—(154|12 rr —-— 98{Ditto 24]— 8| 8 o July 3)2146 31|2243|Tares 4||..97} 39-3 September 27/2329|Grafs and cabbages Fa Ole SOs|e 2a November 22/2466|Hay and cabbages By age ae February 2721|Potatoes, malted beans, and hay 1|— j255| 8-7 July 5} 479 27| 468|Tares 12|— -| July 5] 174 September 27] 175|Ditto: x 12|— I' 2313320 November 7/3537|Loofe at grafs gO lm[oa[a cw February 20/3801|Potatoes, beans, chaff, and hay 16|— /264| 6 8 -|July II] 333’ September 28} 401|Loofe in clover. It|—| 68) 6 112 19|2522 OGober 24/2695|Loofe at grafs: 5|—|168| 7 o March 16/3057 /|Potatoes,‘beans, and chaff 20|— /362|t5 2 «September 4] 140|Ditto‘ 24|—| 48|48 0 . 12| 165|Ditto 5 x 4 21|—| 60]30 0 19| 153| Ditto 5; x. 20}—| 28]14 0 22| 312 jDitto::-‘ 20|—| 60 ee fe) Fs Cultivation of Grofs-Land.—Houfe-Lamb Suckling. 1055 fale. This is a pra&tice which can only be undertaken with advantage in fituations at no great diftance from large towns, where there is great demand for early lamb. In thefe trials various other kinds of food were employed, the refults of which fhow the quantity con- fumed, their different advantages, and the difference in the increafe of fiefh in the animals in proportion to their value. No. of Bullocks,| Weight. Quantity of Food confumed(Length of Time 63 Days). ad Stones. T, 59 25 59 3, 59 Fig Or Sa 62 6, 65 45 66 8, Le ?/ Ed 88 11; 88 1s 89 13> 92 34, 1282 44 coombs fleeped bean meal,:= 3 coombs 3 bufhels malted beans, 5 coombs 1 bufhel malted barley, 5 coombs 4 bufhel malted beans and barley, 4 coombs 34 bufhels fteeped barley-meal, 4 coomhs 3 buthels dry barley-meal, 4 coombs dry bean-meal: As many turnips as were valued at.. As many potatoes as were valued at 4 coombs 4 bufhel malted beans and chaff, 44 coombs malted barley and chaff, 4 coombs malted beans and chaff,= malted bears and potatoes,. malted beans and potatoes, era of Food. Intreafe. —~ NR o Nin Oa b HH GONG 220 0:0 Qe’& = Amraynson rn Mo mos DO) Dee BEDI birth© ek e onl » OO 8 Average increafe 13 ftones each bullock in 63 days. Stones. N.B. The beans and barley valued at 2s. 6d. per bufhel, and the potatoes at 6d. per bufhel. In the following table the quantity of different forts of green crops per acre is fhown, and the proportion of ftock they will fupport: tons. cwt, qrs. Ibs. qrss Hise Weight of fcarcity root from sacre, 19 8 3 20— Weight of 1 buthel, 2 I turnips, y rH 14° 3 18%—.;: 7 20 potatoes, T0723) 2.8 2— f 2 4 cabbages,: 14 3, 2) Oe“‘ 16 Quantity of beans from an acre 8 coombs. Saad. Expenfe of 1 acre of cabbages, TOF O potatoes, ey a) turnips, o 6 6 fearcity root about the fame price. beans, Oo 48 6 x acre of fcarcity root will keep-a middling-fized bullock 254 days, at 3 bufh. per day.) 22232 turnips,:.. Ok GE: 4 ditto. eo a potatoes, 190 2 ditto. ey eh g cabbages,. rc 2 ee LOO 4 ditto.= ooo beans,‘::‘- 105 24 ditto. Ree e N. B. It appears that an acre of beans, cut green and given ftalk and all, exceeds the:dry beans 28 days. —One acre of grafs cut green will keep a middling -fized bullock 112°days, fuppofing 1 ton 6 cwt. per acre.—— Three bullocks ate 35:rods of green beans in 12 days. The remainder of the crop was 32 coomb s 2 bufhels per acre; therefore an acre of green beans will keep one bullock 164 days. 1056 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Houfe-Lamb Suckling. In order to conduct this fort of fattening with profit and fuccefs, a lamb-boufe or fuckle of proper dimenfions muft be provided. It is found from practice that a range of building from fixty to feventy feet in length, and fifteen or eighteen in With fearcity root againft potatoes the refults were as below:— Food Scarcity Root. Time. Number, Kind, and Weight of Beatts.| Time. Food Potatoes. Number; Kind, and Weight of Beatfts. Stones. Ibs. bs Stones. Ibs. Jan. 17.| 8 fhort-horns weighed 963|| Jan. 47.) 8 fhort-horns weighed 9550 average 120§| average 1195 Feb. 28. weighed again 1014 0|| Feb, 28. weighed again 1010@ average 126 10 average T1209 3 of{carcity root. Gain in 6 weeks 6; Quantity of food confumed per week by each| beaft:—One peck three-quarters of beans, and four bufhels of cut chaff rs. 8d., and fourteen bufhels beaft:—One Gain in 6 weeks C x2 The proportions between the living and dead weights in animals are interefting to the grazier. Trifh bullock killed March 21, 1789. Highland Scot, killed Nov. 23, 1790. Home bred heifer, killed March 26, 1791. An ox skilled April 1790. Norfolk fheep killed April 1790. SouthDown fheep killed. Ditto killed Jan. 5, 1791. Weight alive Weight alive Weight alive Weight alive Weight alive Weight alive Weight alive C Avi iE: Stones. lbs. . 9z 0 * [o's] > oO . 103 O Stones. Ibs. Dead weight 3 48 I Hide s° 6 10 Tallow.. Bag Dead weight. 44 0 Tallow 5 ee 4 8 Hide a. ey Dead weight° i513 Hide 5 e Ay di Tallow.° By Dead weight 64 10 Hide.. 6 I0 Tallow.. 6 13 Dead weight: KaiS Dead weight. 7 3h Tallow 5. o 74 Dead weight° Ipeiie Taltow 4 i| Quantity of food confumed per week by each peck three-quarters of beans, and four buthels of cut chaff 1s. 8d., and eight bufhels of potatoes. Torr Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Houfe-Lamb Suckling. breadth, with three or more coops or divifions of different fizes at each of the ends, for feparating the lambs according to their ages, is fufficient for containing and con- ducting the bufinefs of from one hundred and fixty to one hundred and eighty lambs.‘That the lambs may be enabled to find their mothers with facility, the ewes, when they are feparated from them, fhould be kept apart by deal hurdles in the middle of the houfe, fo that they may be convenient for the lambs in the coops at the ends*. After thefe arrangements have been made,-a fuitable breed of ewes for the pur- pofe fhould be provided. The moft early ewes of the Dorfetfhire breed are the moft proper for this management. And there is another circumftance that demands fome attention in this fyftem of fattening, which is that of having fuch ewes as produce lambs that die of a finé white colour in the flefh, or what the butchers term fair. The ewes, after being provided with due attention to thefe circumftances, are to be carefully kept during the day-time in a warm pafiure, and honfed in the night.‘They fhould be fed with brewers’ grains and good green rouen hay, where there is not plenty of grafs, as it is of much confequence to keep them well before the time of lambing as well as afterwards.‘They ufually begin to lamba little before Michaelmas, and when twenty or thirty lambs are dropped they may be put into and confined in the houfe. And in order to their feeding in the moft perfe@ and expeditious manner, it is neceflary that the houfé be kept cenftantly well littered with clean wheat-ftraw. All the dirt and naftinefS that may arife or adhere to the coops, hurdles, or other parts, fhould be often carefully removed and wafhed away, as without care in this refpect the Jambs never thrive well. It is like- wife neceflary to provide a proper fupply of calcined chalk, both in the lump and in powder, in order that by licking it they may correct the fuperabundant acidity of the flomach, and thereby prevent the tendency to loofenefs, and preferve themfelves in health. And as they are apt to fuck any thing that comes in their way, a little clean wheat-ftraw fhould be put, with the ear ends downwards, in a rack within their reach, for them to nibble and eat of. If there be pitch-marks on the ewes, they fhouldalfo beclipped out. The foot-rot and feabare likewife to be well guardedagaintt. The method of management that is ufually adopted in ihe /uckling-bou/e is this: “ The mothers of the lambs are turned every night at eight o’clock into the lamb-houfe to their offspring.—At fix o'clock in the morning thefe mothers are # Middlefex Correéted Agricultural Report. 6T 1058 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Houfe-Lamb Suckling. feparated from their lambs and turned into the paftures; and at eight o'clock fuch ewes as have loft their own lambs, and thofe ewes whofe lambs are fold, are brought in and held by the head till the lambs by turns fuck them clean: they are then turned into the pafture; and at twelve o’clock the mothers of the lambs are driven from the paftures into the lamb-houfe for an hour, in the courfe of which time each lamb is fuckled by its mother. At four o'clock all the ewes that have not lambs of their own are again brought to the lamb-houfe, and held for the lambs to fuck; and at eight the mothers of the lambs are brought to them for the night. “ If an ewe gives more milk than its lamb will fuck, the fuperabundance is given to the twins, or to any other lamb whofe mother may not be able to furnith it with fafficient food. The fhepherd muft in this cafe hold the ewe, or fhe would not fuffer the ftrange lamb to fuck. From their timid nature, it is extremely effential that they fhould be kept free from every fpecies of unneceffary difturbance*.” In order to enable the ewes to fupport the great exhauftion of this fyftem of management, they are kept plentifully fupplied with different forts of green food, fuch as turnips, cole, rye, tares, clover, and other fimilar vegetables, and when thefe are not capable of being provided in plenty, brewers’ grains are given in their place in troughs, and a proper fupply of frefh green rouen hay in racks. This is requifite not only for the fupport of the ewes, but that a full fupply of milk may be provided for the lambs and the danger of their being checked in their thriving avoided, as where the contrary is the cafe no fort of feeding can afterwards bring them into a fattening ftate-+. The lambs are retained in the houfes, under this method of feeding, till they are in a proper condition for the butcher; at which time fuch as are about eight wecks old and fully fattened are drawn out for the market, which in general fetch from two to four or five guineas a-piece, according as they are more early. Decem- ber and the two fucceeding months are the deareft, as at other feafons they feldom fetch more than one half the price. It has been obferved that the falef- men and butchers in London find that fuch lambs as have fharp ards on the in- fide of their lips die of a deep colour, and thofe whofe darés are naturally d/unt certainly turn out fair meat ft. 1 The chief objedis in this fort of fattening are thofe of attending to the regular feeding of the ewes, the varying of their food with propriety, and keeping the houfe perfectly clean and{weet. * Middlefex Correfted Agricultural Report.+ Ibid. t Ibid. Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Planting. 1059 Planting.—This is a praCtice which has lately been much more attended to than probably at any former period: the profit and advantage of covering dif- ferent forts of land with trees of the fruit, timber, or other kinds, according to circumttances, having begun to be better underftood, and of courfe to gain a greater intereft with thofe extenfive proprietors who have the beft means of carry- ing fuch plans into execution. It is obvious that on the drier.forts.of deep, friable, firong, loamy, and many other forts of foil, in particular fituations, fruit-trees of different defcriptions, but particularly the apple and pear, may frequently be planted, when either in the ftate of tillage or pafture, with great profit and fuccefs. And that in the lefs deep lands, of the fame kind, with dry rock fubfoils, other forts of fruit-trees may often be raifed with advantage: while on the fteep unproduive watte lands, that can neither be cultivated with much benefit under the fyftem of corn or grafs, trees of the timber or other forts admit of being planted with very con- fiderable profit; often from two or three, to eight or ten times the amount -which they would afford under any other method of management. It has been well obferved, that wafte and barren lands, in moft fituations, may very conveniently be improved by planting trees on them. There are few{pots which would not admit of being brought into culture in this way, under particular cireum- ftances; and there are innumerable tracts, of vaft extent, on which it would be much more profitable to the owner to plant with trees, than to attempt any other mode of improvement.‘“ Wherever the foil is dry and infertile; or where its chief or only produce is heath; or where it is full of rocks and ftones rifing to the furface; or if it be a ftiff obdurate clay, having little furface-produce; and in general, in moft cafes where the foil is poor, if not in the very near vicinity of a town, it may be converted into plantations, if it can be freed from hurtful water, with greater profit than any other improvement it could admit of, unlefs in very particular eircumfiances, even where it may admit of being brought, iz /ime, into cultivated ground, Where the furface-produce is naturally fmall, perhaps nothing could be fo ceconomical as, in the mean while, to fill it with trees; becaufe thefe, if judicioufly chofen, not only yield a greater profit than could be drawn from any other kind of produce, and afford conveniences for houfes, and other accommodations for inhabitants and for manufaCtures, but the ground itfelf, while the trees continue to grow upon it, undergoes for the moft part a gradual amelioration which it would not have done in its natural ftate, and admits of being more eafily im- proved when the proprietor can find leifure to undertake it, than it otherwife would 672 1060 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.—Planting—Fruit-Trees. have’ done*.”- Others recommend that every inch of fuch barren wafie lands as are‘not capable of cultivation by the plough+-, or of being ufefully ap- plicd in the fate of fward, fhould be converted to the purpofe of raifing plan- tations, efpecially thofe bleak and expofed tradts on the fides of mountains and on the banks of the fea. It is however the advice of an attentive obferver, that large plantations or coppices for profit fhould not be made on good land, always of much more value for corn or pafturage, but either on moift land of fmall value, upon a clay or marl bottom, where timber often grows well, or rather where fuch land abounds, upon precipices, and fides of hills impracticable to the plough; and where it often happens. the land unplanted is of little or no valuet.” There are likewife fituations in the more warm and lefs expofed parts of almoft every diftrit which are proper for admitting this fort of improvement, on account of their incapability of being converted to other ufes; fuch as the narrow corners of fields in the ftate of tillage, and the hedge-rows of thofe in. the condi- tion of grafs. In thort, there is fearcely any portions of land fo poor, barren, rocky, or une. productive, as not to admit of this fort of improvement, provided trees adapted to the nature of their foils and proper modes of planting be practifed. The limits of a work of this nature are, however, too confined toadmit of fully examiningand entering into the fubject, which would fill a volume.. It is only a few of the mot ufeful practical directions that can be here brought to the notice of thofe Hi proprietors who have a with to render their eftates more ornamental and valuable, | by the practice of planting thofe parts of them that do not admit of other modes of culture§. In order to render this fort of management more clear and fatisfac- tory, we fhall confider it as applicable in the cultivation of fruit-trees, timber, and coppice, or underwood. Fruit-Trees.---The planting of trees for the purpofe of producing fruits of different kinds, im many diftricts, forms a confiderable part of the profit of the farmer. This is the cafe in Herefordfhire, Devonthire, and other counties. where * Anderfon’s Effays, Vol. III.+ Nicol’s Practical Planter.+ Pit in Staffordfhire Report. § As a proof of the great improvement that may be accomplifhed in this way, it is obferved by Mr. Pontey, in his ufeful Tract on Planting, that an eftate of a thoufand acres of mountainous land, | ufually termed barren from the bleaknefs of its fituation, let for not more than twelve fhillings per acre, would coft at thirty years’ purchafe eighteen thoufand pounds. Ifthe purchafer expend a thoufand fo fituated as ultimately to fereen the whole, pounds more in planting and fencing a hundred acres, nd for fourteen years, the eftate allowing compound intereft foy that with the accumulating rent of the la Cultivation of Grafs-Land,—Planting—Apple-Trees, 1061 the bufinefs of making cider is carried on in an extenfive manner; and in the county of Kent fruit-trees are often planted with the intention of deriving proft from the produce. In thofe diftri€ts where cider conftitutes a principal object of the farmer, the planting of apple trees becomes a bufinefs of great importance, and requires par- ticular care, in order to keep up a conftant fucceffion and afford proper fupplies of fruit for the purpofe*, It is only in thofe forts of foil that are of the more dry kind that trees of this would then have coft about twenty-one thoufand two hundred pounds; and the account for it, with: fourteen years beyond that period, may be ftated as under: k- Paid for the eftlate|--°--- 18,000 990 acres improved by fhelter, 3s. per acre, at 30 years’ purchafe- 4,050 Value of.200,000 trees(chiefly larch) at 6d.-- 5,000 Eftate worth at the end of 14 years:->- 27,050 Coft, as before mentioned, about° aoe-- 21,200 Improvement by planting----- 5,350 Do..by trees, in 14 years.more, at Is, each~-- 10,000 15,850 Dedué& for rent of 100 acres, at Gol. per annum, with compound intereft, about-=----- some Lig 15 Eftate improved by planting, in 28 years*-= 14,675 It is added, that in forming“ thefe calculations full allowance has been made for the expofure of fituation, as if is not uncommon to fee larch worth as much money in half the time, but probably if the whole were fuffered to remain to the end of the term, the improvement might not be fo great; yet if the thinning were properly attended to, the value of ftanding trees, with the produce of fuch as were fold, could not be lefs:than the ftated average, independent:of expenfe, viz. 13. 6d. per tree, or 1251. per acre.” * Mr. Marthal mentions the ftyre apple, the Hagloe crab, the golden pippin, old red-ftreak, woodcock, mutt, Paris or royal wilding, dymmock red, coccagee, ruffet, and Bromley foxwhelp, as ftill in ufe. The forts of apples that have in practice been found the moft proper and valuable for the making of good fruit-liquor in the different difiri€ts, according to Mr Crocker, are the following:— “ In Herefordfhire and Worcefterfhire:—The Bennet apple; ftreaked with red, of a pleafant tafte, makes.a good fecond-rate cider.—Captain Nurfe’s kernel; yellow, ftreaked with red, of a mild acid flavour, makes light pleafant cider—Elton’s yellow: of this apple there are two forts, the one to be met with above Hereford and the other below; the former of the fhape and fize of an orange, yellow onone fide and red on the other, of a mild pleafant acid, and makes very good cider: the latter is fomewhat larger, and of a beautiful gold colour, fharp to the tafte, and makes excellent cider—Normandy apple; under N 1062 Cultivation of Grafs-Land.=Planting—-Apple-Trees. defcription can be raifed with advantage. It has likewife been remarked, by an intelligent cultivator, on an extenfive fcale, that the fruit-liquors of Here- fordfhire have“always been fuppofed to derive their excellence from fome this name there are three forts; tke yellow, the white, and the green; all of a bitter-fweet tafte, which make rich cider, and of a highcolour: the trees are faid to be moft abundant bearers. Mr, Crocker has been informed by a friend, whofe veracity may be depended on, that thirty trees of this fort, in the fifth year after grafting, produced five hogfheads of cider, of one hundred and ten gallons each.—Yellow or foreft ftyre;-{mall, red on one fide, and a fine yellow on the other; of a mild pleafant acid, and, in the opinion of many, makes a mott excellent cider: the tree, however, feldom thrives well, and is but a fhy bearer.” In Somerfetthire:—‘ The Jerfey; fmall, of a light red ground, with a variety of lake-coloured fiveaks, moderately bitter; makes high-coloured cider, which is fluggifh in its fermentation, and ought to be made by itfelf—White-Sour; fmall, of a yellow ground, lightly tinged towards the nofe with a light brown, and fome ftrong touches of brown near the ftem; of an acid flavour, fomewhat acrid, very juicy, and makes{mart palatable cider.—Margill; middle-fized, yellow lightly tinged with red, pleafant flavour, isa fine cider-fruit.— Vallis apple; large and handfome, finely tinged with red all over. {weet in its flavour, very juicy, makes tolerable cider.—Barn’s-Door; moderate fize, brown towards the ftem, the reft red, fome red ftreaks within, late in ripening; a pleafant acid; makes very good cider.—Crab red-ftreak; fmall, greenifh yellow on one fide, light red on the other, with ftrong red ftreaks, of a pungent acid, and under proper management makes{mart ftout cider—Du-ann; {mall, yellow near the ftem, flrongly tinged with red towards the nofe, fmart acid, makes good cider.—Jack Every; middle fize, light yellow tinged with brown and red, fweet flavour, makes to- lerable cider.—-Coccagee; yellow, fpotted with red and brown, of a rough acrid flavour, makes very fmart cider under due management; but its fermentation being particularly volatile, it requires much attention soon after making—Clark’s Primo; middle fize, of an orange colour on one fide, red blotched with brown on the other, of a mild lufcious acid; makes rich cider, and is alfo an excellent apple for the table.—Buckland; fmall yellow tinged with red, veined with red within, makes good cider.--Pit-Crab; mall, dark red finely tinged with a lake colour within,{mart acid; makes good cider.—Slatter’s Pearmain; middle fize, yellow, richly tinged with red and brown, delicious flavour, firm flefh, makes excellent cider, but hitherto has been more ufed at the table than at the prefs. Slatter’s No. 19; long in its form, ground a yellow and light red, finely blotched with ftrong red, moderately acrid; is a fine cider-fruit.—Slatter’s No. 20; yellowith ground tinged with red,{mart acid flavour, makes very good cider.—Slatter’s No. 21; tinged on the fun-fide with red and brown, very pleafant flavour, and will undoubtedly be efteemed as one of our beft cider-apples.——The four laft-named apples, the author fays, are new, the trees being lately raifed from kernels by Mr. Slatter of Ilminfter, Somerfet, whofe orchards and cider have long acquired much celebrity. Caftle- pippin 5 greenifh yellow, veined with brown and{lightly tinged with red, mild acid, and makes good fecond-rate pale cider.—Saw-pit; red throughout, acid flavour, and by fome is efteemed the beft cider-apple in the country.—Pomme apis; large, yellow, faintly tinged with red on the fun-fide, broad at the flem, very juicy,{mart but pleafant acid, is undoubtedly a fine cider-fruit: it is, however, very little known in this country, having been brought from France buta few years fince, and the propaga- tion of it confined to one or two nurferies only.” Cultivation of Grafs-Land.— Planting— Mr. Bakewell.+ Culley on Live Stock.. 1102 Live Stock—Methods of improving of. rities*. But in oppofition to thefe firong proofs, it is{till contended by others, though confeffedly without any very great experience, that in this method young ftock decreafe rapidly in. fize on the fame pafture,”” without any“ other ill or good effect taking place in confequence of itt. It is likewife further obferved, in contradiction of the fame opinion, that in proportion as an animal decreaies in fize, it may be reafonably fuppofed to decreafe in vigour and activity; but that, how far*this may render it capable of feeding or living on lefs food is not afcer- tained. There is no doubt, however, it is faid, but that very beautiful animals may be produced by breeding in-and. in, as“ the young animal comes into the world on a fmall fcale; but by keeping it fat from the firft moment of its exifience, it is made to attain a greater fize than nature intended, and its weight willin confequence be very great in proportion to the fize of its bones. But this is far, it is fuppofed, from proving that the practice is eligiblet.” And it is till further contended in regard to cattle, that, asin this fyftem of breeding no expense is{pared in feeding the young fiock, the breed fhould of courfe have attained a larger fize: yet they are not only lefs, but, it is afferted,“carry lefs fat on their bett points than fhe Herefordthire cattle,” which from the firft year are kept in a much inferior manner§. The effects of the fame method in the dog have been found in fome degree fimilar;“ the breed has become lefs in fize, but not lefs keen or active; and by crofling again with a breed of no larger fize, it has attained its former weight||.” It is likewife added, that“ fome experiments of croffing the breeds of plants have thoroughly convinced the writer,“ that in the vegetable as well as the animal world the offspring of amale and female not related, will poffefs more firength and vigour than when they are both of one family{.” It is not however fuppofed “ that croffing diffimilar breeds of cattle has ever a good effe&t; as the breeds mix without affimilating. When the long-horned breed of cattle has been crofled with the Herefordfhire, fome of the offspring have followed one breed, and fome the other, and fome prefented an awkward mixture of both**.” In this ftate of the facts, no certain conclufions can therefore be drawn. The fafeft plan is, probably, to have recourfe to both methods, according to the nature of the improvement that may berequired; and as there is no poflible means yet difcovered of rendering accidental varieties, in either the animal or vegetable king- dom, permanent, the beft way is conftantly te breed from the beft and moft per- fect animals of their kind, * Culley on Live Stock.+ Knight in Communications to the Board, Vol. II.$ Ibid. § Ibid. Ibid,|}, Ibid,*% Ibid, I Live Stock—Methods of improving of. 1103 It is indeed obvious, that in the crofling method of breeding, though it muft be allowed to be extremely ufeful in many refpeéts, the greateft care and circumfpection fhould be employed to adapt the animals in the moft perfeét manner to the nature of the improvement which is required; otherwife the breed may be in danger of faftaining injury inflead of advantage. From the vague and random manner, indeed, in which attempts to improve the breeds of live ftock, on this principle, have in general been conduéted, it would feem not improbable but that difad- vantage may often have been produced by bringing together fuch breeds, as, from the great differences in their forms, qualities, and other properties, could have little or no chance of effecting the purpofe of improvement in any uvfeful manner. The agricultural furveys of moft of thofe diftri@s where breeding or grazing has been carried to any extent, almoft uniformly complain, that ufeful breeds of live ftock have been injured and debafed by the practice of croffing injudicioufly conducted. And a late writer, in{peaking of fheep, has well obferved,“ that to the mounte- bank dotrines of croffing diffimilar breeds, which Nature in its infinite wifdom had fet afunder, we are indebted for much confufion and mifmanagement*.” But it mu@ notwithftanding be allowed, that by croffing, when conducted with fufficient judgment, improvement may in a great meafure be effected, efpe- cially in what relates to bone or fize, the hide or coat, the bettering of partt- cular points or parts, and perhaps in what regards the movement or fpeed of the animal: but in other views it would feem incapable of producing thofe beneficial effets which fhould conftantly direct the fteps of the breeder. As it is in fome meafure a principle founded in phyfiological fcience, and counte- nanced by the obfervation and experieuce of ages, that animals are fomewhat endowed with the faculty of not only propagating an offspring that has in a confiderable degree the properties, difpofitions, and refemblance of themfelves, but that is in fome meature fubje to a fimilarity of difeafe; it would appear that, although there may be occafional deviations, the moft certain method, and that which has the beft foundation in the nature and economy of the animals,{in fo-far as the particular qualities and other properties, befides thofe that have been juft mentioned, are concerned,) is to breed in the fame /ine, perhaps in the fame family+; as, by a careful procedure in this way, the expert breeder may not only have the greateft fecurity for attaining that improvement which he is anxious to produce, but run the leaft rifk of deterioration. % Lord Somerville’s Syftem of the Board of Agriculture, + In the technical language of the breeder, this has been termed breeding in-and-ins 1104 Live Stock—Breeding of—Properties to be regarded in—Shape. The fuccefs of the practice has indeed not merely been fhown in the breeding of the farmer’s ftock, but in that of the fportfman. It has been found that pointers and game-cocks have been bred with the greateft perfection and fupe- riority in this mode*. And it is by the fame means that the valuable properties of the race-horfe are perpetuated and preferved. The fame thing likewife takes place in the vegetable economy, the fineft and moft perfect produétions of the fort being propagated by fowing feed feleled from the beft and moft perfect plants of the fame kind, and taking the buds or offsets from the beft and moft perfect trees of the fame f{pecies. There is alfo another circumftance that feems to fhow the propriety and 1uperior advantage of this method of proceeding in the breeding of domeftic animals; which is, that however much the breeds of live ftock may be altered by climate, pafture, and other caufes, in what refpects their colour, and other trifling particulars, their {pecific characters remain invariably the fame. No caufes of thefe kinds have ever been capable of changing any one of the diftinét breeds, whether of neat cattle, fheep, horfes, or hogs, in fuch a manner as to have the charateriftic diftinGions of thofe of any of the others. It would therefore appear, that by having recourfe to occafional croffing in the above intentions, and the careful fele@tion of the moft perfect animals of the fame breed or kind, with due attention to conftant good feeding, the improvement of live{tock may be carried to the greateft per- fection.‘ As the principal object of the breeding farmer muft conftantly be that of obtain- ing fuch animals as will afford him the largefi profit; it may be neceflary to afcertain the nature and form of animal that may be moft advantageous in this view, or which pays the beft for the confumption of its food; as by this means it will be feen what points are the moft defirable or ufeful in a breed or variety, and what circumftances ought to be attended to, fo as to juftify its introduction in pre- ference to another. The properties that would feem more particularly to deferve the attention of the farmer, in his different views and fchemes of improving the breeds of live ftock, may be confidered under the different heads of /hape, /ize, difpofition, hardine/s, quick maturity, nature of flefo, fattening property, milk, hide, aptitude for labour, and what may be termed the quality of the breed, or, in the language of the art, d/ood. In refpect to the firft, the ideas or opinions of breeders have differed very ma- terially; but it is obvious, that there can only be one true or perfect form, which * Culley on Live Stock, Live-Stock.—Properties to be regarded in-—Size. 1105 mut be’ that which approaches the neareft to exattnefs in the fhape and proportion of the different parts. Whenever this is met with, it indicates the true form, and is that which ought to be aimed at. by the breeder, whatever the nature or breed of the animal may be. ot In this view, a perfedlly. formed animal fhould have an exact proportion and con- fiftency in all the different parts; the.head neat and compactly formed, but neither too large or of too great a length; the eyes bright and prominent; the neck not of too great length, but fomewhat thin, gradually narrowing from the breaft towards the head, to which it fhould be neatly attached; the cheft round, wide, full, and of deep girth; the length of the legs well proportioned to the fize; the fore ones ftraight and clean, the hind ones forming an angle at the hock, fo as to ftand well: under the loins; the diftance between the feet in the different extremities equal; the feet round and even, the hoofs ftraight; the back and loins ftraight and broad; the belly firm and capacious; the quarters deep, full, and well flefhed downwards. It is, however, difficult to convey any very correct idea of fhape by words; but that which comes up in fome meafure to this ftandard would feem to conftitute that‘ utility of form” which has been the great object of modern breeders. Andit is probable that fuch a form is the beft calculated for the chief obje& of the farmer, which is that of receiving and fupporting fleth in the practice of fattening; as, where animals much exceed or fall thort of fuch correét proportions of parts, there mufi be inconvenience or difadvantage, either in their being weak and lefs difpofed to fatten,—of courfe requiring more food and a greater length of time for accom- plithing the:bufinefs,—or in their being deficient in the general weight and value of the meat, from their not fattening tufficiently on the beft parts. It has been obferved to have been the conftant principle of a moft intelligent breeder*, to procure fuch animals, whether of the cattle or fheep kind, as were capable of weigh- ing the“ moft in the moft valuable joints,” as there is a great difference between an ox of fifty flone, carrying thirty in roafting pieces, and twenty in coarfe boiling ‘ones,—and another carrying thirty in the latter, and twenty in the formery. It mutt undoubtedly be-an objec of great importance, to have thofe parts which are of but little value, as fmall and of as little weight as poffible. It may alfo be ad- vantageous in particular cafes, to attend to the nature of the confumption in the fhape of the animals, in the manner that has been juft feen, as, where fome parts are * Mr. Bakewell.+ Young’s Eaftern Tour, Vol. I. 7 B 1106 Live-Siock.—Properties to be regarded in—WSize.| more in demand than others, and confequently fell at much higher prices, that fhape whichis mofi favourable for this purpofe fhould be more attended to. It is probable, however, that it is on the juft proportion and fymmetry of parts in the animals that are employed for the purpofe of the breeder,‘that improvement in this as well as other important points muft depend. And of courfe it feems not improbable, bat that the excellence of the moft valuable points im all the different forts of{tock may in fome degree bear a proportion to the goodnefs of the form in the animals. That fine fullnets of thape which has been diftinguithed by breeders under the term“beauty of form,” has been confidered as ditting from that of“ utility of form,” and to confift in a more perfect rounding of the parts,‘and a lefs appearance of bony protuberance. But though it muft conftantly be a very defirable object to bring the fhape of the animals as near perfection as the difficult nature of the bufinefs will admit, yet utility, or what may in other words be termed profit, muft be principally confidered, as being the immediate object of the ftock- farmer. In the fize of animals there is a variety which admirably adapts them to the variations of foil, climate, fituation, and food, as well as the different views and purpofes of the farmer. The long agitated queftion, whether large- or fmall-fized animals-are the moft profitable, or pay the grazing farmer the moft money for the food they confume, is not yet fully decided; nor is it probably capable of‘being eafily afcertained, on account of the great difficulty of making experiments under an exact fimilarity of circumfiances, in regard to breed, pafture, food, expofure, and other points; and what is the difference in the growth, or increafe of weight, or of labour, between large and fmall animals, in proportion to the quantity of food which they take for their fupport. And laftly, what is the difference in the increafe and quick- nefs of feeding, in ftock of different fizes, in relation to the quantity of food which they confume. A varied fet of experiments, correctly made with a view to thefe different points, would no doubt lead to many ufeful conclufions, though they would not, probably, finally fettle the difpute, on account of the great difficulties that muft always attend fuch comparative inveftigations, from the variation of circum- ftances and other caufes. It would feem therefore, that, in the prefent ftate of our knowledge, no certain directions can be given, in refpect to the fize of cattle, that will be generally applicable in governing the conduét of the grazier. The largenefs o Live- Stock. Properties to be regarded in—Size. 1107 of fize, though it is a property that may be defirable, in fo far as it affords the means of feeding to a great weight; yet, as this is probably acquired by a much larger and longer continued confumption of food, it is probable that, except in fituations where food is abundant, the fmaller-fized animals may be the more profitable. In deciding the point, it 1s not merely, as has been feen, the difference in the quantity of flefh that they are feparately capable of affording, but the difference of fuch quantity in relation to the confumption of food, that is to be confidered. It was found by Mr. Bakewell, that the“fmaller the bone, the truerthe make of the beaft,” and the quicker in fattening*; which throws the advantage on the fide of{mall fize: and the expe- rience of gragiers in general feems to favour the fame conclufion, as they commonly find that the middling and fmall brecd are the mot profitable, from their fattening with the greateft expedition, And it bas been wel! remarked, that the Lincoln fhire and Holdernefle breeds of cattle“ are very large, but their fize lies in their bones: they may be fattened to great lofs to the grazier,” but can never“ return fo much for a given quantity of graf as the{mall-boned, long-horned kind f.” It may perhaps be objected by fome, that the difference in the confumption of food between the large- and. fmall-fized animals is not fo confiderable as is com- monly fuppofed. But though it mutt be allowed that confiderable latitade may take place in this refpect, according to the fiate of the digeftive organs and, other caufés, long experience among graziers has fhown. in the moft decifive manner, that a number of fmall-fized ftock confame much lefs food in a given time than large, as in fome cafes they can{tock nearly in the proportion of two to one. Mr, Knight, however, inclines to the fide of large cattle being the moft profitable, from their not confuming food in the proportion of their weight; as, on putting the ‘ queftion of the difference in the weight of food confumed by the largeft and{mallet ina given time, to different breeders in different parts of the diftril where he refides, he found that they agreed,“‘ that the fame quantity of food was. given to the fmallet and the largeft beaft of the fame age; that the largeft, even when not matter of the fame fold, often kept itfelf in the beft condition; and that every thing. depended on the difpofition to fatten, and very little on the fize of the animal.” In‘his own ftock he alfo afferts the fame thing to be precifely the cafet. It is however admitted, as juft ftated, that a certain quantity of large cattle will mofily. * Young’s Eaftern Tour, Vol. I.+ Ibid. + Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol, IT. 7B2 es SS Saree Se — = Sa ae -== 1108 Live-Stock.—Properties to be regarded in—Size. confume more than the fame quantitity of fall Ones;‘but not by any means in proportion to their weight., With regard to any difference that may take place in the quality of the meat from the difbrehee we fize, it would feem to be in favour of the fmaller breeds; as the finenefs of the mufcular fibre, or what has been commonly termed the grain of ficth, has been found to be the moft delicate in the fmaller breeds of animals. Jt is on this account, as well as that of convenience, that the mutton, beef, and other forts of meat of finall animals are fo conftantly preferred by the nice palates of thofe who indulge in the pleafures of the table. In oppofition to the idea that fmall animals, when rated are in common worth more for any given weight of meat than large ones; it is contended, that if the animal be taken as it ftands in the pafture or ftall, the contrary is the truth; but that, when the butcher merely buys what are termed the valuable parts, and receives the offal into the bargain, he will unqueftionably, for obvious reafons, “‘ give more for two cows of twelve ftene each a quarter, than for one of twenty- four.” The offal is of much greater value, befides a confiderable advantage in the hides*. In fhort, it is concluded that‘the difference between the weight of the animals when living, and of the four quarters when dead, is always in an inverfe proportion to their fize when their forms and merits are equal; but the bones will then be in proportion to the Hving-weight, and therefore fmall animals muft be in this cafe moft difadvantageous to the confumer.” From the greater fize of the mufcular parts in large animals, the fleth would, however, feem to be more coarfe in the very large breeds, fo of courfe be lefs valuable, than in thofe of the finall. It is alfo fuppofed an advantage in the large animals, that the meat when preferved for future ufe is not only better, from the juices being more fully retained, but from_ there being lefs wafte, on account of the external furface being proportionately lefs. And it is obferved, in regard to the opinion that animals of the fmaller kinds are in general more hardy than thofe of the large breeds, that if it be meant merely that they are capable of fubfifting on fhorter herbage, it is right; as a large animal, though it may have exa@ly the fame form as the fimall one, neceffarily requires more time for reft. It feeds and removes itfelf with greater labour;.and notwith- ftanding it may beas ftrong again, as having double the weight, it will ftill in relation * Knight in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol, II.+ Ibid. Te Live-Stock.—Properties to be regarded in——Sizxe. 1109 to it(elf be a weaker animal. Its head and neck will be as heavy again, and from their greater length, the weight will recede further from the centre of motion in the thoulder; confequently increafe in power in proportion to the diftance: and the fame thing holds good in refpect to the whole ofthe limbs. In the ftall, or the - fold, where Jarge oxen are moftly fed, thefe difadvantages are of no confequence, as the food is received without the trouble of looking for it; and if the neceflity ofa better pafiure does not proceed from the larger animal confuming much more, but from lefs power in collecting food, the confequence will be, that it muft“ afford the largeft weight of flefh with the fmalleft confumption of grats*.” Smail-fized animals have been aflerted to be lefs prejudicial in poaching the ground than large ones, on account of their feet being wider in proportion to the weight. It is however obferved by Mr. Knight, that“the queftion is, whether the feet and mouths of two fmall animals will not injure the herbage more than that of one large one.” It is remarked that fmalltheep do not.poach the ground at all; yet it is fuppofed that“a feore of thefe weighing a ton in the aggregate will do more injury to a rich pafture in forty-eight hours than an ox of the fame weight in a week.” Cows and oxen fhould, it is faid, be kept in the(tall and the fold when the ground is wet during the winter, and capable of being injured by poaching; and in the fummer it is not injured by the heavieft ftock. In cafes where the weight of meat is of no material confequence, as in dairy cattle, the advantage may be on the fide of fall animals, as fuch cows will give nearly the fame quantity of milk feparately as thofe of the large kind; and are capable of fubfifting on fhorter herbage, and without injuring the ground in the fame degree: but where the weight and value of the meat form the principal confiderations, the large(t animals the paftures are calculated to fupport, are fuppofed to be the moft beneficial to the breeder and the public f. In the fmaller-fized animals, there are, however, advantages in their being capable of being fattened wholly with grafs, without having recourfe to the more expenfive kinds of food, which mutt be the cafe with thofe of a large kind, and on paftures in their being procured with lefs difficulty, and more adapted of inferior qualities; ances of farmers; and from there being lefs to particular fituations and circumft Jofs in cafe of accidents taking place f. * Knight in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. Ty,+ Ibid. }Sir John Sinclair in the Farmer's Magazine, Vol III. 4 110 Live-Stock.—Properties to be regerded in—mTamenefim—Hardine/s. On thefe grounds, as there appear fome things favourable to each fide, the atten- tion of the breeder fhould be principally directed by the nature and circumftances of his paftures, as’ well as the command of other forts of food which he’ poffeffes; the tniddle and fmaller breeds of live ftock being preferred on the lefs rich and inferior kinds, and the large forts in fuch fituations as are more rich and fertile, and where- ever there is a fufficient command of food. It is, without doubt, a matter of much utility and importance to have fuch breeds of domeftic animals as are pofleffed of tame and gentle difpoftions, without being too dull or fluggith in their habits, as fuch animals are not only lefs difpofed to ramble and break the paftures, but are capable of being reared, fed, and rendered fat, with confiderably lefs food. In the produdion of this fort of difpofition much depends upon the modes of rearing the animals. Mr. Bakewell had all his animals, even his bulls, fo tame and gentle, from early care tn this refpect, that they could be managed with the greateft eafe and facility.: Hardinefs of conftitution is another property in live flock that deferves the atten- tion of the breeder. In expofed fituations itis’ an effential and indifpenfable. pro- perty; and under all circumftances it muft be advantageous for the farmer that a breed is not liable to difeafe. Befides, hardy animals always thrive much better than fuch as are more tender and delicate in their nature. The circuniftances which have been commonly fuppofed todenote this difpofition are thofe of darknefs of colour and roughnefs of hair. Animals of other colours are however frequently not defi- cient in this property: and it does not feem to depend much upon the colour, but perhaps on the breed, and the manner in which the animal has been reared, There is another property which is of great confequence to the breeder, as much of his profits muft always depend, ina great degree, upon it. This is that of quick- nefs in arriving at the ftate of maturity. With this the abundance of fupply is likewife, in a great meafure, connected: of courfe itis a property that greatly interefts the public as well as the farmer, and on both accounts deferves. the particular attention of the breeder. It is probable that fome forts of ftock, from their labour, or the produce which they afford, may be kept longer with profit by the farmer than others. This has been fuppofed to be the cafe with neat-cattle, though not with fheep; but the diftin¢tion is perhaps not well founded, as the latter obvioufly afford a return in various ways*. It is evident that the manner in which animals are fed muft have much influence * Sir John Sinclair in Farmer's Magazine, Vol. I1I. Live-Stock— Properties to be regarded inmEarly Maturity—Fleb. 111k in this refpect; as when, from the conftant full{applies of food, they are always kept in a thriving condition, they will of courfe arrive much earlier at the flate of maturity than under the contrary circumftances. This will be the cafe, whatever the nature of the ftock may be. It has been aflérted that, under this mode, a greater progrefs is made in three years than in the ordinary pinching method of rearing is effected in five*. The neceffity of not fuffering animals to be checked or ftunted in their early growth, by the want of proper care, food, and warmth, is thus fully evinced. This is therefore a point that thould never-be loft fight of by the careful breeder in the raifing of his live-flock. It is fearcely neceflary, after the obfervations that have been made above, to fay any thing in addition refpecting the nature or quality of the fleth of animals, as it’ would feem to bea property inherent in the mufcular fubftance, and probably depending in a great meafure, if not wholly, on the breed. It is indeed obferved by Mr. Marthall, ia fpeaking of the breeding of animals in the Midland diftri€ts, where the fe is:“fpoken of with the fame familiarity as the hide or the fleece,” that the grain is clearly underftood to depend wholly on the dreed, and not, as has been heretofore confidered, on the /ize of the animal.” The difference in the flavour of the fleth of different breeds or varieties of animals would feem to: depend in a great degree on the nature of the food; while that of colour is probably in. a great meafure fixed and inherent, and*the effect of breed: experiments are however wanting on thefe points, in order to place themin a more clear light.. The fuppofition of its having a relation to that of the colour of the fkin, is probably without any juft foundation. Wherever any very material deviation from the natural colour of flefh is met within meat, as has fometimes been the cafe, it is probably the effect of a morbid condition of the animal. In theliving ftate, the proofs of good fleth are a mellow, elaftic, rather firm, feel, without any degree of harfhaefs; and in the dead con- dition a fimilarity of feel, with a fine grain and marbly appearance. The difference of age and fex may likewife afford fome variety in refpect to the quality of the fleth, asin old animals it muft be more firm, and lefs tender and juicy, than in thofe that are young, as is found by experience. And the finenefs of the grain is moftly found much greater in animals of the female than the male kind. Some of the more northern breeds of Scotch cattle are faid to excel much in the quality of their fleth, when killed at a proper age and well fattened. * Sir John Sinclair in Farmer's Magazine, Vol. III. 1112 Live-Stock.