Univ.-Bibi. Giessen — „ — 4 8 —————— S. 7 ——————.* 2— 4 S— 1 8 8 —.—*—— 3 7 — . 8 X 4 —* 83 1 5 1 7 1 b b 1 ’ 1 1 — 1 . 8 3 1 4 . .— ¹ 8 2— . 4 PRACTICAL AGRLCULTURE; OR, A COVE EE SY Sey OF MODERN HUSBANDRY: Ma Tino DS OF PLAN TLN G, MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK. BY R. W. DICKSON, M. D. Pater ipse colendi wereeonvreerree ee es ee wv& Haud facilem esse viam voluit. a RNCEGuCEr as ACADEMTE DES F‘A\ iy BAL bs| nr aes a ae zu MOEGLIN/ a IN TWO VOLUMES VOL. I. LIE LONDON: PRINTED FOR RICHARD PHILLIPS, No. 71, ST. PAUL'S CHURCH-YARD; BY R. TAYLOR AND CO. BLACK-=HORSE-COURT. =SrwiVUoe= 1805, Tan = i A i eS te Sia i le ea i } { | TO LORD CARRINGTON, BY WHOSE UNREMIT TING EXERTIONS WHILE PRESIDENT OF THE BOARI VARIOUS IMPROVEMENTS IN THE ART OF HUSBANDRY WERE EEPECTED-AN D BROUGHT INTO P LACTICE, EELS= W OoR WHICH NAD THE HONOUR OF RECEIVING + HIS EARLY APPROBATION, 18, WITH PERMISSION, INSCRIBED BY THE, AUTHOR. Henpon, October 19, 1804. IN consequence of a more perfect acquaintance with the nature of soils, and with the operation of the various sub- stances that are made use of in the business of cultivation, as well as from additional experiments and more close ap- plications of the principles of other sciences, numerous alterations and improvements have been introduced in the different branches of the art of husbandry, and a great variety of new facts, opinions, and conclusions have been brought to the attention of the agricultor. These im- provements have, however, been hitherto of little use, from their being scattered and dispersed through innu- merable volumes, without method or arrangement to render their connection, or dependence, clear and intelligible. It has been the object of the present work not merely to reduce such detached facts imto better order, but at the same time to bring the practical details aad conclusions into a more intimate connexion with the principles on watch AS2 LV PREFACE, they depend; and in this way afford a more connected and systematic view of the various particulars that interest the cultivators of the ground; whether in the nature of imple- ments, the ceconomy and convenience of buildings and roads, or in the raising of different kinds of field crops, the cutting and feeding down meadow and pasture lands, and the management of various sorts of live stock. By such means, it is hoped, the knowledge of the principles of agricultural science may be more readily acquired and extended, and the utility and importance of different prac- tices and discoveries be more fully appreciated and under- stood. The undertaking has been attended with considerable difficulty, in many instances, from the insufficiency and incompleteness of experiments and the involved state of the facts, which may afford some apology for the imperfections that may be discovered in the execution; but the author has in all cases endeavoured to rest the processes and methods of management which he has had occasion to recommend, on those practical foundations which in his judgment ap- peared the most certain and correct. How far he may have succeeded in performing the work in an useful manner, he leaves to the candour of those who are best acquainted with PREFACE Ee Vv the difficulties that stand in the way of such an attempt. His pretensions are founded on the experience which he has obtained from having practised the Art on an extensive scale, and from the opportunities which he has had of ex- amining it in different parts of his own and other countries. In bringing together the widely scattered materials, he has been particularly careful to have recourse to the best and most approved works of the practical kind, of some of which he has had occasion to make considerable use. This has been particularly the case in elucidating the principles and practice of draining land; the methods discovered. and recommended by Mr. ELk1incTon, and described with much accuracy and correctness by Mr. Jounsrone, having been freely employed, as well as many of the plans. which illus- trate them. To. Mr.. Brarson and. Mr: Crocker. he is. likewise under similar obligation for various useful observa- tions on the nature of farm buildings and cottages, as well as in the construction.of roads. The valuable writings of Mr. Youne and Mr. Mars#at, and those of many others, have afforded him facts and details of the practical kind where his own experience was insufficient or incomplete. For accurate drawings of the natural. British grasses V1 PREFACE, - gfe. 6‘ 11s Bh ers+" he is indebted to Mr. SaLisBpuRY, the able successor to Mr. Curtis at the Botanic Garden, Brompton. For cor- , S t 7 1 a co P|“ext a re rect drawings of several breeds of cattle and sheep, he 1s sed to Mr. GARRARD and. Mr: Scott.| And the diffe- Sow, (Dy obhi rent laws and regulations which relate to agriculture have been carefully selected and digested into order, by Mr. Tuomas WALTER WILLIAMS, an able and oP. nt bar- rister From the great attention that has been bestowed in cor- recting and improving the figures in the plates of imple- ments and agricultural machinery, it is hoped they will be found well adapted to the views of the practical farmer, and will bring him more fully acquainted with the im- proved means of cultivation. In regard to arrangement, the Autl hor has pursued.that which seemed to proceed from the nature of the subject, without any regard to what has been done by others; his ereat object being to present to the agricultor, in as narrow a compass as possible, a complete and connected system of husbanc idry. October 13, 1804. onl nssheeciesonssalipedastccictias INTER ODU CTAION. AGRICULTURE, though it has probably made a greater progrefs in this than moft other countries, is{till far from having attained that degree of perfection which might have been expected, and of which it is capable:—much remains to be effected in almoft every branch. If the ftate of the art be examined with attention, it will be found that though in particular diftri€ts and fituations its principles and operations may have been well underftood, and the lands of courfe- have been conducted under an improved ftate of cultivation; yet, that on the whole, but a very{mall portion of the cultivated part of the ifland has even at this advanced period been brought under a judicious and well-conducted fyftem of hufbandry. Immenfe tra¢ts of land of the more rich and fertile kinds may ftill be met with in different parts of the kingdom that are managed in very imperfect and difadvantageous methods of farming. It has been ftated by an able writer* that Great Britain contains fixty-feven millions of acres; feven millions of which are taken up by houfes, roads, rivers, lakes,&c., confequently incapable of cultivation; and that of the remaining fixty millions, only five millions are employed in raifing grain, and twenty-five millions in pafturage, while thirty millions are either completely in a ftate of wafte, or cultivated“‘ under a very defective fyitem of hufbandry.” But it is not merely in regard to the cultivation of the foil that the advancement of the art has been fo flow and confined; in other departments or branches its progrets has been equally limited. In the management of meadow and pafture-lands, and the improvement of the breeds of different kinds of domeftic animals, except. in . * Sir John Sinclair. vill INTRODUCTION. particular inflances, there appears to have been a Sfeash degree of neglect or inattention, though it muft be allowed that regard is as neceflary oI be cag He thefe as to that of arable cultivation; the connexion between them being fo inti- mate, that however well a farmer may be acquainted with arable practice, unlefs he at the fame time poffeffes the proper knowledge of improving and keeping his grafs lands in order, and of breeding, cee and pera els he muft manage to very confiderable difadvantage. Witbout this knowledge it is impoffible for him to diftinguifh the diffcrent breeds of animals, or know that which is the mot fuitable and beft adapted to the nature, fituation, and circum- ftances of his farm, or to feed them in the moft proper and advantageous methods. In the infirumental part of hufbandry, though much has been lately done, much is ftill to be accomplifhed before that degree of ceconomy, convenience, and utility is attained that the fubject is capable of admitting, and which the nature of the art requires. It muft however be allowed that valuable additions of this kind are daily introducing themfelves. The caufes that have produced this flownefs in the progrefs of an art which undoubtedly claims the greateft regard and encouragement are not only numerous but extremely different in their nature. On a near inveftigation of the fubject, it will probably be found that agriculture has however been lefs retarded by the incapacity or inattention of thofe who have been engaged in the practical part of the profedion, than by the different regulations and reftri¢tions with which it has been fettered, and which have been fuffered to continue after the circumf{tances that gave them birth have been either entirely changed or undergone very mate- rial alterations. It is not, however, on this account to be concluded, that the advancement of hufbandry, as a fcience, has not been impeded by the influence of other caufes; it has obvioufly been much reftrained at all times, and efpecially in the more early periods of its cultivation, by the want of a clear and explicit knowledge ofits principles, and of greater precifion and correctnefs in the language made ufe of in their explanation. It has been obferved by an able writer that while a want of due precifion and difcrimination is fuffered to exifi in the definitions and defcriptions of thofe fubftances which conftitute the bafis of agricultural knowledge, it is utterly impoffible that it can be carried to any degree of perfection as a fcience. It is from this ambiguity and incorre¢tnefs in the language of the art, that the cul. 3 INTRODUCTION, 1X tivators of land in one part of the country are frequently incapable of profiting to any extent by the accounts that are given of what has been done by the exertions of thofe inanother. This is fufficiently fhown in what has been done in refpect to the nature— of foils; agriculturifts in general having given fuch defcriptions and definitions of them as coincided with the notions that they bad formed concerning their nature in their own particular diftrits or fituations, rather than fuch as marked their particular properties and compofitions*. Knowledge of this kind, however juft or accurate it may be in regard to the foil of the places from which fuch defcriptions are drawn, mutt, he contends, be very imperfect in refpect to others, and of courfe be incapable of any general application or utility. For it muft be obvious to every one who is in the leaft degree converfant with the bufinefs of cultivation, that foils do not only differ very materially in the nature of their principal ingre- dients, but alfo in the proportions or quantities in which thefe enter into fuch compofitions as are denominated foils. Thus the mere aflertion of a foil being clayey, loamy, gravelly,&c., conveys little information, as it does not make us in the leaft acquainted with either the properties or proportions of the fubftances from which they are thus denominated. Befides, it is known to every farmer that there is the greateft difference in the nature of clays and other fubftances. which conftitute the bafis of foils as they exift in the ftate of earth or mould; the clayey foil of one tra¢t of country being extremely fertile and productive, while that of another poffefles the higheft degree of fierility and barrennefs. There are likewife very confiderable differences in the loamy and gravelly foils of different districts, which are by no means diftinguifhed by fuch unqualified termst. For this reafon it probably is that experience in farming has had a lefs general effect in improving the fcience of agriculture than may have been fuppofed; and it is perhaps from the fame caufe that the principal improvements in the profeffion have been confined to particular fituations and diftriGs, from which they have extended themfelves by very flow and gradual means.: The difficulty of determining the connexion of effects and their caufes, and the length of time that is requifite to fully afcertain any particular fact or circumftance in farming are alfo caufes that have confiderably impeded the fcientific progrefs of agriculture. After much labour, time and expenfe have been employed in order to elucidate and afcertain particular facts of this kind, it not unfrequently * Anderfon’s Recreations in Agriculture,&c. Vol, I. 4+ Ibid a x INTRODUCTION. happens that the experimenters are incapable of accomplifhing their objects, or draw fach conclufions as can be fafely depended upon; fo various and fo inyolved are the circumfances that influence the refults of experimental attempts in this fcience. In this way, however, it is remarked, a fort of experience is begotten and tra: fmitted -n the art which is difficult to be rejc&ted; but which, if adopted, mutt often inevi- tably lead to error and difappointment in the practice of the farmer. Befides, this, 4s well as other fciences, has been greatly embarrafled and retarded by details of imaginary experiments and difcoveries, which are very apt to. impofe upon the minds of thofe who are not very well informed concerning rural affairs*. There is likewise, it is added, in the bufinefs of agriculture much confufion in- troduced by the difficulty which even the beft judges frequently find in making their decifions, where a number of circumftances and caufes are combined, concerning thofe which are effential and neceflary to particular operations and procefles, from fuch as are merely accidental and of little import.‘The want of correctnefs too, in regard to the abfolute expenfe incurred in accomplif{hing various operations in refpect to any particular object of bufbandry, and the difficulty in many inflances of pre- ferving the products of different trials diftin@, have had a tendency to impede the advancement of the art; as from fuch inaccuracy the farmer is frequently incapable of afcertaining, with any degree of exactnefs, either the fum which he has expended or the value of the produce which he has obtained; confequently he cannot be in a fituation. to eftimate the advantages of fuch operations or pro- cefles, from which the profeftion remains where it was before the commencement of his attempts. The want of accuracy and precifion in matters of this kind has alfo led to the introduction of an extremely pernicious fyftem of proceeding in different inftances, which is that of making conclufions by a fort of guefs-work. Nothing ean however be more fallacious than this mode of deciding; becaufe a perfon under fuch circumftances is almoft certain to be influenced by fome preconceived opinion refpeing the particular object of his decifiont. Facts collected and af{certained in this way, as they can but feldom have any folid bafis, muft of courfe greatly retard the progrefs of agriculture. The conclufions that are drawn by means of experiment are even frequently liable to objection, and hence the imprevement of the profeffion is not fo much promoted by this method as many perfons may fuppofe. In making fuch experiments as are to elucidate and explain the facts in * Anderfon’s Recreations, Vol. I. ¢ Ibid. oa-_—- a ee eee Ie INTRODUCTION. Ki this fcience which are doubtful or not well underftood, much knowledge, care, and circumfpection is conftantly neceffary on the part of the experimenter, to guard againft every thing that may in the leaft degree influence the refult: for if this point be not carefully attended to, very different conclufions may be drawn from the fame experiment,.The farmer, from his not having been accuftomed to that accuracy and precifion which is requifite in this mode of inquiry, is often but indifferently prepared to avoid errors, which may be produced by a variety of unfufpected caufes, which’ confiderably influence the refults of his trials. On this account the inductions that are drawn from the experimental attempts of even real farmers can feldom be fo fully depended upon as may at firft fight be fuppofed: where due care and attention are befiowed, this is, however, the beft and moft certain means of increafing our knowledge, and extending the bounds of the art. The want of a better and more complete knowledge of the different branches of fcience which are intimately connected with that of agriculture, among practical farmers, has not been lefS prejudicial to the improvement of hufbandry, by the incorrectnefs and inattention which it may have caufed in the afcertaining of par- ticular facts and circumftances in the profeffion itfelf, than by the prejudice and attachment which it has engendered to particular cuftoms, practices and methods ofmanagement. The minds of thofe who ought to have been the moft capable of enlarging the bounds of agricultural knowledge have frequently by this means been fettered, and kept from taking any new or particular views of the various objects and operations of hufbandry. And this is perhaps one of the caufes of farmers having proceeded fo much in the fame track fince the commencement of the art. That agriculture is capabie of being advanced to a confiderable flate of improve- ment, by a more correct and general application of fuch principles and reafonings as are borrowed from other fciences with which it is conneéted, is extremely pro- bable from the fuccefs and progrefs that has been made by the little that has been already done in this way, as well as from what may have been obferved to take place in confequence of fuch application in other arts. After this curfory view of the principal caufes which appear to have impeded the advancement of agriculture as a fcience, we may proceed to thofe that operate againft its extenfion and improvement as a practical art. Impediments of this kind are however fo exceedingly numerous and complicated, that it is not intended a2 Bil INTRODUCTION, to enter into any full or elaborate difcuffions refpecting then; but merely to bring them to the notice of the agricultor. it is eafy to perceive that a variety of obfiructions muft have been thrown in the way of agricultural improvement, by thofe flow and imperceptible changes that are continually taking place in the fituation and circumftances of a country, by which laws, regulations, and reftriction that were once proper and ufeful, become in the courfe of time highly detrimental and improper.[rom this caufe it is that the early regulations that were made in refpec to the management of lands in this ifland, are fo badly adapted for promoting the advantages of bufbandry at the prefent period. his is fully exemplified in the cafe of commons.‘The ground in fuch inftances does not merely lay in the ftate of wafie, being debarred and deprived of undergoing any cultivation, although frequently very capable of admitting of it,. but it is detrimental by preventing improvements in the adjoining lands from being carried on in the moft complete manner and with the fulleft effect, as well as by being expofed to injuries of the moft baneful kind by the cutting away and removal of its. furface, the finking of pits, the ftagnation of water, as well as a thoufand other prac- tices, while the nation derives not the fmalleft advantage from it im return. for fuch a fy ftem of deterioration. But it is not only in this point of view that commons are prejudicial er ufelefs;: they are a kind of property that has much effect in injuring the morals of the poorer: claffes of inhabitants. who claim rights on them, by engendering quarrels. and’ difputes, and relaxing thofe habits of induftry, economy and. exertion, whichare ef- fential to. the labourer in hufbandry, by holding out to-him a fallacious means of. fubfiftence. There is alfo a kind of commonable property which in fome counties appears, from: the late excellent furveys that have been made, to be nearly one half of their whole arable territory; in which each individual knows indeed the limits of the lands: that he poffeffes, but is under the neceflity of fubmitting to certain regulations and’ reftrictions that cuftom. has eftablifhed, however abfurd er difadvantageous they may be in the cultivation and: management of them. This circumftance, inftead of exciting the farmer to induftry and improvement, tends very materially to leffen. his exertions and introduce flovenly modes of practice highly prejudicial to the interefts of agriculture, Lands conducted under fuch a fyftem of management: cannot probably be made to produce one half the quantity. of grain.or other fub-. flances, which they might be made to.do under improved. methodsof cultiyation. INTRODUCTION. x1 That great inconvenience and much difadvantage, in a natural as well as individual point of view, arifes from the pofleffion of lands clogged with fuch cuftoms, cannot be doubted; but perhaps the greateft mifchiefis the reftraint which is thus impofed on the art of hufbandry. The tenures of land, in many inftances, are not lefs injurious:to the advancement of agriculture than: the cireumftance of grounds being watte or im a commonable ftate. A large part of the land of this country is held under lords-of-manors, by a kind'of copy-hold or cuftomary tenure which fubjects the tenants to the payments of fines on the deceafe of the Jords or tenants, and on the alienation of the property, as well as certain annual rents, and in fome places even to the performance of various difagreeable ferviees; from which it is impoffible that the holders of Jands under fuch reftricted’ conditions, efpecially where the lords are entitled to fines proportioned to the improved value of fuch property, can be difpofed to the expenditure of money, or the ufing of much exertion in order to bring fuch