—Properiies to be regarded in—Dipofition to fatten. There is another property, in fome degree connected with that jaft men- tioned, which is that of the difpofition to fatten while young, and in an expe- ditious manner, when fully fed. This is a property on which the profit of the grazier muft in a high degree depend, as, where it does not prevail, much of his food mutt be ufelefsly expended. It cannot therefore, in this view, be too much regarded in the felecting of his fiock. The circumftances on which it depends have not, perhaps, yet been fully inveftigated; but it is well known that fome animals become fat with a very finall confumption of food, while others that eat much larger proportions always remain in a lean ftate. So far as obfervation has yet gone, this is a property that would feem to be in fome meafure connected with fmallnefs of bone. Some think it‘‘ probable, however, that a tendency to fatten arifes from fome particular circumftance in the internal firucture of the body, of which{mall bones are in general an indication; and that it is only in this point of view that they ought to be confidered effential; for they often weigh as heavy, and confequently require as much nourifhment, as large ones;—{mall bones, like thofe of the blood-horfe, being compaet and heavy; large bones, like thofe of the common dray- or cart-horfe, being extremely porous, and confequently light for their apparent bulk. Indeed, cattle ought not only to be eafily maintained in point of quantity, but, in remote and uncultivated diftricts, in regard to the quality alfo of the food they confume; and it is certain that fome particular animals will fatten as well on coarfe fare, as others will do on the moft luxuriant*.” The practice of Mr. Bakewell, as well as that of other breeders, would feem to.demon- ftrate that it depends greatly on the form and breed of the animals. cy Some have. affected to think lefs favourably of the utility of this property or difpofition, on account of the largenefs of the proportion of fat that is fometimes produced, which is conceived by ng means fo ufeful or economical, in the con- fumption as food, as that of the lean part. But where a fuprabundance or excefs of fat takes place, it would feem to be in a great meafure the fault of the grazier, and not of the nature or difpofition of the breed. It has been fuggefted, that the difputes in reipect to the utility or inutility of fat- tening animals to the great degree that has been lately the cuftom, mutt of neceflity proceed from the want of fufficient difcrimination; as fat meat, though not fo fit for common ufe, is in general confidered as affording more nourifhment than Jean, when * Sir Joha Sinclair in Farmer’s Magazine, Vol. III. Live Stock.—Properties to be regarded inmm Hide or Skinem Milk. 1113 the ftate and vigour of the ftomach are fuitable for digefting it; and that although there may, in the common methods of cooking it, be fome lofs, by proper care and attention there are ways in which this may be almoft wholly avoided. Thus, it is re- marked that‘‘ the keelmen of Newcaftle purchafe great quantities of fat meat, as they follow the cufiom, fo ufual in Scotland, of boiling their meat; the broth of which feeds the family, whilfl they themfelves eat the meat, generally in a cold ftate, and in great quantities; and are thus enabled to go through the heavy labour they ufually undergo. In many diftricts, manufacturers and others bake their meat with potatoes aunder it; and the fat, melted by the fire, falls upon the potatoes, and improves much their tafte, and the nourifhment to be derived from them. In either of thefe ways, little, if any, of the fubflance of the meat is loft But fuch fuppofitions as the above are probably futile on other principles, as there does not appear.to have yet been any other difcovery made for increafing the quantity x» E of mufcular fubftance, or lean flefh, than that of cultivating the fattening property of animals. It has long been an obfervation among breeders and graziers, that #igoed fat makes good lean.” The importance of this propenfity is therefore con- fiderable, and requires the particular notice of the modern breeder in the raifing of hislive flock. There remains another property that ought to be regarded in the breed of animals, as it infomemeafure furnifhes the means of determining the difpofition to fatten, by the feel which it affords. This is the{tate of the hide or fkin. It is remarked, that “ when it feels foftand filky, it ftrongly indicates a tendency in the animal to take "on meat; and if is evident that a fine and foft fkin mufi be more pliable, and rhore 4 eafily ftretched out to receive any extraordinary quantity of fleth, than a thick or tough one. At the fame time, thick hides are of great importance in various ma- nufactures. They are indeed neceflary in cold countries, where cattle are much expofed to the inclemency of the feafons; and, in the beft breeds of Highland cattle, the fkin is thick in proportion to their fize, without being fo tough as to be prejudicial to their capacity of fattening+.” The property of fupplying in large proportions a ufeful product, fuch as that of milk, is an obje&t that. fhould not be loft fight of by the breeding farmer. The queflion of the propriety of having a difiinét breed exclufively for this purpofe, or that of having it only partly calculated for this ufe,-and partly for that of the butcher, has not yet been fully decided; but as it has.becn found, by long expe- * Sir John Sinclair in Farmer’s Magazine, Vol. IIi.*4 Ibid, 7 Cc 1114-Stock.— Properties to be regarded in—Aptitude for Labcur— Blood, rience, that fuch cows as have much propenfity to fatten, feldom anfwer the pur- pofe of the dairy, it would feem that there ought to be a breed particularly for the pail. It has however been fuggefted as probable that,“ by great attention, a breed might be reared, the males of which might, in every refpect, be well calculated for the fhambles, and the females, when young, produce abundant quantities of good milk, yet, when they reached eight or nine years of age, be eafily fattened.” Such a breed would, it is fuppofed, be of the greateft value of any that' could be pro- duced. Some of the beft Englith and Scotch breeds are believed to have nearly attained this point of perfection*. The fitnefs of animals for the purpofe of labour is a quality that, in certain circum- flances, maybe neceflary to be confidered in the breeding of cattle ftock. The queftion of the advantage that may be gained in this practice, in regard to the increafe in the quantity of meat, is far from having been decided; nor has it been well explained whether injury may not be done in reftricting the growth of the animals by this means, more than can be compenfated by their labour. It is obvious, however, that where cattle are’ worked, they muft be longer in being brought to the market. But as, from the greater cheapnefs of rearing and keeping neat cattle than horfes, and various other caufes, it may be neceflary to make ufe of cattle for the purpofe of labour, a breed well calculated in this refpect mutt be defirable. There fill remains another property which it is requifite for the breeder to con- fider in the improvement of live ftock, which is that of blood, adopted in analogy to the fyftem of breeding in the race-horfe. It is employed to fignify the natural, fixed, and inherent properties of a breed or kind, as exemplified in their external appearances. Its utility for the purpofes of the breeder is therefore to enable him to difcriminate, with greater nicety and correctnefs, in the feleCtion of fuch animals as are the moft adapted to the improvements he has in view. “These are the main objeéts to which the breeder fhould attend, and the meansby which he is principally to effect his improvements. The fuccefs of his endeavours, to whatever fpecies of excellence his attention may be direéted, muft obvioufly in a great meafure depend upon the accuracy and correétnefs of his judgment in choofing thofe breeds, of whatever fort of live ftock they may be, that are moft adapted to his cireumftances; and in fele@ing fuch individuals, both male and female, of fuch breeds, as are the moft perfe& and exact in their different parts and properties 5 cautioufly continuing to breed from them, without ever fuffering the leaft intermix~ * Sir John Sinclair in Farmer’s Magazine, Vol. IIL, Live Stock.—Methods of Breeding—Introduétion of new Breeds. 1115 ture by the admiffion of thofe of inferior qualities; advancing in this way with the niceft attention to fuch faults or defects, however trifling, as may arife, fo as to alter and corre them by appropriate pairing in the fucceeding generations. And as an indifpenfable affiftant in this arduous undertaking, he muft conflantly have re- courfe to the aid of good and abundant keep at all feafons, with fuitable degrees of fhelter and warmth for both the old and young ftock; fo that they may never “decline in fleth or be checked in their gro vth. This would feem to conftitute the great ‘ecret of the important art-of breeding live ftock, which the fuperior difcernment and unwearied perfeverance of a fingle individual raifed to a degree of notice and perfec- tion that has had the happieft effeis in bringing the improvement of our domeftic animals to a fiate of excellence perhaps unequalled in any other country. In every fyfiem of breeding or improving of live ftock, the greateft attention is confequently neceflary to keep. It has been well obferved that“ all good ftock mutt be both bred with attention and well fed; and that it is neceflary that thefe two “ effentials in this fpecies of improvement fhould always accompany each other; for, without good refources for keeping, it would be-in vain to attempt fupporting a capital ftock, and with fuch refources it would be abfurd not to aim at a breed fome- what decent in quality*.”” But improvements of this nature can, in general, only be effected by degrees, as the pecuniary circumflances of but few farmers admit of a total change. How much foever they may difapprove of what they have in poffeffion, they can only object to a few of the inferior; this, however, is in their power; and, by always feleGiing the heft for breeding and rearing, improvement will in time be effe&ted. Great improvements in cow-ftock may doubtlefs be made by a proper felection of the beft heifers ia carcafe and milk-bag for breeding ftock, but more particularly by a judicious choice of the bull. But as prime or firft-rate{tock isin but few hands, and the owners generally afk higher prices than farmers in gencral can afford to give, it would be highly advantageous in this intention to have proper male ftock provided by the proprietors of lands}. In this way, the letting of male ftock in the midland diftri&ts has had much influence; and it is probably only by fome encou- ragement of this nature that the higheft improvement in this moft important de- partment of hufbandry can be attained. It has been alfo remarked,“ that theré is one circumftance relative to the choice or introduction of all new breeds, which muft not be pafled over in filence, becaufe no farmer can neglect it without certain lofs. Every kind of pafture is fitted to raife * Corrected Agricultural Report of Staffordthire.+ Ibid. 702 1116 Live-Stock.—Advantages of the Improvement of.) animals to a particular fize. When beafts ofa larger fize are brought in, than the quality of the food is calculated to fupport, thefe animals, whether cows, horfes, , or fheep, or any other kind, will degenerate apace, and never prove ufeful until they come down to that ftandard or fize adapted to their fituation. and fuited to their food. On the other hand, when a fmaller breed than ordinary is brought in, they continue to inereafe in bulk, until they come up to the pitch which is fuited to their nourifhment. But there is this remarkable difference betwixt thefe two pro- greflions in refpect of profit, that in the retrograde progrefs, when animals are brought from rich pafture, and a comfortable fituation, to the reverfe, they are in every inflance worfe than the indigenous breed; whereas the animals which are brought from worfe to better, continue to improve till they arrive at that perfection which the change in their fituation is calculated to produce. Thefe caufes may not immediately have their full effe, but im a few years they certainly and evidently will. He makes, for this reafon, a much fafer experiment who brings cattle from worfe to better, than he who brings them from better to worfe.‘This reafoning applies to all plants as well as animals. Highland cattle rife to a great fize, not only by the keeping in South Britain, but in rich paftures at home. In vain will you attempt to improve a breed of animals beyond the circumftances of the country as to climate and pafture; while, at the fame time, it is no eafy matter to- difcern, without proper trials, how far thefe circumftances can fupport a better fiock*.’ In confirmation of thefe obfervations, and others that have been ftated above, it has been obferved that the“ richeft grazing Jand, and the moft nourifh- ing artificial food, will certainly pay more in feeding large bullocks, fheep and fwine, than it would do in feeding the fmaller fizes of the fame fpecies; and it is equally obvious that the fmaller breeds will anfwer better on the poor pafture than the large f.” Befides thefe circumftances, in the introdu€tion of new breeds of live ftock, there are others that demand attention, fuchas the particular qualities or properties which the farmer has in view. Thefe muft be fully confidered; and fuch: a breed as may beft anfwer in thefe particular intentions be confiantly preferred. In fpeaking of the vaft advantages that may be derived from the improvement of live ftock, it has been obferved by a late. praétical writer, that, confidering the various breeds of domeftic animals as the machines or vehicles by which farmers are: enabled to fend their herbage and other forts of food to the markets, they ought, by: the ftudy of every fuitable means, to promote their improvement, both in refpect to * Correéted Agricultural Report of Perthfhire.+ Correéted Report of Middlefexe ve Live Stock,—Neat Cattle—Different Breeds of. 1117 form and the difpofition to fatten, in order that the produce of their farms may be difpofed of in the moft profitable manner, and that, independent of the benefits the ‘armers would individually derive by fuch means, from the breeds being rendered lefs tedious in fattening, and lefS productive in offal, the public would obtain vaft y advantage in the great increafe of animal food. Indeed, on the fuppofition that every individual in England and Scotland confumes in the proportion of one fheep m the courfe of the year, and that there are ten millions in the country, it is cal- culated that, by improving the breeds of that animal only to the extent of one fhilling, which cannot be deemed impraé¢ticable, an additional annual advantage would be gained, in that fort of live ftock alone, of five hundred thoufand pounds*. This, on the whole of every kind, would therefore be immenfe+. After this concife view of the principles, properties, and other circumftances. which feem moft particularly to deferve regard in the improvement of different forts of live ftock, we may examine the nature and qualities of the feveral kinds, and the methods of management which are moft proper and advantageous in each. Neat Cattle. The breeds and varieties of cattle that are difperfed over the country are fo extremely numerous, that no correét enumeration of them has yet been pre- tented to the public; but a few of the more diftinguifhed and valuable forts have been well defcribed by different writerst. Almoft every diftri& or county has its par- ticular breed or variety of this fort of flock, which, in many cafes, is unquet- * Modern Agriculture, Vol. IV-+ Ibid. + It has been ufual to arrange the breeds of cattle, from the nature of their horns, and other circum~ fiances, fomewhat in the following manner: The Long-borned Breed. — Middle-horned Ditto. — Short-horned Ditto. a — Welch Breed. — Suffolk Dun Breed. — Galloway Polled Breed. — Highland or Kyloe Breed. — Lowland or Fifefbire Breed. And to thefe may be added the— Alderney Breed. And the — Wild Breed. The breeds of cattle are alfo frequently diftinguifhed by the names of the particular diftri&s, counties, or places where they are the moft prevalent or the moft perfect of their kind. The above method of arrangement has been in fome meafure adopted by the writer of a late practical work entitled“ Modern Agriculture.” 1118 Live-Stock.-—Long-horned Breed—Defeription of. tionably the moft proper and fuitable; but in others there is no doubt but that the farmer might be greatly benefited by ajudicious change for fome other fort more perfeatly adapted to his fituation and circum ftances. The long-horned breed of cattle is diftinguithed, as the name implies, by the great length of the horns, the thicknefs and firmnefs of the texture of their hides, the length and clofenefs of their hair, the large fize of their hoofs, and the coarfe, leathery thicknefs of their necks. They are alfo in common deeper made in their fore-quarters, and lighter in their hind-quarters, than other breeds*. In fize they are faid to be fuperior to the Suffolk duns, but inferior to the fhort- and middle-horned breeds--. They are likewife narrower in their fhape, and lefs in point of weight, than the(hort-horns, though better weighers in proportion to their fize; and the cows of this breed give confiderably lefs milk, but fuch as affords more cream in proportion to the quantity. In colour they are more varied than any of the other breeds; buat whatever the colour is, they have gene- rally a white ftreak along their backs, which the breeders term jimched, and moftly a white fpot on the infide of the hough. It is contended by fome that they were the native or original breed of this ifland; but it is not eafy to afcertain the matter: it . is however conjectured as probable, that“ thefe have been the inhabitants of the open plain country; whilft the wild breed, or perhaps the Welchand Scotch breeds, poffefied the woody, wild, and mountainous parts of the ifland f.” Others, however, think it more probable that“ the long-horned breed originated in importations of cattle from the neighbouring country of Ireland; and that bulls and cows brought from that ifland, having been coupled with the antient breed of the difiri@t, produced the fort of cattle known by the name of the Lancafhire or long-horned,” and which now occupy a large portion of the pafture lands of this kingdom§. Lancafhire is without doubt the mother diftrict of this fort of cattle, but the long-horned breed are alfo the prevailing fort of ftock in the counties of Warwick, Leicefter, Gloucefter, Chefter, and feveral other of the midland counties; and it is furprifing, and fhows great attention in one inftance, and equal neglect in the other, that this fort of cattle are at prefent found in greater perfection in the county of Leicefter than in the diftriGt whence they take their name]. This is fuppofed to have arifen“ from the graziers of thefe counties buying their beft bulls and heifers, for many years patt, before the people of Lancathire were well aware * Culley on Live Stock.+ Ibid. t Modern Agriculture, Vol. IIL.§ Ibid.}y Ibid. Live-Stock.—Middle-borned Breed—Devonfhire—Suffer—Varieties of. 1119 of it. The former paid more attention to that kind which were of a true mould or form, and quicker feeders; while the latter contented themfelves with the old-fafhioned, large, big-boned kind, which are not only flower feeders, but, when fed, are not fuch good beef. In fhort, the little farmers in Lan- cafhire, tempted by the high prices given them for their beft ftock, had loft their valuable breed before they were fenfible of it*.”” This breed is commonly underftood by graziers to be in general rather flow feeders, except that particular kind felected, improved, and recommended by the late Mr. Bakewell, which are faid not only toeat lefs food than the others in proportion to their weight; but to become remarkably fat in a fhort fpace of time, and to lay their fat upon the moft valuable parts, yet to have little tallow in them when killed; and, when ufed in the dairy, to give but little milk. This improved“ variety alfo differs, from the reft of the long-horned cattle, in having very fine, clean, fmall bones in theirlegs, and thin hides.‘They are a middle-fized, clean, fmall-boned, round- carcafed, kindly-looking cattlet.” They are fuppofed to have been raifed by means of Mr. Webfter’s, or what is frequently termed the Canley ftock. Craven in Yorkfhire is alfo famed for a fuperior variety of this breed of cattlet. The Irith cattle are fuppofed a mixed breed between the long-horns andthe Welch or Scotch, but more inclined to the long-horns, though of lefs weight than thofe of this country§. In the middle-horned breed of cattle there is probably more variety than in that of the preceding fort. The Devonfhire variety, when in a ftate of the greateft purity, is diftinguifhed by a high red colour, without any white fpots, as the breed is reckoned impure when thefe exift, particularly where they run into one another; by having a light dun ring round the eye; by the muzzle being of the fame colour; by being fine in the boneand clean in the neck; by the horas being of a medium length and bent upwards; by being thin-faced; fine in the chaps, and wide in the hips; with a tolerable barrel, but rather flat on the fides; by the tail being finall, and fet on very high; by being thin-fkinned, and filky in handling; and by the property of feeding at an early age, or arriving at maturity fooner than moft other breeds: they are a fort of cattle well fitted for draught, both as to hardinefs and guick movement, and their fhoulder-points are beautifully fitted for the collar||.” In the Suffex and Herefordthire varieties, the colouris alfo deep red, with fine hair; very thin fkins; necks and heads clean; horns neither long nor fhort, rather turning * Culley on Live Stock.+ Ibid. ¢ Marfhall’s Midland Diftri@. § Culley on Live Stock.|| Ibid. 1120 Live-Stcck.—Middle-horned Breed== Properties of. ie up at the points; well made in the hind quarters;.wide acrofs the hips, trumps, and furloins; narrow in thechines; tolerably ftraight in the hacks, but the ribs or fides lying too flat; thin in the thighs; bones not large*. It is obferved, that“ when all the properties which fhould attach to an ufeful breed of cattle are confidered, the middle- horned may be faid in general to come nearer to perfection than any other in the kingdom.‘They are of a large fize, wel formed, and, in difpofition to fatten, probably much on a par with the fhort- horned, and greatly fuperior to the Suffolk. As dairy-cattle, they are alfo as valuable as any that fall under the defeription of quick feeders; for although they give a lefs quantity of milk than the Suffolk or the long-horned, it is faid to be of a richer quality 4.” The Herefordthire as well as North Devon varieties of this breed are indeed avery fuperior fort of flock both for the purpofe of labour and that of grazing, as being’ not only clean, ftrong, and well-made, but affording quick proof under the feeding fyftem. Mr. Marfhall likewife remarks that the former, with that of the Gloucefier; variety, is highly eligible as dairy-fiock. The females in the Heréfordthire fort have been found to fatten better than any other kind at three years old; except the fpayed heifers of Norfolk f. The North Devon varicty, ae the finenefs of the grain in the meat, is held in high eftimation in Smithfield. And they are faid to have great fuperiority over many other breeds, from their poffeffing more activity, being better calculated for. labour, and having more blood; and which is believed to arife from the circumftance of their being bred from one and two years old bulls and heifers. Great proof in© this fort of cattle is fhown by the fize of the rib, the rotundity of the barrel, and the mellownefs of the fkin. The colours that are moft in efteem, and which denote a: fuperiority in the animals, are thofe fhades of the mahogany kind, efpecially where there is a filky or gloffy appearance in the hide, with a flight degree of waving of curling in the hair§. The ox in this variety is moftly confidered in perfection about the fifth year of his age. This valuable breed of cattle is the moft prevalent in the more fouthern and fouth- wefiern parts of this country, as in Suffex, Dorfetfhire, Hampthire, Devonthire, Somerfetfhire, and even fo far northward as Herefordthire, where the largeft, and perhaps the fineft, variety of this breed of neat cattle is met with. The Suffex variety, though not fo large as the Hereford thire, exceeds thofe of moft of the other diftricts. The oxen in the Herefordthire fort, when fix years old and fattened, will in general * Culley on Live Stock:+ Modern Agriculture, Vol. III.+ Rural Economy of Gloucefterfhire. Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXX. iets Live Stodb.—-Short-borned Breed—Defcription of—Welch Breed. 1121 weigh from fixty to.one hundred ftones of fourteen pounds, the fore quarters being| i moftly the heavielt*. From*their being fteady and ative, as well as capable of great exertion in harnéfs, they are peculiarly adapted to the purpofesof the team. They may be wrought from three to five or fix years old before they are fattened. te The foort-horned breed, as the term fignifics, is diftinguithed from the others by the fhortnefs' of the horny by being wider and thicker in the form or mould, and, of courlé, feeding to the greateft weights by affording much the largeft quantity of~ tallow when fattened; in having very thin hides, and much lefs hair upon them than Pn. any 6ther breed except the Alderney; andmore particularly by the quantity of milk they give beyond any-other breed. The great quantity of milk, thinnefs of their * hides, and little hair, are probably the reafons why they are tenderer than any of the other kinds, except the Alderney. It is perhaps juftly faid of this kind, that they eat*more food than any of the other breeds; a circumftance which cannot be won- dered at, when it is confidered that they excel in thofe three valuable particulars, viz. in affording the greateft quantity of beef, tallow, and milk.---Their colours are much varied; but the generality of them are red and white mixed, which, when properly blended, is very pleafing and agreeablet. “ey ee& This is» a breed: chiefly found in Lincointhive.and‘the’ eaftern parts of Yorkthire, Durham, Northumberland, and Berwickfhire.. In confequence: of ,© its having‘been originally imported from Hbolland,. it is frequently called the a}-" Dutch, and fometimes the Holderne/s breed, froma place of that name in York- fhire, where it is probable it was firft eftablifhed. Avs being deftitute of the exertion and agility of the middle-horned fort, they are not fo well adapted forthe cart or the plough. And confidering their fize, and the quantity of food they devour, it is pro- bable that they are inferior to any of the above-mentioned breeds; and, when com- pared with the Suffolk duns, very greatly fo. This breed has been lately much im- proved in Yorkfhire, where the beft of the kind are to be met with. It is remarked that“ the long-horns and thefe have met upon the mountains . which feparate Yorkthire from Lancathire, 8&c. and, by crofling, have produced a mixed breed, called half long-horns; avery heavy, flrong, and not unufeful kind of cattle f. The Welch breed of neat cattle, efpecially that which is found in Cardiganthire, is moftly black, with thick horns turned upwards; fmall in fize; clean-boned; well- fhaped, efpecially where the native breed has not been injured by injudicious crofs- ing with other forts.‘This breed is hardy and a¢tive, and in great requeft in the * Culley on Live Stock,+ Ibid, t Tid. 7D :#- i 1122 Live Steck—Sxffolk Dun Breed.—Polled or Galloway Breed—Deferiptions of. fouthern counties of the kingdom, on account of the cattle being quick feeders, ‘The quantity of milk which the cows afford is not large; but they are a breed well adapted to the country in which they are found, though capable of great improve- ment by felecting the beft individuals of the native breed*. The Suffolk Dun breed isa fort of neat cattle found to prevail in that diftri; god which are eafily diftinguifhed by their being polled, of fmall fize, and a duu * colour. Fhey are moftly plain in their-form. The cows are lean, and large in their bellies. They are valuable for the purpofe of the dairy, as the cows give large quantities of milk-~. The weight of this breed of cattle is moftly on the average from fifty to fixty ftone. The author of the Treatife on Live Stock feems to think this only a variety of the following breed, produced im confequence of the great conneétion between the Scotch drovers and the Suffolk and Norfolk feeders, as both forts are in general polled; and though the Suffolk are mofily light duns, while the others vary greatly in colour, this night take place from fome partiality to that colour, The polled or Galloway breed of cattle is alfo very valuable. In weight and fize, it is as much lefs than the long-horns as. thefe are than the fhort-horns.. The cattle generally weigh: from forty to fixty ftone, fome particular ones reach feventy. and upwards: but their moft eflential difference from every other breed of cattle is their having no horns at all: fome few, indeed, in every other refpeét polls, have two little knobs, from two to four inches long, hanging down loofe from the parts where other cattle’s horns grow, joined to the head by a little Joofe fkin and flefh. In moft other refpedis thefe cattle refemble the long-horns both in colour and fhape,---only they are fhorter and more compact in. their form; which probably makes them weigh lefs. Their hides feem tobe ina medium ftate, not fo thick as the long-horns or fo thin as.the fhort-horns; but, like the beft feeding kind of long-horns, they lay their fat upon the moft valuable parts, aad their beef is well marbled or mixed with fat tT. The origin of this breed was probably in Galloway, a large diftri@ inthe fouthr weft of Scotland, where they are moftly bred upon the moors or hilly country, and grazed upon the lands nearer the fea until rifing four or five years old, when the graziers and drovers take them up in great numbers to the fairs in Norfolk and. Suffolk, previous to the turnip-feeding feafon; whence the-greateft part are again removed in the winter and fpring, when fat, to fapply the confumption of the.. capital, where they are readily fold at high prices, few or no cattle felling fo high. * Modern Agriculture,+ Suffolk Corrected Report. t Culley on Live Stock. 6 Live Stotk.— Highland or Kyloe Breed—Defcription of.. 1193 in Smithfield market, from their cutting up fo nicely, owing to their laying their fat upon the moft valuable parts;—a great excellence in all feeding cattle*. They alfo prevail in Dumfriesfhire and Ayrthire. - The polled-cows of this breed are faid to be good milkers in proportion to their fize, the milk being of a rich quality, and yielding much more butter from a given quantity than in the fhort-horns. The oxen and-fpayed heifers have alfo been aflerted to anfwer well for draught. They are probably, however, in general, too fmall for this purpofe.: - But though the cattle of the above diftri&t are moftly polled, they have feve- ral with horns, which they contend are a baftard or mongrel breed, produced by erofling with long-horned bulls from other diftriéts. The polled ones, and of thefe the black or dark brindled ones, are preferred to any other, as they allow them to be the original breed of the country. The breeders in Galloway, however, complain of their old breed being loft, or at leat much worn out. The Highland or Kyloe breed of cattle is lefs in proportion to the polled cattle than they are to the long-horns.‘This breed is alfo covered with a long clofe coat of hair, like the polls and long-horns; and, like thefe, the beef is fine-grained, well-flavoured, and mixed or marbled, but not fo handfome en the outfide, when expofed in the mar- ket, not being of fo bright acolour, and often{potted with black, even upon the beft parts, except when made very fat. When grazed, they feed very readily, their weight in general being from twenty to thirty-five ftone; fome particular ones reach to more than forty ftone. The moft prevalent colour is black; fome are brindled or dun; but the breeders there, like thofe in Galloway, prefer the black onesf. This hardy breed is in poffeffion of all the extenfive mountainous country, the Highlands of Scotland, together with the Weftern Iflesf. The Ifle of Skye cattle are the fmalleft in fize, but the moft perfect in other refpects of perhaps any of the Kyloe or other forts; a circumftance which is fuppofed to depend on its being a pure unmixed breed. The removal of the imperfeGtion of fize deferves the attention of the breeder§. This breed is probabiy calculated in every refpect to thrive in q cold, expofed; mountainous country, and probably better adapted to the cold regions where they are bred than any other kind. They are driven tothe fouthward in great numbers every autumn; many into the weftern diftricts of Yorkfhire, but the greateft part into Nor- folk, Suffolk, Effex, and other parts of the fouth, where they are fattened. This * Culley on Live Stock.+ Ibid.+ Ibid.§ Modern Agriculture, Vol. III. 7 P2 1124 Live Steck.—Fifelbire Breed— Alderney Breed—Wild Breed—Defeription of, fort of cattle is frequently termed ky/oes in thefe parts of the country; probably from a diftri@t in Ayrthire called Kyle, where they prevail much. The Lowland or Fifefbire breed of cattle is rarely met with in an unmixed flate.“To- wards Cumberland the cattle are half long-horns, half polls; on the borders of Nor= thumberland they are mixed with fhort-horns until you reach Tiviotdale, where they become altogether a fmall coarfe kind of fhort-horns, or what the Yorkthire jobbers eall ruts;.excepta few pretty good fhort-horned cattle, bred in that pleafantiand fine country, the Tweedfide*.” This fame kind of runtifh coarfe breed continues all the way to the Frith of Forth. Croffing this narrow fea into Pifefhire, it might at firft be imagined that the Fife cattle were a diftinét breed, from their upright white horns, their being exceedingly light lyred, and thin-thighed: but Mr. Culley is pretty clear that it is only from their being more nearly allied to the kyloe breed, and confequently having lefs of the coarfe kind of fhort-horns' in them. The cattle all along this coaft continue to change more and more, growing ftill lefs, until,“upon the edges of the mountains, they become quite of the kyloe kind; but fill much inferior to that pure, unmixed, valuable breed of kyloes which occupy the more northern and weftern Highlands, and the different ifles; but particularly the Ile of Skye, and that tract of country called Kintail. The Alderney breed of cattle is very delicate and tender, fo as to be little attended to by farmers. They are not able to bear well the cold of this ifland, particularly'the more northern parts of it. They are in general fine-boned, light red or yeliow in colour, and their beef generally yellow or very high coloured, though very finé in the grain, and well-flavoured. They make themfelves very fat; and are not in the leaft fabjest to lyer, or have black flefh. Very ufeful cattle have been bred froma ctofs between an Alderney’cow and a fhort-horned bull. This is a breed that is moftly to be met with about the feats of the nobility and gentry,~_ account of the cows giving excecilingly rich milk£. Befides thefe different forts, there is a wild breed of cattle, which, as they ap- pear in the breed at Chillingham-Caftle, in Northumberland, the feat of the earl of Tankerville,‘ are invariably of a.cream colour, with black muzzles; the whole of the infide of the ears, and about one-third of the outfide, from the tips downwards red; the horns white, with black tips, very fine, and bent upwards: fome:of the bulls have a thin upright mane, about an inch and a half or two inches long.. The weight of the oxen of this breed is from 35 to 45 ftone, and the cows from 25 to * Culley on Live Stock.+ Ibid.} Ibid, \ pe ens 2S Live Stock. Differences in Breeds of—Valuable Qualities of. 1195 35 ftone the four quarters, r4lb to the fione.—The beef is finely marbled, and: of excellent flavour.. From thenature of their pafture, and the frequent agitation they are put into by the curiofity of frangers, it is fearcely to be expected that they fhould get very fat; yet the fix-years old oxen are generally very good beef: whence it may be fairly fappofed that in proper fituations they would feed well*.” They cannot, perhaps from their untameable nature, be of any utility to the farmer, as they are only capable of being-retained within walls or very good fences. It is obvious, from this detail of the various breeds of cattle, that they are not all equally> profitable to the breeder, the rearer, the dairyman, the grazier, the butcher, or the confumer.‘* Some have a greater difpofition to fatten than others. Some, being cleaner boned and better formed, have lefs offal. Some give a greater guantity of milk than others. In aword: fome of the particular properties for which cattle are eftimable are more difcernible in one breed than in another. Whether thefe can be all united in the fame animal, or whether a breed*of cattle poffeffing all the requifite qualifications would be equally faitable to all fituations, are queftions not eafy to be determined. In regard to the firft, it feems univerfally agreed, that there are two properties for which cattle are efteemed valuable, that cannot be united; that is, a difpofition to fatten, and a tendency to yield a large quantity of milk.‘The form of the animal moft remarkable for the firft is very different from that of the other: in place of being flat in the fides, and big inthe belly, as all great milkers are, it is high-fided and light-bellied: ina word, its body is parrel-formed, while that of the other is more fitted to embrace a horfe-collar with the wide fide downwards. It is not probable, therefore, that the properties of two breeds of cattle, fo oppofite in form and general appearance, can ever be united in the fame animal: If a large: quantity of milk, whatever be its quality, is the object, the dairyman muft content himfelf with fuch plain ill-looking animals as have been defcribed. And as the milk of all cows is well known not to be of the fame quality, it appears highly probable, that in proportion as the cows of the milking tribe exceed thofe that are more difpofed to fatten in quantity, in nearly the fame proportion will their milk be inferior in quality. If this fhould prove to be the cafe, the fuperiority of the quick feeders one would fuppofe to be completely eftablithed; as, while cattle of this defcription are confefledly better for the purpofes of the graziers, the butchers, and the confumers, they would, if this point were determined in their favour, be alfo more valuable for the dairy. No. perfon will think of afferting, that a gallon or two of whey or of butter- * Culley on Live Stock, and Northumberland Correéted Report, 1126 Live Stock-——Different Breeds fuit different Situations, milk extra(for the queftion comes to that) is a fufficient reafon for preferring a breed of plain-looking, ill-formed cattle, to one that, except in this particular, is more valuable in every refpeét. In a word, no perfon, who pretends to a knowledge of the different breeds of cattle, will think of fupporting an Opinion fo erroneous, as that cattle which are difpofed to fatten quickly, and at an early age, that, from the fuperior excellence of their form, have a fimall proportion of offal, or what the breeders call non-effentials, and that, although they yieid not a large quantity of milk, yet make up for that deficiency in the richnefS of its quality,—are not more valuable than thofe which have nothing to recommend them but the fingle property of being great milkers*.” i Mr. Culley, in comparing the breeds of long- and fhort-horned cattle, conterids that the former excel in the hide, hair, and quality of the beef; the latter in the quan- tity of beef, tallow, and milk;—and that though each breed has long had, and pro- bably may have, its particular advocates, it is not improbable but that each may have its particular advantages in different fituations. Thus the thick, firm hide and long clofe-fet hair of one kind may bea fecurity againft thofe impetuous winds and heavy rains to which the weft coaft of the ifland is fo fubject; while the more regular feafons and mild climate upon the eaft coaft may be more fuitable to the conftitution of the other. In regard to the former breed exceeding the latter in the quality of the beef, it is only to the particular variety feleCtedand improved by Mr.Bakewell that preference is tobe given in this view; for, as to the long-horned breed in common, it is fup- pofed that their beef is rather inferior than fuperior to that of the generality of the fhort-horned kind; and there is little doubt, it is imagined,‘ but a breed of fhort- horned cattle might be felected, equal if not fuperior to even that very kindly- flefhed fort of Mr. Bakewell, provided any able breeder, or body of breeders, would pay as much attention te thefe as he and his neighbours have done to the long- horns. Bat it has hitherto been the misfortune of the fhort-horned breeders to purfue the largeft and biggeft boned ones for the beft, without confidering that thofe are the beft that pay the moft money for a given quantity of food+.”’ Such improvements have lately been made in the breeding of fhort-horned cattle, that they have now been brought to a confiderable degree of perfection. But, notwithftanding thefe two breeds have hitherto been in poffeffion of the beft part of the ifland; it is fuggefted that the Galloway cattle, and even the Scotch or * Donaldfon’s Prefent State of Hufbandry, Vol. IIT.+ Culley on Live Stock. i Live Stock.—~-Cows— Method of providing—-Situations adapted to breeding Cattle. 1127 Kyloes, might be bred with advantage in many fituations, fo as to be more profitable than either the fhort-horns or thelong-horns, as being“ true quick feeders and. kindly flefhed*.” It is likewife conceived that the latter of thefe forts is better adapted to cold moory expofed fituations than any other breed, and that particular breeds are probably beft adapted to particular fituations; on which grounds it is recom- mended to breeders ef ¢attle to find out which breed is the moft profitable and beft fuited to their fituations, and to endeavour to” improve that breed to the utmoft, rather than try to unite the particular qualities of two or more diftinét breeds by crofling; which is a precarious practice, asit is generally found that“ the produce inherit thecoarfenefs of both breeds, aod: rarely attain the good properties which the pure diftinct breeds individually poflets ¢.”” In the providing of cow-ftock, great attention is neceflary in having them bred from fach cows as are known to have produced not only good milk ina large pro- portion te their fize, but to have continued it for a great length of time. Well- fed and vigorous bulls fhould likewife be conftan'ly employed, as by this means the beft and moft healthy ftock may be raifed. The method of rearing the calves while young bas been already defcribedt. The breeding and rearing of cattle-ftock isa bufinefs that may be accomplitfhed upon moft farms of any extent, but to the greateft advantage on thofe where the quantity of coarfe pafture isthe moft confiderable, and: where at the fame time there is the means of raifing large crops of the green vegetable kind for winter ufe, as in fuch cafes the animals while young are capable of being kept in the beft manner and at the leaf expenfe. On very finall tarms the rearing of young cattle can feldom. anfwer, as the produce in moft infiances may be turned to. much more profit in other methods of management. But in whatever fituations. the breeding and rearing. of cattle- ftock is attempted, the young animals fhould conttintly be kept in-the beft manner the nature of the farm will admit of. This is of much greater confequence than is generally allowed in the raifing of good ftock. But where young animals are pinched. for food: at an early period of their growth, or fed with fuch. as is not of a fufficiently good quality, they never thrive fo well. afterwards, or make fuch good ftock. This is a fact that has been. frequently noticed in refpedi, to fine; and it does not feem to be lefs eftablithed in regard to other forts of{tock.. Bur, befides * Culley on Live Stock.+ Ibid. t Sce Suckling of young Calves, in Section on Cultivation of Grafs Land. ee a ae EACLE AT ANAT ITT ae 2 Sanaa 1128 Live Sicck.—Rearing Young Cattle. good feeding, cleanlinefs is efiential in raifing young ftock to the gréeateft advan- tage. It has been well obferved in a late ufeful practical work, that:in the winter the yearlings fhould“ be fed with hay and roots, either turnips, carrots, or potatoes; and they fhould be thoroughly well fed, and kept perfeCtly clean by means of litter. At this age it isa matter of great confequence to keep fuch young cattle as well as poffible; for the contrary practice will inevitably top their growth, which cannot be recovered by the beft fummer food. If hay is not to be had, good ftraw muft be fabftituted; but then the roots fhould be given in greater. plenty, and with more attention. To fteers and heifers two years old, the proper food is hay, if cheap; or ftraw, with baits of turnips, cabbages,&c.