lands into an improved ftate of hufbandry. It has been jufily obferved that,“one great© obftacle to improvement, arifes from a laudable anxiety in the cuftomary tenants to have their little patrimony defcend to their children. Thefe fmall pro- perties, loaded with fines, heriots, and boondays, joined to the neceflary ex- penfe of bringing up and educating a numerous family, can only be handed down from father to fon by the utmoft thrift, hard labour, and penurious living; and every little faving being hoarded up for the payment of the eventful fine, leaves nothing for the expenfe of travelling to fee improved modes of culture; to gain a knowledge of the management and profits of different breeds of{tock;. and to be convinced by ocular proofs, that their own fituations are capable of producing fimilar advantages> and even fhould they be half inclined to adopt the new prac- tice, prudence whifpers,. that fhould: the experiment fail, it would require the faving of many years to make good the deficiency*.” Such lands: too-as are held: under corporations, whether they be civil or religious, as they do not aftord'the oecupiers of them that kind of intereft and fecurity which becomes the{timulus of exertion and improvement, are of courfe detrimental to the progrefs of the profeffion.. In lands of: this tenure no exchanges for the pur- pofe of mutual accommodation and advantage can be entered into; no improvements in the way of cutting canals or laying out roads:can be fafely made without the * Modern.Agriculture, Vol. IV, aaieaieremine AEN AI PI mn a eae Pm ARE se Ae ey ELE ae ) | XIV INTRODUCTION. intervention of the legiflature. But what is full more hurtful, leafes of very fhorf periods can only be granted; from which circumftance fuch lands muft conftantly remain under very imperfect fyftems of management. The poffeffion of lands under deeds of entail may likewife be confidered as pre- judicial in the fame way; as in{uch cafes no inducement is held out for the expen- diture of money, and the confequent improvement of fach property. But obftacles of a more general and powerful nature are found in the various indefinite claims that are made on lands. The payment of tythes in kind, from its operating diredily as a tax on the capital and productive labour of the farmer and land-proprietor, as well as from its being vexatious in the mode of its collection, is a meafure that impedes the improvement of the art of hufbandry in a very ferious degree. Inthe cultivation of arable farms, efpecially if the land be in fuch a con- dition as to require the expenditure of large fums of money in the purchafe of manure, and confiderable labour and exertion in other refpecis in order to bring it into the ftate of producing abundant crops, its effects are. experienced in the moft injurious and oppreffive manner. The efforts of the hufbandman in this cafe hate been“ compared to thofe of a labourer, who fhould make confiderable exertions during the hours of relaxation throughout the day, in order that he might obtain a bit of fomething hot for fupper; and when he was juft preparing to enjoy his hard-earned morfel, he had it taken away from him by a neighbour, who ftood by idle all day, and now came, by means of a legal authority he had obtained as a reward for fome exertions of his predeceflors, when the ftate of fociety rendered fuch a mode of remuneration the eafiett of any that could then be devifed, to feize that which the poor man gained. by the fweat of his brow. Though the poor man is forced to give up his morfel in this cafe, it is impoflible for him to yield it without reluctance, or ever after to view his neighbour with a favourable eye. It provokes an inviduous parallel to be drawn between the two parties, which eftranges them the more from each other.‘The confequence is, that although, in this particular circumftance, the one gains juft as much as the the other lofes; yet it tends very little on the whole to the emolument of the receiver; becaufe the loofer fays within himfelf, fince I cannot enjoy my own morfel myfelf, I can at leaft prevent my neighbour from getting it, for nobody can compel me to earn it but if I pleafe. So down he fits in indolence; and neither of them enjoys the blefling that might have refulted from induftry*.” * Anderfon’s Effays, Vol. IIT. INTRODUCTION. Xx¥ The fpirited cultivator may be inclined to improve his lands, as is frequently the cafe, even where the profit he is to derive from fuch improvement cannot be confi- derable; but under fuch circumftances he muft conftantly be prevented from pro- ceeding by the operation of this injudicious regulation: where a tenth or more of the produce arifing from the exertions of the improver are to be taken away, it is ob- vious that fmall returns will not anfwer; efpcecially in a bufinefs where there is much. rifk from feafon and other caufes. By this means the community is confequently deprived of the various advantages refulting from increafed induftry and augmen- tation of produce. By the fame fyftem alfo, much good land, exclufive of commons and waftes is conftrained to remain in the unprofitable ftate of grafs, which might otherwife, by a trifling expenditure of money, and no very extraordinary degree of exertion, be rendered greatly more productive under proper arable management. And it is likewife highly injurious in many inflances, by fubjeéting the farmer to a difgufting dependence on the tythe-owner. It is evident that the effects of this meafure muft be equally detrimental to the interefts of the proprietors of lands as to thofe of atual farmers’; for whatever tends to leffen the exertion and induftry of the latter muft neceffarily diminith the incomes of the former, and in a proportion much greater than is commonly fuppofed. But they are injured in another way befides that of rent; for as a tenth of the produce of the lands is thus taken away in kind, a deficiency of manure to that extent muft be the confequence, the difadvantages of which are now generally well underftood. The effe¢ét which the abolition of tythes in Scotland has had in promoting agricultural improvements, alfo affords a ftrong and fatisfaCtory proof of their operating powerfully again{t the advancement of hufbandry; for it cannot be attributed to any other circumftance that improvements have been carried on fo: much more extenfively in that part of the ifland than in this. But it is not merely in{topping the progrefs of agricultural improvements that the payment of tythes in kind is prejudicial, its effe&ts are injurious in many other points of view which it is unneceflary to confider at prefent. It is therefore a mat- ter of the utmoft importance that fuch an alteration.or modification fhould be ef- fected as might render the claims of the proprietors fecure, without producing thofe mifchievous confequences which proceed from it in its prefent form*. * An able and ingenious cultivator, the Rev. H. J. Clofe, has fuggefted a plan for the removal of the payment of tythes in this way, which, from its nature and fimplicity, feems to deferve our attention. The Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. III. XVI INTRODUCTION. The prefent method of providing for the poor, notwithftanding the judgment and deliberation with which it was adopted, is unqueftionably detrimental to the advancement