*”‘ 5 Mr. Donaldfon thinks the advantage of green winter food for live ftock fo great, that there is no way in which it can be applied with greater benefit than“ by giving the young cattle a daily allowance during the firft two or three winters.” Whenever firaw is employed as fodder for young ftock without the above forts of food, if it be not very good, or flightly mixed with fome grafiy material, a little hay fhould always be blended with it, in order that it may be preferved in proper con- dition. It is alfo of confequence that the animals be ferved with this fort of fodder in a regular manner, as, where too much is given at a time, Mr. Marfhall has remarked that they do not thrive fo well. ‘Phere is another circumftance which is of material importance in the wintering of young ftock, which is that of keeping them more warm and fheltered from wet than is ufually the cafe, as by this means they thrive fafier, with a lefs confumption of food, than in the contrary circumftances. This may be effected either by tying them up in ftalls, in houfes for the purpofe, or by keeping them in good fheds in- well-inclofed yards.; There are feveral reafons for keeping young cattle-ftock of different ages diftine from each other, both in their winter and fummer keeping.” It is obvious that in this mode they feed with lefs interruption and inconvenience to each other. And it is remarked by Mr. Young,“that it is not right to keep yearling calves and two-year-olds together; becaufe, in general, the younger the cattle are, the bet- ter they thould be fed.” The queflion of feeding the cattle tied up, or loofe in the yards, in winter, has not been yet decided. Each method has probably advantages. In the firft the * Young’s Farmer’s Calendar. Live Stock.—Age of putting Heifers to the Bull. 1129 eattle thrive better than when left at liberty to run about the yards. Mr. Marfhall found that in Yorkthire, cattle kept tied up and regularly fed with ftraw in a mode- rate proportion did better than in the fouthern parts of the ifland, where left loofe in the midft of greater plenty. Whether this effect is to be afcribed to the greater warmth, the refting better, the breed, or the being fed more regularly and eating awith an appetite, he cannot determine. Some experiments of Mr. Young’s alfo lead to the conclufion, that cattle-ftock thrive better when tied up. They likewife fhow that the praCtice of tying up is the only one that can be had recourfe to where ftraw is notin great plenty, and the quantity of the ftock very inadequate toitsconfumption*. In the latter method there is the advantage of a larger fupply of manure, efpe- cially where the farmer has the convenience of plenty of litter. Where, however, the farmer has convenience, the former method is probably in general the moft beneficial. In either mode of management much attention is neceflary to keeping the ftock conftantly fupplied in an evenly preportioned manner, as in this way there will be great advantage both in the faving of food and the condition of the animals. The moft proper age at which cattle thould be made to become productive is a point of much importance, but which probably requires more experiments than have yet been inftituted to fully afcertain it. Much may perhaps depend upon climate, fituatien, and the manner in which they have been reared and kept; as where the fituation is favourable, and the keep rich and good, they may be employed in this way earlier than where it is more expofed, and the keep in- different. This is fupported by the obfervation of Mr. Marfhall, that in Yorkfhire while the lands were in the ftate of commonage, the heifers“ were frequently kept from the bull until they were three years old: now, in the fiate of inclofure and improvment, and at at the prefent high rents, they are frequently fuffered to take the bull when yearlings, bringing calves at two years old. The arguments for bringing heifers in at two years old are, that they come fooner to profit; and that farmers cannot afford, at the prefent rate of rents, to let them run unprofitably, until they be three years old. On the other hand, the argument in favour of bringing them in at three years old is, that, not being ftinted in their growth, they make larger and finer cows than thofe which are fuffered te bear calves at a more early age.” The fuperiority in the profit of thefe different practices has not been yet expe- zimentally determined; but as it can fcarcely be doubted but that an unfavourable * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XVIII, yu 1130 Live Stock.—Cows in Calf fbould be well fed.—Bulls—Vigour of. check muft be given to the growth of the cows as well as their offspring, by their. being made to produce at an early ages before they have attained their full maturity, from their not being able to take in and digeft a-fufficiency of food for their own inercafing growth, and the perfect fupport of the young animal; it may be the beft method to purfue a middle courfe, fo as to bring them in on the rich lands; where the effect juft noticed may be the moft fully counteracted, at two years old, and in other cafes, where the keep is inferior, at three. By this practice the intereft of the farmer may be beft promoted in all cafes, and the leaft injury fuftained in his flock. But in order to induce heifers to take the bull at fo early a period, they muft be conftantly well kept. When this bufinefs is too long protracted they are more able to mif$ having calves. Therefore, in general, letting the heifers take the bull at two years old may be the moft proper time. The cow takes nine months and a few days in moft cafes to complete the bufinefs of geflation, and feldom produces more than one calf at a time. A cow may produce her young at any feafon of the year; but it is of ereat confequence to the farmer to have the cows to calve as early as poflible in the beginning of the year, while veal and all the products which they afford are dear; and that the calves, when reared, may be got forward in the beft manner. In fome diftricts, farmers think it the moft advantageous for them to calve when there is a full bite of grafs, efpecially in the firft calf, as they are fuppofed to be rendered better milkers thereby afterwards, in confequence of the fecretion of the milk being more completely eftablithed*. In all cafes the cow-fiock, efpecially that part of it which is in calf, thould be as well kept and fheltered from cold and wet in the winter months as the nature of the farm will admit. By keeping the cows in good condition in this way, they not only calve with greater fafety, but take the bull again much fooner, and are more ad- vantageous in their milking. The practice of foddering with ftraw fhould' be as much avoided as poflible, and the method of management that has been already recom- mended adhered toas much as can bef. The farmer may indeed take it as a certain rule, that no benefit can be derived from bad keeping in any fort of breeding animals. The vigour of the bull will laft feveral years, if not made too free with while he is young, but he is ufually in his moft perfect ftate from two or three years old to five or fix,"Thefe animals fhould be kept in well-inclofed places, and have the * Sir John Sinclair in Farmer’s Magazine, Vol. III. + See Cow-keeping in Section on the Cultivation of Grafs Land. ve Stock.— Oxen==Preper Management of for Labour. 1131 cows brought to them. The practice of working them is not in general to be advited, as they are apt to become by that means too dull and heavy for leaping. They fhould always be kept well in this intention. In rearing young bulls they fhould be conftantly fapplied-with food ina plentiful manner from the period of their being calved till they are full grown. Mr. Bakewell was fo convinced of the ad- vantage of plentiful fwpport in thefe cafes, t that he is faid to have employed two cows in rearing fome of his beft ftock of this kind. In raifing oxen, whether for the purpofe of fale or work, they fhould be kept confiantly in tolerable condition, without ever being fuffered to become ftunted in their growth, by either their winter or fummer keep. When defigned for the market, they are difpofed of at two, three, or four years old when not worked, according to circumftances. Where the intention is to work them, they fhould be trained as early as poflible, and be brought into work at the age of two, or three years at the furtheft. In Herefordthire the fteers are brought into work at three years old, and are worked two years, moftly in yokes, though harnefs has lately been getting more common. In teams of fix or eight they plough fomething lefs than an acre aday*. But in the northern parts of Devonfhire, where the breed is admirably calculated for the purpofe of labour, the oxen are yoked in at from two to three years old, being worked lightly; and at four years old they are brought into hard work, and from that age to fix they are capable of performing a full day’s labour. They there find, that if an ox is to be raifed to the largeft fize, he muft be worked; as, when kept till five or fix years old without working, he will not reach the fize he would have done if he had been inured to labour. This is the fixed opinion of the beft informed farmers in that diftti+. While under this fyfiem they fhould be well fupported with dry food; fuch as oats in the ftraw, bear-meal, good hay, or cut-chaff; and by the ufe of thefe in fmall proportions, with afew cabbages, tur- nips, catrofs, or potatoes, they may be kept up in perfect condition. It is a practice that can never anfwer to the farmer, to let his working cattle-ftock get low in conditién, as the faving is a merc trifle in comparifon to the difadvantage of bringing them into flefh afterwards. The ox mofily reachés his fall growth at fix; but the largefi-fzed grow th longeft. Tt is unprofitable to keep them longer than feven or eight years old. In this’ ne four ate the ufual number in’ a team, and occafionally two in 1 ero{s- ploughing; and with a double-furrow plough fix. Four plough am acre a Ps oO oO * Knight in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. LT. + Annals of Agriculture, Vol. RXX. RO | Nid * 2152 Live Stock.— Age of Cattle how ofcertained, day, and fix fully two acres every day for fix weeks, On arable farms of twa hundred acres from cight to twelve oxen are fufficient; and three horfes and ter oxen, or four horfes and eight oxen, are equal to the labour of one of one hundred and fifty pounds a year, when nearly two-thirds of the land are managed in a conver- tible method of bufbandry, proper allowances being made for different cireum- tances*. The method of managing them there is by means of the yoke and bows, in preference to the collar, as in fach mountainous diftri€ts the powers of the animals are in this way, or that by the head, more effectually brought into aGion. Lord Somerville has found this to be the cafe from actual trial, being convinced that the pole and the yoke form the true lever for theox+. Yoked in this manner, the labour is performed with great expedition and difpatch by thefe animals. Some advife the oxen not to be worked too hard, and in this view think fix fhould be employed in a team, four working at a time, and two remaining alternately at reft. Whatever practice may be purfued in this refpect, it is extremely neceflary that the oxen be well fhod before they are put to the work, as, where this is neg- lected, they foon get lame and ufelefs. As there is confiderable trouble and often. danger in cafting them, in order to perform this operation, it is better to have a machine contrived fo as to fhoe them ftanding. Ufeful contrivances of this. nature have been defcribed f. The continued rife in the expenfe of borfe-keep ftrongly fhows, and at the fame time enforces, the neceffity and great benefit of making ufe of oxen in all cafes where they can be employed to advantage. In the fattening of oxen or other forts of neat cattle, various fyftems of manage- ment are practifed in different cates, according to the particular circumftances and objects the farmer has in view, which have been already explained§. The age of neat cattle is fhown by their mouthsand horns. When turned two years old, the places of the calf-teeth are fupplied by two new ones, and in every| fucceeding year two more are added until five, when the mouth is faid to be full; but this is not probably the cafe until fix years old, as the two corner teeth are not fully protruded till that period. In the horn, the firft ring or circle does not take place till three years old, after which a freth one is added every fucceeding year, as long as the horn continues; put thefe rings are often effaced by the artifices of the jobbers and dealers in cattle, for the purpofe of deceiving the purchafers. * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXX.+ Ibid.+ Ibid. Vol. XXXVI. { See Grazing and Stall-feeding in Seétion on Cultivation of Grafs Land. 7 eae a ane -— Live Stockm—Difeafes of Cattle—Remedies for.—Sheep—Value cf. 1133 Cattle are fubje& to a variety of difeafes, which itis impoffible to confider in any full or fatisfactory manner in a work ofthis nature; but a few remedies that have been found beneficial in particular cafes may be here mentioned in addition to thofe already noticed., In cafes of obftinate fcourings, much advantage may be derived from a firong decotion of common chalk, hartfhorn-fhavings and caflia, in the proportion of, halfa pound of the firft to four ounces of the fhavings, and one ounce of the caffia; boiling them in two quarts of water to three pints, the laft articles being put in towards the clofe of the operation: to this may be added, when cold, a pint of lime-water and two drams of the tin@ture of opium. The whole being well mixed in a bottle, two or three good horn-fulls may be given twice or three times in the courte of the day. In the Yellows, which is a difeafe to which cows are very fubject, advantage has been found from the ufe of foap in the quantity of about one ounce, given once or twice a day, diffolved in a quart of the ufual cordial drench, a little warm, kceping the animnal confined, and ufing warm mafhes and warm water occafionally. Where there is a difcharge of Jloody urine, great relief has been derived from a ftrong decoétion of oak or Peruvian bark, in which a fmall proportion of alum has been diffolyed; twe or more horn-fulls being adminiftered twice or three times in the day. The Foul is a difeafe in the feet of cattle, often proceeding from hard driving from a diftance. After cleaning the parts, and wholly difcharging the matter formed in the claws, they fhould be drefled with fome mild digeftive application, and be kept perfectly free from dirt, gravel, or other extraneous fubftances. The Garget isa difeafe frequently affecting the glands of the udder with hard fwellings. It often arifes from the cows not being clean milked, and may be removed by anointing the part twice a day witha little ointment compofed of camphor and blue ointment; half a dram or more of calomel being given in warm beer from a horn for three or more mornings if the difeate be violent. In frefh wounds, nothing further is neceflary than keeping the parts clean and well covered from the air, previoufly drawing the{kin over as much as poflible. Sheep.—The great value and importance of this animal in its fleth, tfleece,and other products which it affords, is well known. As there are but few farms on which fheep cannot be kept with advantage in fome intention or other, fuch as for the purpofes of breeding, grazing, or the fattening of their lambs, it is obvious that they muit conftitute an object of the firft confequence to the farmer. In many fituations, 5 1134 Live Stock.—Sheep—Metheds of diftinguifoing the Breeds cf. by much the greate(t part, and in others the asus of e profits, depend upon them. In difpofition, the thecp is naturally tame, quiet, and inoffenfive. It is poffeffed of lefs meaus of deferice than moft other animals, and at the fame time more timid; which induces it to feek the fociety of the flock. The vale or pafture fheep are in general much more mild and gentle than thofe of the mountain or heath kinds. The theep continues to increafe in growth till three years old, when it is in common in the greateft perfection for the purpofe of being fattened, but will be fuitable for this ufe, as well as that of breeding, till five or fix; but as a quick return is the great object of the grazier, they are mofily fattened at as early an age as poflible. The breeds and varieties of fheep that are fcattered over the ifland are extremely numerous; but have been arranged and diftinguifhed under different claffes or breeds, by different farmers, in a variety of methods, as from their having horns or being without them, from the nature of their wool and various other circumftances*; but whatever may be the principle of diftinGtion that is adopted, it is evident that they pofiefs charactériftic differences that may ferve to difcriminate them into diftinG original breeds, As in cattle-(tock we have already feen that there is a certain form and con- nexion of parts that befpeak the excellence or’ perf fetion of the breed, fo in the fheep the fame is the cafe, and the nearer any breed approaches to it, the more perfect or excellent it may be confidered. In the ram Mr. Culley bas thus defcribed it:“ Head fine and finall, noftrils wide and expanded, eyes prominent, %[t has been remarked by Lord Somerville in his“ Syftem of the Board of Agriculture,” that‘ all the breeds of fheep in this kingdom may be arranged into two clafles; thofe which fhear the fhort, or clothing, and thofe which fhear the long, or combing wool.” The practical author of the Prefent State of Hufbandry in Great Britain has arranged them under the three following general divifions: 1ft. The Mountain breed. 2d. The Short-woolled breed: and 3d. The Long-woolled breed. The firft comprehending the feveral varieties that occupy the different mountainous and elevated fituations in Wales, Weftmoreland, Cumberland, Yorkthire, the South, Weft, and North of Scotland, and in the Shetland Iflands; the Cheviot-hills in the South of Scotland and North of England, and the foreft and common fheep of the laft country. In the fecond are inciuded thofe of Hereford, Dorfet, Suffex, Norfolk, and fome parts of Cumberland. The laft divifion embraces all thofe varieties that are difperfed over the more rich and fertile parts of England, and which are diftinguifhed under the titles of the Durham or Teeswaters, the Lincolnfttires, the old and new Leicefterfhires,&c. 9 bgt E1220 PLL Yost WITS res dryey gy preyqony ves popu ? P71”) She of on ie VIE DP 02 YR YT fj 5 Uf oS{ Dp ‘7°C‘Pomng ag G. Garrard. del. Z) “ey Lane’. Inch toa foot Dh Printed for Richard Phillips, 92S“ubr Church Yard. Oct23.1804. | Live Stock.—Sheep—New Leicefer or Difbley Breed—Defeription of. 1135 rather bold or daring, ears thin, collar full from breaft and fhoulders, tapering gradually to where the neck and head join, which fhould be fine and graceful, being free from any coarfe leather hanging down, fhoulders broad and full, joining fo eafy to the collar forward and chine backward, as to leave no hollow in either place, mutton upon arm or fore-thigh quite to knee, legs upright with clean fine y clear from fuperfluous{kin and coarfe hairy wool, from the knee and hough downwards, breaft broad and well forward, to keep fore legs at a proper wide- nefs; girth-or cheft full and deep, and inftead of a hollow behind the fhoulders, that part by fome called fore flank quite full; back and loins broad, flat, and ffraight, from which the ribs mutt rife with a fine circular arch; belly ftraight; quarters long > 2,& Himes o bone equall and full; mutton quite down to hough, which fhould neitber ftand in nor out; twift or juntion of infide of thighs deep, wide, and full, which, with the broad breaft, kcep the fore-legs open and upright; thin pelt covered with fine bright, foft wool.”‘This is the model which, in fo far as form is concerned, the breeder of this fort of Lock is to aim at in the improvement of his fheep, having proper regard to the feveral other properties that have been already mentioned. The New Leicefer or Difbley Breed is diftinguifhed from the other long-woolied breeds by having fine lively eyes, clean heads without horns, ftraight broad flat backs, round or barrel-fhaped bodies; fine{mall bones; thin pelts, anda difpofition to make fat at an early age; to which may be added a fuperiority in the finenefs of the grain and flavour of the mutton to that of other fheep of the large long-woolled Rut Mr. Culley, in his“ Obfervations on Live Stock,’ difcriminates them with greater minutenefs into feveral different breeds, in the following manner> Weishs off Priges pet Ww.| Wethers Yeats old x Dithley. No horns,|White face and legs,}Combing wool,| 3lbs./£.0 0 10 las Ibs.| 2 2 Lincoln, 13} Ae Do. Do. I Of Ooo l25 3 3 Teeswater, Do. Do. Do. 9 G 6 Io 30 2 4. Dartmoor, Do. Do. Do. 9 Os 6 130 25 Exmoor, Horned,|Do. Do. 6 OQ: of 46 116 at 6 Dorfet, Do. Do. Carding wool, 3 Or 1 2 18 34 4 Hereford, No horns,|Do. Fine do. 2 Oa Or| Ta: 44 8 South Down,|Do. Gray faces and legs,|Do. a4 6 xo kann 2° Norfolk, Horns, Black faces and legs,| Do. 2 On rae 118 EP! 10 Heath, Do. Do. Courfe combing,| 34 oie! 64 15 44 11 Herdwick, No horns,|Speckled do. Carding, 2 0. Gala At 12 Cheviot, Do. White faces and legs,| Do. 3 Of(OF PEs TO 44 - 13 Dun-faced, Do. Dun facesand legs,| Do. it& Bier\ry 41 14 Shetland, Do. Colours various, Fine cottony, 14 Oi 85,.0| g ae 15 Romney Martb,} No horns, White faces and legs,|Combing, 8 OF nd tA RS 24 16 Spanith, Horns,|Do. Carding, ope tego. 4. 0.7 1436 Live Stock.—Sheep—Lincolufoire Breed—Defcription of. kind. The weight per quarter in ewes three or four years old from 18lbs. to 26 lbs.; in two year old wethers, from 2olbs. to golbs.; the length of wool from fix to fourteen inches*. The advantage.of this breed is fuppofed to confit in its producing a better profit to the farmer, in proportion to the quantity of food confumed, than moft others; in being-more perfectly formed, and confequently more difpofed to fatten quickly; in : containing a much larger proportion of meat on an equal weight of bone; in thriving well on fuch pafiures as would not fuppert other forts of the fame fize; in being capa- ble of being kept-orfattened in larger preportions to the acre than other breeds of the fame fize of.carcafe; in the wool being mare valuable, though lefS in quantity; in their being ready for the butcher in theearly part of the{pring inftead of the autumn, by which there is a confiderable faving in the f{ummer’s grafs; and in the mutton, from the clofenefs of its texture, keeping longer than that of other equal fized breeds. The principal objections to this improved breed have been made on the grounds of their fattening too much, and the mutton in confequence becoming lefs delicate in its flavour than in that of other breeds that require a greater length of time in the procefs; on the. deficiency in the quantity of wool which they produce; and on their not being calculated for the fold. It is, however, unqueftionably a valuable breed on particular forts of pafture that are adapted to it, as is evident from its rapidly making its way into different diftrictst. It has been further objected to this breed by fome, that the theep are too fimall, and that, from the thinnefs of their{kins or pelts, they may not be fo capable of bearing cold; but experience does net feem to fupport fuch conclufions. The ewes in this breed are ufually put to the ram fo as to have lambs at two years old, when they moftly produce two lambs each in the proportion of about one- third of the whole, where they have been kept weil; which fhould always be the cafe. When their forms are good they may be kept for the purpofe of breeding till three or four years old*. The wethers may be killed fo early as at two years old, with the greateft profit, as when kept longer they are apt to get unneceflarily fat. The Lincclnfbire Breed is known by having no horns; white faces; long thin weak carcates; thick rough white legs; bones large; pelts thick; flow feeding; mutton coarfe-grained; the weight per quarter in ewes from 14lbs. to 20lbs.; in three year old wethers from 2olbs. to 30lbs.; the wool from 10 to 18 inches in length§, * Culley on Live Stock. t Annals of Agriculture, var. loc. and Lincolnthire Agricultural Report. + Culley on Live Stock,§ Ibid. Live Stock.—Sheep—Lincolnfbire ond Tees-Water Breeds—Defcriptions of. A137 This breed, as the name implies, is chiefly prevalent in Lincolufhire and other rich marth or grazing lands. It is however, probably, capable of being kept with advantage, and made fat, only on the richelt forts of grazing paftures. But in thefe cafes it may be kept with more profit than the above breed to three yearsold. The weight of mutton which the fheep affordis great; but the fleth coarfe, with a large proportion of bone. The chief excellence is in the large quantity of wool which they afford, which pays for their being kept longer than other breeds before they are made fat. In its improved ftate it is, however, abreed much lefs profitable to the farmer than thofe that feed quicker, except in the cafe of fuch rich paftures as have been mentioned. In the Tves-water breed the legs are longer, finer boned,: and fupport a thicker and more firm and heavy carcafe than the Lincolnfhire; the fheep are much wider on the backs and fides; and afforda fatter and finer grained mutton. The weight per quarter in two-years old wethers is from 25 lbs. to 35 lbs.,and in particular in- {tances to 55 lbs. or more. The wool is fhorter and lefs heavy than in the preceding breed*, This is the largeft breed of fheep in the ifland; and is the moft prevalent in the ne fertile inclofed lands on the borders of the Tees in York hire. In this breed, which is probably from the fame ftock as the above, more attention has been paid to fize than wool. It is only calculated for warm inclofed rich paftures, where they are kept in{mall lots, and well fupported with food in fevere winters. They produce a large weight of mutton; but then from their requiring fo much longer time and richer keep, and being admitted in fo much fmaller proportion on the acre, they are probably not upon the whole fo profitable, even in fituations where they can be kept with the moft chance of fuccefs, as the fmaller more quick feeding breeds. The ewes of this breed are however, in general, very prolific, moftly bringing two and frequently three lambs each. And in fome cafes a greater number have been: produced J.: Improvements have been made in this breed by croffing with the new Leicefters. It is a breed that is however very feldom found pure.© This is a fort of fheep that has been greatly neglected, but which, if judicioufly improved by croffing, it is fuppofed would anfwer and pay well in diftri€ts proper for its fupport. Itis faggefted by Mr. Parkinfon, in the Correéted Report of the State of Agriculture in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, that an ufeful kind is capable of * Culley on Live Stock.+ Ibid. 7 ¥® 1138 Live Stock.—Sheep—Romney Marjh and Devonfbive Breeds—Defcriptions of. being raifed by croffing the ewes of this breed with Difhley rams, in the manage- ment of an expert breeder. Indeed, by the ufe of thefe, and thofe of the Nor- thumberland kind, the quality of the wool and the mutton has not only been greatly improved, but the quantity of bone and offal much leflened; and, at the fame time, the fattening property confiderably increafed; they becoming fatter at two years old than the others are at three. The wethers of this improved fort generally fell unfhorn at two years old, from 45 to 55s. a piece, and weigh from twenty-four to thirty pounds the quarter*. The Romney-Marfb breed of fheep is without horns; white faces and legs; rather long in the legs; good fize; body rather long, but well barrel-fhaped; bones rather large ¢. Weight per quarter in fat wethers at two years old, from 22Ibs. to 28 Ibs.. Wool fine, long, and of a delicate white colour. This breed has the quality of arriving at the ftate of fatnefs at an carly age, as well as that of producing a large fleece of fine long combing wool, which renders it highly valuable. But from the fize, and the circumftance of the heavinefs of the coat, it is only capable of being kept and fattened on the rich kinds of pafiure:: in fuch fituations it is, however, an excellent breed. On the rich marfh lands from Haftings to Rye, the graziers find this breed much more advantageous than the South Down; the marfh wethers fattening more quickly$+. The wool afforded by this breed of fheep is moftly large in quan- tity; in marfh fat wethers averaging fix pounds, and in breeding ewes five pounds, but not equal in quality to the wool clipped from fhearlings§.. A proof of the great value of this breed of fheep, as well as of the land on which they are fed, is feen in the manner of ftocking, which in /ags is from four to feven per acre, in fattening wethers from fix to eight, in barrens from two to three, and in couples three||. The Dartmore or Devonfbire. Natt breed is chiefly diftinguifhed by having no horns; white faces and legs, thick necks, backs narrow, and back-bones high; fides good; legs fhort, and bones large. Weight of ewes on the average about 20 Ibs. per quarter; in wethers at two years and a half old zolbs. Length of wool much the fame as in the precedifig breed. It is a breed which is predominant in fome parts of Devonfhire, as the name fufficiently indicates q. This breed is faid to have received confiderable improvement by being crofled with the new Leicefters. #* Correéted Report of North Riding of York hire.+ Young’s Eaftern Tour, we Ti. +t Suffex Report, 4to,§ Ibid.|| Synopfis of Hufbandry. q, Culley on LiveStock. 6 Live Stock.—Sheep—Exmoor, Dorfethh.& Hereford. Breeds—Deferiptions of. 1139 “The Exmoor breed of theep is charaéterized by having horns, and white faces and legs; by being very delicate in the bone, neck and head; by the form of the carcafe being indifferent; narrow and flat-fided. Weight per quarter in wethers at two years anda half old from rslbs. to 18lbs.; and the weight of wool much lef than in the preceding breed. This fmall breed of long-woolled fheep is principally produced on, or in the neighbourhood of the»moor from which it takes its name, which is in the northern extremity of the above county*. This fort of fheep are frequently kept two or three years merely for the annual profit of their fleeces, which often do not exceed more than four pounds in weight, But from theit being kept upon very bare and indifferent paftures while young, they are fuppofed by many fheep farmers to be a very profitable fort of ftock+. The Dorfeifire breed is known by its moftly having horns, white faces; long finall white legs; by the carcafe being rather long and thin; and by the mutton being fine- grained and of good flavour. Weight per quarter in wethers at three years and a half old from 16lbs. to 20 lbs. Wool fine and fhort{. This breed has the peculiar property of producing lambs at any period in the feafon, even fo early as September and Oétober, fo as to fuit the purpofes of the lamb-fuckler. The Wiltthire fheep are confidered by Mr. Culley as a variety of this breed, which have acquired an increafe in weight. And other varieties of it are met with in feveral other diftricts. It is a breed that. has been found to anfwer well in fome of the midland diftri€ts, and} from its clofe make, to be equally advantageous with almoft any other. It is, however, fuppofed capable of improvement by being croffed with rams of a larger fize§. The Herefordfhire breed of theep is known by the want of horns, and having white legs and faces; by being{mall in fize; and the wool growing clofe to the eyes; by the carcafe being pretty well formed; and by the excellence of the mutton. Weight per quarter from 10 lbs. to 18lbs. Wool fine and fhort||: the lean poor: fed theep producing the fineft. The true breed of this fort of theep is fre- quently denominated Ryelands. This breed is found to be remarkably patient of hunger@; but in its management requires cofting in the winter feafon, and being fed with hay or peas-halm._ In fome * Culley on Live Stock.+ Billingfley’s Survey of Somerfetthire. t Ibid. § Pitt’s Survey of Staffordfhire.|| Culley on Live Stock. J, Knight in Communications to the Board, Vol. II. ‘ ae 1140 Live Stock.—SheepSouth-Dewn Breed—-Dejcripticn of. cafes they are indeed houfed all the year round in the night-time. The cots are low covered buildings, proportioned to the extent of the flocks. They are faid to’ fatten the beft at four years old*. The Archenfield or true Herefordthire breed produces the fineft wool. And Mr. Knight remarks that the difpofition of theep to fatten in the north-weft part of that diftrict is in proportion to the finenefs of the wool; but he is not certain of its being fo in this breed. But it feems to him that where the wool is clofe and fine, there are many advantages; lefs nourifhment is drawn from the body im its fupport than in the contrary cafe. The long. coarfe- woolled fleece admits the rain more-freely, and by dividing on the back lets it down tothe fkin. It alfo takes in a larger weight of water, which muft more inconye- nience the animal already heavily loaded. The fine clofe fleece of this breed admits the water with difficulty, even when immerfed in it, in wafting, and is never wet through by rain. On account of the clofenefs of the texture, it only lodges on the outfide, and is eafily removed by the animal fhaking itfelf. Befides, a fleece of this kind is much more warm and light. On thefe grounds it is fuppofed, that no breed of fheep in the ifland is capable: of fubfifting on fo{mall a proportion of food. By croffing this breed with the Dithley an ufeful kind of fheep has eon pro- duced, both the wool and carcafe being increafed in weight, but much injured in refpect to finenefs. The South-Down breed is diftinguifhed by having no horns; gray na and Ieee fine bones; long fmall.necks; and by being rather low before, high on the fhoulder, and light in the fore-quarter; fides good: loin tolerably broad; back-bone rather high; thigh full; twift good; mutton fine in grain and well flavoured. Wool fhort, very clofe and fine; in length of ftaple from two to three inches. Weight per quarter in wethers at two years old 18lbs f.‘This breed is predominant on the dry chalky downs in Suffex..: Tt has been lately much improved both in carcafe and wool; and for the fhort le®& fertile paftures is an excellent fort. The fheep are hardy, and dif- pofed to fatten quickly. Mr. Ellman, of Glynd, is in pofleflion of a very fuperior flock of this valuable.breed. Where the ewes are full kept, they frequently produce twin lambs, nearly in the proportion of one-third of the whole, which are, when dropped, well woolled. The wethers are capable of being difpofed of at an early age, being feldom kept longer than two a old, and often fed at eighteen months. * Culley on Live Stock.+ Ibid 1evigd ora bd Vol. 2“p.40- SHEEP. One ,——___}___+—_____5 foot ‘; Cf /f F of EE GE ee Publishd Oct.1.1804,ty Richard Philips, 71,. Lc Church Yard. PL. oe Vol.2.p7.242- (SRE ELT. Py e of e Ag uth Do Wt Publishd Octa. 1804, bY Richard Phillip:/ iS Pauls rch Yard. Live Steck.—Shep—Norfole Breed—De/cription of. P14 ) Ory; The ewes are ufually kept till between four and five, and found to anfwer well to the graziers in the neighbourhood, as well as the farmers in Norfolk and the adjoining counties, in the place of home- bred fheep, as being more expedition feeders, and equally adapted for the purpofe of the fold*. It is a breed of theep, which from the compaétnefs of their form, and their legs being fhorter, confiderably outweigh both the Dorfet and Norfolk breeds in proportion to the fize of the careafe, being heavy in a fmall compafs, Their hardinefs is eftimated according to the darknefs of the colour in the face and legs; but as there is inconvenience in the produce on this account, from the wool, efpecially about the head and neck, becoming fpotted with black, and thereby thrown afide by the ftapler, as only of half the full value, a middle degree of colour may be the beft. As an open country breed, they are fafficiently gentle and tractable. They are capable of travelling well, and of refifting the effects of expofure to cold. The wool is fcarcely, if at all, inferior in finenefs to that of the Herefordthire kind; the practice of forting, which is common in that diftrict, is not in ufe on the Seite The merit of this breed is fuch as to have induced the fheep-farmers in various diftris to introduce them in preference to the above breeds; and on comparative trials, they have been found to poflefs a fuperiority f. They have been found to confume lefs food in proportion to weight than the Norfolks, yet keeping in better order. Young fheep produce the beft lambs; the crones are of courfe conflantly fold at four or five years old; and if it were done earlier it is fuppofed it would be more profitable. Thefe fheep have been brought to a high ftate of improvement in various refpecis by the attentive exertions of Mr. Ellman and other intelligent fheep-farmers<. On Cannock Heath in Staffordthire, there is a fort of fheep that has much refemblance to this, and is believed to have originated from the fame breed. It has lately been much improved in the form, thicknefs and weight of the carcafe, as well as the finenefs of the wool, by croffing with rams of‘the Herefordthire breed§. In the Norfolk breed of theep the face is black; horns large and fpiral; carcafe long, fmall, weak and thin; narrow chine; large bones; very long black or gray legs; mutton fine-grained and high-flavoured,‘but does not keep well in hot feafons, Weight per quarter from 16|bs. to 20lbs. Wool fhort:and fine||. This breed is chiefly prevalent in Norfolk and Suffolk, where folding is much the ® Agricultural Survey of Suffex, 4to edition.+ Culley on Live Stock. $ Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XI.§ Correéted Report of Staffordshire, \j Culley on Live Stock. 3 1142 Live Stock.—Sheep—Heath and Herdwick Breeds—Defcriptions of. praGice, as they have the property of travelling well. In difpofition they are given to be reftlefs.’ This fort of theep, as poffefling few valuable properties in addition to that of their fianding the fold well, and as requiring much expenfe in their winter keep, an acre of turnips being the ufual allowance for half a dozen befides hay, have lately given way to the preceding breed, which is fuppofed by fome to be hardier, lefs nice in their food, fooner ready for the fold, and more quiet*. The circumftances moft favourable in this breed of theep are thofe of their being the native ftock of the diftri@; their bearing the fold better than others in that cold climate; their travelling well to diftant markets, their mutton being good and in high eftimation in Smithfield; and the produce in wool, though fmall, of a good quality ¢. The South Down breed has, however, been found to anfwer fo well in the diftri€ts where this fort of fheep is predominant, that fome experienced fheep- farmers have introduced them with confiderable benefit. The Heath breed of theep is known by having large fpiral horns; black faces and legs; a fierce wild-looking eye; fhort firm carcafe; mutton excellent in grain and flavour. Weight per quarter from 12 lbs. to 16 lbs. Wool open, coarfe, and thagged. This is an extremely aétive and hardy breed, which is firft met with in the more north-weftern parts of Yorkfhire, whence it has extended itfelf over the extenfive mountainous tract of country on the borders of the Irifh Sea, which ftretches from Lancafhire to Fort-William in the weftern Highlands of Scotland.. The great objection to it is the coarfenefs of the fleecet. Thefe fheep are very alive and hardy, which has rendered their introduction into the high mountainous expofed diftri@s advantageous. They are moftly fattened about the third or fourth year, at which age they are found to anfwer the beft. They afford a very fuperior fort of mutton. It is probable, that they might be much improved in their coats by being crofled with fome of the larger fine-woolled breeds. The Herdwick breed is diftinguifhed by having no horns; by the face and legs being fpeckled,‘the Jarger the'portion of white with fewer black fpots, the purer the breed; legs fine, fmall and clean. Weight per quarter in the ewes from 6 lbs, to 8lbs.; in the wethers at four years and a half old from glbs. to 12 Ibs. Wool fhort, thick and matted in the fleece§. This breed is peculiar to the elevated mountainous tract of country at the head # Annals of. Agriculture, Vol. XIX.+ Kent's Survey of Norfolk, and Marfhall’s Rural Economy. ¢ Culley on Live Stock.§ Ibid. Live Stock.—-Sheep—Cheviot and Dun-faced Breeds—-Defcriptions of. 1143 of the rivers Efk and Duddon in Cumberland, where they are let to herds, whence the name. They are faid to poflefs the property of being extremely hardy in conftitution..: ‘This fmall breed is fo extremely hardy, as to fupport itfelf on the rocky bare mountains with the trifling fupport of a little hay in the winter feafon; fcratching down to the heath during the fnows. ‘The ewes, from the nature of the climate, produce their lambs late; but which, when dropped, are, well woolled. They are generally kept as long as they produce lambs.: The wether fiock is mofily difpofed of from the mountains, without being put in the pafiures, at from four to five years old. The fleece in this breed is finer than in that of the preceding; but coarfer than any of the fhort-woolled breeds. They ftand in need of a crofs with fome of the finer-woolled breeds. The Cheviot breed of theep is known by the want of horns; by the face and legs being moftly white, and the eyes lively and prominent; the body long; little depth inthe breaft; narrow there and on the chine; clean, fine, fmall-boned. legs and thin pelts. The weight per quarter, when fat, from ralbs. to 18lbs; wool partly fine and partly coarfe*. It is faid to be a valuable breed of mountain fheep where the herbage is chiefly of the natural grafs kind+; which is the cafe in the fituations where they are found the moft prevalent, and from which they have obtained their name. It has under- gone much improvement within thefe few years in refpect to its form and other qualities.' This breed has been lately introduced into the moft northern diftricts; and from its hardinefs, its affording a portion of fine wool, and being quick in fattening, it may anfwer well in fuch fituations. The practice of milking the ewes of this breed for the purpofe of making cheefe is found to be prejudicial to the animals, and has of courfe been much left off by the beft fheep-farmers. The Dun-faced breed has no horns; the face, as the name implies, is in common of a dun tawny colour; the fize fmall; tail fhort; mutton fine. Weight often only 6]bs. or 71bs. the quarter. Wool varioufly fireaked and blended with different colours, fome of which is very fine}. Mr. Culley fuppofes this to par- take of the Spanifh breed. It is not fo hardy as the preceding. The Shetland breed is fall, and moftly without horns; but what more particu- larly diftinguithes it from other breeds is, the, uncommon fmallnefs and fhortnefs of * Culley on Live Stock.+ Ibid,+ Ibid. il44 Live Stock.—Sheep—Spaiifo Breed—Defeription of—Utility of different Breeds. the tail. Weight per quarter from 7 lbs. to 1olbs. Wool very fine, and of various colours. This isa very hardy breed, but too wild in its difpofition to be confined in inclofed pattures. In the Merino or Spanifh breed of theep the males have horns, but the females are fometimes without; white faces and legs; the body not very perfeét in fhape; rather jong inthe legs; fine in the bone; a degree of throatinefs or production of loofe pendulous{kin under the neck; and the pelt fine and clear. Weight when tolerably fat per quarter in the rams about 17 lbs.; inthe ewes 11lbs. Wool very fine*. This breed is aflerted to be tolerably hardy, and to poffefs a difpofition to fatten readily t. Mr. Knight obferves that the produce of the crofs with this breed and the Archenfield or Herefordhire fort are very ugly, and, he is informed, fubjeCt to the foot-rot. In thefe breeds of fheep, we have feen that there are evidently differences in their fizes, forms,’ fleth, wool, and other properties, that admirably adapt them for different forts of paftures, fituations and ufes. The large long-woolled breeds, from their being more flow, heavy and tame in their difpofitions than moft other kinds, are in general the moft proper for the rich inclofed paflure difirits: the— breeds which poffefs greater length in the legs, more activity in walking, and a Jefs burthen of wool, are fuited to the more elevated lands, fuch as the downs, moors and beaths in different parts of the ifland, where the pafturage is lefs fertile and luxuriant: and the fmall light-carcafed, hardy breeds are moft adapted to the expofed mountainous fituations, where the food is more{paring, and obtained with greater difficulty. Mr. Marthall, in the Rural Economy of the Midland Counties, has indeed ob- ferved, that a very long-woolled breed of theep, fuch as the old Lincoln fhire or Tees- water, is neceflary for the richeft found grafs lands, and the fineft worfted manu- fa@ures; and another, as the new Leicefter, for the lefs fertile grafs lands as well as the rich inclofed arable lands, where the practice of folding is not in ufe; for the purpote of the coarfer forts of worfteds, flockings, baize, coarfe cloths, blankets, carpets, and other fimilar articles: a middle-woolled breed, fuch as the Wiltthire, the Norfolk, or the South Down, for the well-foiled arable lands, where the fold is employed, for the making of cloths of the narrow medium kinds: a very fine-woolled breed, fach as the Herefordfhire Ryeland, for the purpofe of the fineft cloths: and the Shropfhire, or fome of the more hardy breeds, for the heathy mountainous fituations. It is therefore neceflary, in introduting new breeds of fheep, for the farmer to % Lord Somerville’s Syftem of the Board of Agriculture.+ Ibid. Live Stock.—Sheep—Management of. 1145 attentively confider the-nature and fituation of his pafture, and cautioufly avoid employing. larger or finer breeds than can be properly fupported. Upon the proper regulation of this point much of his fuccefs in the improvement of his fheep-ftock will depend. And where the bettering the form or improving the quality of the wool are in contemplation, this is to be particularly regarded, while fuch improvements are attempted by judicious crofling with proper breeds for the purpofe, on the principles that have been already explained. ~ It feems evident from a variety of faéts that have been lately prefented to the notice of the farmer*, that wool of the fine(t quality may be produced in this country by means of Spanifh foeep, and their being judicioufly crofled with our own fine-woolled breeds; a circumitance of the greateft national importance, as affording a probable means of rendering us independent of the foreign fupply of this expenfive but indifpenfable article. Too much attention cannot therefore be beftowed by the breeding fheep-farmer in promoting this fort of improvement wherever the nature of his land will admit of it, which may be the cafe, in moft fituations, where the fhort- woolled breeds of fheep can be properly kept, or probably on more than one half of the pafiure-lands of the kingdom+. There is one inducement. to this, which is that of its not interfering with the production of the moft valuable fort of mutton, a point to which the fheep-breeders of this country have till lately been particularly attentive, almoft without regarding the quality of the wool; as it has been found that the quality ot the fleth in the different divifions of fheep inclines to the nature of the wool, the fhort-woolled fheep being clofe.in the grain of their fleth, of courfe heavy in the feale, and in the tafte high flavoured; while the polled long: woolled fort are more open and-loofe in this refpect, larger in fize, and the muttoa more coarfe, and in general lefs faleable f. In the management of fheep different fyftems are purfued, according to the nature of the farms on which they are kept, and the methods of hufbandry that are practifed; but whatever thefe may be, it is a principal object with the beft theep- managers to preferve them in as good condition as poflible at all feafons of the year. This is particularly the cafe with the pafture kinds of fheep. In order to accomplifh it in the beft manner, it is ufeful to divide them into different parcels in refpe@ to their ages and forts, as by fuch means they may be kept with more convenience and advantage than in large flocks together under a mixture of various kinds. In this mode there will be lefs wafte of food, and the animals at * Lord Somerville’s Syftem of the Board of Agriculture. + Lord Somerville in Communications to the Board, Vol. If.+ Ibid. 76 1146 Live Stotk.