of agriculture, as well as greatly prejudicial to morals and indufiry, from itsfalling difproportionately heavy on land-holders of every defcription, nearly three-fourths of the whole amount of the immenfe fum being raifed by that clafs of fociety. The proprietors of land, are however, in fome meafure enabled to throw this burthen from themfelves by ftipulating with their tenants for the payment of all parochial taxes, fo that in fact the farmer becomes the principal fufferer, efpecially in cafes where any augmentation of the affeflment is required, which is frequently the cafe from the operation of either local or general circumftances; fuch as the failure of manufactures or the carrying on of wars*, By thefe means the capital of the farmer is diverted from its proper application, that of being employed in the cultivation and improvement of land, by which the progrefs of hufbandry is not merely impeded, but the community fuftains an incalculable lofs. There are ftill other obftacles which retard the improvement of the art befides thofe that have been noticed; but they are in general lefs prejudicial in their tendency, or more limited in their operations. Of this kind are the game, the corn, and the falt laws; all of which ia their prefent forms throw great impediment in the way of agriculture. And the want of proper and convenient markets in many fituations, for the difpofal of different kinds of produce, and of eafy and expeditious modes of conveying them to fuch places, as well as a variety of local cuftoms and regulations, are not lefs injurious in their effects though much lefs attended to. Thefe are fome of the principal difficulties and impediments that have been fo long fuffcred to retard the progrefs of cultivation, and which muft continue to put an infuperable bar to its improvement, in many refpects, until they are re- moved. But the advancement of agriculture has not been folely obftructed by caufes of this nature; there are many others which the proprietors of lands have the means of obviating. The want of proper and judicious leafes has at all times operated unfavourably for the improvement of hufbandry, and is an evil very generally com- plained of by farmers, a circumftance which is not in the leaft to be wondered at, as it can hardly be fuppofed that improvements will be carried on to any extent * Modern Agriculture, Vol. IV. —=— INTRODUCTION. XVil where there isa want of permanent fecurity for the enjoyment of thofe advantages that may be derived from them. It has been juftly remarked by Mr. Donaldfon, that“that man would certainly be juftly fubjeGted to the reproach of being rafh and inconfiderate in his conduct, who fhould expend money and labour on the improvement of any farm, where his certainty of continuance does not entitle him to look forward with a confident aflurance to the period when his exertions are to be rewarded. It is a well-known fact, that the hope of reward fweetens labour; take that away, and the fpur to labour ceafes. It is that alone that calls forth indufiry, and is the fpring of all ex- ertion. What object then can a farmer have to hazard his capital, and devote the moft vigorous and adtive part of his life to the improvement of a farm which he holds on no more certain tenure than the will, or, in other words, than the whim or caprice of his landlord? In every fuch fituation, the prudent farmer muft be retrained from any fpirited expenditure, however much he may be fatisfied that the improvements, ahienn might thereby be effe&ed, would, under other circumfiances, prove beneficial to the public, the landlord, and himfelf. Have not inftances oc- curred, where tenants fo circumftanced have been obliged repeatedly to agree to pay advances of rent rather than remove; w hile, from the uncertainty of the tenure on which they heid their farms, they were debarred from making thofe ex- ertions which an advance of rent demanded, and which almoft uniformly takes place in fuch cafes when leafes are granted?” From an examination of the excellent furveys that have lately been made of the agricultural ftate of the kingdom under the dire€tion of the Board, it appears that by far the greateft part of the land in many counties is held by tenants merely at the will of their landlords, who of courfe may deprive them of their farms, on proper notice being given, whenever they pleafe; and in cafes where leafes are granted they do not extend further than from five to nine years, except in a very few in- {tances indeed, in which they may be protracted to the period of nineteen or even twenty-one. And even fuch leafes as thofe are for the moft part clogged with fuch reftriGtive claufes and conditions as put a ftop to improvement, and confine the cultivator in methods of management that are frequently far from being the moft advantageous*. In the firft cafe, indeed, the farmer is kept in fuch a ftate of dependence as is not only highly degrading, but muft effectually damp and reprefs his exertion and in- duftry. And the tenants under fhort leafes are not in fituations much more defirable, as they cannot with fafety or propriety enter into any extenfive beneficial * Modern Agriculture, Vol. IV. aa XVIli INTRODUCTION. methods of augmenting the produce of their farms, left the advantages fhould be reaped by others. Even a leafe of twenty-one years, in many fituations and under different circum ftances, is not fufficient to allow the farmer to undertake improve- a) ments of confiderable magnitude, as he can neither conduct them in the moft economical way, nor reap the full advantage of them. Befides, where money to any great amount is ex pended in the beginning of fucha term, the farmer is often, in order to nike einity himfelf, where he has not a prof; fpeQ of remaining, induced Vo) to run out and exhauft the land at the latter end of his leafe; which is a practice of the moft prejudicial tendency to the proprietors of fuch farms, and the communit Sm as well as the interefis of agrict ilture. fe . it is evident, therefore, that the farmers of land fhould in a// cafes have fuch a curity for the pofiefiion of it as will enable them to introduce the moft improved 1 ~ ~ al Pox phe O ¢ of management, and excite them to adopt the beft means of improvement. Che length of leafe that may be moft fuitable and bef adapted for thefe important purpofes is not eafily afcertained; it ought probably to vary accor ding to the par- ticular circumflances and the nature of the improvements that are to be earried into execution®. In fuch leafes many clanfes muft of‘courfe be requifite: but they fhould be fuch as are plain and fimple, and fuch as may not too greatly deftroy the independence hike farmer, but leave him much at liberty io follow his own pians ef of cultivation; while they afford effeCtual fecurity to the proprictors, by cautioufly 1 lad a guarding againft the introdu@tion of fuch fyftems of hufbandry as would be injuri- ous or im oe There are aby other caufes of this kind that operate unfavourably for the ex- tenfion of agricultural improvements; but as they are either confined to particular circumftances, or only poflefs a local influence, it is not neceflary to confider them with a view to the Brae object. From what has been obferved, it is evident that different circumftances muft be attended to, in order to bring the ftate of agriculture to that degree of perfection which its utility demands. It will not only be neceflary that the principles of the art be ren- dered more clear.and eafily acceffible to the cultivator, but that the various proceffes * Mr. Donaldfon, after making a variety of ufeful obfervations on the advantage of leafes, and the length of time that may have the moft beneficial effets in promoting improvements, concludes, that «‘ that duration of leafe which entitles the tenant to commence his improvements with fpirit, and is not of fuch a length as to induce him, from any fortuitous circumfiances that may take place, asa rife in the nominal price of produce, ora fail in the value of money, to flacken his attention, may be confidered upon the whole as beft; and Dae! twenty years is as equitable a term as in the prefent ftate of Britith acriculture can well be fixed upon.’ + See Section on Leafes, in Appendix. Pee ee ee INTRODUCTION. MIX and practices be brought into a more obvious and intimate connection with them, and more full and complete explanations of the nature and conftituent properties of the different fubftances or bodies that enter into and form the bafis of the profeffion afforded; as well as the different clogs and impediments, which have been inter- b pofed at different times, in the way of regulations, obviated and removed. The author has endeavoured as much as poffible to furnifh the farmer with a more correct knowledge of the qualities and methods of operation of thofe materials or fubfiances with which he is to accomplith his various purpofes, as well as the changes which they undergo by an intimate combination with each other; and the modes in which they may be applied and made ufe of with the greateft chance of fuccefs and advantage. The former of thefe have been objects of much confideration in the prefent work. It has alfo been his wifh to extend the bounds of his information in refpect to the means of cultivating the different plants which conftitute the food of man, or which ferve for the purpofe of feeding cattle and other domeftic animals. In this in- tention, the various improvements that have been effected in the nature of tillage, and the interpofition of different forts of green crops with thofe of the grain kind, as well as in the implements and machinery by which they may be performed with the greateft economy and convenience, have been brought to his notice in as clear and concife a manner as the nature of the fubje&ts admitted. And as the various products of the earth can only afford a trifling advantage to the cultivator, unlefs he be perfectly acquainted with the means of applying them as the foad of animals, the methods of management that appear the moft beneficial in the breeding, rearing, feeding, and fattening different forts of live ftock, have, it is hoped, been more fully explained, and placed in more clear and diftinct points of view. In regard to the latter, or the removal of thofe ob{tacles which have been thrown in the way of agriculture under the idea of regulating its operations, however ne- ceflary it may be to the complete improvement of the art, it can only be effected by the interpofition of the legiflature and the proprietors of land. CO NT a: N-7§; aoe ee Nd. IMPLEMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. J PAGE. MPLEMENTS employed in the she tice of- husbandry= ae Circumstances to be attended to in the con~ . struction of them ag PLOUGHS: ona Different kinds necessary‘for different soils and situations ebid. Swine-PLouGHS: E S24 Variety of;.- wid, Capable of extensive application© aid, Peculiarities in their construction; abid. The advantages of which a wid. The Rotheram‘plough: abid. Small’s chain-plough‘. rbid. Ploughs suitable for light friable polls:. rabid. Expence of them ¢-2bid. « abed. Dutch plough- F Suffolk iron swing-plough 3: 6 Advantages of, on strong cohesive land bid. WHEEL- Poevas bid. Construction various, according” soil, Re. ibid, Less skill in the ploughman necessary for them ibid. Reason of wheels being added to ploughs ibid. Uses of them A. bid, Friction of them causes resttaned abid. Mr. Middleton’s opinion of them: fae 3 Objections to them ibid. Should seldom be employed by good plough- men:-|! abil. Sorts of soil most proper for‘ abid, Hertfordshire wheel--plough abid. Kentish turnwrist--plough abid. Norfolk wheel-plough 7 thid. Improved common wheel-plough. ag Two-wheel plough; ibid. ‘Wheel-plough of the fen districts ibid. Double or two-furrows plough tbid. Skim-coulter ploughs=: See| Trench plough ibid. Uses and ady antages of ibid. PAGE, The miner(see p. 322)°: 1> Nee Its construction and use° e bid. Paring plough.» sbid, Double-mould-board plough° ra Is Common draining plough: e=-abid. Mole plough:‘: o wid. Draining-furrow plough F e did, Marking plough..»— thid. Singleehoe plough-: ibid. DRILL-MACHINES:« 14 Construction of them various: wid. Principles on which they should be made abid, Circumstances tobe regardedin choosing them zéid. Mr. Amos’s drill 5 i HH Mr. Coof's drill:. wid. Mr. Ducket’s method more simple é. 17 Mr. Wellard’s drill f. bid. Advantages and uses of:- ibid. Expence of? é ibid. Mr. Bayley’s Turwie- Dri ibid, Its uses on one-bout ridges°- rid. Construction of. J ibid. His drill for all.sorts of grain F 4-138 Construction of it=. wid, Mr. Barley’s bean-drill for wide intervals. ibid. Its form and make. i. wid. How remedied: 3 os abid. Harrows with running bulls”.-. aid, Const: uction of harrows A; 225 Brake-harrow; double-harrow 3; and com- .men improved harrow,.«ibid. Mr. Graburn’s harrow 3 uses of C. abid, Mr. Knight's harrow: edvantages of* eid. Harrows proper for grass seeds. 599 26 Bush- harrow$ 2 eepupid. Mode of harrowing.:) aid, ROLLERS E:= ai 2bidk Construction and proper size of,. abd. Common rollers-; sip? Spixre ROLLER:.., Drizty Roiver i=‘tbid: THRASHING MACHINES F e 28 PAGE, Principles of: é 72.08 Improvements of;.| 2bid. Objections to‘‘« ibid, How gbviated 5;+ eoid, Circumstances on which their good thrash ing depends j‘ 5 abid; Circumstances to be attended to in using them i- elt Additions that may be made to en% ey Mr. Muiddleton’s opinion on the use of them ibid, Their advantages over the flail. ete IDiG. WINNOWING MACHINES: aid, Diffe rent kinds of‘» tid. Cor’s and Rodgers’s on good plans P ae CHAER CU oh ERS:‘~~ UGE Different constructions of:..-tbid. In general too expensive: 2. ibid, Cook's and Nailor’s: 5. biel. Improvement ih one made by the succes- sors of. Winlow‘ A 5 bid. RAKES-‘. wide Spring-teeth-rakes... tid. Corn-rakes: 5 A.: 38 Twitch-rakes; 3‘«7 j2bid, Mode of Re me them x. 2bid. Horse and stubble-re ke.: A» ibid, WH LEL CA RRIAGES Sig e° bid. Circuinstances to. be attended to in, their coustruction? 4 o abd. Faulty construction of the Berkshire avid. _ Improvement of, suggested=«: abid, * t: 6D: Waggons for husbandry:» Sb In general disadvantageous for the pur- poses of the farmer<» ibid, Irish car i ois G00 Cc ee uses, and eee ages of. wid. CARTS 2 2: SA 35 ee HORSE-CARTS most useful 135 Close or coup-cart, description of—.«bids General construction of F oy pele, Observations on the advantages of one- horse carts S:- rid. Corn and hay, carts A< 238 Welsh cart:.~ bid, Quarry-cart 2:. tbid, Dre nee.,‘ ot tid Remarks on carts.in general:« 39 70 wN T 2B oN FT= 6 Ct Ost, II. PARM-HOUSES PAGE. FARM BUILDINGS:: 43 Too little attention in the construction of ibid. Facility and dispatch of business connected with.form and arrangement of. 44. Commodious distribution of, necessary.... ibid, When not the case, much time lost in ' the conveyance of materials»,-tbid, Size of, proportioned to that of the farm ibid, When of the grazing kind few buildings, ne- cessary‘ ibid, These chiefly of the cheap shed kind sain’. Permanent roofs mostly advantageous-_ thid. Expence saved by walls with occasional coverings;:., wbid. This plan only recommended in particu. lar cases:. ibid. Different sorts of sheds necessary for dif- ferent kinds of cattle. Satie Cool ones for store cattle“. did, Warm ones for feeding stock; Sm c0id. Different accommodations necessary for dairy farms.:- ibid, Cow- houses large;. wf tbid. Conveniences for the various operations of the dairy.- ie 2DIG- For corn farms, buildings more numerous. ibid, Calculated to suit different purposes oa bid Should be| ullt on shart posts or pillars of stone sii thie Lined with faite dsc] osely joined together bed, Outside covered ah weather-boarding. iid. [fn common granaries, attention not ne- cessary to all these points j| wld Need not be s strongly norexpensively built ara © ON T PAGE. Most proper situation in the barn, where housing grain is not practised- AS Machinery for raising the corn necessary. ibid, STABLES:‘- 49 Elegance not requisite in; ibid. Conifor table and convenient ones necessary thids Should be so contrived as to preserve nearly an equality of temperature at different seasons‘ ibid. Must be provided with proper drains for the removal of moisture.. ibid. Moveable shutters, as windows, save ex-; pence‘; a BIR: Racks and mangers::. ibid. Economy and convenience in construc- tion of°:. sbids Large ones disadvantageous‘.. tbid. Should have a more perpendicular posi- tion than usual~. ibid. Placed conveniently in niches in w alls. 50" Conveniences at bottom of to collect hay-seeds useful,. ibid, Hatches save time in feeding.<. ahiae Mangers need not be the width of stalls. zdid. Small boxes convenient for: oo bid; Cheap method of forming stalls and racks ibid. Sparred at bottom to admit hay-seeds ibid, Box under for that purpose necessary ibid. Single stalls better than double.- ibid. Attention necessary in paving stables. ook Should approach to a level- 34 ghid. Moisture removed by small middle-drain ibid. All the drains to empty into a large one idid. Stall drains covered by oe ae oak planks. ibid, Main drains placed at ends or bottoms of stalls:. bid. Shallow open drains less expensive pHa Pavement of stalls should have very slight inclination to drains y. wbid, Advantages gained by this construction of stalls: i. sbid, Size of stalls;; ee Five feet a good one:-. ibid, Divisions of should be high; ibid, For stalhons and young horses, spar ied to the top 4. ibid. Or divided by doors hung to back posts of stables ibid. Latter method useful for mares and foals ibid, Harness place near the stable necessary ibid, Situation for corn bin ibid, When placed above should feed‘by a spout in thestable., wera. This mode has advantages thid. COW HOUSES anDFE EDING HOUSES ibid, Nearly similar A. ibid. Calf-pens in theua sometimes‘- wid, PAGE, Plan not to be adopted:» 52 Better at a small distance‘= tba: May be contrived to suit either purpose. ibid. In the form of single or double sheds«ante Must be capable of free ventilation. ibid. Require little labour in cleaning. thid, Have drains to keep the cattle dry. ibids Free circulation of air necessary in. thtds Without it cattle liable to disease. 53 Sheds open behind sometimes useful. itor. Air-holes m i0ofs igi ne necessary'. ibid. Windows in gable-ends frequently useful< ibid. Advantages of such means‘ ibid. Feeding of animals promoted in this, way,&c.: é s tbid, Modes of construction d o Dba. Circumstances to be attended roa in.. bid. Common method injudicious° 5 abi Feeding from holes without somes Objections to g zbid, Most convenient plan of, in gmisle sheds. ibid. Double ones more economical ahd useful 7dzd, Less extent of building necessary in ibid, Less destruction of fodder:.‘tbids Room over useful in all sheds:. ibid. Double sheds not supposed so advantageous did. An intelligent feeder’s opinion on.*2bid. Rooms over prejudicial:© tid. Plan recommended by him A=o aaahias Room in the middle of, necessary.#bid. Keeping cattle clean and dry, uses of oebeds Contrivances for lessening labour essential ays Means of doing Which 3$°ibia- Attention to paving stalls necessary ibid. This frequently not done F 5 epee Double stalls useful: ss cueroias The expence of, greater ibid, In many cases unnecessary. 5. tid. Conveniences for food and water necessary b/d, Drains and reservoirs should constantly be formed: A eet Te CALF PENS::. tbid. Situation of: z ibid. Near cow-house: 2. 56 Mode of laying floors of.:< ede Disasreeable effluvia thus avoided.. ibid. Moveable divisions in, useful: Sree Troughs and racks sometimes necessary. 76éd. Food more equally distributed by them—#4. In general not requisite--. thids DAIRIES:-.. bid, Advantages of good ones: bid. Are of different kinds;; ibid. Construction of each:: s 2bid. Proper situation of: EVh Most advantageous covering bP; ibid, Thatch tiseful for::"ibid Stone walls always preferable<. ibid ee Cc oN PAGE. Proper height of ciclingsof=« J+ 57 High windows necessary a ibid. Should have frames with pauize stretched on them:‘. ibid. Dtility of:°°. tbide Floors of;; 2. ibid, 3est materials for, F°. 207d, Proper manner to be laid:.«bid, Well near, necessary;°«“bid. Mode of filling up;.. bid. Vessels for$:.. 58 Difierent materials:: ibid. Lead A ss ¢. ibid. Marble é ibid. Slate ones made by Mr. Hind, at Switli- land, near Leicester:. tbid, First must be kept clean:. ibid, Plugs and cocks necessary for coolers ibid, Large cock for water requisite:. tid. Flues for conducting heat sometimes neces- sary in them; F. ibid. Circumstances to be attended to in cielings and walls 3 eo DIL Churning-room near the milk- heise. 2bid. Fire--place necessary where utensils are kept 77d, Stone slabs on strips of wood necessary on outside of’. ibid. Smoking of chimnies in, prejudicial. ibid. CHEESE DaIRy 4. tbid, Milk-house for, nearly similar with the other é. id. Here too sometimes useful to lave milk- shelves° e 59 Pressing or scalding house on same plan as or churning‘. ibid. Should always have a good pres in salt- ing-room‘ i. wbid, Should be laid with flags 3. tbid. Strong table and shelf necessary.. ibid, Cheese room. 3:. ibid, 3est over the dairy:.@bid, C ommonly above cow-house or kitehen ibid, Reasons of. é: ateibids SHEDS.? ibid. Highly convenient::. ibid, Modes of constructing them;. ibid. Useful for various purposes;. zbid STRAW-HOUSES., 3360 Frequently useful-. btbid. Save straw and time é:. tbid, Prevent litter i.. tbid. ROOT-HOUSES x.- thd. Necessary to the supply of winter food. ibid. Roots or other vegetables= ibid, POULTRY HOUSES ibid, Circumstances in construction of ibid. HOG-STIES: 2161 Mode of constructing them s ibid, ENT& Troughs contrived to prevent waste of food. Boilers for preparing food sometimes re- quisite in d COAL axyp WOOD- HOUSES.