—Sheep— Time of puttiig Rams to Ewes. the fame tiine thrive better, and the paftures be fed with much more eafe and facility. The benefit of this management has been fully experienced in many of the northern diftricts, where they feparate the fheep-ftock into lambs, yearlings, wethers, and breeding ewes. It is probable, too, that in this praCtice a much larger proportion of flock may not only be kept, but the fheep be preferved in a more thriving and healthy ftate._ It has been the common practice, except in particular inftances, to leave the ewes for the purpofe of breeding without any felection; but it is obvious, that where good fheep-flock are defired, much care and attention fhould be beftowed in choofing fuch as are the moft perfect, and poffefs in the higheft degree thofe pros perties which are wanted, let the bfeed or variety be what it may; asit is only by adhering to this principle that fuccefs can be enfured. This bufinefs fhould therefore be carefully performed at the time they are turned to the ram, if it has not been done before. And it. isequally neceffary that a fimilar degrec of attention fhould be paid to the felecting of the rams, and the adapting of them to the ewes. It is remarked by Mr. Young, in his Farmer’s Calendar, that the late Duke of Bedford, in attending to this point, had every ram with the Jambs got by him the preceding year put in diftin& pens, that he might not only examine them but their progeny, previous to his deciding‘“ what ewes to draw off for him.” This method is highly judicious, and deferving of imitation by the Jefs intelligent fheep-farmer.‘‘ Such attention,” it is added“ united with a careful felefion of cull lambs, mutt keep a ftock in a flate of progreffive improvement, proportioned to the accuracy of judgment, eye, and hand of the farmer who practites it.” The moft advantageous and proper age for ewes taking the ram in the different breeds has not been fully fhown; but from a yearto a year anda half old may be fufficient, according to the forwardnefs of the breed and the goodnefs of the keep. The ufual time of having the rams admitted is about the beginning of OMober; except in the Dorfetfhire ewes, where the intention is fuckling for houfe-lamb, in which cafe it fhould be much earlier, in order that the lambs may be fufficiently forward. But, by being kept very well, any of the breeds will take the ram at amuch earlicr period, Where the rams are young, the number of ewes fhould feldom exceed fixty for each ram; but in older rams a greater number may be admitted without inconvenience; but letting them have too many fhould be cautioufly avoided, as by fuch means the farmer may fuftain. great lofs in the number of the lambs. Live Stéck.+-Sheep—Lambing Ewes—Uje of Turnips for. 1147 The ewe goes with lamb about the fpace of five months, of courfe the common lambing-feafon is March, or the early part of the fucceeding month; but in many ofthe more fouthern diftrits, where fheep-hufbandry is carried on to a confiderable extent, fome ports of the ewe-ftock are put to the rams at much earlier periods, {> as to lamb a month or fix wecks fooner; a practice which is attended with much profit and advantage in many fitnations where early grafs-lanib is in great demand. It is ufual for the rams to remain with the ewes fora month or fix weeks, and in fome cafes longer, in order to complete the bufinefs of impregnation, which in fome diftriGts is afcertained by fimearing the fore-bows of the rams with reddle, ochre, or fome fimilar fab? ance that has the property of marking*. During the time the ewes are in lamb they fhould be kept in the paftures, and as free from diflurbance as poffible, and be carefully attended to, in order to prevent accidents which are liable to take place at this time, fuch as thofe of their being caft in the furrows without the means of getting up again. In cafe any of the ewes fhould flip their lambs, they fhould be immediately removed from the flock+. They require, as is the cafe with all other forts of live ftock in fimilar: circum- ftances, to be kept as well as the nature of the farm will admit, in order that there may be lefs lofs at lambing-time from the ewes being fironger, and the lambs ~ more healthy, and better capable of contending with the ftate of the feafon at which they may be dropped. Where paftures or other forts of good grafs-lands cannot be referved for their fupport, turnips or other kinds of green food fhould be pro- vided for the purpofe, and given them ina fuitable manner; but where it can be done, it is always better to. leave this fort of food untouched till about the period of lambing, when it fhould be regularly fupplied in proportion to the neceffity there may be. The ewes at this time alfo demand confiderable care being taken to fee that they are put upon adry fheltered pafture free from difturbance, and that neither they or their lambs fuftain injury from the feverity of the feafon. Whenever this is the cafe, they fhould becarefully removed into a proper degree of warmth and fhel- ter until reftored. It is likewife a neceffary as well as ufeful practice, as they lamb down, to take them and their lambs away from the common ftock, putting thera into a piece of turnips or frefh dry pafiure where there is fhelter when neceflary, as by this means much fewer lambs will be Ioft. By the proper fupply of turnips at this period, the milk of the ewes is much: increafed, and the growth of the lambs greatly promoted; which is of much-cor- of Hufbandry,+ Ibid. | G2 1148 Live Stock.—Sheep—Methods of Baiting Ewes and Lambs. fequence, as when they are ftinted at this early period they never turn out fo well afterwards, In the ufe of this fort of food, where the{oil is not fufficiently dry to admit the theep, it is the beft practice to draw the turnips and convey them to a found firm pafiure, in order to have the ewes baited upon them once or twice in the day, accord. ing as there may be occafion, particular care being taken that they are wholly confumed and no wafte made. The circumftance of their being eaten quite clean up may ferve as a rule to the farmer for regulating the daily fupply that may be requifite. There can be little doubt but that in this way this fort of food may be confumed to the greateft advantage in refpect to economy. But there is a better method where the land is perfe@ily dry, efpecially where the intention. is the manuring it fora grain crop, fuch as barley, which is that of eating the turnips on the land, by means of portions being hurdled off as wanted after they have been eaten up pretty clean. In this way the farmer has lefs trouble, and the great benefit of having the land well manured; but it is only capable of being practifed. on quite dry foils, asin other circumftances the fheep do much injury by poaching. Befides, the food from its being dunged, trampled, and ftaled upon after being par- tially confumed, is in fome meafure wafted, and does not go: fo far as in being eaten under the former circumflances. The chief difference is, however, in the manure in one cafe being left upon the pafture, and in the other upon the arable Jand, in the latter of which the farmer is faved the trouble and expenfe of putting it on previous to the grain being fown. In either cafe, whatever the land may be, great improvement is effeied under{uch management.*. It has been obferved by the fame writer, that“in fome parts of the kingdom, the beft. farmers give their ewes and lambs bran and oats, or oil-cake, in troughs while they are feeding on turnips;” but it is remarked that“ it muft be a good breed for fuch a practice to repay.’”” When. the weather is extremely wet or ftormy, or there is much fnow upon the ground, the ewes and lambs fhould haye hay given them in baits as may be neceflary. This is beft done in covered move- able racks, a portion being given frefh every dayt. If fhelter can. be provided with convenience, it will always be of much benefit to.the fheep. The prac- tice of letting them to the hay-ftacks, which is common with fome farmers, is flovenly and wafteful, and which, though it may afford.a degree of fhelter, fhould never be attempted where the other methods can be had recourfe to. It has been. * Young’s Farmer’s Calendar. t Ibid. | % Live Stotko— Sheep—Different Mades of Keeping in Winter and Spring. 1149 fuggefted as an excellent method, though not effentially neccflary, to allow the fheep, whether the weather be bad or not, a fmall proportion of hay daily while at turnips*. By this careful management and the ufe of ftabble turnips when neceffary, the ewe and lamb-ftock may be well fupported through the feverity of the winter, and be brought on in the beft poffible condition until the turnips are finifhed in March, which thould always be the cafe, when the preferved grafs or rouen may be ready to receive them, which is confidered by fome as the moft to be depended upon through this and the following month, which With the firft week in May is the moft difficult period of the year to the ftock-farmer. On dry meadows and paftures it is invaluable’ in this view, though at fir fight it may have an unpromifing appearance from the covering of decayed autumnal grafs that is upon it, but which when removed prefents a new growth of freth green grafs, five or fix inches in height, brought up by the(helter and warmth afforded by the covering of old grafs. This is found to agree remarkably well with the fheep, as they confume both together, having, as it were, both hay and grafs in the fame bite+. It is frwpoted by the fame correct agricultor, to be impoflible“ to keep a full ftock of fheep fo cheaply in April by any other method as by this. Tolerable rouen will carry ten ewes an acre with their lambs through the whole month. Such rouen may be worth in autumn ten or twelve fhillings an acre; in April it is worth thirty or forty fhillings; and if it be a backward feafon, a farmer that has it would not be tempted to fell it for much more ¢.” But in the fupport of his fheep and lamb-ftock, if the farmer be provided with a fafficient extent of watered meadow, he may fully _ depend upon that without any other provifion for this period. But in cafes where thefe cannot be depended on for the fupport of the fheep- ftock at this difficult feafon, the improved practice is, inftead of depending on turnips and hay with rye fown for the purpofe, the young wheats and the ran of the paftures, to let the turnips continue fo as that their{hoots may become an obje& of fheep-food, and to have annually a portion of tolerable good land fufficient to the extent of the flock, under rye-grafs and clover, fo as to be ready in the fpring to take the fheep from turnips, and fapport them till the period of turnmg upon It is remarked-that‘* this conduct is an improvement on the other, the paflures. depending on rye, 0 hich is foon eaten; feeding as it gets rid of three great evils: on wheat, which is pernicious to the crop; and turning too foon into the general paftures, But at the fame time that it effets this advantage, it is open to fome * Young’s Farmer’s Calendar.+ Ibid. Ibid; 1180 Live Stock.-Sheep—Different Modes of Keeping in Winter and Spring. objections, which make further improvement neceflary. Keeping the turnips long inthe fpring is very bad hufbandry. It damages greatly the barley crop, both in robbing the land, and preventing it from being fown in proper time: nor is the food of great confequence; for many acres of turnip-tops are requifite, the number of which muft be in proportion to the ftock of fheep; and as to the roots,, they grow fo fticky and hard after the tops are at alliadvanced, that their value. is triling. With refpeé to ray grafs, the clover mixed with it is feldom above three inches high at this feafon; and a great breadth of ground to a given fiock mutt be afligned to keep the theep through April. The number of acres of that young growth neceflary to keep a hundred fheep and lambs is furprifing; fo that thefe farmers, although they manage to fpring-feed more fheep than the worft of their brethren, yet cffect it ata great expenfe, and at laft not in any degree comparable to what might be done. A turnip fhould never be feen on the ground after March. For the month of April the farmer fhould have a field of cabbages ready, which, yielding a great produce on a fmall breadth of ground, reduces the evil of a late {pring fowing; and, if he manages as he ought, totally excludes it... The turnips cabbage, and ruta baga, will laft as long as wanted; and, though it runs to feed, yet the bulb will not be fiicky.‘Lhe green boorcole may be fed off feveral times. It is impenetrable.to froft, and will make fhoots in the winter.” «* Another crop for feeding fheep in fpring, which is of particular merit, is burnet. An acre of it managed properly, will at this feafon yield much more food than an acre of clover and ray-grafs. Jt fhould be four or five inches high in November, and left fo through the winter. Burnet has the fingular quality of maintaining its green Jeaves through the winter; fo that, under deep fnows, you find fome luxuriance of vegetation. From November to February the crop will gain two or three inches in growth in the young leaves, and then be ready for fheep. It will be better in March, and, if kept, ready in April, not only for fheep, but horfes, cows, or any ether ftock*.” By thefe means, the fheep and lambs may be continued in good and healthy condition, which is of great confequence to the ftock, till the time of turning upon the paftures, when they fhould be feparated, where the farms are inclofed into fuitable divifions, in proportion to the quantity that each pafture which they are to occupy can fupport, care being taken not to over ftock the fields, though hard fiocking in fome cafes may be ufeful+. By fome managers they are put upon the * Young's Farmer’s Calendar.+ See Stocking of Paftures, Live Stock.-—Sheep—Weaning Lambs—Setting Lamb-Stock. 1151 beft paftures of the firm, while others let them have thofe of the inferior kinds. Each method may have its-advantage under different circumftances; but the main objet, that of having’ the ftock preferved in good condition, is never to be loft fight of. In keeping theep on inclofed_pattures, particularly where the lands are much Occupied with wood, conftant care is neceffary in order to guard againfi: the mifchief of the fly, as its effects are often irremediable in the courfe of a very fhort time in fuch fituations, if not-attended to, in hot feafons. The weaning of the lambs is a bufinefs that fhould be attended to fome time in the courfe of July, but it is accomplifhed more early in fome diftrits than others. In order to effec this in the be and moft advantageous matiner, a proper referveé of fome frefh pafiure grafs where there may bea good bite for the lambs to feed upon fhould be made. It is of much confequence that an ample provifion of this nature bé had, in order that the growth of‘this young flock may not fuffer any check on being taken from the mother. Some advife clover in bloffom as the moft forcing fort of food in this intention. And faintfoin rouen is highly valuablbefor the fame purpofe. The ewes fhould be removed to‘hh difiant paftures or other places as that they cannot be heard by the lambs, and thereby caufe them to be difturbed in their feeding. And where the ewes fafiain any inconvenience from their milk, it fhould be drawn once or twice, as by this means difeafe may be prevented*. After the lambs have been removed, the ewes are returned to the fituations dettined for their fummer fupport. As it is neceffary in the common management of fheep-ftocks to reinove a certain number of the crones or old ewes annually, and replace them by the beft lambs, in ordér to keep them up in the greateft perfection, it is of confiderable importance to have the bufinefs performed in a proper manner. In moft of the ecp-diftriéts in the fouthern parts of the kingdom, this felection or fetting of lamb-ftock is ufually made about the month of Auguft, when the fairs: for the fale of lambs moftly take place. And as the whole are then collected for drawing into different lots, it may be a very fuitable period for feleéting thofe that are to fupply * It is obfervedin the Northumberland Report, that“when this praGtice, as was ufual, is continued to eight or tem weeks, it becomes very detrimental, keeps the ewes: lean, and ill prepared for meeting the feverities of winter. * This cuftom has been long difufed by the intelligent farmers in: the lower diftri€ts;. and: much Taid afide by the moft confiderable hill farmers. The profit of milking ewes for fix or eight weeks is eftimated at 8d. per ewe; and it is generally agreed they aredecreafed-in value at leaft rs. Ed, per head; of courfe there is a lofs of about 1s. per head-by milking. In one inflance of milking long- woolled ewes there was a lofs of at leaft 3s. per head.” 3 1152 Live Stock.—Sheep—Setting Lamb-Stock—What neceffary in. fuch deficiencies in the breeding ftocks. It is obferved by Mr. Young in his excellent Calendar of Hufbandry, that‘in making this feleCtion the farmer or his fhepherd ufually(whatever the breed may be) rejects all that manifeft any departure from certain figns of the true breed: thus, in a Norfolk flock, a white leg, anda face not of a hue fufficiently dark, would be excluded, however well formed; in the fame manner a white face on the South Downs; in Wiltthire a black face would be an exclufion, or a horn that does not fall. back; in Dorfetthire a horn that does not projeQ@;&c.&c. And where the produce is annually fold lean, there is reafon in all this; for cuftomers who have been ufed to, and prefer certain breeds, as. having paid them well, are apt to be faftidious when they purchafe. Some farmers in this felection look chiefly at fize, always keeping the largeft frames; but this is probably erroneous, unlefs they keep very high. It connedts with a queftion by no means afcertained, whether fheep do or do not eat a quantity of food proportioned to their weight? In general, it is a fafer rule to choofe a well- formed lamb, or that indicates the probability of making a well-formed ewe, rather than to fele& for fize. The attention that is to be paid to wool, in the breeds that produce the carding fort, will depend on the price to be received: if the farmer lives in a diftri€t where the price of the year is given equally to all flocks, there is little encouragement to leffen quantity for the fake of quality; retaining, how- ever, in idea, the fact that both are attainable, that it is very common to fee coarfe breeched fheep with light fleeces, and thofe of a fine quality heavy in weight. The Spanith fleeces, which are finer than any other, are heavier than thofe of our fineft woolled fheep. With combing wool the importance of the fleece depends {till more on price; we have feen it at 8s. a tod; and it has lately been 36s. Quality is of very little confequence indeed, compared with quantity; and when wool fells high, no prudent breeder will fet his ftock without being governed\confi- derably, by this object. « The high prices at which new Leicefter and new South Down rams let and fell has opened a field of{peculation in fheep-breeding. It is fufficient to remark, that this fpirit.of breeding, whether it fhall prove durable or not, whether much money fhall or fhall not be made in it in future, is not what any prudent man be- ginning bufinefs will adventure in but with great caution: men of fuch immenfe fortune are now taking a lead in it, and are in many refpedéts doing it on fuch liberal principles, that the wifeft conduct of fuch farmers as he may be fappofed to addrefs, is to take proper opportunities of converting their experiments to them own(the Live Stock—Sheep—Regulating Stock of—Down Kind. 1153 farmers) profit. Leave the expenfe to them; but, when you can, convert the profit to your own advantage. In fetting a fiock of lambs, therefore, you may mark a{core of thebett, for a future ram to be picked up when opportunity offers; or, better fiill, to fend to the tup of fome ram-letter that takes them in at a reafon- able price per head. By every year feleGting five or fix per cent. and by every year covering that number by a ram better than any of your own, the flock muft be on the improving hand; and this may be done at a very{mall expenfe.” And as this is not only the proper period of filling up the deficiencies in the ewe-ftock, but alfo for increafing or diminithing the quantity of flock, by referving a larger or fmaller number than that of the old fheep which are difpofed of, it is a matter that demands particular attention. The following ufeful directions are given in the fame intelligent work:“Ona farm with a given ftationary fheep- walk, it is probably regulated by circumftances that rarely change; but, on inclofed farms, where the fheep are fupported by fields alternately in grafs and tillage, variations may eafily be{uppofed, and the queftion of hard or light ftocking, that is, of clofe feeding or a head of grafs, then comes in to decide the number kept. If the produce or profit per head is looked to, the condu& to be purfued is evidently to ftock lightly; but if the return is looked for in corn from fields laid down for refrethment by reft, then clofe feeding is a very material point, and the number kept will depend on it. With all the grafles,&c. that do not decline from age, the more fheep you keep the more you may keep, and the more corn you will reap when fuch are ploughed; a circumftance too important to be forgotten. But the young farmer will remember, that upon this fyftem he muft not have a /how flock, or let the vanity of a farm have the leaft influence with him: ifin this way he will have fomething to talk of, a fcore or two of pampered favourites, the fewer the better, for they may coft him more than they are worth.” After this’ bufinefs has been properly executed, the ewe- and wether-lambs which remain are ufually fent to the neighbouring lamb-fairs to be difpofed of. But where the fairs for this purpofe happen later than this period, as in the beginning or latter end of September, as is the cafe in fome places, Mr. Young advifes that“ great care be taken to keep'them in forcing food, as in fpring-tares, early-fown rape, good grafs of the right degree of bite,&c.&c. in order to promote their growth and sncreafe their value; but to fell in Auguft is more beneficial.” In the down- and mountain-fheep there is fome difference in the management xat of thofe on the inclofed lands, though the fame attention in the felecting 7# from t! canner oe nen secure er. bain pigpcso a RT RE Se 1154 Live Stock.—Sheep—Dewn Kind—Management of. and choofing of the breeding- and ram-ftock is now moftly praifed with the better and more enlightened fheep- farmers in fuch diftri@s. In the former fituations they are perfecily aware that, befides the improvement of their tillage lands, their fheep can be rendered of confider ably more value; a circum ftance which has had tne happie{t eff-Gs in. prot moting improvements in this department wufbandry., The chief difference in the method of k ceeping them, isin their being tut nd upon the downs, heaths, or commons, as early as poffible in the fpring feafon, as about. the middle of April, and kept there till the beginning of autumn, as in October; the fhort fweet nutritious herbage in thefe fituations affording them a fupply of food fufficient to keep them in tolerable order. But when this keep begins to decline the farmers have recourfe to other forts of food, the fheep being ufually folded on turnips or cole, on which they are continued during the winter until they are expended, when they are ehiciy fed with hay, ftacked for the purpofe on the downs or other places, till there is again a fufficient bite of grafs, In thefe cafes the practice of folding is moftly in ufe throughout the year; which during the fummer and autumn is moftly on the lands under preparation for wheat-crops, but in the winter occafionally on the ftubbles, though more generally on the dostns and pafiure; and in the fpring on the grounds that are defiined for the barley crops*. In fome of the more clevated and hilly diftrids inthe northern parts of England, where Mau is conducted on an extenfive feale, the flieep on being divided, under the care of different fhepherds, into old fheep, fuch as wethers and two-year olds, and breeding and young theep, the former are put upon. the more elevated and expofed pafiures, and the latter on thofe that are more fertile and thel- tered, being well fupported in the winter with turnips and hay+ There is another inferior fort of management in thefe fituations, which is that. of permitting the flocks to range over the hills and commons during the fummer feafon, moftly without being under the command of any fhepherd. About the clofe of this feafon, or on ibe approach of winter, they ate colle‘ted together, and brought home in order to undergo the operation of fimegring or falving ¢, which is common in thefe diftricts, though it does not prevail, we believe, in the theep-hufbandry of any * Donaldfon’s Prefent State of Hufbandry in Great Britain.+ Ibid. ¢ This is an operation that was formerly confidered as indifpenfable to the health and fafety of fheep. But in the fouthern parts of the kingdom, accord ing to the Survey of Northumberland, it is not in ufe, and in fome of the lefs expofed northern diftriéts it is wholly in difufe; even with fome of the hill-fheep farmers it is now laid afide without any inconvenience being fuftained. Live Stock.—Sheep—Moiuntain Kind— Management of. f the more fouthern parts of the ifland. After this work has been performed the old flock-fheep are returned to their former fituation, and, in fome cafes, the hogs and other young fheep with them. But in other cafes a better management is purfued; in fome inflances, where the nature of the farins will admit of it, thefe laft forts being wintered in the inclofed pafture grounds that are near to the houfes: and in other ‘places, what are termed the home-grounds, whether open or inclofed, are pur- pofely preferved or faved during the fummer feafon, in order to admit the whole fiock to be fupported on them in the winter. When thefe are not fufficient for this ufe, others at a difiance are meieehi provided. In fevere feafons, fome hay or ftraw is likewife given daily* In the fheep-diftricts in the moft northern parts of the kingdom a ftill lefs eligible management is in ufe: the flocks are in common left to provide for them- felyes, even in the moft fevere and inclement feafons, when the bleak tracts on which they live are covered deeply with fnow. In thefe cafes the theep have their chief dependence for fubfiftence on their own habits, which lead them to remove the fnow by their fect with great facility till they reach the heath or withered herbage. The fubftance employed in this diftri¢t is a mixture of 121bs. of Lutter with four quarts of tar, well incor- porated by being put together while warm. This quantity is fufficient for twenty-four fheep. In Perththire in the north of Scotland“ the compofition now in ufe is likewife tar and butter. Some take ten Scotch pints of tar to a ftone of butter; others only five pints of tar to that weight; and others in the various proportions between thefeextremes,-'Ihis quantity fufficeth for laying fifty-five or fixty fheep, at the raté of three or four pence each, according as there is more or lefs tar in the mixture. Formerly thepherds ufed tobacco-juice and foap, and in fome cafes chamberley; but thefe are laid afide as lefs efficacious.” The bufinefs isin fome places done in November. In Perthfhire, the flore-mafters{mear their lambs about the beginning of Oober; and if the weather be favourable, they continue the work, without intermulion, till all the fheep, they intend, be fmeared. In fome places they fmear only the weaker fheep; in other places the whole. One man fmezrs twenty or twenty-four in a day, leaving about an inch betwixt every fhed of the wool. The benefit expected from this practice is, that it makes the theep hardier and warmer, that it cleans them from vermin and cutaneous diftempers, and that it prevents their lofing the wool.‘They contend further, that the wool pays very nearly the whole expenfe, the fame number of fleeces of fmeared and white wool bringing an equal fum in the market, becaufe what the fmeared wool wants in sige it has in weight: and laftly it is urged, that‘‘ the more butter there is inthe compofition, the grain of the wool is fofter and more filky; that by the praétice of{mearing, the young fheep are raifed in the bone, are preferred in the market, and fetch a better price.” But,“ notwithftanding all thofe arguments in favour of fmearing, others condemn the prattice totally. here is little doubt that it forms a cruft about the animal’s body, and contributes to defend it. from ié: nc al thus it may be proper in a ftormy fituation while it is unn here is plenty of elter.’ * Donaldfon's Prefent State of Hufbandry in Great Britain 7 y 5 aes+ 1156 Live Stock.—Sheep—Profit of Keeping. When the fnow is falling or blown by a ftorm, the thepherds, however, drive the flocks, without intermiffion, round the top of a hill in a circle, in order to keep them from lowering and being drifted up or finothered. It is likewife the practice in fume countries to erect circular folds on the tops of low hills for the fame purpofe: and when the heath is all covered, they fometimes harrow the fnow in order to bring up the heath; for which ufe the harrows fhould only have few but long tecth. Some have recourfe to feeding with hay or unthrafhed oats in handfuls upon the fnow*. But as thefe only afford a precarious fupport, a proper winter food, well fuited for their ufe and‘adapted to fach fituations, would be of the greateft value and and utility. It has been fuggefied by Mr. Marthall,“that cultivating plots of furze, broom, juniper,&c, by fod-burning, and rippling the furface, or by ether more eligible means, could not fail of proving beneficial upon the wintering erounds of a fheep-farm. By means of thefe, as a refource in the deepeft fnow, when the herbage of the draes was buried too deep, and too evenly to be uncovered by the fcraping of the fheep, by keeping the moft expofed parts of the draes in full herbage for lefs general coverings of fnow, and by referve of rape for the feafon of lambing, even ewe flocks might be fupported through the winter with fome degree of certainty, without dry fodder, and without being left to the uncertainty of the feafons, and the mercy of the winds and weather, as they are at prefent.” The produce or profit of keeping fheep muft obvioufly differ very confiderably according to the circumftances under which they are conducted, the nature of the breed that is employed, and the goodnefs of the management purfued in keeping them. There are fo many caufes that affect the profits in this fort of hufbandry, that it is probable no two{heep-farmers have exactly the fame returns, In the Annals of Agriculture, feveral. detailed ftatements of the advantage of fheep-hufbandry, when conducted on an extenfive fcale, are given with much elearnefs and accuracy. In Suffolk, according to Mr. Macro’s account(which was not made direily with the view of thowing the profit that may be derived from fheep, but the difadvantage of a flout flock), the profit on 494 ewes is£.16, or 8d. per head. But in Suffex, in Mr. Ellman’s ftatement, on 560 ewes it fiands at£147, or 5s. 3d. per head. And in the Duke of Grafton’s: eftimate on 40 fcore it is£.134, or 38. 4d. per head$. From the late improvements in fheep-hufbandry, it is probable that the * Perth Corrected Report.+ See Volumes II. VII. and XI. £ See Grazing. Live Stock.—Sheep—Folding improper in certain Cafes. 1157 prefent eftimates fland much higher. The profits in the different fyftems of fatting fheep have been already ftated*. Where the fyftem of folding is praCtifed, the theep moft adapted to the bufinefs are thofe of the more light and aétive fhort-woolled breeds, as the Norfolk, Wiltthire, South-Down, and fome other kinds. This management has been hitberto confidered as almoft abfolutely indifpenfable in many fituations to the fuccefs of the farmer. It is, however, ftated by Mr. Young, in his Calendar, that “a very great change has taken place on inclofed farms in the practice of the beft farmers, efpecially in Norfolk. They: are now fully convinced, that it is an unprofitable practice, except where the opennefs of downs and common fields renders it neceflary for the purpofe of confinement. The number of fheep that may be kept on a farm without folding is much greater than can be fupported with it. This is a very effential point. There is a deduction from the farmer’s profit, in the injury done by folding to both ewe and Jamb, which has been eftimated by experienced judges at from 2s. 6d. to 4s. per ewe; fo that a farmer fhould confider well, before he determines to follow a practice which, from a multitude of obfer- vations, is pronounced unprofitable. Mr. Bakewell ufed to call it robbing Peter to pay Paul. The arguments now ufed in its defence are not fatisfactory: it is contended, that if fheep be not folded they will draw under hedges,&c. for fhelter in bad weather; if fo, they ought to be allowed to do it, for more would be loft in fuch cafes by forcing the theep from fhelter than the value of their fold. Where this practice takes place, good thepherds will, in cafe of rain, get up in the night and let their flocks out of fold, knowing the confequence of confinement on arable land in wet weather. The inftinct of tbefe animals will conduct them much better than our reafon, not only where to fly for fhelter, but alfo for choofing their own time to go to refi, and to feed in the morning. Thefe they vary according to feafons and weather; but folding prevents it, and forces them to a regularity never called for by the weather.” It is remarked, that“ when he began fir{t to entertain doubts of the propriety of folding fheep on any farms in which they can be kept to certain fields inthe night, without that practice, he defired earneftly to try fome experi- ments that might throw more light on the queftion than it was poffible for reafon to do; but to effect this comparatively was very difficult, as the trial he withed for was fuch as fhould carry fome pofitive conviction with it. He has not been able * See Grazing. Ae ed NA ots riper ye Bie a TA din MO; re° 1138 Live Stee ky mine SL CC} ma FY bilng ofp— wy[0 much pr attifed. to effe& it fully; but the trials he has made may not be found deflitute of power to throw fome light on this interefting quefiion.*He is perfectly perfuaded, that it would have been impoffible for him to have kept on the fame land nearly fuch a flock in one parcel with folding. He does not conceive that the fields would have carried three-fourths, fo managed. Four drivings in a day make them trample much food, difquict the fheep, and transfer the choice of their hours of f feeding and reft from themielves to the{hepherd and his boy. While lambs are young they are injured by this, and the ewes are liable to be burried and heated; all which are objects that fhould weigh in the queftion. When fheep are Kept in numerous parcels, it is not only driving to and from the fold that affeés them, but they are, in fadtjod riving about ina fort of march all day long: g, when the flrongeft have too great an advantage, and the flock divides into the head and the tail of it, by which meaus one part of them muft trample the food to be eaten by another. Al! this points the very reverfe of their remaining perfelly quiet in{mall parcels. But 1 the queftion turns on the benefit te be reaped by the fold; for, if that be grea enough to compenfate for the lc fuch circumftances, the practice may not be y farmers are fauch warm advocates for folding, arifes from the power it gives them oe the grafs lands of a farm hew obje& is corn, by which they can carry off a farm whatever improvement they bring to it. Grafs improved is profit to the landlord in future; and tenants are too apt to think*that this is déne at’ their expenfe. } ty y} do not at all regard imvoverifthing a grafs field in order to improve a plouvhed \ wy i ba 4< i So ne; and he need not obferve, that every fort of the ep-walk is thas impoverithed; on oy feb) p= fob} 3 oa ient walks, which‘have been theep-pa(tured perhaps for five centuries, ane.00 pdtteh at prefent than they evct were before; whereas mot fields theep-fed, folding from them, are ina conftant{tate of amelioration«this leads him ] to remark the effect he obferved on feveral of bis own fields. wn attended through the courfe of a fummer many gentlemen over his fields, with a view to examine whether the fheep had feemed to have dele- on il to the too ereat ma- nuring offiauh..; or, on. the contrary, to have dif themfelves more equally; and it was a pleafure to find, that they feemed ies to have hae in every part, if not quite cqually, at leaft nea rly fo. The im proved countenance of feveral ? old jays fed in the fame manner, when examined in autumn, eorbiwedl him as well eround had been dionably improved confid srably. Lavery bad appe for fome years; but they were, afte; Live Stock,— Sheep—Felding~- Benefit of olfained in otber Ways. He fheep-feeding, of a rich verdure, and as full of worm-cafts as if they had been|| dunged. He rolled them heavily in November, but they foon became rough again by worms, and demanded much rolling in fpring. They had afterwards a greener and tnore fertile appearance by far than ever they wore before.’| : It is concluded“that the whole of this circumflance, the value of which he will:| i WE my)| be able to appreciate in the trials of future uixbals belongs to this method of He| i dividing flocks, to the exclufion of folding. The fold is va aluable, but fo is the Hi if improvement of the grafs land, and may, for what he knows, nearly equal it+ w hen, in addition, we include the greater number of fheep that can Le kept, and the i tea favour done to them by letting them alone, there remains in his mind no, further oe doubt of the fac. It iscommonto hear flock-farmers in open countries fay, they have not the power to manage fo. This may be very true, upon the major part of the| j farms; but fuch have often many inclofures, in which this management might be)| applied without difficulty. Butif we fuppofefolding to be the fyfiem purfued, he Wi may remark, that the farmers in thofe parts of the kingdom which underftand it aE j | I | beft, do not-extend it fo far as they might; they give over folding,in. November or ed December,’ whereas it may certainly be carried on. through the whole winter with profit; even fuppofing that the practice i) nccefary: on thofe farms which have perfe@ly dry gravelly pafture or two, it is advifable to fold all winter on fuch dry grafsland. It muft not be attempted on moift arable, land, nor on moift grafs land, but on dry pafiures. The fatety to the fheep is greater, and the benefit to the grafs.an object.” i Tele are the arguments and experiments by which.the utility of this long- eftablifhed practice is aflailed and rendered problematical, at leaf on farms in i inclofed difiriis, where the fheep are capable of being confined in the paftures or other fields in feparate lots without thismanagement.. How far, in other cafes, the injury. fuftained-by the fheep in. their thriving, and being morc expofed to difeaie, Hi with the trouble and inconvenience of the practice, weigh againit the advantage of 1 Hy the fyftem in providing manure as well as otherwife improving the tillage lands and keeping them in a more reftrained ftate by other means, remains to be fhown, The decifion of the queftion, involves various confiderations of great moment to‘the ftock- as well as tillage-farmer. It has been fuggefted, that‘there is another method of gaining all the‘benefit| eieeen ") of folding quite, through the winter, and on all foils; this is,.to confine them at| i night in a fhcep-yard, weil and regularly littered with ftraw, ftubble, or fern; by if which means you keep your flock warm and healthy.in bad-feafons, and at the i i) “= 1160 Live Stock.—Sheep—Felding of in well-littered Yards. fame tine raife a furprifing quantity of dung; fo great a quantity, if you have plenty of litter, that the profit will be better than folding on the land. A great improvement in this method would be giving the fheep all their food(except their pafture) in fuch yard; viz. hay and turnips, for which purpofe they may be brought upnot only at night, but alfo at noon, to be baited; but if their pafiure be at a difiance, they fhould then, infiead of baiting at noon, come to the yard earlier in the evening and go out later in the morning. This is a practice which cannot be too much recommended; for fo warm a lodging is a great matter to young lambs, and will tend much to forward their growth; the theep will alfo be kept in good health; and, what is a point of confequence to all farms, the quantity of dung raifed will be very great. If this method is purfued through the months of December, January, February, March, and April, with plenty of litter, one hundred fheep will make a dunghill of at leaft fixty loads of excellent ftuff, which will amply manure two acres of land, whereas one hundred fheep folded(fappofing the grafs dry enough) will not in that time equally manure one acre.” This bufinefS may be fill further promoted by means of proper yards fuited to the extent of theep that are folded, with fheds on the fides for them to feed under; as in this way, by having the bottoms and under the fheds well covered with turf, bog-carth, marl, or the ferapings of roads, in the autumn and winter feafon, the fheep being kept on them in the day-time in bad ftormy weather, and always during the night, with plentiful fupplies of ftraw, ftubble, fern, or any fimilar fubftances as litter, fo as that they may be preferved quite dry and free from moifture, a vaft flock of good manure will be raifed. Such yards or ftanding folds, on this account, as well as that of improving the wool and affording fhelter to the animals, deferve to be much more general than they are at prefent.‘Thefe yards both with and with- out fheds are in ufe in Suffex*; with fheds they are probably better than when wholly covered, as in the Herefordthire method; for in this laft mode it is probable the theep may be kept too warm, an equality of temperature being found of the moft benefit in the economy of thefe animals. More experiments than have yet been made are wanting to fhow the advantages that may be derived from different methods of houfing fheep during the winter feafon. There feems little doubt but that the quality of the fleece may be improved by it, though in the French manner it is faid to have done harm-f. Wherever the fyftem of folding is adopted as neceflary, it fhould be purfucd with * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XI.+ Annals of Agriculture, Vols. XT. and XVI. Live Stock.—Sheep—Folding—Time of Clippinge-Manner of Wafhing. 1161 as much ficadinefs as poffible, and have the bufinefs done in a perfect manner, for which purpofe it may be fufficient to allow two fquare yards, or, in many cafes, a lefs fpace, to each fheep, having them to remain two nights or more on the fame fpot; though the ufual practice is to let them have more room, and remain a lefs time on the land. On tillage lands the furface fhould be very thickly covered over; but when in the ftate of fward a flighter coat may be fufficient. The lands under fallow for turnips or cabbages are in general beft to begin upon, as the crops will be ready to be put in almoft immediately afterwards. From thefe the farmer may proceed to the grounds in preparation for other crops, as the wheat fallows, being conftantly attentive to put his fheep upon fuch lands firft as are to be firft fown, whether with grain or grafs feeds. When on the approach of the winter feafon the weather becomes too wet for purfuingthis fyftem on the arable lands, it fhould be transferred to the paftures or other grafs lands; as on dry lands of this kind this management may be continued without much harm‘to the fheep, and much improvement in the land be effected. Where there is much mofs on the lands this praGtice has much effect in removing it*. The time of clipping or thearing the fheep fhould be regulated by the ftate of the weather and the climate in the particular diftrict, as the fummer feafon commences much fooner in the fouthern parts of the ifland than thofe of the north. In this way the danger of injury by cold from depriving the fheep of their coats too foon, and from heat by permitting them to continue on them too long, may be equally avoided. There is alfo another circumftance that fhould be attended to in this bufinefs, which is, that of the wool being at the ftate of maturity; for if the clipping precede that period it is weak, and can{carcely be fpun, and if protracted later, it as yellow, felted, and imperfect+. For the more warm fheltered fituations in the fouthern parts of the kingdom, the beginning or middle of June, when the weather is fine, may be in general the moft proper; but in the more expofed diftri€ls in the northern parts of the ifland, the middle or latter end of the fame month may be more fuitable, provided the feafon be favourable. But with the fatteaing fheep in the inclofures it will moftly be neceffary to perform the work at an earlier period 4n every fituation, as the great increafe of heat from the fetting in of the fummer weather added to the warmth of the fleece becomes very oppreffive and injurious to them in their feeding. As thefleeces of fheep at this feafon become much loaded and filled with duft and # See Folding, in Se€tion on the Cultivation of Arable Land.+ Annals of Agriculture, Vol. VIG 7 I 1162 Live Steck.—Sheep—Longitudinal Method of Clipping. dirt of various kinds, before the bufinefs of{hearing is begun, it,is neceflary to have the operation of wafhing performed. In the old method of executing this work, by the wathers ftanding up to the breaft in the water, there is not only much inconye- nience and danger, in the men requiring a large fupply of fpirituous liquors, being attacked with colds, rheumatifms, and other difeafes, but, from the uncomfortable- nefs of their fituation, often difpatching the bufinefs with too much expedition, fo as to leave the wool infufficiently cleaned. It has been propofed, in the way of remedying thefe inconveniences, that a ftream or pond by a little contrivance will afford the means not only of doing-the work well, but with comfort to the men. The method is to“rail off a portion of the waterfor the fheep to walk into by a floop mouth at one end, and to walk out by another at the other end, with a depth fufficient at one part for them to{wim; and to pave the whole: the breadth need not be more than fix or feven feet: at one fpot let in on each fide of this paflage, where the depth is jut fufficient for the water to flow over the theep’s back, a cafk, either fixed or leaded, for a man to ftand in dry; the fheep being in the water between them, they wafh in perfection, and pufhing them on, they{wim through the deep part, and walk out at the other mouth, where is aclean pen, or a very clean dry pafture to receive them. Of courfe there is a bridge rail-way to the tubs; and a pen at the firft mouth of the water, whence the fheep are turned into it, where they may be foaking a few minutes before being driven to the wafhers*.” Before this work commences the lambs fhould be feparated from the ewes and other fheep, and each placed in feparate pens. When the forme rare wafhed, it is feldom neceflary to do much more than. allow them to be juft fwilled through the water.—: After this operation has been accomplifhed, the fheep fhould be provided with a dry clean pafture fora few, days until they become perfectly dry, and are in a proper ftate to be fhorn or clipped. In the former method of performing this fort of operation, it was the cuftom of the fhearers to perform the work length-ways of the fheep; and. in many cafes it was very indifferently executed, fo much fo, that it has been fuppofed that one or two ounces of wool were left, upon the average, upon each fheep, and by that means much injury done to the following growth, as it is conceived that wool in this particular has much refemblance to grafs, and“ will not thrive well if it be not cut clofe.” This imperfection in the clipping of fheep is believed to. arife in a great * Yqung’s Farmer’s Calendar. Live Stock.—Sheep—Circular or improved Mode of Clipping. 1163 meafure from the longitudinal method of performing the operation. The improved practice is therefore to clip circularly round the body of the theep, by which means the work is believed to be more evenly as well as more clofely executed. It is fuggefied, as probable, that the firf inducement to this method of executing the bufinefs was that of improving the beauty of the animals*. It is not unlikely but that convenience might alfo have fome fhare in the introduction of this improve- ment, as it is extremely awkward and unpleafant for the operator to clip large fheep- in the longitudinal method. The origin of this mode of fhearing fheep is given, by Mr. Young, to Lincoln thire, whence it is fuppofed to have paffed into Leicefterfhire. And it has fince that period been introduced among the Suflex theep-farmers with much attention by the Earl of Egremont; while the late’ Duke of Bedford and Mr. Coke have not been lefs affiduous in making it known in Bedfordfhire and Norfolk+. It is therefore probable that it will not long be negleCted by the fheep-farmers in thofe diftri@ts where it may be yet unknown. In managing this fort of bufinefs, befides the clippers, who are moftly perfons that undertake the work, it is neceflary to have a man to every three or four clippers, to draw and turn up the theep.ready for the operation. The bufinefs is moftly per- formed in a barn or other fhady fituation. Expert clippers feldom or ever cut or in any way hurt the fheep; but where they are not well accuftomed to the. work this may eafily be the cafe, and much injury be done: it is of courfe necefflary ta be cautious in engaging perfons for this fort of work. The number of fheep that can be clipped in the courfe of the day by an expert operator muft vary. according to circumftances, but in general it is fuppofed to. be about forty. With the grazier, where this fort of work is on a very extenfive fcale, it is moftly the cuftom to have the work performed by the number. The ufual price is from as. 6d. to 3. the fcore, the clippers drawing their fheep{. But with lefs extenfive fheep-farmers the work is often performed by the day, in which cafe as. 6d., with meat, ftrong beer, liquors,&c. is the common price for each perfon§. Mr. Young fiates the price in common clipping at“ from 2s. 6d, to 35. per fcore, for wafhing, clipping, and winding, labour being at ts. 6d. a day,” At prefent we believe the expenfes run higher than thefe ftatements. It is neceflary to have a proper perfon to wind the wool after the fhearers, who fhould perfeétly underftand the bufinefs, as much in the fale depends upon this being well done, and that no improper fubftances be.inclofed in the fleeces, as + Synopfis of Hufbandry.§ Ibid, * Young’s Calendar,.+ Ibid. 712 1164 Live Stock.—Sheep—Frequent Clipping of—Clothing of. where this happens the farmer may find difficulty in difpofing of his wool in future. Mr. Ellman, an extenfive South Down fheep-farmer, clips off the coarfeft of the wool on the thighs, and docks a month before the time of wafhing and fhearing, which he fells, as locks, at 34d: per lb.; the quantity being about four ounces per fheep. He finds this method to anfwer very well, keeping the fheep clean and cool in hot feafons. It is a praétice in many other difiricts with other breeds of fheep, and is found to have many advantages, not only keeping the animals clean, but in ewes preventing their becoming fore in the udder*. Some have fuggefted the cutting or clipping of long-horned ftheep twice or oftener in the courfe of the year, about January and June, as by this means they fuppofe that there would bean advantage in having the tecond cutting much finer, and if well kept the fheep would probably faftain no injuryt. In an experiment made by John Afkew, efq. of Billingfburn in Nortiumberland, the firft clipping was performed on the oth of February, and the fecond on the 24th of June, the ewes being fheltered and fed with a little oats for fome time afterwards; the refult was, that both the ewe and the lamb continued in the beft condition of any in the flock, and the quantity of wool was increafed; the firft clipping affording feven pounds and ahalf, and the fecond three pounds and a_ half, making together eleven pounds; while in a year’s growth clipped at once the weight was only nine pounds. The quality was likewife fo much improved, that the fecond clipping was worth eight fhillings a{tone more than the firft. And it is fuggefted, that as the four months’ growth was exaétly of the proper length for carding, the longs ‘woolled fheep, inftead of twice, may be clipped three times in the year. The clothing of fheep has likewife been attempted with a view to the bettering of the wool. In Mr. Brodie’s experiment in this way the improvement in the wool is faid to have been very great. Theexpenfe about feven-pence per fheep for two or three years. By combining this practice with the above, it is fuppofed that the combing-wool may be converted into that of the clothing kind, and that while the quantity and quality of the fleece is improved the carcafe of the fheep may be much benefited§.' The experiments on thefe interefting points are fo few, and the expenfe of fuch management fo little detailed, that no fatisfaftory conclufion can probably yet be * Corrected Report of the North Riding of Yorkshire.+ Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XV. + Ibid.§ Ibid. Vols XYL Live Stock.—Sheep—Time of Caftrating Male Lambs—Woal. 1165 drawn. It fhould not, however, be forgotten, that it has been in general conceived, that a certain maturity in the wool was neceflary to its perfection, and that in the economy of fheep an over, degree of warmth may be equally detrimental with too great a deficiency of it. The lambs are ufually clipped or thorn a month or fix weeks after the operation has been performed on the old or flore fheep. When this bufinefs has been done, both the old theep and lambs fhould be marked with ochre or fome other fubftance; and with fome it is a practice to mark them in the ear or other part. It has been obje@ed, that by marking with tar injury is done to the wool, but Mr. Macro has thown in the Annals of Agriculture, that the quantity employed does not amount to an ounce per fheep, fo that no great inconvenience can be fuftained by it. _ It is a practice in fome diftri&s to dock the tails of fheep, which has probably originated in the idea of keeping the animals more clean, and free from the attacks of the fly. Some, however, conceive it improper, as preventing the fheep from being able to beat off the flies in hot feafons*. The caftrating or gelding of the male lambs is performed at different ages in different diftri&s; but it feems the moft proper to be done in the firft fortnight in the ftronger fort of lambs; and in thofe of the weaker kind from a fortnight to three weeks; or a month old, according to circumftances. Some, however, advife its being doné at a much later period. While done early, there is, however, the leaft danger of too much inflammation coming on, if the lambs be ina healthy condition.. When performed while very young on tender delicate lambs, mortification may, however, fometimes be apt to come on and deftroy them. The produce in wool differs greatly in different breeds of fheep; but in the pafture orlong-woolled kinds the quantity is very confiderable, though very inferior in quality, to that of many of the fhort-woolled forts.’ The fineft wool is produced from the Shetland, the Herefordthire,and the South Down, of any of the native fheep, and the greateft quantity from the Lincolnfhire. The quality and quantity afforded by each fort of fheep has been already noticed in fpeaking of the particular breeds of theep. It is obferved by Mr. Donaldfon that,“the wethers have confiderably more wool than the ewes. In the fleeces of either there are feveral qualities;. fome: reckon eight or nine different forts. Thefe are all feparated from each other in England by a fet of men called woolftaplers, who are appointed for the purpofe, * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. IX, eee See easiness rime Snare Fee sane oe anne =a 166 Live Stock.—SheepaxAfcertaining Age of—-Difeafes of—Fly. and who are fworn to do juftice between the grower and the merchant or manu- facturer. The bufinefs of the fhepherd is confidered by the fame writer as“ very important; as on his due care and unwearied attention depend in a very great degree the wel- fare and valueof the flock, and confequently the profit of the owner. The bufinefs of a thepherd is to fuperintend the flock at all times,and more particularly at the lambing feafon, to take care that no improper tup intrude at the feafon of copulating; to deters mine the proper time for fhearing or clipping the fleece; to draw out fuch theep as are ia condition for the grazier or the butcher; and fuch alfo, as from age or de- formity, are improper to be kept longer in the flock. He ought alfo to have a competent knowledge of the difeafes of fheep; of the proper remedies to be applied, and of the modes of application.-In fhort, he ought to be diligent and attentive; a competent judge of the good properties which the particular breed of fheep of which he is to have charge ought to be poflefled; and he fhould alfo, efpecially where the breeder is the grazier, be able to determine with precifion what part of the flock is, and what is not, in condition for the butcher.” The ufual method of afcertaining the age of fheep is, as in cattle, by their teeth; they are alfo denominated one fhear, two fhear,&c. according to the number of fleeces that have been fhorn from them. A fheep of one thear, or of one year old, has two broad tecth before; a two fhear fheep‘has four; a three fhear, fix; and a four thear, eight, when it is faid to be full mouthed, After four, the teeth begin to break, fhorten, and fall out. Sheep of different kinds and ages are alfo known by many other names in different diftriéts. Sheep are liable to a great variety of difeafes both external and internal, and their nature highly deferving of inquiry, but the fubje¢ct is much too extenfive to be fully confidered in this work. The Fi is a difeafe to which fheep are conftantly expofed in hot feafons, efpecially in inclofed woody diftricts. Various remedies are in ufe for the pre- vention of the effects of this dangerous infect. On the principle of its avoiding certain fubftances various applications have been made; but that which is found the moft effeCual, with the leaf injury to the wool, is the flowers of fulpbur in combination with fome fort of greafy fubftance, fuch as lard, or butter, which can be drawn thinly over the wool by the hand. Where maggots are formed it has been advifed, inftead of cutting the wool off the part affeCted, and fcraping them off with the points of the fhears, that the wool fhould be parted, and“ the maggots picked out with a knife, or ctherwife diflodged, without breaking the coat; anda quantity of white-lead fcraped from a lump among the wool; which being agitated, Live Stock.—Sheep— Foot-Rot—Scab—Rubbers—Blindie/s. 1167 the powder is carried evenly down to the wound. Too much difcolours the wool; a little prevents any further harm, from the maggots that may be left among the wool, driving them away from the wound; and, at the fame time, is found to pro- mote its healing. In well fhepherded flocks, which are feen regularly twice a day, there is no fuch thing as a broken coat*.” The Foot-rot isanother difeafe that frequently attacks(heep, and which fhows itfelf by their lamenefs and the oozing of moifture between the claws, with a highly difagree- able fmell: as the difeafe advances it gets inder the hoof, throwing out proud fleth, It is f{uppofed infectious, from its fpreading rapidly when not immediately eradicated. The part fhould be pared and cleaned without touching the quick, and the gravel difludged, if there fhould be any, as foon as the diforder is difcovered; the fheep being removed from the reft of the flock. A folution of the following ingredients fhould then be dropped on the part, and the foot be kept dry and free from dirt: "two ounces of blue vitriol, the fame quantity of roch-alum, one ounce of yerdi- greafe, anda quarter of an ounce of muriated quickfilver diffolved in. a quart of good diftilled vinegar}. The Scab is a cutaneous difeafe, fomething like the itch. When mild, and the cure attempted in time, wafhing with tobacco-water will. often remove it without rifk. And fulphur ointment ftill more effectually. But when thedifeafe is more virulent, thecureis often attempted by the application of the common blue ointment of the fhops, compofed of quickfilver and hogs’-lard, in the proportion of two ounces of quickfilver to fixteen ounces of lard: a pound of the ointment being fufficient for four fheep. The greateft caution fhould how- ever be ufed in applying this ointment, efpecially with ewes that have lambs, as the latter are liable to be deftroyed by being falivated. It fhould be laid on very fparingly in fheds at four or five inches apart., The Rubbers are a fort of itch, in whichthe animal rubs itfelf to death, being gradually exhaufted in confequence of not being able to feed. No effectual remedy has yet been difcovered{. The above may be tried. 2 Sheep are very liable to be affected with dlindne/s from cold, and of courfe expofed to much danger from ponds, precipices,&c. The cure is fometimes attempted “ by opening the vein below the canthus or inner angle of the eye, called the angular vein, then, by holding the creature’s head in an inverted pofition, to make # Rural Economy of Midland Counties.+ Corrected Report of the North Riding of Yorkthire. + Lincolnthire Report, | cS Stock.—Sheep—Rot—Turn or Giddy. 1168 fome drops of the blood fall into the eye, which operate two ways in effeCting a cure of the opthalmia; firft by moderating the increafed action of the veflels of tat part, which is the proximate caufe of the inflammation; and, fecondly, the blood bewg admitted into the eye of the animakwill act, by reafon of its mildnefs and its warmth, as an emollient, which alfo contributes towards a cure. After this operation the white itch on the eye are removed and the fight completely reftored. For this purpofe fome pound a little glafs, that is blown into the eye with a quill open at both ends, which by its fri€tion wears off thefe{pecks or feales*.” A weak folution of verdigreafe in diflilled vinegar has alfo been found ufeful occafionally applied by a foft feather. And it is probable that white vitriol might be ufed in the fame way with advantage. The Rot is adifeafe with which theep are frequently affected on moift wet lands, It isan affection of the liver and lungs, attended with a dropfy, and hitherto incur- able. The chief thing to bedepended upon in thefe cafes, is that of changingthe fheep toa dry fituation, or keeping them warm and fheltered, and giving them dry food in theyardt. On this fubject a curious fact or two are ftated in the Survey of Lincoln- fhire. It is obferved that in rotting years,“the fheep that feed on the falt marfhes, over which the fpring tides come, fell very high in confidence that they are fafe.” And it is added,“ that afhepherd, who, when young, wasfhepherd’s boy toan oldman who lived at Netlam, near Lincoln, a place famous for the rot, told Mr. Neve, that he was perfuaded fheep took the rot only of a morning before the dew was well off: at that time they folded, being open field. His matter’s thepherd kept his flock in fold always till the dew was gone; and with no other attention his fheep were kept found, when all the neighbours loft their flocks f.” The Turn or Giddy is a diforder with which thefe animals are often-feized. This is probably a{pecies of hydrocephalus, or an encyfled colleQtion of water in the head betwixt the dura and the pia mater, which in thefe creatures is always accompanied with a vertigo, or continual turning about. In Lincolnthire, where it is termed“‘fturdy or bladder on the brain, there-is an old fellow, near North Somercots, who trepans for it, and faves as many as he lofes. He raifes the fkin with a fharp ftrong hooked knife over the fpot affeXed, about the fize of a crown-piece; he then raifes nearly the fame fize of the fkull-bone, letting the piece hang as by a hinge on one fide; then with a quill cut flanting to a point, like a fpear, and barbed on each fide, he * Perththire Correéted Report.+ Report of Yorkthire. + Much light has been lately thrown on the nature of this difeafe by Dr. Harrifon in his“ Inquiry into the Rot in Sheep and other Animals.” Live Stock.—Sheep—Red-water-—Black-water-— Skit. 1169 fifhes in for the bladder, and brings it out whole, putting down the bone again, and covering with a platter.” It is ftated by the author of the Experienced Farmer, that pulling fheep violently by the ears, and then cutting them off, in thefe cafes, has with him effected acure. Sheep in this fituation among the South Down fheep-farmers are faid to be paterifp™. The Re/p or Red-water is another diforder to which(heep are expofed. It is fuppofed to be induced by taking too much watery or fucculent food, a3 turnips, rape, clover, eddifh, and fuch like rich vegetable produce.[t is not peculiar to fheep feeding onturnips or rape, as has been fuppofed. The ufe of common falt and frequent driving about has been fuppofed beneficial; and it is faid that the diforder may be prevented by having recourfe to dry food in the night when the fheep are feeding on thefe fucculent plants. The Braxy, as it is termed in Scotland, and which feems to be ofthe nature of the gaftritis, is probably the fame difeafe as the above: itis faid“ to be not only the moft fatal of all the difeafes of fheep, but to have hitherto baffled all the fkill and art of man. Some farms are more liable to this difeafe than others; and it was altogether unknown in the Highlands until they began to introduce a new breed, and to leave their fheep at all feafons in the fields. A change of grafs, efpecially toclean grafs, or clover forage, in the latter end of autumn, has often been tried fuccefsfully. The only remedy, indeed, feems to be, to try to prevent a difeafe which, after infection,‘ has in all inflances been found hitherto incurable.” It is found moft fatal within the region of the hoar froft; as it makes lefs havock and is fearcely felt in fituations which are more elevated and more remote from the tra¢ts of rivers, marfhes, or large bodies of frefh water. “As an antidote againtt this diftemper, the theep are fometimes chafed with dogs, and not allowed to remain long at once without being difturbed, at the feafon in which danger is apprehended; for whenever a fheep ftops, after having been annoyed, he paffes water: and as the bladder is generally burft of fuch fheep as die of the braxy, a part at leaft of the complaint may be a ftoppage in the urinary paffaget.” The Black-water is a difeafe to which the beft Jambs are often fubject in the autumn. They moftly die very fuddenly. The beft preventative in this cafe is fup- pofed to be that of keeping them in dry flubbles, or where the grafs is very dry. The Skits in lambs both white aad green are probably belt removed by the yfe of * Suffex Report, ato, Edition.+ Dr. Robertfon’s Survey of Perthhhire, Ios: 1170 Live Stock.—Horjes— Breeds of, a decoétion of chalk and hartfhorn-fhavings with a fmall proportion of tin@ure of opium. Sheep are liable to various other complaints, but they have been defcribed in fo-yague a manner, and the remedics propofed are of fo doubtful a nature, that it could be of little utility to mention them. It is probable that by the ufe of falt, efpecially in wet feafons, and on the wetter forts of land, where fheep-hufbandry is pra@ifed, much advantage might be gained, in the health of the theep being better preferved; efpecially if fome fort of dry food was had recourfe to at the fame time. It is a fubftance commonly employed in, the fheep-management of moft otber countries, and of which the animals are particularly fond, though the quantity confumed is not great. The practice is to allow the fheep to lick it up from fhallow troughs. The heavinefs of the duty upon it is, however, a great bar to its being made ufe of in this way. Horfes.—Thefe animals are indifpenfably neceflary, whether they be confidered in regard to the faddle or performing the bufinefs of the road or the farm. The circumftances which denote a good horfe, whatever the nature of the breed or variety may be, are, that the head be fuitably fmall in proportion to the animal; the noftrils expanded; the muzzle fine; the eyes bright and prominent; the ears clofe, fmall and erect; the neck proceeding with a gentle curve from between the fhoulders, fo as to join gracefully to the head; the fhoulders well thrown back, imperceptibly finking into the neck at the points; the arm or fore thigh mufcular, tapering fo as to mect a fine finewy, ftraight, bony leg; the hoof circular and wide at the heel; the chett deep and full at the girth; the loin or fillets broad and firaight; the body round, the hips or hooks not wide; the quarters long;‘the tail fet on fo as to be nearly in the fame right line as the back; the thighs ftrong and mufcular; the legs clean and fine boned; the leg-bones rather flat than: round*. For the ufes of hufbandry the chief properties to. be confidered are, howeyer, thofe of ftrength, activity, hardinefs and true draught. The breeds of horfes have in general been confidered as only two;—the blood or race-breed, and the black cart-breed. But whether. this. divifion be well founded. or not, the varieties are diftinguifhable from.‘each other with‘equal eafe by the appearances which they prefent. The true bred blood-horfe is much too fine for the-purpofes of hufbandry.; but when judicioufly croffed with the ftrong fort of cart-horfes, improved horfes for this ufe, as well as that of the faddle and light carriages, may be produced.— By fuch means the action, fpirit, and pleafantnefs of horfes may be greatly improved. + Culley on Live Stock. Soatieasplapesenstecteenpneystereeteeeespeeee eee x:"." i ———— sp. ere tt ial es Rae nintain ttig PG IEE a . cepa ce 9m te /: edie gy 3: Pts By, de oy 3 ey Bee TL SS Live Stock.— Horfes—Cleveland-bays—Suffolk-punches-—Heavy Blacks. 1141 . The Cleveland-bays are a breed or variety of horfes that have derived much advan- tage in this way. They are principally diftinguifhed by their colour, which is moftly bay; their form good; their fize large; and their activity, ftrength, and hardinefs fuperior to moft other forts*. With full biood ftallions this variety is faid to afford excellent hunters and faddle-horfes; and with half-bred ftallions excellent carriage- horfes and for the plough. They move quick, and are capable of great exertion. This valuable fort of horfes is produced in different parts of Yorkthire, Durham, and Northumberland. The Sufotk-punches are another ufeful fort of borfes for the purpofe of the farmer. They are diftinguithed by the colour, which is mofily yellowith or forrel; by having a white ratch or blaze in the face; by the head being large; ears wide; muzzle coarfe; fore end low; back long, but ftraight; fides flat; fhoulders too far forward; hind quarters middling, but rather high about the hips; legs round, and fhort in the pafterns; deep bellied; full in the flank; not large in fizet. This on the whole, though but an ordinary fort of horfe in regard to! form, is found highly ufeful in draught, efpecially for the plough and cart. Thefe horfesare very hardy, and capable of performing more labour than moft other forts. They are moft prevalent in the diftrict of High Suffolk. The Clydefdale borfes are likewife a kind of horfes that anfwer well for the bufinefs of agriculture, efpecially in hilly diftri@s. They are diftinguithed by the colour, which is moftly gray or brown; neck longer than in the Suffolk kind; head better formed; eyes more fprightly and animated; body lighter and better formed; legs clean and finewy; ftep firm but nimble+; fize larger, from fifteen to fixteen and half hands. This isa ftrong, hardy, and active fort of hories, which is faid to have been pro- duced by crofling Scotch mares with Flanders ftallions. They are remarkably‘true in the draught. This fort of horfes is predominant in the diftri€t which bears their name in Scotland. The Heavy Black horfes are a fort that may be employed with advantage for fome purpofes of draught, but are not in general well adapted to the ufes of the farmer. This kind is diftinguithed by the colour, being conftantly dark black; by being clumfy in their form, and feldom well-proportioned; flow in their motion; with rough flefhy legs; the fize large. This breed of horfes is found to prevail in the Midland diftriéts, as in Leicefterfhire, Derby thire, Lincolnfhire,&c. where the mares are chiefly employed in farm-labour; * Culley on Live Stock.; Ibid. ¢ Anderfon’s Recreations in Agriculture,&c. 7K2 OAR ana PE ne aan TAN eT ORES E RODE 1172 Live Stock.—Horfes— Breeding of. the horfes being difpofed of aceording to their fizes; the large for dray-horfes, the next for draught in waggons or other teams, and the fmalleft for the purpofes Oi War. The Welch and Scotch horfes are in general too fmall for the purpofes of agri- culture. It is evident from the nature of thefe different forts, that for the purpofes of farm- labour horfes mutt be chiefly{elected from the Clevelands, the Suffolks, and the Clydefdale kinds: the firft affording fuch as are adapted to great exertion and difpatch; the improved fort of the Suffolk kind being well fuited to field-work where much perfeverance is required, as they can be conftantly employed in this fort of labour without inconvenience. And the laft fort, from the great mufcular exertion that can be oceafionally employed, as well as from their being true in the draught, are particularly fuited to.hilly fituations. In refpect to economy in keep and the expenfe in procuring, the two laft forts are probably to be preferred, as they are both very hardy in their difpofitions, and can in general be obtained at eafy prices. From the great advantage that has lately been found in employing, even for the purpofe of draught, in the more heavy forts of carriages, fuch horfes as have a little of the race or blood kind in them, the ufe of the heavy breeds is becoming daily lefs frequent and neceffary. The practice of breeding horfes, as it requires a great extent of pafture-ground and capital, from the great number of mares that muft be conftantly kept, and a deal of nice and attentive management in the fervants that are employed, it is only in particular fituations and circumftances that it can be attempted with fuccefs, as where the proportion of coarfe pafture-land, that cannot be converted to the purpofe of grazing or fattening animals, on the farm is confiderable. This is the cafe in the fens and marthes of Lincolnthire, and fome parts of the North Riding of Yorkthire*, as well as other diftri&ts: In fuch fituations, however, with proper knowledge and due care in the management, great advantage may often be derived. Wherever this fy ftem is undertaken, the fame care and judgment muft be exercifed in felecting fach mares and ftallions as are the moft fuitable for the particular purpofe which the farmer has in view in breeding them, as have been recommended in the propagation of other forts of live ftock, as without this fort of attention it is impoffible that the ereateft benefit can be obtained.‘The too common cuftom of breeding from any mare that may chance to be in the poffeflion of the farmer fhould never be adopted. It is * Correéted Reports of Lincolnfhire and the North Riding of Yorkthire. TIORSES. Improved Mack Cart hore. ‘ard. Publishd. Ock.11804, by Richard Phillips, 72,5! Pauls Church I Live Steck.-Horfes—Breeding and Rearing of. 1Tys only by covering well-made and tried mares by fiallions that are equally well-formed and known for their good qualities, whatever the breed may be, that valuable horfes can be produced. The feafon of putting the marc to the horfe is the fpring, as April or May, as in breeding colts it is of material confequence to have the foals dropped early, often fo foon as in February or the preceding month*. In Yorkfhire the moft ufual period of foaling is about May-day, and that of weaning towards the latter end of September. In the length of time that a mare goes with foal there is frequently confiderable variation, but it is moftly about eleven months.‘This isa circum- ftance that fhould be kept in mind by the breeder. ‘While with foal, it is of importance that the mare be kept pretty well, as in the contrary cafe the foal is feldom fo fine or healthy. It is a practice with fome farmers to perform the work of their farms with breeding mares; but this method requires much caution, and is always attended with a degree of danger., it can{carcely ever be worth the farmer’s while to breed where the foals will not defray the expenfe of keeping the mares without their performing much work, either before or after they have foaled. In fome cafes, efpecially with farm-mares, it may, however, be beneficial to work them a little carefully, by way of exercifing them, but they fhould not on any account be hard wrought when with foal or while fuckling. The foals fhould continue to fuck till towards the beginning of October or No- vember, the mares being kept as well as poffible, in order that their growth may not be checked from the want of milk while young. When taken from the mares at firft, it is a very good method to let them have an open roomy houfe with a rack and box for their food; and if it communicate witha finall field or paddock, into which they can run, it is of great advantage in the rearing of the foals, both in the way of food and exercife, as they fhould never be too much confined. By being more at liberty they become not only more ftrong and healthy, but acquire more anda better action, which is effential in the horfe. The dry food fhould at firft confift of the niceft and moft fweet hay of whatever fort itmay be. Sweet green roven, where it can be provided, might be very ufeful in this intention. Carrots are likewife found an extremely beneficial fort of food in-the rear- ing of foals. It hasindeed been thought fearcely poffible to breed horfes to any profit without a confiderable dependence upon them}.‘Their laxative property is alfo * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXIV.} Ibid. 1174 Live Stock.—Hirjes—Rearing of. fuppofed by fome highly beneficial in the raifing of foals*. With thefe forts of food it is neceflary always to make use of oats and bran or pollard in fuitable pro- portions, as it is only by thefe means that thefe young animals can be brought forward in the befl manner. When there is fufficient grafs in the fpring, it 1s a proper practice to turn the foals out into a convenient dry pafture, where there is rather a fhort fweet bite, and a good fupply of pure water for them to drink at as often as they like. In the fecond winter lefs care will be required than in the firft; but the fame indulgence, in refpect to the liberty of their going in and out of the fhed at pleafure from the field, fhould be allowed. In this mode of rearing foals they will become ufeful at two years old when intended for the work of the farm, and if for fale be in a condition to fetch a good price which would not be the cafe if they were kept in an inferior way. But there is another circumftance to be taken into the account, which is, that it is this variation in the keep that conftitutes the difference between a good and bad horfe; which, as it chiefly confifis in the addition of the oats, is no very great affair, at leaft upon good horfes, whether for faddle or work. Upon horfes of low yalue, it will not probably repay the breeder to beftow this fort of keep upon them. It can feldom be advilable for farmers to purfue it in horfes that are worth lefs than from twenty-five to thirty pounds at four years old: where oats are made ufe of as a part of the food of young horfes, care fhould be taken that they are rec//y given to them. In fome parts of Yorkthire the farmers, inftead of breeding foals, purfue the fyftem of buying colts in yearly, when two or three years old, which they keep till four or five, afing them for the purpofes of the farm: they are then{old to the London or other dealers. By this management their fiock is kept up, and they make a confiderable annual profit, befides having the internal work of the farm performed. They are principally employed in the plough, and in many cafes not{hod till the period of being fold. When intended for the carriage, this eafy fort of work is found of advantage in rendering them more quiet and tra¢table-f. In other difiricts it is the practice to buy in at three years old, in the autumn, keep them during the winter on ftraw, work them alittle in the fpring, and fell them in the latter end of fummer at the fairs in the vicinity, by which method good judges make money f. The Yorkfhire farmers, who moftly raife their foals from their working mares, are often careful not to allow the foals to fuck till the udders of the mares coming * Experienced Farmer, Vol. II.+ Corrected Agricultural Report of the North Riding of Yorkfhire. : t Corre&ted Agricultural Report of Lincolnfhire. "Live Stock—Horfes~Method of Caftrating. 1175 from work have been well bathed with cold water, and a great part of the milk drawn away. The propriety of caftrating horfes has been difputed by fome, as being difadvan- tageous in the lofs of vigour that it caufes. The pradtice certainly proceeds on the principle of facrificing a portion of the ftrength of the animals to the convenience of managing them.‘This in many inftances is without doubt neceffary as well as con- venient; but there can be no difficulty, by proper management, in making ftallions perform the bufinefs of the farm, which, from their fuperior firength, is fuppofed by fome, on experience, to be executed with great advantage over that of ufing geldings*. Where the operation of gelding is to be performed, the beft time is probably when the foal is about three months old, though fome prefer a much more ad- vanced age, as fix or twelve months, and even more in fome cafes. In all animals there is, however, the leaft danger of inflammation while they are young in per- forming fuch operations. Befides, it is better to cut colts before they have any propenfity to hanker after the mares, and get bad habitst. When the foals are early, and the weather is not too hot, the latter end of May or beginning of June may be a good and proper feafon. Some of the York thire breeders, however, think that they find advantage in defer- ring the operation till the horfes are two years old, as they fuppofe‘ they become ftronger and bandfomer for it.” And where the operation is done at one year old, they find that the foals have not recovered the check they fuftained by weaning before they experience another in this operation. They experience no difference in their recovery at two years old than one. The foals fhould be kept up fome time before the gelding is to be performed. In performing the operation, the beft inethod is that of cutting open the /crotum or cod with a fharp knife for the purpofe, dividing the fpermatic cords and veftels, taking out the tefticles, and then fecuring them by means of ligatures, clofing the wound immediately, the ends of the ligatures being left out at forme part, fo that they may be drawn away as fuppuration advances. This is much better than the old practice of fearing with a hot iron, or the more recent one of caufing the feparation of the fcrotum and tefticles by twitching or tying them tight with a finall firing. In the breaking of horfes there is feldom much trouble if the bufinefs be well managed and undertaken fufficiently early. In farm- horfes the beft method is probably that of haltering the foal as foon as it is taken from the mare, leading it * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXVI,; Experienced Farmer, Vol. 11. 2 1176 Live Stock.—Hovfes—Management of—Different Serts of Teams compared. from place to place till it becomes perfeAly quiet and manageable; then to have it tied in the fall and cleaned in the manner of the other horfes, accuftoming it to have its fect taken up and cleaned when neceflary.‘Thefe methods fhould be continued till it becomes perfectly tractable; it may then be put into the middle of the team in proper harnefs, foas that it may be forced about by the other horfes, without having any thing to draw. When it is quite gentle in this fituation it may be backed, if that has not been done before. In order to give it a mouth, a {mall bit fhould be let hang loofe in its mouth till it becomes accuftomed to it, and then it may be managed in any way at pleafure, being taught not only to walk, but trot, and even gallop well. In this treatment it foon becomes perfectly tractable and fit for any ufe on the farm. In making young horfes, as two-year oldcolts, up for fale in the autumn, the Yorkshire breeders turn them into good grafs, taking them up about a week before the period of felling to reduce the carcafe, improve the coat, and teach them to lead. They are mofily difpofed of to fale with their full tails. Mathes of bran, ground oats, and boiled corn are then given them by thefe perfons for two or three months, and various other operations practifed upon them in order to render them more faleable*. It isa queftion that has been much agitated, whether horfes or oxen are the moft economical and advantageous for the purpofes of the farmer in performing bis work, and which is not yet fully decided. The circumftances in which the latter have been chiefly fuppofed to be more advantageous tban the former, are in their being kept at Jefs expenfe, and their not declining in value. But thefe, when examined, are probably not fo decifive of their fuperiority as they may at firft fight appear; for where the work of the farm is done by the younger fort of horfes, which is perhaps the beft method, the decline in value cannot be of any material confequence, while the fuperiority in point of the difpatch of work is very great. And in regard to the keep, as oxen cannot perform their labour. well in continuance without oats or fome other fuflenance of a fimilar kind, it would feem not improbable but, that young horfes may pay nearly as well as oxen, and be kept with little difference in the expenfe. The principal difference appears to be in the oxen being fupported at lefs expenfe when not employed. But horfe-teams under proper management fhould never be unemployed. The common opinion, that oxen are fuperior to horfes in the tillage of heavy * Corre€ted Agricultural Report of the North Riding of Yorkthire. Live Stock—Teams-—Methods of‘feeding. 9174 ‘ands does not appear to be well founded, efpecially where drawn in yokes, as the poaching mutt be greater than by horfes working at length. But when in harnef they may, from their greater fteadinefs, be preferable. Under different management they are confequently capable of being employed in both ways. Horfes are however greatly fuperior to oxen, where quick motion is of more impor- tance than the fleady drawing of heavy weights; and alfo in carting, where great {peed is required in the unloaded flate; and wherever the roads or lands are rough, fharp, and ftony, as they cannot be fhod fo well as horfes to ftand fuch roads. In harrowing with light harrows, where a jumping irregular motion is neceflary, horfes are likewife faid to be the moft proper*. Mr. Young, in his valuable Calendar of Hufbandry, has however well remarked, that“there are two cafes in which oxen are certainly more beneficial than horfes: Firft, when a farmer lives in a diftrict where there is a breed of cattle well adapted to work; and, fecondly, when his farm is fo large that he can buy in a ‘confiderable lot of cattle annually, at a fmall expenfe per head, and feel no incon- venience in turning out fuch beafts from the teams to fattening as do not work. well. In both thefe cafes he has little doubt of the fuperiority of oxen to horfes. But in countries that do not poffefs a breed of catile well adapted for work in the flate of oxen; and on{mall farms, whence fairs muft be attended at the diftance of a hundred miles to purchafe a few, and confequently ata great expenfe per head, and poflibly without land for fattening any, the benefit will be very queftionable. In fuch a cafe he fhould prefer the bulls of the country, which are every where to be procured probably much cheaper than oxen; are broken in with but little difficulty; which work well, and which will recover from fatigue foonerthan any ox. This he believes from what he has experienced, and from all the information he has pro~ cured, is ftating the queftion of the comparifon of horfes and oxen as nearly to the truth as it can be done in few words.‘There are, however, fome works in the bufinefs of a farm, in which horfes are better than either oxen or bulls, and there- fore it may be advamtageous to keep a few horfest.”| The feeding of teams, whether of horfes or oxen, is a point that demands much care and attention, as a want of economy in this refpect may leffen the profits of the * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXVI. + In comparing the expenfesin the different forts of teams, it is remarked in the Survey of the North Riding of Yorkthire, that where young horfes are employed in the cultivation of farms during their growths and then fold, the horfe-team will be the moft profitable. But as this mode can only be limited where Ge face ei Rts ea aoa i a on mien 1178 Live Stock.—Teams—Methods of feeding of. farmer in a very material degree, as is evident from the greatnefs of the confumption of expenfive food, It has been found, that working horfes, without being fed too highly, or fo as to improve in flefh, have confumed in the proportion of twenty blemifhed, aged, or other horfes to be worn out are made ufe of, the ox-team will be moft advantageous: both to the farmer and the public. The following ftatements fhow the advantages of the different methods; Expenfe of Horfe-Team per Annuu. DEBTOR. CREDITOR. ite BG( y RCE, A One three year old horfe é° AO! Oo By labour 200 days in the year, One four-year old horfe:. 18 0 o fuppofing them to plough one Hay, or grafs, for two horfes, at 4s. per acre one rood per day, which, week each, for ifty-twoweeks. 2016© at 58. per acre, is 6s. 3d. per Corn for ditto, 200 days, at one peck day, but dedufting 2s. per day and a half each day—nine quarters for the man’s wages—their three bufhels, at rSs. per quarter. 8 8 9 labour will be 48.3d:perday 42:10 o One year’s intereft.of the firft coft of the The improved value of the four- horfes:: Tite gc year old horfe; 38 0 oF Shoeing e‘- F235 940 A five-year.old horfe, fold for 22 0 0 Profit q: PEE eee jai 7.02 10, 16 £. 82:10.0 ees Expenfe of Ox-Team pes Annum. DEBTOR. CREDITOR. LRT PES a A pair of four-yearoldoxen.. DAO ato By labour 200 days, fuppofing Hay, or grafs, forditto, fifty-two weeks, them to plough one acre per at 3s. each.° adele 15 12. a day, which, at 5s. per acre, is Intereft of the firft coft of the oxen. ee ON| 5s. per day, but deduéting 2s. Profit°. F Ape 1 6«& per day for the man’s wages— —— their Jabour will: be 3s. per Ce OO day.°“- Jo o& a Suppofe.the oxen are worked two years, the value of them at fix years old: would be about 281., which makes the improved malic Imcone year, o.. 1... cw Oo. ad Eine OF© Live Stock.—'Teams— Methods of feeding of. 1179 pounds of good hay each in the courfe of the day, with a weekly allowance of two buthels of oats each and chaff. With a finaller allowance, which is often made by farmers, they cannot be kept conftantly at work without falling off in condition, DEBTOR. Expenfe of Horfe-Team per Annum. By wear and tear of two horfes, value 301. fuppofing them to laft ten years To intereft of prime coft Hay and grafs Corn: ans Shoeing and farriering.« Profit Ss DEBTOR. Li 5 aoe Ww 201 Ono pO(ole Te 70) 100 a 8 9 ren 7 ftBi 3 12 Ol CREDITOR. _ By value of their labour= By value of their fkins, 22s. Expenfe of Ox-Team per Annum. Intereft of prime coft of a pair of four- year old oxen, value 221. Hay, or grafs, for ditto Rifk and accidents Profit F mh Lo Mg at Log, Zo £5 te CO OO oO 137 16-0 Zi 0), CO CREDITOR: By value of their labour Suppofing them worked fix years, the value of them would be then 281. bearing an annual profit of. The profit of two oxen work- ing one year, iss sie Ditto, of two horfes cw 83 But as you muft keep one- fourth more oxen to do the work of two horfes, the profit of working your farm with oxen would be one- founthemore.-« If, therefore, the labour which required two horfes to per- form it, were performed with oxen, the profit of the oxen would be greater than the profit of the horfes, by £.42 120 ——— ee bE TOS 7 ha Wa ica Siig 9 a GS i18sQ Live Stock.~-Teams—Modes of leffening Expenfes of: by which there muf ultimately be a lofs to the farmer, The above allowance is ne- eeflary for about twenty weeks during the winter*. To leflen the heavy expenfe of keeping farm-horfes, it has-been fuggefted that there are only two methods; one of which is, not to turn them out in the fummer, but to haye them: foiled conftantly in the ftables or yards with lucern, tares, and clover; as in this way, where littering is properly attended to, the manure that is produced will nearly balance the expenfe of the keep; befides: avoiding various inconveniencies attending the pafturing of borfes in the fields.‘Phe other mode is that of fubflituting carrots in the place of oats, as a winter food; a practice com- mon in the county of Suffolk, and attended with much fuccefs t+. Eftimating the prime coft of carrots to. the farmer at three pence the buthel, and that of the-oats: at ten fhillings the quartert, and allowing the cuftomary quantity of one buthel of carrots a day againft the two bufhels-of oats in the week, the horfe at carrots con- fumes in the proportion of 1s. gd. a week; whilethat at oatsis 2s. 6d. Befides, the fuperiority of this proportion of carrots to that of the oats, in the fupport of the horfe, is very confiderable; probably five bufhels of carrots per week would be equal toit, as in this diftrict they confider a buthel a day feeding highly§. But, befides this excellent root, there are others that may be made ufe of in: feeding horfes in order to fave oats: boiled potatoes with: a little chaffand a few carrots have been attended with perfect fuccefs in the trials of Mr. Guthrie in: Scotland, keeping the horfes in fine order without any oats]. And in England they have been. applied in the fame way with fimilar fuccefs. There is another point to be regarded in the feeding of horfes, in order to its being done in the moft economical manner, which is that of having as much of their “Thus, four horfes working upon a farm, do not appear to leave as much profit, by this laft mode of: cultivating it, as five oxen would; by the fum of rol. 5s. 6d:; while the former mode of cultivating it by. horfes would leave a profit of four guineas in favour of the horfes: the balance, therefore, on the whole, isin favour of the oxen, by the fum of 15}. 1s. 6d.” * Tho keep in a team of four horfes may be eftimated in this way, according to the prefent prices of: the different articles of food: fia cies ide Winter-food— To 7 tons of hay at 41. per ton, 2°° 28). G6 To 26 quarters of oats at 28s. per quarter,°. 30. 8<0 Summer-food—To grafs 26 weeks at 208. per week,: A° 26 0 0 To 33 quarters of oats:°.° 18 0 oO ° 308 12 0 Or per horfe without chaff 271. 2s. + Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXVI, $ Thefe prices are much too low for the prefent, but they ferve to fhow the difference in the expenfe. § Annals of Agriculture, Vol. KX XVI.| Ibid. 5 Live Stock.—Teams-—Modes of leffening Expenfes of. 1181 dry fodder as poffible, fuch as hay and ftraw of different kinds, cut into chaff, be- fore it is given to them with their other food. And it is probable that by having the oats broken or bruifed, not ground, as has been often recommended, fome faving in that expenfive article may be made*, though it has been contended by fome that horfes do not thrive fo well when the oats are prepared by grinding. It is: probable that, when reduced into too fine a ftate, they may not be fo well digefted, from their being fwallowed more greedily, and without the /a/iva of the animal being fo intimately blended and combined with the fubftance of them, as when left fo as that fome degree of chewing becomes neceflary. But even when given in the whole ftate, fome horfes fwallow much of them without due maflication, as is ob- vious from their being voided in a perfect ftate, and fo little changed as to be capable of fupporting poultry and other granivorous birds. Confequently fome- thing in this matter depends upon the habits of eating in the horfes. By the ufe of barley inftead of oats, perhaps fome degree of faving might be made, as that fort of grain would go farther than oats in the fame proportion. It has been obje@ed to in this intention by fome, from its fuppofed heating quality: but from its having a more laxative or opening property than oats, it would feem to have the contrary effect; and as a proof of which, it is found to be the ordinary food for horfes in moft hot countriest. It may probably be more unfavourable from its aperient property in many cafes; in the feeding of horfes, than that of its. fuppofed heating tendency. Experience has however fhown that it is a hearty and nutritious food when applied in this way ft. In fituations where the furze or whim plant§ can be grown: with facility,@ degree of faving in the hay as well as corn may be effeéted by the ufe of it, cut green while young and bruifed in mills for the purpofe. It has been found from fome- experiments that an acre will afford fifteen tons of this fort of food, and by others as much as will feed fix horfes for fix months|}. In the feeding of ox-teams, equal care and attention is neceflary to fee that while they are perfe@ly well fupported, no wafte of food is made; which is often the cafe with incautious feeders. When at hard work in the autumn and beginning: of the{pring feafons, they fhould have a good fupply of hay, ftraw, and cut-chaff, with a daily allowance of foe fort of roots, fuch as turnips or carrots, or a fufficient proportion of cabbages, as from forty to fifty pounds weight where the oxen are large. But during the fummer they may be foiled in the ftalls or yards in the manner of horfes, a full fupply of litter being provided, and water for them to drink when * Lord Dundonald on the Connexion of Chemiftry with Agriculture. 4 Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXVI.} Lord Dundonald,§ Ulex Europaeuss {| Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXVI. 1182 Live Stock.—Teams—Modes of working of. wanted. When at plough in the beginning of the autumn, it will be neceflary to give them oats and cut chaff in fach proportions as may be requifite, ss the grafs at that period begins to be lefs nutritious. In the working of teams, whether of the horfe or ox kind, one circumftance is to be confiantly kept in view; which is, that, as their keep is fo very expenfive, they be always employed; as it is obvious that if they ftand idle half or a third of their time, the labour that is performed muft coft the farmer double, or a third more than in cafes where they are conftantly at work, and of courfe much lofs be fut tained. On arable farms this is particularly neceflary to be attended to; and of courfe in the autumn and winter, when the bufinefS of the plough is at a ftand, other forts of team-work, fuch as carting, in the former, on light dry foils, chalk, miarl,and clay, and on the wetter grafs lands, manure, in fmall carts; and in the latter, in frofis, manures of the compoft or other kinds, removing various forts of earthy waterials from borders and other places, for mixing with or forming the bottoms of dungfieads; and when the weather is open, in taking the corn, and bringing manure, or any other bufinefs that is to be done; as it mutt always pay the farmer to have it accomplifhed in fuch circumftances as that the team muft otherwife remain unemployed. The keeping of teams upon poor food, fuch as firaw, during the winter, in order that they may not be in work, is always bad management, as their labour in the reft of the year muft ftand the farmer very high. In the feed-time the farmer thould be careful that they perform a proper day's work. It has been obferved by Mr. Young, that in this feafon the farmer“ fhould not let them work lefs than nine or ten hours; but this he will not be able to effect, if the ploughmen have to take care of their horfes, It is_ the beft to have horfe-keepers, for the mere attendance of the teams, fo that the men who hold the ploughs may have nothing to do but the mere ploughing. Let the horfe-keeper have the horfes fed and harneffed ready for the ploughman, to be in the field by fix o'clock, At eleven they fhould come home for an hour anda half to dine and ba:t, during which time the horfe-keeper is in attendance again. At half an hour after twelve, they fhould go out again, and work till half an hour after five, when the horfe-keeper fhould again take the teams. By this method a pair of horfes i a well-made plough will, without any driver, plough an acre and a quarter, or half, very eafily; and no object is more important, than the plough’s doing a good day’s work in the fpring.of the year. The confequence, efpecially of making the moft of dry weather in March, is extremely great. One acre ploughed and fowed then may be fairly worth two that are left till the beginning of May.” When the ficlds are at a diftance, it may howeyer be more advifable to. have the 2 rs] Live Stock.—Teams~—Modes of working of. 1183 teams baited in them than to come home for the purpofe, efpecialiy in the autumn and winter feafons when the days are fhort. Where the above management is adopted, a great deal more work will be done, thaa when the carter or bead man has the care of cleaning and managing the hortes, as, in order to give himfelf more time, he takes every means of{hortening the day’s work. An odd man, who can be occafionally employed on other jobs, and fully depended upon, may be proper to be made ufe of as horfe-keeper; the farmer being attentive to fee that the horfes be well cleaned in the more concealed as well as other parts*. Mr, Bannifter remarks, that“ the management of the plough team varies effentially in different counties, and even in different parts of the fame county, whether the labour to be performed as aday’s work by the fame number of cattle, the quality and quantity of their food, or the ftated hours for baiting and attend- ance, be confidered. In the eaftern part of the county of Kent, the waggoner er head ploughman pays an early regard to his horfes, and baits them continually with chaff and corn from the time of his rifing, at four o’clock till fix or feven, when the day’s work commences; and in the afternoon, whilft the mate 1s baiting, the waggoner employs himfelf by cutting caving into chaff, or, where this is not in fufficient plenty, hay and ftraw mixed, and fometimes.oats in the fheaf. At eight in the evening he goes to bed, and leaves the attendance on the team to his mate, who fits with them till ten, fo that the horfes are left but a few hours to themfelves; and this diligent attendance is unavoidably neceflary, fince in this part of the county the horfes are not permitted to have any rack-meat, but have generally a full allowance of corn; whereas, on:the other fide of the county, the ftable-door is rarely opened of a morning before five or fix o’clock in the winter, and by nine in the evening the horfes are racked up and left to their repofe; and as by this method of giving the horfes rack-meat the Icf chaff is required, fo there is generally a fufficient quantity of this produced:by. the thrather; if not, the labour of cutting does not often fall to the ploughman,,. but is paid for by the farmer to a perfon who is expert at this bufinefs.” By the former practice there is, it is obferved, a referve of a confiderable quantity of fodder, which, when-given to the horfes without limitation, forms a large item in the rural account at the-end of the year, efpecially when the fituation is withinva finall di- (tance of London, orany place of confiderable note, where hay ufually fetches a large price; to which may be added:the advantage which the horfes reap from the con- ftant attendance that muft neceflarily be paid to them when baited in that manners. befides, the fervants are kept continually in:their work, and prevented‘from loitering away the afternoons. at. the ale-houfe or the fmith’s fhop, as-is too frequently. the * Annals of Agriculture, Vol, XXXV:. en ee 1184 Live Stock.—Teams—Keeping of in Stables and Sheds. cafe with thofe who have more leifure on their hands; a great expenfe is likewife faved, which mutt otherwife be paid, for cutting chaff. On the-contrary, where the more gerieral cuftom of allowing rack-meat to the horfes is practifed, the‘following advantages may be derived: the weekly allowance of corn may be more fparing, and the rack-meat need not be wholly confined to hay, but confift partly of pea- or bean- ftraw, at thofe times when the labour of the horfes is light; and in feed-time, or when- ever the team is tafked with heavy work, though faintfoin, clover,&c. may be allowed them ofa night, yet this need not be given in fuch large proportions, which would quickly confume a large quantity, but:be truffed out in{uch proportion as may be thought expedient, obliging the fervants to tend the horfes with chaff in the after- noon. Under thefe refiriCtions, the confumption-of fodder may, perhaps, not exceed in value the fheaf corn allowed to the teams in the former manage- ment. Another circumftance in‘favour of this practice is its leaving the ploughman at leifure in the afternoon to be employed about occafional jobs, while in the contrary mode the fervants have a juft excufe for refufing to help in any other work than what appertains folely to the management of their horfes. There is alfo a third confideration which may ultimately turn out of more con- fequence‘than either of the former, and that is the opportunity enjoyed by the farmer who gives his horfes rack-meat, of teeing the ftable-door locked up at night and opened again in the morning; which cannot be fo conveniently done where the ploughman is to fit up late and to rife the next morning at three or four o’clock; and thus an objeét of the moft ferious import is left to the care of perfons who are rarely deferving of any truft; namely, the danger from fire, as well as the great wafte of-candles. Some advife the keeping of team-horfes in ftables, with fhort ftalls for‘each horfe, fo that he may eat his feed feparatcly, and be harneffed with more eafe, the partitions not being carried to the cieling, in order to admit of a more free circulation of air; while others contend for open fheds with racks and mangers fixed below, having a pump and ciftern, and a finall yard for them to go into at pleafure, as in this method they are found to do better without dreffing, than in ftables with the ordinary management beftowed by farm-fervants*. In the practice of the Earl of Darlington it was found to anfwer well. In Suffolk it is likewife the practice with many to turn them into the farm-yard in the nights. The open fhed method with yards does well for feeding on hay.and carrots in winter, and foiling on green food in the fummer, but they fhould be kept conftantly well littered down. It is probable however, as horfes feldom do very well when much expofed to cold, * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. KXXVI. Live Stock.—Teams-—Neceffary Proportion of on different Farms. 1185 that the ftable fyftem may have its advantages in the more northern diftri€ts; while the open fhed mode may be preferable in the fouthern parts of the ifland, where the winter feafon is more mild and favourable. Corn-chefts and chaff-bins fhould likxewife be provided, and it is of confequence to have them conveniently placed for the purpofe of feeding the teams.‘he former fhould be of fufficient dimenfions for containing the weckly allowance of corn for the team, and be placed on blocks of wood on the ground, being furnifhed with a proper meafure and fieve to mix the feed in, with the cut chaff. Each carter fhould have one, and be provided with a lock and key to it; the chaff-bin muft be placed in the centre of the ftable when fmall, and in large ones two may be neceflary: they fhould be made from about five to feven feet fquare each*. The expenfes attending tcams are liable to vary fo very much, according to the horfes, the manner of feeding, and other circumftances, that it is difficult to ftate it with any degree of accuracy; but that which is given below is probably pretty near the truth, as the amount of oats for well-fed horfes is moftly found to be about ten quarters, and that of hay a ton and three quarters. Shoeing about fixteen fhillings. The reft of the items being liable to much variation f. Thereis another point in refpect tu teams which it is extremely difficult to afcertain, though it is of great importance to the farmer, which is the proportion of horfes or other animals that are requifite to the extent of land. It is plain that the nature and fituation of the farm, and the method of hufbandry that is practifed, muft have great influence in regulating the number of horfes or oxen that will. be neceflary in its cul- tivation. It has been obferved that one team,on a gravelly, fandy, or otherlight defcrip- tion of foil, will be capable of performing more labour, or of cultivating a greater pro- portion of land in a given time, than two on foils of the clayey kind, where the various operations are greatly retarded by their ftiffnefs and adhefion. And that where the * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXV- Sede + To Jo quarters of oats at 28s. per quarter-:- T4050 To 35 cwt. of hay, at 4l. per ton.° Ff MOD To fhoeing; 2:. A. 016 0 To chaff:;: 3::; OF D4 10 To farriering. c:.: Bs. 5 OFM Go To decreafe in value A° 2 00 To 26 weeks fummer grafs at 3s. per week 610 0 3ne 6710 (tlre a 1186 Live Stock.—Teains—Neceffary Preportion of on different Farms. fituation of the farm is hilly and uneven, a greater ftrength and extent of team will be requifite than in the contrary circumftances, in order to anfwer the purpofes of tillage. Where, from the nature or locality of the farm, much road-work is to be performed to a diftance, a more powerful and fuller team will be wanted than in other cafes. The proportion of the grafs or feeding land to that of the tillage is likewife to be confidered, in determiaing the number of labouring cattle for the farm, as, where the extent of the former is confiderable, there will be lefs work to be performed, and of courfe one team may be fufficient where two would other- wife have been required*. On hay- and dairy-farms the teams are generally fmall, as they require little more than the conveying their different products to the markets, and the carting of manure or fuch other materials as may be neceflary in the management of the farms: but as the culture of different forts of green crops is neceflary to the perfect and moft economical management of the latter, a fomewhat larger team will, in general, be required. In moft cafes, from three to four horfes will be fufficient on fuch farms, for from one to two hundred acres or even more. But on perfectly arable farms, efpecially where the old fallow method of hufbandry is practifed on one-third or fourth part annually, or on fuch as are cultivated under the convertible fyftem, a much greater extent of team will be required. In the latter cafe, however, and in the former alfo where the improved method of fubftituting green crops for fallows is purfued, confiderable reduction in the number of animals that conftitute the teams may be made. In the eaftern diftricts, it has been common to employ four horfes on farms that contain only forty acres of tllage-land with a fuitable proportion of grafs. And with feventy or eighty acres under the plough, and thirty or more in the ftate of grafs, fix horfes have often been employed. And in thefe cafes feldom more than two horfes made ufe of asa team. In diftri¢ts where not lefs than three or four conftitute a team, the proportion is fiill higher. But under good management in the improved methods of cultivation a much lefs extent of team may be fufficient. The bufinefs of forty acres in tillage, with thirty or more in fward and a few in wood, has been accomplifhed without difficulty by a pair of good horfes. And two oxen with one horfe would in many cafes be adequate to the fame extent of land. With two horfes and four oxen, the labour of an arable farm of from one to two hundred acres or more may be managed without inconvenience. Some adyife the ufe of afs- and mule-teams in fmall concerns, as * Synopfis of Hufbandry. Live Stock.—Difeafes of Horfes—Wounds—Strains. 1187 highly economical; the former being hardy and eafily kept, and the latter capable of being worked to a great age. The fmall mules are the moft hardy and ufeful*. The difeates of horfes are fo numerous that they cannot be fully confidered in a work of this nature; but it may be ufeful to the farmer to know a few of the moft appro- priate remedies in thofe that are the moft common and moft frequently occurring in his teams. Thefe are wounds, bruifes, fprains, warbles, colds, colics, Staggers, firangles, jaundice or yellows, worms, botts, glanders, farcy, greafe, mange,&c. In common recent wounds, the be{t method of treatment is to bring the fides of the divided parts immediately into contact, where it can be done, keeping them in that fituation by flips of adhefive plaifter, as by this means they may be the moft expeditionfly healed. Where there is much laceration of the parts, after fuch of them as can be brought into union have been wathed and cleaned by a[oft fponge, and placed in their proper fituations, and confined in the manner direéted; if on the firft removal of the dreffings, which fhould not be for fome days, any part remain unhealed, it fhould be dreffed with lint moiflened by the tin€ture of myrrh, adhefive plaifier being laid over it. When in the procefs of healing the granulations of new fleth rife above the furface, they muft be kept down by the ufe of blue vitriol once or oftener in the day and proper compreffes, the other dreflings being wholly difcontinued. If the deftruction of parts be confiderable; in order to promote fuppuration, the application of warm faturnine fomentations or poultices may be ufeful. And in- flammation fhould be guarded againft by bleeding, and the ufe of nitrous mafhes, &c. Where circular bandages can be applied, they will be found ufeful. Wounds from punétures, as of nails, thorns,&c. may be dreffed by lint dipped in the tincture of myrrh, and fecured by adhefive plaifter; the hair being firft clipped away; and the furrounding parts fhould be well bathed with a camphorated embrocation. Greafy applications of all kinds fhould be cautioufly avoided in thefe cafes. In bruifes, where the fkin remains unbroken, the ufe of difcutient faturnine cam- phorated wafhes is in general the moft advifable. Strains take place in different parts; in the fhoulder they may often be removed by the application of camphorated preparations, as an embrocation compofed of a pint of camphorated liniment, halfa pint of opodildoc and four ounces of Barbadoes tar well mixed together, and made ufe of two or three times a day, after bleeding from the plate vein. * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXVI: 7M2 1188 Live Stock—Difeafes of Horfes-—Colds— Colits—Staggers. When in the kuee, back-finew, or fetlock, much advantage has been found from the application of a cold faturnine poultice to the part, and froma flannel roller pafled, round the leg, and kept conftantly wet with a wafh compofed of two ounces of crude: {al ammoniac diffolved in a pint of vinegar, with two quarts of pure water, and two ounces of vinegar of lead. Warble tumours arifing upon the backs or fides of horfes, may be removed with facility by the ufe of falt and water, brandy, warm vinegar, or a wafh compofed of opodildoc and fpirits of turpentine in equal parts. Where the fkin has been rubbed off, the compound tin¢ture of myrrh may be ufeful. As tumours and bruifes of this fort often arife from the faddle’s not fitting perfefly, by which extraneous fubftances are infinuated, great care fhould be taken in this refpect. Colds, and complaints of that fort, may be befi removed, when mild, by reft, and the ufe of mafhes of bran two or three times a day; and, when more violent, by bleeding, and the giving of balls compofed of calomel and antimonial powder, each one drachm, powdered nitre one ounce, and treacle fufficient for making them into a ball, which fhould be waflied down with two or three pints of warm oatmeal gruel; the bowels being emptied by means of clyfiers. In giving thefe, it is ne- ceflary to have a large pipe, as much depends upon it. A powder formed of half a drachm of camphor, one fcruple of antimonial powder, with one ounce each of nitre and anifeed, has likewife been found ufeful. In colics, when of the fpafmodic kind, advantage may often be derived from the uie of balls compofed of one ounce and a half of Venice turpentine and one drachm of purified opium, with two drachms of powdered ginger, the bowels being occafionally cleared by the ufe of clyfters of gruel in the proportion of three or four quarts. Warm gruel, with bruifed caraway feeds boiled in it, may alfo be occafionally given with benefit. The ftaggers is a difeafe that is frequently much relieved by bleeding; after which, benefit may be produced by the giving of a ball formed of two drachms of calomel, with an ounce of aloes, and two drachms of powdered ginger, made up with honey. Strong clyfters may alfo be had recourfe to with benefit, and mafhes of bran, oat- meal, or malt, be frequently made ufe of. In the ftrangles, after taking away blood in proportion to the ftate of inflamma- tion, advantage may be derived from the ufe of a powder conftituted of one ounce of powdered nitre, a drachm of camphor, with half an. ounce of powdered anifeed, given twice a day in a quart of gruel. The horfe fhould be warmly clothed about the head, and mafhes of bran and oatmeal be frequently given. Saturnine foq. p>. a Live Stock.—Dijfeafes of Hor[es—Worms—Glanders—Farcy. 1189 mentations may be applied frequently warm, by means of flannels, to the tumefied glands; or a bran poultice may be equally effectual;---and much relief may be af- forded to the cough, and forenefs of the throat, by having the horfe to breathe through a nofe-bag of fcalded bran occafionally for a fhort time*. The yellows is a diforder very common in young horfes, without being attended with fever: in thefe cafes much relief is often afforded by a bolus compofed of one ounce of powdered aloes, a drachm of calomel, and half an ounce of Venetian foap, given every fecond or third night. And a ball formed of half an ounce of nitre, with an equal quantity of powdered refin and common foap, may be employed with advantage in the intervening mornings. Mathes and warm water fhould be plen- tifully given, and the horfe kept warm by clothing, as well as fully exercifed f. Where worms prevail in horfes, whatever the kind may be, great benefit may be produced by a powder compofed of a drachm of calomel with half an ounce of pow- dered anifeed, given in the evening in a little treacle; and in the following morning a bolus formed of an ounce of aloes in powder, with two drachms of powdered ginger and a little treacle; or a powder formed of half an ounce of zthiops mineral, with an equal quantity of crude antimony and anifeed in powder. With thefe re- medies there is little danger of the horfe being injured by cold, or occafion for any alteration in his food. In the botts, which are probably produced from the ova ofa fly depofited on the fkin of the animal during the hot feafon, and thence licked in by the tongue, and taken into the ftomach, where they are afterwards hatched, and adhere to the inner coat t; the fame method of treatment will be found ufeful as in the preceding cafe. When horfes are difcovered to be affected with the glanders, they fhould be feparated from the others and confined by themfelves, and care taken that they have no fort of communication with the others by any means whatever, as the leaft thing poffible will communicate the infection; the fame remedies fhould then be made ufe of asin colds and ftrangles. In the farcy, when the lymphatic fwellings firft prefent themfelves about the legs, a bliftering liniment well rubbed on the parts, as far as the difeafe extends, may often be found effeCtual in removing the difeafe. Bleeding to the extent of three or four pints may likewife be fometimes had recourfe to in the early ftate of the dif- order with fuccefs, In the more inveterate ftate of the complaint, advantage has been found from the ufe of balls compofed of one feruple of muriated quickfilver,, * Denny’s Treatife on the Difeafes of Horfes.+ Ibid.} Ibid. 1190 Live Stock.—Difeafes of Horfes—Greafe— Mange. with halfa drachm of camphor, and the fame quantity of purified opium, to which may be added half an ounce of crude antimony in powder, and two drachms of ginger in powder, with honey in proportion to make them up into a ball. And another form that is often beneficial, is that of ten grains of calcined mercury, with halfa drachm of camphor and opium, and half an ounce of anifeed in powder, made up into a ball with treacle. Either of thefe balls may be given every other evening, with mathes two or three times in the lay, to which occafionally a handful of malt may be added. The water in thefe cafes thould be given warm. Rowels may likewife be put in the cheft and thighs when neceffary. Cordials and a generous diet fhould be bad recourfe to, and warm clothing with gentle exercife daily em- ployed. When the diforder is removed, a ball compofed of halfan ounce of crude antimony, and the fame quantity of fulphur and cremor tartar, with balfa drachm of oil of anifeed, may be found very beneficial in reftoring the animal. The greafe is a diforder that occurs frequenily, and which is beft removed by early attention. In well-fed horfes bleeding may be vfeful to two or three quarts, either from the neck, or the thigh, when local bleeding is preferred. The hair fhould be clofely cut from the affeMed part, which muft be well wafhed with a firong folution of foap-and water, after which a faturnine poultice may be applied warm twice in the day; and when the inflammation difappears, half an ounce of powdered alum may be added to each poultice, which fhould be continued for fix or eight days. Warm matfhes, with an ounce of nitre diflolved in each, fhould be given night and morning; anda ball, compofed of half an ounce of nitre in powder, with an equal quantity of yellow refin and foap, Common turpentine being employed to make them up, may be given once a week. Horfes in this fituation fhould have gentle exercife, with a generous diet, and plenty of fiable room and clean litter. When the tumefaction fubfides, preflure by woollen bandages may be found ufeful. In Linco!nfhire Mr. Cartwright foand that common groundfel given to the horfes in the ftable cured greafy heels*, In the mange, after having the parts well wathed with foft foap diffolved in water, they may be anointed with an ointment compofed of four ounces of fulphur and two ounces of{trong mercurial ointment,with three ounces of hogs-lard, every other day; and a ball formed of half an ounce of zthiops mineral, and an equal quantity of crude antimony and cream of tartar, given every night for fome length of timet. Great attention is neceffury to diet, exercife, and good grooming. Mathes with * Lincolnthire Correéted Agricultural Report.+ Denny on the Difeafes of Horfes. Live Stock.—Swine—Berkhire—Hampfoire—Herefordoire—Breeds of. 1191 nitre diffolved in them are alfo extremely ufeful in this complaint. When the difeafe difappears, the horfes fhould be turned to grafs if the feafon admits. Swine. Thefe area fort of live ftock that bring confiderable profit to the farmer, when proper attention is beftowed in the breeding, rearing, and other management. The well-formed hog fhould not be too long, but full in the head and cheek, thick and rather fhort in the neck; fine in the bone; thick, plump, and full in the carcafe; full in the quarters, fine and thin in the hide, and of a full fize in proportion to the kind, with a difpofition to fatten well at an early age. The breeds of thefe animals are very numerous, as almoft every diftri& is in poffeflion of a different fort. Of the larger kinds the moft valuable breeds are probably the following: The Berkfbire breed, which is diftinguifhed by being in general of atawny or reddith colour;{potted with black; large ears hanging over the eyes; thick, clofe, and well made in the body; legs fhort; fmall in the bone; difpofition to fatten quickly. This ufeful breed has extended itfelf from the diftrict which furnithes its name, over moft parts of the ifland. It is the fort moftly fattened at the diftilleries: it feeds to a great weight, and is good for either pork or bacon. The Hompjbire breed of hogs is very large, being longer in the body and neck, but not of fo compaé a form as the Berkfhire; they are moftly of a white colour, and are well difpofed to fatten, coming up to a great weight when properly ma- naged, The Shropfbire breed is another large fort of hogs, which are found valuable where the keep is in fufficient abundance for their fupport. They are not fo welk formed as thofe of the Berkthire kind, or equal to them in their difpofition to fatten. The Gloucefterfbire breed is likewife a large breed, but inferior to either of the above, being tall and long in fhape, and by no means well formed. The colour is in general white. Mr. Marthall fuppofes this to have been formerly the prevailing breed of the ifland. It is fuppofed to be thinner in the fkin than the Berkfhire breed. The Herefordfbire breed is alfo a large ufeful breed, but without pofleffing any advantage over thofe that have been mentioned. It is remarked by the author of the Survey of Middlefex, that the largeft breed in the ifland is fuppofed to be kept about Rudgewick on the borders of Suffex and Surry. They feed to an extraordinary fize, and weigh at two years old nearly double or treble the ufual weight of other forts of hogs of that age. As large breeds pay the farmer the beft in many cafes, fuch a breed deferves to be attended to. 1192 Live Stock.—Swine— Chinefe—Swing.tatled—Breeds of. Among the{maller breeds of thefe animals there is much variety. The Chinefe breed is diftinguifhed by the neck being thick; the body very clofe, compact, and well formed; the legs very fhort, and the fize{mall; the flefh deli- cate; the colour various, as white, brown, and tawny.‘This breed is particularly difpofed to fatten in an expeditious manner, and has, in confequence, fpread over a great part of the kingdom. It is the moft adapted for being ufed as pork, but is much too fmall for being cured as bacon. Another breed of the fmall kind of hogs is met with in many diftricts; it is of a white colour, thick, compact, and well made in the body; fhort in the leg; the head and neck well formed, and the ears flouching a little downwards, It is well dif- pofed to fatten, and perfectly hardy. The Swing-tailed breed is an ufeful fort of the fmaller kind of hogs, being hardy in its nature, and of confiderable weight in proportion to its fize. Some farmers prefer mixed breeds, as being more beneficial than either the large or fall perfect breeds. Where this is the cafe, the Berkfhire, with a crofs of the Chinefe, nas been found a very profitable fort, as being capable of feeding to a confiderable weight‘with a moderate proportion of food. In order to have hogs of the moft perfect kinds, the fame attention fhould be paid in the breeding of them as in other fortsof animals, by fele¢ting the moft perfe& and beft-formed males and females of the feveral breeds, and carefully raifing the fiock from them.‘Thofe intended to be kept as fows and boars fhould be con- {tantly well fed from the firft, as, where they are pinched for food, they are never fo fine or healthy afterwards. The breeds of hogs, like thofe of other animals, fhould be provided according to the nature of the keep. Where it is abundant, or cultivated folely for the purpofe of the raifing of pigs, the large breeds will moftly be found the moft advantageous, as the difference in the proportions between the living and the dead profitable weight, is faid by fome to be always the leaft in the largeft-fized animals*. It is of the utmoft importance in the management of fwine, both in the view of economy in the labour of their attendance, and the raifing of a large proportion of manure, as well as the advantage of the hogs, to have convenient ftyes or piggeries. The methods of confiructing thefe, with the greateft advantage in thefe different refpects, have been defcribed. It is remarked by Mr. Young, that a piggery“ muft be in a circle, or it muft fail in convenience. In the centre, the boiling- or fteaming- houfe, with a granary for corn, meal, bran,&c.; a range of cifterns in divifionsaround * Knight in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. I. PEXXXIV \\\\\\) i SS S——— S Se:: 7 < Liommunnemuuuyl are FC I : lienendt fr mam S Tal dT aa, wil S A SS PLATE XXXIV. Machine for weighing Live Stock. [To face Page 1192, Vol. Fg urs. machine is“conftruéted on the principle of the common fteel-yard. A AAA, a ftrong wooden frame,. with fteel centres, in which the pivots of the lever are hung. 3 On the fhort fide of the lever is fufpended a ed to be weighed is placed; which at the fame time form the head to the: coop, furrounded by ftrong net-work, in which the animal intend the point of fufpenfion is conneéted with the coop by means of two curved iron rods, =a fame soar common fcale is hung on the longer fide of the lever. By this contrivance any{mall ii| ‘animal may be very eafily and expeditionfly weighed, and at the fame time with a fufficiens degree of accuracy. L; it :.| Live Stock.—Swine~-Proper Apparatus for. 1193 it, for receiving immediately from the copper or fteam apparatus, and alfo by tubes. from the granary; around thefe a path, then the fence, wall or paling, in which the| troughs, with hanging lids, for fapplying food directly from the cifterns on one fide, and for the hogs feeding on the other; a range of yards next, and another of low fheds beyond; and laft of all, the receptacle for the dung.‘The potatoe ftores (pyes as they are called) fhould be at one end or point near to the entrance, and water muft be raifed to the coppers and cifterns at once by a pump; a trough or other conveyance from the dairy to the cifterns, for milk, whey,&c. Such an ar- rangement will be very convenient, and the expenfe need not be confiderable.‘To i annex a certain{pace of graf, or artificial graffes, in divifions, into which the hogs may be let at pleafure, is an addition of admirable ufe if the fpot permit it.‘Thofe i who donot poffefs a convenient pig-apparatus, can have little idea of the great ufe! of it in making manure. This alone becomes an object that would juftify any good farmer in going to a certain expenfe, for attaining fo profitable a part of what ought to be his farm-yard fyftem. In nine-tenths ofthe farmeries in the kingdom,| it is lamentable to fee fo many parts of a right piggery feattered and unconnected, in fach a manner as to preclude convenience, increafe labour, and prevent the making of dung*.” * Ina hoggery, built by the author in 1765, nearly, but not exa@tly, on this idea, the expenfes were as below; ee set ds i. The boiling-houfe° a sis} hited Ke): Copper. e 13() Pond e* 4° Pump A» hi 1 Oo Cifterns>° I4° Shed« 3 ea Paling 4° Zea| Paving 2’ 10° i Troughs.° 3°| Total, befides timber,- e707 To. OS By means of one of thefe yards he fattened eighty-eight hogs in{pring 1766 with only one man to attend them; whereas three would not have been fufficient without fuch conveniences. They were lit- tered with nine loads of ftraw and haulm that coft 6]. 18s.; and this made ninety loads of very rick a dung, valued by feveral farmers on the fpot at 5s. a load. Poa SORA| ig Value of dung at that rate' gl 29). 10) 0| Straw,&c. é: 64,384 0 —_— Profit in dung, s: Mr BG) IR,| Ke: il q | 1194 Live Stock.—Swine-—Rearing of. It is added that,“ with fuch a convenience, all the peafe, beans, barley, buck- wheat, potatoes, parfnips, carrots,&c. that are or can be raifed on a farm, may be applied to the rearing, feeding, or fattening hogs; by which means the farmer has the opportunity of imprceving his land to the higheft degree, and at the cheapeft rate poffible.” Lhe fow is capable of propagating at feven or eight months old; but it is better to defer her taking the boar tiil ten or twelve months, as fhe becomes more{trong and affords better litters of pigs. The period of being with young in the fow is about four months, and the ufual produce from about eight to ten or twelve in the large, and more in the finaller breeds, which in general bring the greateft num- ber, and the mott early. The boar fhould be a year old or more before he be put to the fows, as by this delay he attains a better growth, and is more vigorous. As there is great difficulty and expenfe attending the rearing of young pigs in cold feafons, the farmer fhould contrive as much as poflible to have his litters early in the fpring and autumn feafons, as about the beginning of April and the latter end of Auguft or beginning of the following month, as at thefe periods much lefs lofs will be fuftained in the death of the pigs, and lefs expenfe incurred in food. The litters which are pigged in June, or the early part of the following month, fhould always be reared, as being highly profitable. But it is feldom advifable to keep the late autumn litters, as the cold in the winter is almoft fure to deftroy many of them. When{wine are made an object to the farmer, great care fhould be taken to have agood boar confiantly along with the fows, ,in order that a proper fucceffion of young pigs may be produced. By this means the fows are likewife induced to take the boar fooner than would otherwife be the cafe. In the management of hogs it is of great confequence to keep the different But it is obferved that they had not half the litter they ought; or they wonld have made 351. worth of manure, beyond doubt. Ninety loads cofting 61. 18s. is rs. 6d. per load. ““Thefe particulars, furely(fayshe) muft prove the vaft importance of fuch conveniences for fattening great numbers of fwine, for the mere purpofe of raifing manure. Suppofe the expenfe, timber included, to be rol. and the intereft called 51. what comparifon is there between the expenfe of 51. a year, and the pro- digious utility of having it always in your power to fatten, with fcarce any expenfe of labour, whatever number of hogs you pleafe? “The total expenfe at prefent of fuch yards would not be lefs than rsol.; andif made conformably to the more correét idea, would be 20ol. or 250]. But the governing idea of pofition fhould be followed in. ftyes of 2ol.” 4 Live Stock.—Swine—Proper Modes of feeding of. oy} forts feparate and diftin@ from each other, as the fows in pig, thofe with pigs, and the ftores according to their ages. It is only in this way that they can be kept to the moft advantage. At the time of pigging it is neceflary alfo that each fow fhould be kept in a feparate ftye, in order that there may be no interruption or dif- turbance from the others coming about her. About this period, likewife, more than ordinary attention fhould be beftowed on the fows, and the ftyes kept but thinly littered, in order that accidents may be avoided. As the breeding of pigs is a bufinefs that affords the farmer a confiderable profit and advantage in various views, it is of effential importance that he be provided with fuitable kinds of fcolin abundance for the fupport of the numerous fows that it will be neceflary for him to keep, and the great number of pigs that muft be raifed. Upon this being properly and effectually done his fuccefs and advantage will ina great meafure depend.‘The crops capable of being cultivated with the moft benefit in this intention are beans, peafe, barley, buck-wheat, potatoes, car- rots, parfnips, Swedifh turnips, cabbages, lettuces, clover, lucerne, chicory,&c. The proportions in which thefe crops fhould be grown for this purpofe muft vary according to circumftances; as the kind of hogs, their extent, and the manner of difpofing of them: but whatever number may be kept, an equal proportion of root crops and thofe of the grafs kind will be requifite, with about half as much of thofe of the farinaceous or grain kind as of thofe of the root fort; and a quantity of the luxuriant vegetable kind, fully in proportion to the number of hogs that are to be fed on fuch forts of food. In the fupplying of the hogs with food a diftinction is likewife to be made ac- cording to the different kinds, in order that the moft may be made of the food, The fows confiderably advanced in pig, and thofe with pigs, fhould be fed in a bet- ter manner than the ftore pigs. The former fhould be fupplied with good wafh twice or oftener in the day, and have a fufficient allowance of cabbages, potatoes, carrots, or other fimilar vegetables, fo as to keep them in good condition; which is fhown by the glofs of their coats. The fows with pigs fhould be kept with their litters in fe- parate ftyes, and be ftill better fed than thofe in pig. Where dairying is practifed, the wath of that kind which has been preferved for the purpofe while the dairying was at the height, in brick ciflerns, conflructed for receiving it from the dairy, muft be given them, with food of the root kind, fuch as carrots, parfnips, potatoes and cabbages, in as large proportions as they willconfume them, in order that the pigs may be properly fupported and kept in condition. But where the bufinefs of dairying is not carried on fo as to provide wath of that fort, meal of fome kind or aN 2 - Se SS 1196 Live Stock.--Swine—Crops proper fori other muft be had recourfe to for the making of wafh, by mixing it with water, which, in the fummer feafon, will be fufficient for their fupport; and in winter it mutt be blended with the different forts of roots prepared by boiling, or, when for the young pigs, with oats and pea-foup*. With this foup and dairy-wath, where proper attention is beftowed, young pigs may be weaned and reared in the winter feafon even with profit and fuccefs.‘The pea-foup is an admirable article when given in thisintention: it is prepared by boiling fix pecks of peas in about fixty gallons of water, till they are well broken down and diffufed in the fluid; itis then put into a tub or ciftern for ufe. When dry food is given in combination with this, or of itfelf, Mr. Young advifes oats, as being much better than any other fort of grain for young pigs, barley not anfwering nearly fo well in this application. We have employed oats coarfely ground for young hogs with the beft fuccefs, both in the form of wath with water and when made of a thicker confiftence. Where the fows and pigs can be fupported with dairy-wafh and roots in the man- ner juft mentioned, there will be a confiderable faving made by avoiding the ufe of barley-meal, peafe, or bran and pollard. It is therefore highly difadvantageous to the farmer to have recourfe to fuch fubftances in thefe circumftances. There is another point to be particularly regarded in the management of fows and pigs, which is that of keeping them conftantly well littered down with clean firaw or fome other fimilar article, as by this means they are kept perfectly clean and healthy, and at the fame time a large quantity of manure is afforded. In the praCtice of cultivating crops of various kinds purpofely for the food and fupport of fwine, the fows and ftore pigs will of courfe be fupported during the winter feafon, as from the beginning of November to the middle or latter end of May, by the various roots that have been ftored in this view, fuch as potatoes, car- rots, parfnips and Swedith turnips; alfo cabbages in their frefh ftate, in combi- nation with the preferved dairy-wath, and other articles that have been noticed above. At the latter of the above periods the whole of the hogs in the yards fhould be looked over and forted; fuch as have attained half or more of their growth being drawn and turned upon the clover, lucern, or chicory crops, where they fhould be kept till towards the latter end of September, the fences being kept in perfectly good order, and ponds or other places provided for the hogs to drink at. Under this management they are found to grow rapidly, the food in general agreeing wel] with them, and they are then taken up in excellent condition for being fattened. In this practice the important difference from the former method is in felecting the fuf- 2* Young’s Farmer’s Calendar. Live Stock.—Swine—Soiling of advantageous. 1197 ficiently-grown hogs from the fows that have pigs and the weaned pigs, and only leaving the latter to be fed with the dairy or other wath, with fuitable green food, fuch as lettuces, cabbages, tares,&c. by which a much larger ftock of breeding hogsmay be kept*. The tares and cabbages may be ufed for the fows that have fpring litters, and the lettuces for thofe that have autumn litters. In the cultiva- tion of this plant in this intention, Mr. Young directs that the land fhould be well manured, and brought into a very fine clean ftate by being ploughed in the clofe of the year into ridges of a fuitable fize fof the drill machine, being fcuffled over in February and again in March; then well harrowed, which fhould be again repeated before drilling, which muft now be performed in the proportion of from half an acre toan acre, according to the extent of hogs that are kept. The rows muft be equidiftant, at about one foot afunder; and in order to have a proper fucceffion of thefe plants more fhould be put in in April or later. The crops muft be kept con- {tantly well weeded, and thinned in the rows by hand, to the diftance of about nine or ten inches, as if this be neglected the plants are drawn up weak and poor, never fucceeding well. At the time they are fix.inches high, they fhould be horfe- hoed with a fcarifier, or fcuffler, with the hoe four or at moft five inches in width. Thefe plantsare of excellent ufe for fows and pigs, promoting theincreafe of milk ina great degree; they afford great affiftance where the dairies are{mall, and in all cafes tend to prevent the confumption of grain, which is of great importance in hog-ma- nagement. From the fweet and faccharine quality of the plant, the hogs are not only extremely fond of it, but it becomes highly nutritious. By thefe means the fwinewill be well fapported and carried forward till the time the ftubbles are cleared, when they may be turned upon them, and thus the whole year be provided for in thefe different ways. But though this fyftem of management is advantageous, that of foiling the hogs in their yards with green food, cut frefh in the way that has been already directed, is confidered by Mr. Young, notwithflanding the increafed expenfe that attends it, and the wafte of a certain portion of the food, as highly preferable on account of the vat ftoreof manure that may be raifed. But it cannot be attempted with pro- priety unlefs the farmer be provided with abundance of fome fort or other of ma- terials for the purpofe of litter, and fubftances of the peaty or earthy kinds for the purpofe of covering the floors of the hog-yards, in order to abforb and prevent the wafte of any portion of the liquid matters that may fall upon them. In this method of proceeding, cloyer, chicory, tares, and lucern, are the kinds of food that are mof * Young’s Farmer's Calendar. 1198 Live Stock.—Swine—Methods of fattening of. commonly employed; but there are others that may be brought in to their affitt- ance when neceffary, efpecially on the ftronger forts of lands, fuch as beans eaten green, which afford a large quantity of food in proportion to the land they occupy, the whole ftems being con‘umed; and cabbages may likewife be had recourfe to for the fummer as well as winter food of thefe animals. It is recommended by Mr. Young, that the yards of the hog-fties fhould have gates fufficiently large for bring~ ing in carts loaded with the different articles of both food, floors, and litter, as well as for removing the manure that is made. In this management, inftead of a few fows only being kept, as was ufual in combi- nation with the dairy fyftem, great numbers may be maintained, and a great many young pigs be raifed. But in order to derive the greateft advantage from this fyfiem of hog-management, Mr. Young thinks it thould as much as poffible be fo contrived that the fows only pig twice in the year, as has been mentioned above; as by this means there will“ never be a long and expenfive feafon for rearing the pigs before they are put to the ftaple food of clover or potatoes,&c. But this circum- fiance is much removed by the provifion of crops raifed exprefsly for fwine.” In this fcheme of keeping fwine, the fales for lean hogs fhould, he obferves, an- nually take place in October, the litters of April being then difpofed of as ftores, and thofe of Auguft kept till the fame period in the following year, in order to be fold as baconers, when none are fattened on the farm. The expenfe of keeping all forts of ftore-fwine muft obvioufly vary confiderably according to the convenience of procuring their food, and the excellence of the ma- nagement that is purfued. In fuckling-fows it has been eftimated‘upon the average at from eighteen pence to three fhillings the week, and while in pig at from one fhilling to eighteen pence; weaned pigs at firft from one fhilling and fixpence to two fhil- lings and fixpence per head, and afterwards till they are become fully grown at from one to two fhillings each per week. Such calculations muft, however, be liable to differ greatly in different cafes. T he breeding of pigs is a fyftem that deferves the farmer’s attention, not only as obtaining his pig-{tock at a much cheaper rate thay by purchafing at the markets, but as being certain of having them more healthy and well fed, confequently fuch as will anfwer much better in their growth and fattening afterwards. Thefattening of hogs is a bufinefs ufually performed at two different feafons of the year, as in Oober and in February or March: the former is, how- ever, the moft principal period. In this management various fubftances have been recommended; but thofe moft commonly employed are fome fort of farinaceous Live Stock.—Swine—Methods of fattening of. 1199 material, with fkimmed milk, and dairy or other kinds of wafh, For the fmaller forts of fattening hogs, coarfely ground oats mixed with thefe wafhes are excellent. Barley meal and pollard are likewife frequently made ufe of for the purpofe with much fuccefs. The meals of peafe and beans, when given in fufficient proportions for the purpofe of fattening, are apt to heat them too much, and produce a difh- culty of breathing; but for the large or full-grown hogs, pea-meal or peafe un- ground are probably the bett material that can be made ufe of: A portion of bean meal, or whole beans, may likewife be given occafionally with advantage, as both thefe articles contain a much larger proportion of nutritious matter in the fame bulk than any fort of grain, and are more lafting in their effects on the fyftem, from their undergoing the procefs of digeftion more flowly, perhaps on account of their containing a larger proportion of oil in their compofition*. Malted barley given whole has likewife been found highly beneficial in the fattening of hogs, the quantity of faccharine nutritious matter being thus greatly augmented-~. Acorns in the fame ftate have likewife been found to fatten hogs, but they cannot be de- pended on as a food for this ufe. Potatoes and carrots have alfo been occafionally tried in the fame application; but as they never anfwer well without being boiled and combined with the meal of fome fort of grain, it is a much better and more economical practice to convert them to the purpofe of ftore feeding, and depend upon farinaceous fubftances for fattening. The various experiments of Mr. Boys of Keat, detailed in the twenty-ninth volume of the Annals of Agriculture, fuf ficiently fhow the difadvantage of this method. Eyen when the potatoes were boiled and blended with barley-meal, he faftained confiderable lofs in this mode of fattening.‘There is, however, another method of fattening, which, in parti- cular fituations, may be pra¢tifed with profit and fuccefs, which is that of em- ploying the wafhof large diflilleries with grains and fome fort of meal. Inthe firft partof the fattening the grains and wath are given, and in the latter the meal f. The quantity or weight of pork produced by a given quantity of peafe, beans, meal, or other materials employed in the fattening of hogs, has not been well af- certained, and it is probable that a great deal will depend upon the fize, breed, and difpofition to fatten; but, judging from the value of the animals before and after they have been fattened, itis concluded by Mr. Knight, thata Winchefter buthel of the firft of the above articles may add about. nine or ten pounds to the weight of a good hog of twenty fcore, or perhaps fomething more upon a larger, and confi- * Darwin’s Phytologia.+ Synopfis of Hufbandry, t Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXII, 1200 Live Stcck.—Swine—Methods of fattening of. derably lefs on one of a{mall fize*. A hog put up to fatten in good condition, and they fhould never be put up in the contrary ftate, which when fat will weigh twenty fcore, will confume in the proportion of fix or feven buthels of peafe+. In regard to the method of giving the different materials that are employed in the fattening of fwine, there are different opinions entertained; fome contending that they fhould be ufed as much as poffible in a folid form, wath, as drink, being occafionally ufed; while others prefer the contrary method as the moft beneficial: as in the latter mode there will Le lefS time taken up by the hogs in feeding, and of courfe more left for them to fleep and refiin, as well as more economy in the food and the labour of giving it, it is probably the moft advifable. It has indeed been obferved by Mr. Young, in his excellent Calendar of Hufbandry, that* the moft profitable method of converting corn of any kind into food for hogs is to grind it into meal, and mix this with water in cifterns, in the proportion of five bufhels hundred gallons of water, ftirring it well feveral times a day for three of meal to one weeks in cold weather, or for a fortnight in a warmer feafon, by which it will have fermented well and become acid; till which time it is not ready to give.’ This ? mixture fhould always* be ftirred immediately before feeding,’ and‘ two or three cifterns(iould be kept fermenting in fucceffion, that no neceffity may occur of giving it not duly prepared. The difference in profit between feeding in this man- ner, and giving the grain whole or only ground, is fo great, that whoever tries it once will not be apt to change it for the common methods.”_ It is added that“ pea- foup is an excellent food for hogs, and may, though he has not fufficiently com- pared them, equal the above, efpecially if given in winter, milk warm.” But wherever food is prepared by heat, the expenfes of fuel and labour are a great draw- back on the profits of the fyflem. It fhould therefore be well confidered before it is undertaken. But in whatever way the food be given, great care fhould be taken that the hogs have a full allowance at fufficiently fhort intervals to keep them con- flantly in a ftate of-reft, as it is on this principle that they become fat in an expedi- tious manner. It is a fact frequently obferved in fattening hogs, that they pay bet- ter for their keep in the latter part of their fattening than in the former; which pro- bably arifes in fome meafure from their not being fed in a fufficiently full manner, or with fufficient frequency in the beginning, fo as to keep them in a ftate of reft. The length of time that is neceflary in fattening thefe animals muft vary much according to the ftate in which they are put up, their fizes, and the differences in * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. II.+ Ibid. Live Stock.—Swinem=Methods of curing Bacon, Pork and Hams. 1201 their difpofitions to fatten, but in general from five or fix weeks to two or three months is fufficient. In the time of fattening, it is likewife of great importance to keep the hogs clean and warm, by having them frequently well littered down, as by this means they not only fatten more quickly, but the moft manure poffible is raifed. The advantage of warm fties, with warm food in cold weather, has been found very confiderable. It is the beft method to have the pigs caftrated while young.‘The male pigs are ufually gelded at about three weeks old without danger, and the female ones may be cut or fpayed when a month old; though, in the latter cafe, the operation is frequently _ performed at a much later period. The fows, when not wanted for the purpofe of breeding, may alfo be fpayed: this bufinefs is moftly done by perfons who are ia the conftant practice of it. It is abfolutely neceflary to keep all forts of fwine conftantly well ringed, in order that they may lie quietly in the fties, and of courfe thrive better. A great miftake feems to haveebeen committed by farmers in the management of hogs, from the fuppofition that they can only be kept with profit in fo far.as they may confume the materials that would otherwife be wafted. There cannot, however, be any doubt but that fwine will pay for their keep as well as any other fort of live flock, where a judicious fyfiem of cultivating crops purpofely for them is purfued.‘This is fully fhown by the various ftatements that have been made on the fubject. There are different ways of curing the flefh of hogs, according to the intention for which it is defigned. When cured as bacon, it is the practice in Kent to finge off the hairs, by making a firaw fire round the hog, an operation which is termed /waling. “When the flitches are cut out they fhould be rubbed effectually with a mixture of common falt and faltpetre, and afterwards laid in a trough, where they are to continue three weeks or a month, according to their fize, keeping them frequently turned; and being then taken out of the trough are to be dried by a flack fire, which will take up an equal portion of time with the former; after which they are to be hanged up, or thrown upon a rack, there to remain till wanted.” In the making of bacon on the continent, it is frequently the cuftom to have clofets contrived in the chimneys, for the purpofe of drying and fmoking them by means of wood fires*. Another method of curing this fort of meat is that of falting it down for pickled pork, which is far more profitable than bacon. After the hog is cleanfed of the * Bradley on Hufbandry and Gardening. 70 1202 Live Stock.—Swine—Difeafes of-— Mange. hair, and the head taken off, together'with the legs and hands, and the necks, loins, and all the lean bones cut out, which will amount to nearly two-thirds of the whole hog, the remaining part, which is the fat or prime pork, is to be cut into pieces of a fize proportioned to the circumference of the falling-tub, and every piece rubbed on each fide and on every_part with common falt, having fome beaten faltpetre fprinkled on each. The bottom of the tub fhould alfo be covered with falt, and when the pork is fufficiently powdered, the pieces laid in, with the rind upwards, and every one preffed down with all the firength that can be ufed, and wedged in fo clofe as to leave no apparent chafms. Over this layer is to be fpread a covering of falt, with avery flight fprinkling of faltpetre, as too much makes it hard. In about.a month or five weeks the brine will begin to rife, and, in a fhort time after- wards, cover the whole furface of the tub; but if, from a defeé in the falt, it fhould fail to diffolye into brine within that period, it will be necéffary to make a quantity of brine and pour over the pork; for unlefs the whole be covered with brine it will not keep well. In adding the brine care fhould be taken not to difturb the pieces of pork, In the curing of hams in Wefimoreland, the method purfued is this: They“are firft rubbed very hard, generally with bay-falt; by fome they are covered clofe up, by others they are left on a ftone bench to allow the brine to run off. At the end of five days they are again rubbed as hard as they were at firft, with falt of the fame fort, mixed with rather more than an ounce of faltpetre toa ham. Having lain about a week, either on a ftone bench, or in hogfheads amongft the brine, they are hung up by fome in the chimney amidft the fmoke, whether of peats or coals; by others, in places where no fmoke ever reaches them. If not fold fooner, they are fuffered to remain there till theweather becomes warm.”’ They are then packed in hogfheads with ftraw or oat-meal feeds, and fent to the places of fale. It has been found by experiment that hams lofe twenty per cent. of their weight in the curing*™. Swine are fubje& to a variety of difeafes, but few of them have yet been fuffi- ciently inveftigated to afcertain the proper means of cure. Much expofure to cold is liable to bring on affeGtions of the lungs, by which the animals gradually decline and wafte in fleth, having a frequent hufky dry fort of cough. Warmth, with good keep of the lefs dry and heating kinds, would feem to be the moft advantageous method of removing fuch complaints. When hogs become affeéted with the mange, care muft be taken to feparate them’ from the reft;‘and after being well wafhed in foap and water, they. fhould be * Correéted Report of Weftmoreland. Live Stock.—Rabbits— Breeds of employed in Warrens. 1208 “nointed with an ointment of the fame kind as that recommended for the fame difeafe in fheep. A little common fulphur fhould likewife be given in their food. In large lop-eared hogs the parts behind them are apt to crack and become fore in hot feafons; in thefe cafes they fhould be anointed with a little faturnine ointment. When the udders of the fows take on hard lymphatic{wellings, which is fome- times the cafe, attempts may be made to remove them by the ufe of camphorated faturnine wafhes or ointments, care being taken to have the parts clean wiped before the pigs are admitted to fuck. In fuch cafes half a drachm of calomel may like- wife be exhibited every fecond or third night for two or three nights. Rabbits.—This is a kind of live ftock that can only be employed with profit by the farmer in particular fituations, and under certain circumftances. Wherever land is capable of producing tolerable crops of either grain or grafs, the fyftem of rabbit- warrens can feldom, if ever, be efiablifhed with advantage. The hazard and un- certainty of rabbit-management is conftantly fo great, that it is fafer for the farmer to depend upon even moderate crops of either of the above kinds than this. It is only the light barren fandy forts of land, in fuch declivities and other fituations as cannot be brought under the plough, and which cannot be converted to the pur- pofe of pafture for even fheep, which is in general the proper application of fuch lands, that rabbit-hufbandry is proper to be undertaken upon. The breeds of this animal are various; but thofe chiefly employed in warrens are moftly either the common gray breed or the filver gray breed; the former is moft valuable in regard to hardinefs and fleth, but the latter in refpect to fkin. The fur of the firft fort, which is the moft prevalent, is chiefly employed in the hat-manufac- tories; while the fkins in the latter cafes are in common dreffed as furs for the China market, and are in general nearly double the value of thofe of the other fort. This fort of ftock, when turned into the land intended for the warren, foon provide themfelves habitations, by preparing holes and burrowing in the more dry, light, fandy, and elevated parts, where they fafely lodge and propagate their young. In fome warrens in Lincolnthire, they ftock in the proportion of three couple to the acre, but in other cafes confiderably more. One buck is fufficient for a hundred does. It is neceffary to have the warrens well inclofed; not only for the purpofe of pre- venting the ftock from firaying and being deftroyed, but to prevent their being annoyed by different forts of vermin.. This is effected in different methods, ac- cording to circumftances, as by walls or paling; but, from the great expen fe of thefe fences, more commonly by fod, eartb, and turf mounds, or banks and fences coped 70 2 1204 Live Stock.— Rabbits—Proper Management of, or kidded on the top by furze, thorns or ether forts of brufh-wood. This fencing, with that of nets and traps, conftitutes the great expenfe of rabbit-hufbandry; which, when added to thofe of charcoal for drying the fkins, warreners, men for killing and carrying, horfe-hire,&c. is very confiderable. Befides this, though rabbit-ftock demands, on the whole, but little regard, in fevere winter feafons it 1s neceflary to provide them with additional food, fuch as- hay, turnips, clover, faintfoin, and other fimilar kinds, to be difperfed about in the warrens. Turnips are the beft fort of food in fnows, as the rabbits can find them by the fcent.. From two tothree large cartfulls will be fefficient to fodder a thoufand couple or more a day. One load of hay may be fufficient fora day in ftorms. In fome dittricts, billets of new cut wood afh boughs, gorfe,&c. are diftributed; the bark and other parts of which are confumed, and the quantity of hay by that means greatly diminifhed. There are likewife other expenfes, in clearing away fnow from the fences, to prevent their efcaping, and in the deftroying vermin, as well as- for night-watching. The rabbit begins to breed at eight, ten, and twelve months old, and goes about thirty days with young, which are about twenty-two days more before they appear from the burrows, being fuckled during that time twice a day by the mother; of courfe they may breed three or four times in the courfe of the year when very well fed, as they are known to take the buck again very foon; but in inclofed warrens they rarely breed more than twice in the year.‘The annual fale of produce is in general eftimated at from three to eight couple per acre, affording a profit of eight or ten fhillings, or more under good management*.‘The produce is the greatefton new Jand+; but much in refpect toprofit muft depend upon fituation, as when it is near to large towns, where there is a conftant demand for the rabbits as food, it muft be greater than inother cafes.‘They are in feafon from the beginning of November tillthe commencement of the enfuing year, during which period the prime{kins are afforded; therefore the greateft part muft be killed in this fhort interval.‘There is annually a great lofs in what are termed half fkins, quarter frins, and racks, fix- teen of which are only allowed for as one whole fkin. Rabbits are fold by the hundred, fix fcore couple making the hundred. * Young's Agricultural Survey of Lincolathire.+ Ibid. + The following eftimate of the warren on the eftate at Thorefway, is given by Mr. Young on the authority of Mr. Holdgate, the tenant, who ftates the expenfes. of 1700 acres under the filver fort of yabbits, thus; Labour, three regular warreners, with extra affiftance at killing Fences_ Winter food Nets, traps,&c.&c. Delivery Rent is faid to be 7s, am acre. The capital employed is that fum, with the addition of ftock paid for; fuppofe this, as ftated above, 3 couple an acre, at 2s. 4d. Intereft of that fumjone year, 5 per cent. Expenfes as above Intereft i Produce 10,000 couple, at 2s. 4d. Expenfes Profit or 24]. per cent.(the five per cent. included) on capital employed. great, reckoned on the capital, but{mall reckoned by rent, as it am the grofs produce of 55001. which he takes to be nearer the fact; Produce Expenfes Profit: or 47]. per cent. on the capital. “ Take it how you will, he thinks it exp inveftment of a{mall capital yields an intereft that nothing elfe will But what fays the public intereft? Here are only 200l. expenfes- the improvement! The landlord gets the lowett of e reft of the world are little the better for never to convert them to better ufes. to Gook. rent; what is the population, the induftry, rents, the tenant makes a good profit; they divide all, and th 5 Annual Account. o Live Stock.—Rabbits—Modes of taking them. ° . They are taken either by means of nets or traps. In the former method the nets are fet in the form of a fold, between the burrowing places and the feeding grounds, in the night or early in the morning the rabbits being hunted into them in their return from feeding, Lotsa a 85 0°@ 4210 0 42 10 9 4 3 4 Ze 25)? Os 59 51s eS 800 8 4 5 Osa 1395 8 4 69 5@ 1464 13 4 Soo. 3) 2 69.-5..0 869 13 4. 1166 13 4 869 13 4 2907 Oo O “This is(Mr. Young obferves) very ounts to only half a rent. But fuppofe then the account will ftand thus: TCO. 0. 0 869© Oo 631: 0:'o oe lains the reafon for fo many-of thefe nuifances remaining. The ; and thus the occupier will be fure 1206 Live Stock.—Poultry—Common Fowls— Breeds of. The traps are conftructed by forming large pits dug in the way of their moft frequented tracks, and covered by a fort of folding door, towards the centre of which is a fort of fall trap door, to which they are led by a narrow track or meufe. The rabbits, being thus taken, are forted according to circumftances. Avery great objection to thefe animals is their deftroying the corn, new fown graffes, turnips, and even the quick hedges that are in the vicinity of them. In raifing tame rabbits, the principal points to be regarded are thofe of having fuch ftock as is perfectly free from difeafe, keeping them quite clean, dry, and free from all forts of filth, with a fufficient proteGtion from cold in fevere weather. The feeding fhould be performed regularly, in{mall quantities ata time, anda due pro- portion kept up between the dry and moift green vegetable food: the moft proper kinds of each fort of which are, thofe of clover, parfley, endive, dandelion, cabbage-leaves, carrot-tops,&c. with good green rouen or clover-hay, pea-chaff, oats, pollard, and bran.‘They ufually breed at the age of fix months, and moftly three or four times in the year, efpecially when kept fufficiently warm in the winter feafon; at this time alittle dry hay fhould be placed in the butch:.the young may be weaned at fix or eight wecks old, and the buck admitted. The young rabbits ought to be carefully feparated when they become of any fize, and never be fuf- fered to be in any degree crow ded together, as in fuch cafes they foon become dif. eated. Poultry.—This is a fpecies of ftock which, from the trouble and uncertainty that attends it, is of doubtful advantage, except in- particular fituations and circum- ftances. The term poultry comprehends feverai different forts of birds that have been confidered as ftock for the farm-yard. Common Fowls.—Of thefe there are various breeds, as the game breed, the Englih or white breed, the Poland or black breed, the Darking breed, the Shackbag breed, the Malay breed. The two firft of thefe breeds are much fmaller than the others. As this fort of ftock, when under a proper fyfiem of management, affords advantage both in the eggs and the chickens, it may be neceflary to obferve that the game and Poland breeds are in general the beft layers, but that in refpect to the fize of the eggs the larger breeds are preferable. As fetting- and breeding-fowls, the Darking and other large breeds are probably the beft; but in what regards the colour, quality, and flavour of the fleth, the game and the white breeds are fuppofed by thofe who indulge in this fort of food to be the moft delicate. In the management of poultry much depends upon proper conveniencies‘being provided for them. The method of confiruGting houfes for this ufe has been 2 Live Stock.—Poultry-Fowls—Proper Management of. 1207 already defcribed. In order that there may be the leaft poffible interruption to the poultry, it is neceflary that feparate places be provided for the purpofes of their rooft- ing, fitting, and being fattened in, as well as for containing their food; and, where the quantity kept is very confiderable, for plucking and preferving their feathers in; as by this means the fyfiem may be conducted tothe greateft advantage. And where an attendant is kept for the purpofe of feeding and taking care of this fort of ftock, it may be of confequence to have the place which is defigned for lodging in fo fituated, as that the fmoke which it affords may pafs through the roofting- and fitting-rooms, as it has been long known that the fmoke, as well as warmth thus communicated, is particularly grateful to the poultry, and highly promotes their breeding and thriving. This is fufficiently fhown by the vaft quantities that are raifed in the warm fmoky cottages in Scotland and Ireland. In addition there fhould alfo be the conveniences of a yard, in which they may pickup fandy or gravelly particles, with a fmall grafs paddock for ranging in, in which there mutt be a fupply of pure water! The whole of the internal parts fhould be kept perfectly clean and free from vermin, by being frequently wafhed out and lime-whited.: In fetting both the hen and the turkey, in order to prevent their inconveniencing each other, feparate nefits fhould be provided in fituations where they can be confined and kept from the reft; as without this precaution the fame neft will have two or three upon it; by which much injury may be fuftained. Hens may be kept in the proportion of about fix or feven to acock. Young ones are the beft where eggs are the principal object; but’ where chickens are chiefly in demand the older kinds fhould be preferred, as they fit with more affiduity and clofe- nefs. Young hens moftly begin to lay in January, or early in the following month; but this may be greatly promoted by the ufe of food of the more ftimulant kind given with the grain, as buck-wheat, barley, hemp-feed, fenugreek,&c. in. which intention any kind of refufe animal matter chopped very fmall has been found highly beneficial, alfo any of the fmall forts of fifh, fuch as fprats,&c. prepared in the fame manner. But whatever fort of food may be employed. for the laying hens, it is eflential to their producing a great number of eggs that they be not too much fed, though they fhould not be keep too poorly, as from each extreme difadvantage may proceed. The periods of fetting hens muft neceflarily vary according as chickens are wanted, but in general the latter end of February or the beginning of the following: 1208 Live Stock——Poultry-—Fowls—Modes of fattening of ‘month is a good feafon for the purpofe; as-the weather will be getting warm about the time they are hatched. The period of fitting is ufually about twenty-one days. In fetting the bens, the eggs fhould always be fuch as are new-laid and perfe&tly freth, and the number fhould not exceed a dozen. While fitting, the hens fhould conftantly have a fufficiency of food near them, in order that they need not be taken from their nefis too great a length of time. In the time of hatching, fome advife the removing the firft brought out chickens; but it is probably a better practice to let them remain, to be fupported by the natural warmth of the hen until the whole brood is out. At this time fome recommend their being put under a coop with the hen; but where the poultry-yards are well inclofed they may be fuffered to follow the mother. Where there are more broods than one, the coops thould not be placed too near each other, left the hens fhould defiroy each others" chickens. It is beft to feed the chickens firft with fteeped rice or fplit grits with boiled potatoes bruifed; but afterwards the refufe wheat or barley may be given them with propriety, after having been boiled or f{teeped fome time in water. The proportions in which thefe forts of food are confumed by young chickens vary according to their fize; but in general it may be reckoned from:one to two ounces per day, while they are in the early part of their growth, as from halfa pound to two and a half pounds weight or more. In about ten or twelve wecks chickens imoftly become pretty fully grown. It is neccflary to prevent young chickens as much as poffible from picking up flugs, fnails, and other fimilar animals from the ground, and alfoto keep them as free as poffible from the wet, as by thefe means they are extremely liable to become difeafed. Various directions have been given for the fattening of poultry; but the beft prac- tice is probably that of confining them for a few days in dry well-ventilated places, which are covered fo as in fome meafure to prevent the entrance of too much light, the fowls being previoufly kept in good condition in the poultry-yards. In thefe fituations they fhould be regularly fed three or four times in the courfe of the day with well-ftcamed potatoes, which are probably the cheapeft fort of food; as near Liverpool, in Mr. Wakefield’s practice, which is upon an extenfive feale, it has been attended with the moft complete fuccefs, the poultry thriving perfectly well. Buck-wheat is likewife an ufeful and cheap food for this purpofe, cither given whole or ground into flour. Barley-meal, ground malt, and alfo coarfe wheat-flour, when mixed up with milk, or, what is better, water, as milk runs guickly into a fiate of acidity, have been much recommended in this intention. From fome Live Stock, Poyliry—Fowls—Syftem of Management of. 1209 experiments, we are likewife inclined to believe that pea meal employed in the fame way poflefles a fiill more fattening property, and is at the fame time more economical, as going much further. A confinement of feven or eight days in this way will in general be fufficient for effeCling the bufinefs of fattening. When kept up long, fowls ate extremely apt to be affeCted with difeafe.. Whatever fort of food is:made ufe of, free air and a perfe@ flate of cleannefs is effential in all the utenfils cmployed for the purpofe, in order to prevent the food becoming acid, and the fowls affe@ted with difeafe. It is ftated by Mr. Jackfon, in the fixth volume of the“ Commercial Agricultural and ManufuGturer’s Magazine,” that he has found that“ three pounds of meal, flour, or grain of fuch a fort as docs not coft more than one penny a pound, or to the farmer and cottager not even fo much, with water, and what other fare the little creature can find for itfelf, will feed and fatten a chicken fufficiently from the time of its burfting the fhell till that of its being of a growth and in a condition fuitable for its being carried to market.” And that the allowance of another penny is fufficient“ for the attention and labour which its rearing requires. The prime coft of the egg may be one halfpenny.”” Thus he conceives that even in the vicinity of any great town‘a chicken that fhail bring ninepence, or rather one fhilling in the market, and is, in comparifon with other things, worth as much for the ufe, of your own table whether you be a rich or poor man, may be produced and reared at the expenfe of fourpence-halfpenny.” And it is further contended, that in proportion as fowls are kept for the confumption of the portion of-farinaceous food that is in daily wafte about farm-houfes, the expenfe cannot be more than one penny; confequently by attention to this economical mode we may have abundance of poultry at a reafonable rate. It is alfo ftated that old fowls,“ even though fed with food for which money proportionate to the juft market value muft be paid, will, by their eggs, pay annually at leaft three times the cot of their fubfiftence;”’ befides the advantage of the manure which they produce. An intercfting fyfiem of management for poultry is ftated by Mr. Young in his Calendarof Hutbandry, aspractifed by Mrs, Boys of Kent. It is fimply this:“* The labourers’ wives and families who live on Mr. Boys’s farm do the whole; he fupplies them with what offal corn is neceflary, and they return Mrs, Boys the grown fowls ready for market at threepence each; fixpence for turkeys and geefe, and threepence for ducks; and her aceount, well kept, fiates a profit of twenty pounds a year, after all expenfes are paid and the family well fupplied.” She has alfo all the eggs without any payment.” It is remarked that this fyflem of I Ae Spee DOT natn pe PPLE SAA PROM r210: Live Stock.—Poultry—Galena—Turkey. practice is equally beneficial to the people who undertake it as the farmer. The climate and{oil are there both highly favourable to the raifing of poultry. Fowls are liable to be affe@ted with many different difeafes, but the moft com- mon ones are the following. The Pip, which is diflinguifhed by a thin white fcale being feated upon the tip of the tongue; and it is fuppofed to be produced by the fowls’ notbeing kept fufhi- ciently clean, or the food and water being taken ina foul condition. The beft remedy is the removal of the fcale, and the wafhing of the part with a: weak folution of common falt in pure water. The Roup is thown by the rump becoming fwelled and enlarged, the feathers. fianding awkwardly out, and the quills being full of blood. The‘cure is beft effect- ed by removing the feathers, and then in flight cafes ufing a weak faturnine wath; but where there is much fwelling the part fhould be opened and the contents difcharged. The Flux is thown by the fowls’ becoming fuddenly thin and lean, and their not eating as ufual. It is moftly caufed by the ufe of too large a portion of moift fermenting food’; or fuch as has run into the fate of acidity. It is beft removed by the giving of rice dry and wheat unground; the coop or other place in which: they are confined being kept perfectly clean and well aired. Stoppages are often produced in fowls by their picking up different forts of indifloluble fubftances; fuch as old mortar,&c.: when in the crop they may be taken out by making a fmall opening externally. Blindnefs in fowls is beft removed by changing their food, and letting them have more frefh air. Galena or Guinea Fowl. This isa kind of fowl that lays a great number of eggs;. but probably retains too much of its wild nature to be kept with advantage by the farmer. The leaft difturbance makes it forfake its. neft, which is moftly made in forne diftant unfrequented fituation. The fleh of this fort of fowl is fomewhat dry, but has more of the game flavour than that of the common fowl. Turkey.—In grain diftriéts, this is a bird that may perhaps be raifed with advan- tage by the farmer; it is however very delicate and tender, requiring much attention. and management while young. There are two breeds or varieties of this bird,. the black breed, and the white or /peckled breed: the former is in general the largeft and moft hardy.‘ Thefe birds differ from others in not requiring the males to be conftantly with the females during the laying feafon, as in Norfolk it isa practice to fend the hen : Live Stock.—Poultry—W ater-Fowl— Ducks. 1211 turkeys to fome neighbouring cock to be impregnated, one act being found fufficient for a brood. By this means there is a confiderable faving, in not having cocks to keep the whole year round; and of courfe mott little farmers raife this fort of poul- try, which is fuppofed a principal caufe of their being fo plentiful in that difiriGt*, The turkeymoftly lays from cight to ten or twelve eggs, and batches in about twenty-eight or thirty days. The young brood are extremely tender, and require con- ftant care and attention for a month or fix weeks after they are hatched to rear them with fafety. They fhould during this time be kept in a warm airy inclofed fituation, perfedlly free from wet, and be attentively fed with white bread{teeped in milk that is quite free from acidity; or, what fome prefer, alum curd mixed with chopped onions, for which ufe a proper fupply of early young onions fhould be provided, or old ones planted in this intention. After they have been managed in this way for about a month, they may be brought gradually to be fupported on oat-meal and fweet milk, or grain, of which buck-wheat is found the moft fuitable. As the expenfe in grain and_trouble in the rearing of thefe birds is very confiderable, from their being very greedy feeders, without great fuccefs in raifing them, and a certainty of high prices at the market, they can feldom repay the farmer. Young turkeys may be fattened with great expedition by means of boiled potatoes and good barley-meal mixed well together, if they be kept fed in a regular manner. The practice of cramming them isa piece of ftupid and unneceflary cruelty, as it is evident they can only fatten in proportion to the quantity of food that is digefted, whatever quantity may be forced upon them: befides, they will confume it faft enough without forcing, if kept regularly fed. Mr. Kent afcribes the finenefs of the flavour in the Norfolk turkeys, to the great drynefs of the foil in that diftrict, and the extenfivenefs of the range which they are fuffered to poflefs. The difference between the living and dead weight of a turkey is thus ftated by Mr. Young:—Live weight 211b.; dead weight r4lb. Water-Fowl.—Various birds of this defcription may be kept with benefit by the farmer, where he is fo fituated in refpect to water, commons, and other conveniences, that they can be managed without much attention or trouble; but in other cafes they are not worth his notice, as they will feldom repay the trouble of looking after them. Ducks.—There are different breeds of ducks, but the common white or Englifb breed and the dark brown or fpeckied wild breed are in mott eftimation. The fleth * Marfhall’s Rural Economy. q P2 1212 Live Stock.—PcultryWater- Fowl— Ducks— Management of. of the latter is higher flavoured than the former: Thefe birds may be kept with mot profit to the farmer in fituations where there are large ponds or fheets of water for them to re upon near to the farm-yards, as in fuch cafes they will require little or no trouble; but in other circumftances, except where they are reared by per- fons who make a bufinefs of dealing in thefe and other forts of poultry, they will afford little advantage in the way of profit, unlefs it be a few juft for the purpofe of the table. Ducks moftly begin to lay early in the year, as the latter end of January or beginning of the following month, efpecially when well fed. They require attention at this period, as they lay a great number of eggs, and are very apt to drop them in the water, or at random in other places. One drake is fuffi- cient for four or five ducks. When fet, from ten to a dozen or thirteen egos are a fufficient number. They fit about thirty days, and during the time fhould be fed and have water near their nefts, to prevent the eggs from being injured by their leaving them too long. When hatched, they fhould remain with the duck in fome inclofed fafe warm funny place, and be well fed with crumbs of bread, grits, or barley- meal and boiled potatoes well mixed and ufed frefh and frefh, fand and clean water being conftantly kept in fhallow pans. The duck breeders have alfo in general a provifion of worms, fnails, and other fimilar animals in readine{s' for them when a little more advanced in their growth, as well as corn either in its ground or natural ftate. It is likewife a point of great importance to keep them perfectly clean, and to let them have plenty of dry clean ftraw as litter. The pra@tice of raifing ducksunder hens feldom anfwers well, as their habits are by no means fuited to the rearing of fuch birds; nor has the cuftom of trimming off the tails of the young ducklings any better foundation in reafon.‘They fhould never be admitted at full liberty tillthey are become quite ftrong, as at a month or fix weeks old. It is ufeful to keep them as diftiné as poffible from the others. Ducks are greedy feeders, but not nicein the kinds of food. Inthe fattening of them, grain either in its whole or reduced mixed ftate is probably the bett fort of food. The ufe of boiled potatoes well mixed with oatmeal-is found to be an econo- mical and expeditious method. Much, however, depends on their being fed in an exact and regular manner, and ona proper fupply of water and fand being conftantly given; while at the fame time they are kept in a perfe€tly quiet detached fituation, not too much expofed to the action of light, but well aired. When fattened on- animal fubftances, which are very expeditious in accomphifhing the bufinefs, they are faid to have more refemblance, both in the colour and flavour of their fleth, to the wild duck, than in the common method. In the acorn-feafon they are alfo Live Stock.—Poultry—Water-Fowl—Wild Ducks—Gee/e. 1213 eapable of being readily fattened on that fort of food, and are a!lowed to be well- flavoured in their flefh from it. The eftablithing of decoys for taking of wild-ducks is an object of fome importance in particular fituations, as where there are extenfive fheets of water in fequeftered difiri@s at no great diftance from the fea, as in the wilds of Lincolnthire, Norfolk, and other counties. Much nicety and exactnefs are however requifite in the con- ftru@tion and management of thefe, in order to render them effeCual, as may be feen in Mr. Marfhall’s excellent defcription of the means of forming them, in the firft volume of the Rural Economy of Norfolk. The author of the Middlefex Correed Report obferves, that“ it is clearly afcer- tained, that dacks might be kept in fuch numbers on corn- farms, as to prevent any fenfible lofs or deftruction in their crops by worms, flugs, and caterpillars; and yet we are always hearing of great lofles oceafioned by thofe vermin, The fupport ofa hundred or two of ducks on a farm is a trifling expenfe, and might be confidered in the light of enfuring the young crops again{t being cut off. Itis thought that many a farmer reccives more damage to a crop in one feafon, than would fupport a fufficient number of ducks to give perfect fecurity for twenty years.” eof.—There are feveral diftinct breeds of geefe kept in different places; but the largeft and moft ufeful fort, whether for the purpofe of food or feathers, is the common breed. In the choice of ftore-geefe, great care fhould always be taken to procure them as larce in fize as poffible, and from places where they have been well kept. Geefe, like mot other birds, begin to lay in the fpring months; and the earlier this happens the better, as the price of early green cecfe is generally high, and in fome cafes it may be poffible to have a fecond brood. Both thefe purpofes may be promoted by letting . well fed with oats, grains, or fome fuch kinds of food at the period. The them be we pee> lveeggs. Itmay be known when geefe are about lee Joins arried ¢ tthe y“nO to lay, from ftraw being frequently picked up and carried about bythem. The length of time of fitting is about thirty days. When geefe are inclined to fit, they generally neft after laying aconfiderable time. In this cafe, a goofe generally lays from eight to twe fhow it by remaining on their proper quantity of eggs, as from ten to twelve, fhould be placed in the nefts, and fomething put before them, fo as to prevent the geefe from being much feen. They fhould alfo have plenty of food, fand and water near them, in order that they may not in that way let the eggs be too much cooled. He ¢ have to remain long off the nefits, and The ganders fhould be left with them as guards. When the weather is warm they generally hatch rather fooner than when itiscold. After the goflings are hatched, 1214 Live Stock.—Poultry~ Geefem-Management of. the beft method is to let them remain with the goofe, efpecially where they are firong, in fome warm funny place, that is well fecured againft the entrance of rats, and all other forts of vermin, and which is properly fupplied with water; being well fed with the crumbs of bread, grits, wheat, and fome chopped clivers. They fhould remain in this confinement until they are grown ftrong and capable of following the goofe with eafe; they may then be put into a fall field, or paddock, where the grafs is fhort, till they are fit to be turned out with the geefe. When they are weakly it is cuftomary to feed them in the houfe, with bread foaked in milk, or a little barley-meal,&c. Where this is done, they fhould however always be put under the goofe again immediately after fuch feeding, and handled as little as poflible, warmth in this ftage being the moft effential article in rearing them. They fhould never be fuffered while very young to go into the water, as the cold foon deftroys them. Where the raifing of thefe birds is an objet, care muft always be taken to have good ganders, which are neither too young nor too old, and that the eggs when laid be turned occafionally, and carefully kept in a dry and rather warm place. The number of geefe to a gander fhould not be too great: three or four are quite fufficient. The pra@ice in Lincolnthire, where vaft numbers of thefe birds are annually produced, is for their nefts to be made for them of ftraw, and confined fo as that the eggs cannot roll out when the geefe turn them, which they do every day. When near hatching, the fhell is broken a little againft the beak or nib of the gofling, to give air, or to enable it to receive firength to throw off the fhell at a proper time. The time of plucking them is about the beginning of April; when the fine fea- thers of their breafts and backs fhould be gently and carefully plucked: care muft be taken not to pull or interrupt their down or pen feathers. The quills fhould be pulled five out of a wing. They will bear pulling in thir- teen or fourteen weeks again, or twice in a year: the feathers three times a year, of the old geefe and ganders, feven weeks from each pulling. The young gecfe may be pulled once at thirteen or fourteen weeks old,but not quilled, being hatched in March. But when late in hatching, the brood geefe fhould not be plucked fo foon as April, but the month after. When well fed with barley and oats, they thrive and do better, and their feathers grow fafter and are better in quality than where it is omitted. They muft confiantly have plenty of grafs and water*. * Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XV- ¥ Live Stock.——Pigeons—Inconveniences of keeping of. 1213 In many parts of this fenny diftrict vaft advantage is made by the frequent pluck- ing of the geefe. At Pinchbeck it is the practice to pluck them five times in the year, as at Lady-day, Midfummer, Lammas, Michaelmas, and Martinmas. The feathers of a dead goofe are worth 6d. three giving a pound. But plucking alive does not yield more than 3d. a head per annum. Some wing them only every quarter, taking ten feathers from each goofe, which fell at 5s. a thoufand, Plucked gecfe pay in feathers 1s. a head in Wildmore Fen*, In the fattening of green geefe, care fhould be taken that a little green food be given them along with the oats or other grain that may be employedfor the purpofe when they are put up,and that they be well fupplied with water and fand. A fort- night or three weeks is long enough for this purpofe, if they be well and regu- larly fed; but, in the fattening of the older geefe, there will not be any neceflity for the green food. The place ir which they are confined with this view fhould neither be too light, nor too public in its fituation, as they do not feed fo well where thefe points are not attended to. They fhould likewife be at a diftance, fo as to be out of the hearing of the old or ftore-geefe. Befides the benefits that may be derived from gecfe in the feathers and the birds as food, it feems not improbable but that they might be made to produce a confiderable advantage in the way of manure, if managed under a fyftem of con- ftant littering with ftraw, fern, or fome other fubftance of the fame kind, as from the great quantity of grafs they confume the difcharge in the night is very confiderable. Pigeons. Though pigeon-houfes are common on many farms, it is in very few inftances, probably, that this kind of ftock, when the various difadvantages of it are confidered, can be converted to much profit by the farmer. It is well remarked by an intelligent cultivator, that“ the increafe of pigeons beyond a certain degree muft doubtlef$ be injurious to the cultivation of grain: within due bounds, they do little harm; but increafed beyond it, they prove pernicious vermin both to the new-fuwn crops and the early part of harvelt. They are particularly voracious in early peas; therefore the advantage arifing from their increafe for confumption as food, is more than counterbalanced by the mifchief occafioned by their depredations+.” And in Norfolk, pigeons are much fewer than formerly, as many of the pigeon-houfes have been dropped, on account of the injury which the pigeons do to thatched buidingst. The fameis the cafe in Kent and other countigs. * Young’s Agricultural Report of Lincolnfhire. - Pitt’s Correéted. Report of Staifordfhire. t Ibid. of Norfolk. P+ j } . : 1216 Live Stock.—Pigeons—-preper Management of. They are particularly injurious to the grain crops juft at the time of harvett, by fettling in large flights upon the ftanding corn, and in this way doing more mif- chief by beating it down than by the quantity they confume. Where this fort of ftock is kept, warm fheltered fituations, open to the fouth, are the moft advantageous, as the pigeon delights in warmth, and being expofed te the influence of the fun. It is alfo of importance in the economy of thefe birds, that the floor of the dove- cote be nearly upon alevel with theholes where they enter, and that thefe holes be not too large or too numerous: the holes where they form their nefis fhould not be much inclofed, as pigeons delight in being at liberty. Salt and{trong fcents, fuch as that of affafcetida, are faid to be agreeable to thefe birds, fo as frequently to attach them to their habitations. The pigeon feldom lays more than two eggs at one laying, fitting about twenty days, the male and female alternately. They are capable of breeding frequently, but in general produce only two or three broods or flights in the year. There are feveral forts, but the common blue pigeon is probably the moft produ@ive. The tumblers are fmall, but very domeftic. After recommending the harveft flight of pigeons as the moft proper for the purpofe of flock, as being the ftrongeft to withfland the winter feafon, the author of the“ Experienced Farmer” gives the following directions on the manage- ment of thefe birds. In regard to feeding them, it is advifed as only neceflary during the feafon between feed-time and liarveft, when“ it fhould be done by three or four o’clock in the morning; as they rife early. If you ferve them much later, they will keep hovering about home, and be prevented taking their neceffary exercife.” If fed“ the year round, they will not breed near fo well as if forced to feek their own food; for they pick up in the fields what is pleafant and, healthy to them, and from the beginning of the harveft to the end of feed-time they find plenty.” They may be fed with tares, grain, or feeds of any kind. “‘ Be cautious of not letting the firft flight fly to increafe the flock, but let every one of them be taken; as thefe will come in what is called benting-time, that is, between feed-time and harveft. It is then that pigeons are the fcarceft; and many of the young ones would pine to death through weaknefs during that feafon. “ At the latter end of every flight care fhould be taken to defiroy all thofe eggs which were not layed in a proper time. The proper time for the fpring-flight 1s in April and May. After the harveft-flight, cold weather begins to come on, which injures the old pigeon much if fhe fits late; and the young will be good for nothing if hatched.” = Live Stock.——Bees. 1217 “It is very neceflary to pay attention to cleanlinefs in the management of a dove- cote. Before breeding-time the holes ought to be carefully examined and cleaned; for if any of the young die in the holes in fummer, maggots are foon bred in them: they become putrid, and emit a difagreeable and unwholefome ftench, very injurious to the inhabitants of the dovecote. Pigeons are tenacious of their nefts, as appears from the conduét of the wood-pigeon, which will breed for years in the fame tree, and the mother forfakes her neft with regret; but, unable to endure the filth and ftench of her dead offspring, fhe is obliged to quit the eggs fhe has laid for a fecond brood, and the prime of the feafon is loft. Every fummer, immediately after the firft flight, the nefts fhould be all cleaned out, and the dung totally taken away, as it breeds filth. But remember to do this bufinefs early in the morning.” ‘The remaining eggs ought likewife to be defiroyed, aud a perfectly clean habitation made for the harvelt-flight. It is advifed“ never to go into a dovecote later than mid-day, but as early ina morning as convenicnt. Whatever repairs are neceflary, either to the building or to the nefts, fhould be done before noon: for if you diturb the pigeons in the afternoon, they will not reft contentedly the whole night; and the greateft part, perhaps, will not enter the cote until the next day, but will fit moping on the ground; and, if in breeding-time, either a number of eggs may be fpoiled, or feveral young ones ftarved to death.” Pigeons are fuppofed to be more produ@ive from the breeds being croffed, in proof of which afew tame pigeons were put into a dovecote; and the confequence was, that a more early anda more numerous hatch of young were produced than in any of the neighbouring cotes*. Thefe birds have a great antipathy to owls, which find their way fometimes into dovecotes; and there is no getting rid of fuch troublefome guefts but by deftroying them.<“ Rats are terrible enemies to pigeons, and will foon deftroy a whole dove- cote. Cats, weafels, and fquirrels will dothe fame. It will be neceflary, therefore, to examine the dovecote once every week at leaft, very minutely,” to fee that there are none of thefe intraders. Pigcons“make an extraordinary good manure, which, if worked up intoacompoft, inftead of being ufed in the prefent flovenly way, would be of fiill more value,” Bees.—How far thefe indufirious infets may be kept as a part of the farming- fiock with profit has not yet been fully fhown; but as they require little trouble, and there is in moft country fituations a fufficiency of food ready provided for their * Experienced Farmer. 7@ 1218 Live Stock.—Bees—Proper Situation of the Apiary. fupport, there can be little rifk in the farmer making the trial, efpecially as the capi- tal required will be but trifling. In undertaking this fort of ftock, the beft fituation is in general where the hives will be leaft expofed to wind, and enjoy as much of the influence of the fun as pof- fible; for wind always retards bees in their work, while the fun’s influence invites them to it. Though it is well known bees thrive well in high and windy fituations, a Jow one is always to be preferred. Mr. Bonner adyifes“ an early fituation; a hol- low glen by the fide of a rivulet, furrounded with abundance of turnips in bloflom in the fpring, muftard and clover in the fummer, and heath in the latter end of fummer and harveft with a variety of other garden and wild flowers in their fea- fons.” Itis an obfervation as old as Columella, that the bee-garden fhould con- fiantly face the fouth, and be placed in a warm valley near a ftream, Tt has been well remarked, that“a plentiful aflortment of bee-flowers is a confi- deration that requires attention, if we defign to favour an ample production of honey. The nearer the pafturage is tothe apiary, the more journeys the bees can nake in a day, and confequently the fooner they will be able to fill their hives. The product from a large fupply, but at a fmall diftance, and in a temperate fituation| even with the common management, will be fuperior to-that of the moft{kilful in a bad one. On the contrary, with bad management, and with fcanty pafturage and indifferent fituation, a very trifling profit can be cxpeted. Britain in general is but thinly ftocked with bees. Few farmers in comparifon efteem them worth their notice; itis from the attention of cottagers we derive’ the chief fupply of honey and wax. It will be readily admitted, that a large number of{tocks kept within a finall circuit, and in a bad fituation, will be prejudicial to that circuit, as being more than can be fupported in plenty, and will neceflarily impoverith each other, The ftate of any particular fituation may be known by the general product for fe- yeral years together, and not from one or two years only; but more certainly from what a very good feafon will produce, which may be accounted as a ftandard. But there are many fituations capable of feeding a much larger number of ftocks than are to be found on them. However, if the generality of farmers and cottagers in. dividually would keep a few ftocks, nearly all the honey and wax this country could produce might be colleGted. This would not only benefit individuals, but might alfo be of real national utility*.” lt is added, that“ large heaths and commons, furrounded with woods, are noted for being abundantly productive; the firft abounding with wild thyme, and yarious * Keys on the Management of Bees. Live Stock.—Bees—Purchafing Stocks. 1219 other flowers untouched by the feythe, and the other with a profufion of farina and honey-dews. Heath and broom are very ferviceable, as continuing long and late in bloom.” It is remarked“ that the domeftic bees are very nice in their fele¢tions, and do not rove from one fort of flowers to thofe of another indifcriminately. They are limited to afew kinds; thofe of the moft gaudy colours, and which afford the moft refplendent fhow and agreeable odours, are mofily neglected by them, as hy- acinths, jefiamines, rofes, honey-fuckles,&c, while very{mall flowers, or thofe of little note, are to them plentiful fources of ne@areous fweets. Sallows furnith a larger quantity of farina than moft other plants, and that as early as the bees have occafion for it. Rofemary is the firft aromatic plant that blows; it grows wild in fome parts of France, and is the caufe of that fuperiority for which the Narbonne honey is efieemed. Minionette yields good honey, and is valuable for its long continuance in bloom, even till November. Beds of it near an apiary will be of advantage, as will edgings of creeping lemon-thyme along the borders of the garden. Single wall-flowers in plenty will be ferviceable. Lime-trees are not to be neglected about apiaries, ferving in a double capacity by their flowers and their leaves, which are frequently covered with honey-dews. Neither beans nor orchard-trees afford any great quantity of honey; as may be obferved by the ftocks in Herefordfhire, which, though abounding in orchards, is not more produive in honey than other counties: In contraft to this, the borders of Cambridgethire and Hertfordthire, and part of Hampfhire, abounding with large heaths, commons and woods, are much more productive than any other parts of the kingdom. Farmers there have been known to keep from a hundred to a hundred and fifty ftocks of bees*. But vipers’ buglofs, and borage, are the two plants to be moft depended upon for providing rich hives+. In refpect to ftands, the bett arrangement is probably that of feparate ones for each hive, made by driving four ftrong flakes into the ground, at equal diftances, as thus,:: correfponding to the dimenfions of the hive floors to reft on: they fhould be fixteen inches above the earth, and the tops upon a level with each other; the diftance three or four feet from each other, and not too many together. In purchafing fiock-bees the“ beft time is juft before the taking-up feafon, which is generally about the latter end of Auguft; for then bee-keepers referve as many of the beft ftocks as they judge expedient for their next fummer’s fupply, and therefore, after that period, are not difpofed to part with any, unlets at an advanced price; whereas, by purchafing fome time before, a choice may be made of the beft, * Keys on the Management of Bees.+ Ibid, 72 2 1220 Live Steck.—Bess-—-FProper Hives for. t and at the accuflomed rate. They fhould be felected by a tkilful perfon, in a coof evening, or rather morning very carly, By tapping about the hive, a. pretty near guefs may be formed whether or not it is fullof bees, as alfo if fallof combs. But for greater certainty, turn thofe that feem heavy upon the edge of the hive, and obferve if theinterftices between the combs are crowded with bees, and the combs worked down tothe floor. If white, orof alight yellow, it denotes their being of the prefent year’s produce, and fit for the purpofe; but if they are of a very deep yellow or brown, they are of the laft feafon, and not fo proper; while thofe that are dingy or blackith are old, and wholly unfit to furnifh a profperous apiary. But though ahive may have the edges of the combs of alight yellow, they may be old ftocks, whofe combs the preceding year not having been completed, have in the pre- fent had new borders added to them of virgin wax, fo as to look like young ftocks. Look carefully between the combs, as far as the bees will admit; and if the interior parts appear favourable, form a judgment accordingly.‘The hive fhould be poifed in the hand; and if it be about half bufhel fize, and weigh twenty-five pounds or upwards, it is another teftof its being a good ftock*.” The“ removing of ftocks fhould take place in the evening, or very early in the morning.‘The hive fhould be raifed by three or four wedges, fome hours before, provided the floor is not moveable; or otherwife many bees will remain on the floor at the time, and be very troublefome. A cloth muft be laid on the ground behind the hive to be removed; nimbly lift the hive thereon, and gathering the four corners tight, tie them faft on the top: immediately draw a ftring clofe round the body of the hive, to prevent any bees crawling between.” They muft be conveyed in a gentle manner. In regard to hives, ftraw is the beft material,“ as protecting the bees the moft perfectly in the extremes of cold and heat, and being alfo generally eafieft to be procured. Whereit is not fo, rufhes, wicker-work plaftered over, or fedges, may be fubftituted in its ftead. For this ufe, unthrafhed ftraw fhould always be em- ployed, of all kinds of which that of rye is to be preferred, as thrafhing fhivers and makes it rough and fhaggy, which the bees with much labour are obliged to gnaw offt. Theyare made of different forms or fhapes, but thofe in common ufe anfwer very well; they fhould be neatly hooded over with an upper coating of ftraw§. The chief attention neceflary in the management of bees is at the period of their fwarming, when great care fhould be taken to fecure them. * Keys on Bees.+ Ibid. t Ibid,§ Pitt’s Agricultural Report of Staffordthire. Live Stock—-Fifh- Ponds. 1293 In eftimating the profit of this fort of ftock, it has been fuggefted that* one confideration fhould not be overlooked, viz. that almoft the whole produce, arifing - from the fale of both honey and wax, is in a great meafure clear profit; as bees and bee-hives are equally free from rents and taxes; and the culture of them does not in the leaft injure or impede any other improvement in any refpect. Nor do they re- quire a conftant attendance, as moft cther articles of improvement do; for a proper perfon might eafily overfee, with a little affiftance in fwarming-time, at leaft five hundred bee-hives. And as Nature has amply fupplied them with food, and with powers to provide it for themfelves, they put their owners to little or no expenfe for that article; which cannot be faid of any other of our fervants whatever*.” It is a circumftance that deferves notice, that, by attention in the bee-mafter in the feleion of food, almoft any flavour or colour may be given to the honey, from the bright amber toa pale yellow. Mr. Paterfon, of Caftle-Huntley, in Scotland, found the flavour very delicate frony minionette; it is the fame from rofemary. Bean- honey is pale, and heath-honey brown, with much difference in flavour+. In Nor- folk they commonly fuppofe the honey debafed by the great quantity of buck-wheat that is grown; but Mr. Marfhall fufpects it to depend either wholly or in a great part on.the heath. Fifb-ponds.—In particular fituations, efpecially where the proprietor of the land keeps it under his own management, it may not only be convenient and agreeable, but likewife highly profitable, to have ponds for the breeding, rearing, and preferving of different forts of fifth. Where ponds for thisufe do not naturally prevail, they may in many cafes be readily formed, particularly where there are very gentle falls or valleys between hills, or other depreffions taking place in the grounds; and. through which waters pafs with a flow or very eafy current. The nature of the fituation will fhow the extent of the ponds, and the number that can be readily formed. Where water and fituation admit, two, three, or more may be made on the fame line or courfe, the head of one conftituting the bottom of the other. And from one to four or five acres of ground may be covered with water, according to the fupplies and other circumftances. In fuch fituations the only expenfe of forming convenient fith-pands is that of confiructing heads or banks acrofs the valleys, or depreffions, for the purpofe of damming up the waters to the requifite heights, with proper fluices; which in moft cafes, efpecially where clay is at hand, may be done with but little expenditure of * Bonner on Bees.+ Perth Agricultural Report. go9 Live Stock.—Fifh-Ponds—Method of forming. money.‘Thefe banks or heads fhould be formed on foundations of fufficient depths, as from two to three or more fect, and in breadth proportioned to the extent and prefiure of the water. The wall in the middle part, which fhould not be lefs than three or four feet in width, being wholly made by puddling pure clay, which in many inflances may be chiefly procured by floping out the ground intended for the ponds, or digging out fmall ponds for fews,&c. If clay can be eafily got from other places, it is, however, better to let the ground for the ponds remain, as the fith feed better for it. As the work of puddling advances, earth mutt be well rammed to the different fides of the wall, and, when finithed,.the whole immediately well covered over withit, in order to guard againtt cracking. In cafes where the ground on the fides rifes in avery gentle manner, banks or heads of from fix to eight or nine feet in height will often be capable of covering fome acres of land with water. But in the contrary circumftances they will be required to be confiderably higher, as well as of greater breadth and ftrength. This may be eafily regulated by proper levelling:— fuppofing ten feet to be a fufficient height in the centre for raifing the water, the foot of the bank fhould not be lefs than thirty-five, being gradually narrowed or floped on the fides fo as to bring it to cight or ten on the top. It is better, how- ever, to have the fide next to the water more floped than the other. Some fuch proportion as this fhould be preferved in all cafes, always giving them too much rather than too little breadth in their foundations. Proper grates, fluices, and diverting channels for taking off the water in the time of floods will likewife be neceflary; the laft being formed and conduied along the fides of the ponds, where there are more than one, and the fluices fixed in the loweft parts.”. Thefe fhould be made perfectly firong of good feafoned oak, and be well fixed in the banks, and the clay tightly rammed in about them*. The expenfe of confiructing heads and banks of this nature, including every thing, may in moft fituations be eftimated at from one to two fhillings the cubical yard. In raifing carp it is often the practice to have three ponds: one for the purpofe of {pawning the fith in, and in which they fhould be left during the reft of the fammer and the following winter, as they moftly fpawn from the beginning of May tothe latter end of July; another for the convenience of nurfing up the young fry,into which they thould be put about the latter‘end of March or the beginning of April, choofing a calw but not funny day for the bufinefs. After which they fhould be carefully * North in Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXVIII. ch Live Stock.—Fifh-Ponds-— Method of Stocking. 1228 prevented from coming to the fides and being deftroyed. In this pond they may remain two years and become four, five, or fix inches in length, and gool forufe; the third or main pond is deftined for the reception of the grown fifh, as thofe that meafure a foot or more including the heads and tails.‘ The proportions in which thefe different ponds are advifed to be flocked are thefe:—for each acre of the firtt fort,“ three or four male carps, and fix or eight female ones.” The moft fuitable fort for this ufe being‘ thofe of five, fix, or feyen years old, in good health, with full fcale, and fine full eyes, and a long body without any blemifh or wound.” The ponds fhould be previoufly cleared of all forts of voracious fifhes and other animals, as“ perch, pike, eel, and trout; the water- beetle, and alfo the newts or lizards*.” Such ponds as are warm and have an open expofure, with foft water, are the moft proper for thisufe, all kinds of water-fowl being kept fromtbhem. Forthe nurfing ponds a thoufand or twelve hundred may not be more than fufficient for an acre; and for the main ponds, one to every{quare of fifteen feet isthe proportion advifed, as their growth depends greatly on the room and quantity of food that is allowed}. The beft feafons for performing the bufiuefs, in this cafe, are thofe of the fpring andautumn. Some advife in thefe cafes the ftocking with carp or teach in the proportion of three to a fquare perch i. In firft ftocking large ponds or waters, as where they are of the extent of three or four acres, carp in the proportion of three hundred to the acre are recommended; but where they do not extend to fuch fizes, not fo great a proportion. And in re- ftocking, after two or three years, four hundred to the acre§. Where the ponds are fuitable for tench, the firft ftocking with them in fuch cafes may be rather more, andin the re-{tockings confiderably more, as feven or eight hundred to the acre. As perch are great breeders, in firft fiocking with them fix hundred to the acre may be fufficient. In Berkthire, where there are many ponds for the preferving of fith, they ufually flock with carp or tench in the proportion of-one hundred to the acre, the fifh reinaining four years in them||. But in the management of Sir Harry Featherftone, in Sufiex, in a pond of twenty acres reduced to fixteen by the depofi- tion of mud, the ftock is generally in the proportion of twelve hundred carp and an equal number of tench; or at the rate of. feventy-five brace to the acre. And in this proportion they are faid to fucceed well€]. Where pike does not form any * North in Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XX XVIII.+ Ibid. } Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXXIX.§ Ibid.|} Ibid. Vol. XLI, q Ibid. Vol. XXXIIT, Sc Ril 2 a a NO Ren re ets ea 1224 Live Stock.—Fifh-Ponds—Profit of. part of the ftock of ponds, care fhould however always be taken not to overftock, as where thefe forts of fifh have not an abundant fupply of food, they never anfwer well. When taken from clofe-fiocked ponds,.a larger proportion fhould likewife be employed than in other cafes. The waters of fome ponds are better adapted to raifing fome forts of ith than others. Thus, thofe where the water is rich and white are more adapted for earp; while fuch as have a thicker appearance, and where there is a greaterdepo- fition of muddy matter, are better fuited to tench. Perch are capable of being raifed in almoft any fort of ponds. Eels fucceed befi where the ponds are not very large, but where fed by a fpring, and there is a large portion of rich fediment. Pike fhould never be kept in ponds with carp or tench, but in feparate breeding-ponds, where the fupplies of fmall fry are confiderable and not wanted for ftores. Carp, tench and perch are the forts principally cultivated with a view to profit, with a few eels occafionally. But perch and eels fhould net be admitted where the ponds are but thinly fiocked, as they are great devourers of the young fifh. Carp and tench anfwer beft together where the extents of the ponds are pretty large, as, in other cafes, the former, from being a much more powerful fifh, beats and deprives the latter of his food. Carp feldom afford much profit in ponds of lefs extent than half an acre; but tench thrive well in thofe of almoft any fize, being often found good in ponds of only a few perches fquare, Carp, perch, and eels fucceed well together; and alfo tenchand ecls*. Carp more frequently injure themfelves by breed- ing than tench; though it fometimes happens with the latter. It is not improbable, but that in fmall ponds it may be the beft practice to keep the carp and tench feparate. The produce or profit afforded by fith-ponds has not yet, perhaps, been fufficiently attended to in different fituations to afford correct conclufions; nor is it well afcertained what is the annual increafe in weight in fifhof different kinds, in dif- ferent periods of their growth, and under different circumftances of foil and water. Mr. Loveden ftates, that in Berkfhire a pond of three acres and a half, drawn after being ftocked three years with ftores of one year old, produced Of carp, 1951b. weight Oftench, 230 ditto, 425 which fold for 20]. ros, or nearly al, 6s. per acre per annum. * Annals of Agriculture. SS ae STINE Seer Live Stock.—Fifh-ponds.—Profits of. And the fame pond ftocked with tench only, drawn three years afterwards, afforded about 261.* On the fuppofition that ina pond which fupports 2400 fifh, halfa pound each be added annually, it will be a r200lb. weight, which at 6d. per pound is gol. and for fifteen acres 40s. per acre, and at od. per Ib. 3]. per acref. Thefe are profits, though by no means great, that fhould draw the attention of farmers to the cultivation of this fort of ftock wherever they have opportunities of— making ponds with facility for the purpofe, as the trouble of them is almoft nothing. And, befides, it is probable that, by more care in the ftocking and other parts of their management, fuch ponds might be rendered much more productive. Where the ponds are fupplied by ftreams, feeding will feldom be neceflary, but in other cafes it may fometimes be ufeful. In thefe inftances bread compofed of coarfe flour and potatoes funk in cabbage nets may be made ufe of. Many other fubftances have likewife been recommended. In fevere frofts the ice fhould be daily broken to afford air, as without this precaution a great number of fith will frequently be deftroyed in fuch feafons. * It is remarked that in this diftrict, the price is, when fold by the pound, one billing for tench and tenpence for the carp; which is the beft mode of felling them. But when by number, they are meafured from eye to tail, and fold. as under: Wee Ss Cs Pesca: Tench mgafuring under 12 inches3 0 0 Carp 12inchs 5 0© EZ atito(Geo) C 14 ditto 610 oO i,ditto 7 9 O 16 ditto 8 0© + Annals of Agriculture. ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS TO THE SECOND VOLUME. To be read after Line 25, Page 585.—In Norfolk they never drill peafe at a greater diftance than nine inches. When they are dibbled they plant two rows on a flag, fo that they cannot be above four inches from each other. To be read ofter Line 16, Page 595.—It is the cufiom in Norfolk to dibble beans in the fame manner as the peafe,&c. except that they never fet more than one hole ona flag. The plants are perhaps eight inches afunder, but are rarely buried above an inch. They turn fheep in when the beans are two or three inches high, to crop any grafs which may have got up between the furrows. Sheep do not eat the beans, or in any degree injure them. With this mode of management they can grow from ten to fourteen coombs an acre. They always hand-hoe beans twice, and fometimes thrice. Where the ground is very ftiff and hard, they harrow once or twice ina place before they dibble. Gee ee To be read after firft Line, Page 825.—Mr. Salifbury, the prefent proprietor of the Brompton Botanic Garden, obferves, that he fent this feafon, early in May, to the Board of Agriculture, a bundle of this grafs which was in full bloom, and at the great height of thirty-two inches; it was fown in his ground, in September 1802, by way of experiment with other kinds: the land was far from rich, and had had no manure for feveral years previous to this being cut. It has been obferved that the Alopecurus pratenfis if /own alone, and cut for hay, dries in far lefs time than any other grafs, and requires to be ricked fooner, for its quality will be injured by too long expofure. If it be mixed with other graffes, the whole will be fit for the ftack the fooner. To be read after Line 3, Page 827.—It has been remarked by Mr. Salifbury, that this grafs is likely to be a fearce kind in cultivation, as the feed is not to be collected in any quantity, neither does it produce it abundantly when grown on purpofe, I Additions and CorreGions to the Second Volume.£237 Lo be read after Line 20, Page 827.—According to Mr. Salifbury, this grafs in certain fituations is to be ranked among the beft and moft produdtive grafles; but on examining the plant in many other places where it grows fpontaneouily, he finds it fo very fmall and poor, that unlefs circumftanees were much in its favour, agri- cultors fhould, he thinks, be careful how they hazard the fowing it; the places where it is obferved to thrive beft, are, he fays, in low wet foils confifting of a heavy loam and clay: farmers who have lands of this defcription would certainly do well to felect this kind for the purpofe, as it is fweet, and feems to poffefs all that is necef fary for either pafturage or hay. ne To be read after Line 3, Page 828.—The fame able botanift obferves, that no plant whatever deferves more tie attention of the farmer than this, it being of certain growth, eafy culture, productive, and remarkably fweet. It will thrive in either dry or wet foils,—an advantage which moft others do not poflefs; it appears to be little inferior to fox-tail, except in point of the early growth. One reafon why this as well as many other grafles were not formerly more generally introduced into cultivation, was the difficulty of diftinguifhing the grafles from each other; but which, from the ftudy of agricultural botany, is now in fome meafure done away: but a greater till lately has always prefented itfelf, which was the diffi- culty of procuring pure feeds of the different forts: this too has now been ina great degree remedied by the exertions of Mr. Salifbury, who, with fome country gentle- men, have laid down land fufficient to fupply the principal feedfmen and others with large quantities; and it may be expected that in a fhort time the markets will be generally fupplied with them as well as with rye-graf’, which was the only one to be purchafed till within thefe few years. To be read after Line 28, Page 828.—Mr. Salifbury has not found the fame fault in the culture of this grafs as is mentioned by Mr. Curtis, which is, that it is apt to become thin and almoft difappears after a while; on the contrary, he finds it ftands the drieft foil equal to any, gets matted together and forms a moft delightful turf in very dry weather. To be read after Line 32, Page 829.—This grafs, Mr.Salifbury fays, feems to chiefly affect a loamy foil, is not very productive, but, being a ftrong perennial,-has been much recommended: it flowers about the time of the above, and is confidered good 7R2 1228 Additions and Correétions for theep food; and the butter made from paftures where it grows is generally efteemed excellent. To be read ofter Line 19, Page 835.—Mr. Salifbury thinks this an extremely ufeful plant, which makes good pafturage and hay, but which thrives only ina loamy foil. [t is frequently found wild in wafte lands where the foil is good; and, in fact, he confiders it as a juft criterion to judge of the fertility of a foil by. To be read at the end of Seétion X1. Page 901.—The bufinefs of hiring and ftocking farms deferves more attention than is commonly beftowed upon it. For the prefent purpofe, it is however only neceffary to place before the farmer the principal circumflances which ought to regulate his conduct, as the fubje& has been very fully handled by an agricultor of much_practicak experience*,~' The changes in regard to farming property are in-general, in the more fouthern parts of the kingdom, made about Michaelmas. In thefe the farmer fhould delibe- rately confider the nature of the foil, the climate, the relative fituation in refpect to the convenience of improvements and markets; the fize in regard to his capital, the man- ner in which the inclofures are difpofed with refpect to each other, the management of the former tenant, the covenants by which he is to be fettered, and, finally, the amount and arrangements in regard to rent. Having made thefe confiderations with proper minutenefs and attention, weighing their advantages and difadvantages in his mind, without fuffering himfelf to be influenced by probable caufes, he may be en- abled to bring their benefits into competition with their difadvantages, and to compare the former with the amount of rent which he is required to pay, in fuch a manner as to decide on the propriety or impropriety of his engaging them. In this matter great care fhould however be taken, that real inconveniences or difficulties be neither too much magnified nor too greatly defpifed, fo as to produce a too hafiy or too protracted decifion; from both of which, evils may proceed. By the latter, the fecuring of an advantageous farm may often be lofi, while the former may lead to. the engaging of one that is not by any means adapted to his circumftances. In thefe cafes the farmer fhould never fuffer himfelf to be too much influenced in his deter- minations by the circumftances of the preceding occupiers, as fo much depends upon * Mr. A. Young. to the Second Volume. management, that with one fort there may be confiderable lofs, while under another a very adequate profit may be derived. The circumftances in refpeét to the nature of the foil, which have been chiefly directed to be attended to by Mr. Young, in fixing upon a farm, are thefe:“ftiffnefs, moitture, expofure, levelnefs, flope, ftoninefs; what draining, manuring, fencing, &e. will be wanted: the roads, diftance of market, prices of commodities, labour, &c. the ftate of tithes or gathering; the poor rates, the compactnefs of the fields, and covenants relative to cropping;” as“ many fuch are extremely detrimental to a good conduct of the land.” And“ one general rule in hiring a farm fhould not, he fays, be forgotten—to fix on good land, and he can fcarcely pay too much for it; but, for poor foils, the leaft rent is fometimes too high to be confiftent with profit. By poor foils, however, are not to be underftood fuch as have a command of Jafiing manures, that work great improvements;. nor wafte lands, which,.under that falfe denomination, are often found the moft profitable of all.” It is obferved“that the found, mellow, rich, putrid, crumbling, fandy loams are of all foils the moft profitable; fuch as will admit tillage foon after rain, and do not bake on hot: gleams-of fan coming after heavy rains, when. finely: harrowed: fuch land is better: worth forty fhillings an acre than many foils deferve five: The next foil is that of the ftiff loam, which is neareft allied to brick earth; this, till drained; is in general an unkindly foil, without plenty of manure. It is known in winter by being very adhefive upon walking over it: is long in drying, even when little or no water is feen upon it; for which reafon it is- generally latein the fpring before it can be ploughed. When quite dry it breaks up neither fo hard and cloddy as mere clay, nor near{fo crumbly and mellow as the good loam. If it isin ftub- ble, it is apt to-be covered witha minute green mofs. There are many varieties of this foil, but all agree in moft of thefe circumftances; and in being what the farmers call poor, cold, hungry land. When hollow-ditched, and greatly ma- nured, it yields any thing; but thofe who hire it fhould forget neither of thefe expenfes.” It is added, that“ the gravelly foils are numerous in their kind, and very different in their natures. Warm, dry, found gravelly loams are eafily diflinguifhed in winter. They admit ploughing all winter through, except in very wet times; always break up in a crumbly fiate of running mould; and, if a ftubble, will. dig on trial by the fpade, in the fame manner. If under turnips, you may perceive, by walking through them, that it will bear their being fed off.‘The wet, cold, fpringy gravel is a very bad foil; it is known in winter by the wetnefs of it; and in{pring, by its binding with hafly fhowers. It rarely breaks up in acrumbly ftate, or{hows 5 1230 Additions and- Corréfions a mellownef$ under the fpade. Very expenfive drains greatly. correct its ill qua- lities, but it requires a prodigious quantity of manure to fertilife it. Some gravels are fo fharp and burning, that they produce nothing except in wet fummers; but fuch are known at any feafon ef the year. Sands are as various as gravels, and are all eafily difcoverable in their natures. The rich red fand is, he believe 8, as profitable a foilas any in the world. It has at all feafons a dry foundnefs, and at the fame time a moifiure without wetnefs, which fecures crops even in dry fummers. The fpade is fufficient to try it at any feafon of the year. The lichi fandy loam is like- i o F pa ec wife an admirable foil: it will bear ploughing, like the preceding, all winter long, and appears quite found and mellow when tried with the fpade. If it lies under a winter fallow, the beft way to judge of its richnefs is to remark the fate of the furrows, and the degree of adhefion in the foil. Stiff land, being dry and crumbly, is a great perfection, and fand, being adhefive, is an equally good fign. When, therefore, the farmer views a light fandy loam, whofe found drynefS is acknow- ledged, he may-prefume the foil is rich, in proportion to its adhefion. IE it falls flat in powder, and has no adhefion, it isa mere fand. The white chalky marm is often cold and wet, will not bear ploughing in winter, unlefs the weather is very dry or frofty; runs exceflively to mortar with a heavy fhower when in a pulyerifed tate. It is a cold foil, of little profit, except with peculiar management; but an{wers beft when dry laid down to faintfoin.” It is concluded, that“ it fhould be laid down in general as a maxim, that ftrong, harfh, tenacious clay, though it will yield great crops of wheat, is yet managed at fo heavy an expenfe, that it is ufually let for more than itis worth. Much money is not often made on fuch land, The very contrary foil, a light, poor, dry fand, is very often in the occupation of men who have made fortunes. Some permanent manure is ufually below the furface, which anfwers well to carry on: and fheep, the common fiock of fuch foils, is the moft profitable fort he can depend on. All tiff foils are viewed to moft advantage in winter: the general fault of them is wetnefs, which is in the greateft excefs at that feafon of the year. If the fields are level, and the water flands in the land, notwithftanding the furrows are well ploughed and open, it is a fign that the clay is very ftiff, and of fo adhefive a nature as to contain the water like a difh. It is likewife probable, that draining may prove infufficient to cure the natural evil of fuch land.* This kind of foil likewife thows itfelf in the breaking up of ftubbles for a fallow; a very ftrong draught of cattle is then necefiary to work it, It breaks up in vaft pieces almoft as hard as iron. When it is -worked fine it will run like mortar, with a heavy{pring or fummer fhower. Thefe foils will yield very great crops of beans and wheat,&c, They mufi, like others, to the Second Volume. be cultivated by fomebody; but he would advife every friend of his to have nothing to do with them; never to be captivated with feeing large crops upon the land; for he does not fee at the fame time the expenfes at which they are raifed.” It is fiated that“ peat, bog, moor and fen in many variations are very profitable but the expenfes of improvement demand a calculating head. The vicinity of lime or marl is then of great importance.” He fays that, in refpect to grafs lands, the marks for judgment are different, Thefe are beft examined by attending, firft, to the cireumftances in which they are moft deficient; and then to fuch as are in their favour. The more feafons grafs fields are viewed in the better; though any one is fufficient for a tolerable judg ment. One evil attending thefe lands is, that of being too wet; the figns of which can never be miftaken or overlooked in any feafon of the year. In winter, it is at once perceived by walking on it; at all times of the year by the herbage which generally abounds on it; fuch as rufhes, flags, and a great quantity of mofs; and alfo by the colour of the grafs, which is moftly blue at the points, fometimes of a dirty yellow hue, and always coarfe. If the foil is the firft defcribed,{tiff clay, and the furface level, the evil will be very difficult of cure; if of the other fort of clay, or fliff loams, draining will have great effets. Grafs fields on gravelly foils are, if the gravel is fharp, very apt to burn in dry fummers: but they give great and{weet crops in wet ones, provided the land isa gravelly loam. An abfolute gravel fhould never be under grafs. A farmer fhould not, however, regret having a pafture or two of this fort in his farm, being of excellent ufe in winter for feeding fheep and lambs on with turnips,&c. The low meadows, whatever the foil, on the banks of the rivers and brooks, are in general good, but often fubje&t to the mif- fortune of being overflown in fummer; which not only ruins crops of hay before they are cut, but carries them away perhaps when juft made. Many grafs fields, on all foils, confift of fo bad an herbage as.to be of little value; made up of: weeds, and.the worft and coarfeft of graffes: if a landlord will not allow fuch to be ploughed, the farmer fhould-minute the rent accordingly. This fault is vifible at all feafons.. A river that does not overflow, running through a farm, isa very favourable circumftance, as it indicates a probability of all the grafs fields being well watered, that is, for cattle. And in many cafes it may be converted to the pur- pofe of irrigating the land. If the climate be mild, and the lands well theltered from the effects of the north and eafterly winds by tracts of high grounds or woods of fome extent, they are in many cafes circumftances of a favourable kind, efpecially where much of the farm is to be conducted under the grazing fyftem. 1230 Additions and Correétions The fituation of the land near towns, where the markets for the difpofing of their different produdis are good; and in many cafes near large cities, where the pro- duce of feyeral different forts can not only be difpofed of to much advantage, but manure in-abundance be procured and brought back in return, is alfo a point that fhould not be unattended to in the taking of a farm. And iflime, marl, or other fubftances capable of being made ufe of as manures, be-near at hand, they are of great importance in(he management of land, and fhould have their due influence with the farmer in his fixing himfelf ina farm. Befides thefe, there are various other local circumftances and advantages, that may operate in different cafes with propriety in directing his conduct in the bufinefs of taking a farm. It is a matter which Mr. Young juftly confiders of the greateft confequence in the engaging-of a farm, that no larger.a one be taken“ than the fum of money a man ean command will ftock properly. A common fault among farmers is, he fays, the hiring too much land for-their money: they are extremely eager to farm as much as poffible; the certain confequence of which is the conducting the foil.in an imperfeé&t manner. In the neighbourhood of great cities and towns, variety of manures are to be had, in fome places cheap; but if the farmers have not money, how are they to make ufe of fuch advantages? For thefe and other reafons, a farmer fhould not think of venturing on a traét of land which he cannot.com- mand, that is, farmas feems beft to him.” It is obvious that a variety of advantages in the management of a farm muft refult fromthe different fields being connected, and not fituated at a diftance from each other:.much time and trouble muft conftantly be faved, befides many other conveniences being attained. It,has been remarked by the above writer, that «‘many farmers too often overlook this circumftance. Ifthey attended to it, as much as their profit required, we fhould fee landlords reforming their eftates in this particular more than many do at prefent. here is not a more expentfive, per- plexing circumftance in a farm, than the fields being in a ftraggling, disjointed fituation.” Where the exertions of the farmer are to be clogged with fuch reftriCtive claufes in the leafe of a farm as muft prevent him from cultivating it under the moft advan- tageous method of hufbandry, there is every reafon for his confidering the matter well before he agrees for the farm, or he may find himfelf injured in a much greater degree than is eafily conceived. The author of the Farmer’s Calendar has obferved, that‘“‘ the merit or reafonablenefs of covenants muft be confidered always on comparifon with the nature of the farm. It is for want of this.confi- deration that unreafonable covenants are ever propofed. Thefe prohibitions are to the Second Volume: 1238 foolith, but fometimes admiffible: they muft depend on local circumftances, to be well weighed by the farmer who hires.”“ The principal point here neceflary to touch on, is the combination of rent, tithes and rates, in one fum. Knowing the capital intended to be invefted, eftimate the intereft of it at not lefs than 1o per cent. and then calculate the expenfes and produce; the former deducted from the latter leaves that fum which the farmer can afford to pay in thefe three{pecies of rent. Deduét further the tithes and rates, and the remainder is what he can afford to pay to the landlord. If rent be valued in any other way, it muft, he fays, be erroneoufly and deccitfully done, and no dependence can be placed on it.” The mode of paying the rent may likewife in fome inftances demand the notice of the farmer in engaging a farm. In the ftocking of farms there will be confiderable difference according to their nature, fituation, and manner in which they are conduéted; but an adequate capital fhould always be employed, or there will be great lofs fuftained. It has been obferved by Mr. Young, that“ thirty years ago, the fam that was ufually appro- priated to ftocking a farm varied from 31. to 51. an acre; and it was a general idea, that the latter fum was fafficient for any farm, part arable and part grafs, of no uncommon fertility. Rich marfhes were, of courfe, excluded in the calcu- lation; and light ftock farms were often ftocked for 3]. per acre. But thefe matters are now greatly changed; rents are much increafed; tithes are com- pounded at a higher payment; poor rates are enormoufly rifen; all forts of implements, comprehended in the article wear and tear, are thirty or forty per cent. dearer; labour is in many diftriéts doubled; the prices of cattle and fheep are greatly advanced; fo that at prefent the fame farm which at that period would have been very well ftocked, and the firft year’s expenfe provided for at the rate of 5]. per acre, now demands from vl. to 81. per acre. In all fuch eftimates it is, he fays, neceflary to fuppofe that every implement bought in is new, that the live ftock be good of the fort, and that the firft year’s expenfes be provided for, though a portion of the crop may come in before the whole payment is made. Aman cannot be at his eafe if he does not thus provide; nor will he be able to make that profit by his bufinefs with a{mall capital, which will attend the employment of a larger. By profit he would be underftood to mean a per centage on his capital, which is the only fatisfactory way of eftimating it. If by ftocking a farm with 5]. per acre, he makes 7 or 8 per cent. profit; and by ftocking in proportion of 8]. per acre, he makes ten per cent.(and this difference will, he believes, often be found), it mutt be fufficiently apparent that the lofs by the fmaller 7s 1234 Additions and Corrections to the Second Velume. ftock is a ferious evil. It will depend much on fituation and local circumftances+ the benefit of procuring manures, or litter to make dung, may in fome places be very great, in others much Iefs: but not to be able to profit by every favourable opportunity that may attend the fpot on which a farmer is fixed, muft be highly dif advantageous.‘To irrigate land is an expenfive operation; but to omit or poftpone it, for want uf money for the undertaking, is to lofe perhaps the capital advantage ofafarm. Cafes of this fort might be greatly multiplied; and there is not one that does not call on the farmer for an ample capital.” The fame able author jufily remarks, that“ of all farms, a warren is hired with the fmalleit capital; but that there are marfhes in Lincolnfhire ftocked at the rate of above 3ol. per acre. And the annual expenfe of many hop-grounds amounts to 30]. and the capital above 601.” He fuppofes that“ if a farmer docs not make ten per eent. on his capital, he mutt either have a bad farm or bad management, or the times muft be unfavourable, He ought, he thinks, to make from twelve to fifteen per cent. Some farmers make more, when corn is at a fair price.” Befides proper attention being beftowed in thefe different refpects, the farmer fhould conftantly take care that the live ftock be of fuch kinds as are beft adapted to the nature and fituation of the land, as, without due regard in. this particular, great lofs may be conftantly fuflained. It is never advifable for him to have recourfe to the more fine or fafhionable, breeds, except where the nature of the foil is well fuited to them, and other conveniences fully juftify their introduCtion, To be read after Line 18, Page 836.—The Birds-foot Trefoil has been found ufe- ful for cultivation in meadows which are inclined to moifture, as growing to a great height, and affording good hay. It is cultivated in Herefordthire as pafturage for fheep*. * Withering’s Botanical Arrangement. AN APPENDIX, RN I RT 1018 10ʃ00 /O enux eeh- P08 molleA 60010 enlg 61 —