‘ Most useful construction of;: WORK-SHOPS;:‘ Utility of::‘ TOOL- HOUSES’ J Circumstances to be attended to in.: STORE-ROOMS=;. Situation for‘:: Various uses of, FARM SERVANT s) ROOMS: i Necessary on large farms; e Advantages of=;- Best situation for:: 5 Ground-floors of stone or brick.= Upper ones of plaster or brick., Mode of forming them.: Arrangement of beds i Free circulation of air in, necessary. PIGEON-HOUSES=: 2 Should be large and roomy 2~ Best situation of: zi° Form of, not material A:: Sort of covering necessary for*.: Should be secure against vermin J F Construction of when built separately Z May have sheds under them: f Objections to wood-coals;. Entrances of should face the south‘ Large holes improper:° Weather-boards above them necessary: Best method of forming the nests. 5 Advantages of CONVENIENCES FOR PREPARING CATTLE-FOOD. i: Advantages of in feeding animals.: STEAM-BOILERS;‘; Useful in various ways:‘. Description of: 5: Other contrivances proposed:, Useful for other purposes. 4 CORN-CHESTS:‘ F Necessary and economical‘ 5 Small tub sometimes s»ficient i 4 That of the granary useful on large farms Best construction of:.. CORN-STANDS.: Construction of, various‘ Best mode of Form of the duke af Bedford’s_ Woburn ee_‘ Peculiar circumstances in the formation of Materials most proper for: 2 Slates or flags sometimes used for bottoms of Not necessary when the foundation is well laid. ibid, ibid. ibid. ibid. 2bid. ibid. ibide 68 Z Z Z a. did 2014, iba. Gon TEN 2S PAGE. This kind of stand used by Mr. Bakewell a 68 BEE-STANDS‘.‘ ibid. FARM-HOUSES ayp OFFICES.- 69 SITUATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF: ibid. Most ECONOMICALIN SAVING LABOUR ibid. Proper situation of; F< ibid. Near the centre of farm P; ibid. A square the most proper: 5 ibid. Offices erected on exposed sides of. ibid. Not attended to in building farm-houses.#6id. S/E.6¢Fh1 ON Ju. FARM-COTTAGES. PAGE. COTTAGES j: TH. Building of, important to agriculture. ibid. Premotes the interest.of the farmer and land proprietor:. tbid. Advantages of,.as explained by different writers‘ é. ibid. The assistance of cottagers necessary to the farmer;; igzbids The utility of connecting such buildings with farms; i:. ibid. Useful in other points of view 3. ibid: Most expert labourers in husbandry pro- duced by this means; eriraid. Without them much time freduez‘ly lost 7S Farmers often injured. bid. Advantageous to have many on arms. zbid. May sometimes be beneficial for tenants to build, or assistin building them.= 707d. Condition of labourers thus much benefited ibid. Their habits rendered more regular Mea More disposed to perform the business of cultivation;: ev thid Necessary to remove all obstacles to the erection of e A. thid. They. promote population°: ibid. Useful for the farmer to be more intimately connected with cottagers. s) i wbed: Proper regulations should exist between them 5:« nZO Advantages of such a mode: oe 3b77. Should have portions of land annexed to them a)-$3. 2bzd- How it may be effected;«, bid. Different situation of labourers considered 76d. Earl of Winchelsea’s observations on them:: ae ibid: Difference of cottagers that have land and those that have not. eeeS 1 Necessity of improving their Cottages, shewn. comes. ibid. PAGE. These should be at a distance from offices 69 Sometimes such as to overlook the ope- rations going on‘_ ibid, Must be adapted to the business: aero Nature of ground frequently points out si- tuations.‘-., 2bia, General obseryations on the expence of farm buildings.,. tbid, Estimates of‘;; ofic fi mo PAGE, Certain regulations necessary where land is annexed to them‘ SOAS Should be held in the possession of the , proprietors a.. tbid, When held by the farmer injurious to the cottager j iebid. Construction of different, according to. cir- cumstances and purposes‘. thid, For the farming labourer, plainness, sim- plicity, and convenience,, only necessary:‘. tbid. The miserable hovels they sometimes in- habit, highly disgusting. TE Situation of, little attended to: a te: Should be rather elevated, not high. wise Should be near the farm: a ghia: Circumstances to be attended to in the ground-floors of: pe hevid, In other parts of‘: tn dltd. Size of various‘: vigebld. Modes of dividing the rooms in different instances,’ on 20d Economical modes of placing the stairs. 72d, ~= ee....=.> Mr. Kent’s opinion of their accommodations 54 Best forms of:‘ st bid: Circular plan objectionable‘. ibid. Suilding two or, more together saves ex- pence‘; a abide Upper rooms necessary for the preserva- tion of health:‘. ibid. Attention to warmth,&c. necessary in con- struction of-; jcthia Conveniences for free circulation of air, useful, E. bid, Means of preventing excessive heat in sum- mer‘ ¢ é 19:85 Cheap methods of coveringthem—. wigs tad. Thatch: oe;« ibid. Circumstances” to be attended to in each— rbid. Advantages of different kinds 5 5 OK, W ALLS:; eG Diffexent kinds of, described:«: ibid. . PAGE. Advantages of each 2. esata! Nature of foundations of:« ibid Modes of making of;“«ibid, List walls’ eo 1A2 Dry walls:. ibid. Middleton’s opinion of walls in general. BS Earth and stone walls, or dikes Z« ibid. Method of forming them, according to Dr. Anderfon; 2 oo ee Means of protecting them:= Ibid. May be made cheaply 2= aeLES Rendered more lasting by dashing, lip- ping, and harling with lime 6? Ibid, In some situations most advantageous fora limited time i:. Ibid. PAILING-FENCES.:: ab 16 Cannot be generally adopted for: farm in- closures j 5« abid. Different kinds of, described 5 s abid. not be so wide;. 158. Circumstances to be attended to in the di- Much land may consequently be saved. ibid. rection of=- ibid. The quantity of estimated. eueibid. Different forms of, considered: the con- Different soils require a difference in the vex; the concave; the varieties of construction of roads‘=) bid. flat faeoes a- 149 Methods of making them in sandy ere ts m No particular form suitable perhaps for all In clayey.: e 159 situations::» 150 In boggy soils.°» 160 Various circumstances in regard to forms On the sides of hills;- 161 stated i« ibid. Should be kept from having water running Some objections to the convex form Filey on them in every construction. 162 Probably not well founded.: 152 Modes of constructing iron or railed roads ibid. Concave form found advantageous in Advantages of::» 163 Leicestershire‘: Ads Where most useful.;«Abid. Peculiarities in the flat forms, described ibid. ReParrRiING Roaps* ¢ k Abid. Objects generally aimed atinall.. 154 Communication on parochial pads.. 166 Beatson’s theory of roads; ibid. Defects of:‘« bids Form of the basis or bottom, of much im- Means of improving them-- 167 portance,- 155 Wheels of particular forms injurious to Application of certain principles in con- roads Z»' 168 struction of:;« abid. Differenteffects ofthe conicaland cy{indrical ibid. Different circumstances to be attended Latter most advantageous.. ibid. to in::.£56 Cummings’s estimate of the difference in Various advantages of such construction the effects of:<. 169 described é:- 157 Forms of roads that are the least affected Banner of forming the drains in.. ibid. by wheels in general‘ 5 TB 0 COON EE Fe os PAGE. PAGE. Fences on the sides of roads.:. 174 Circumstances necessary to 2 attended Disadvantages of them°», Ibid, to in them A. 174 PAR Pi EsECOND. BC FF LON“Vi SOILS. PAGE. PAGE- SOILS>:=O Applications proper in this view ca oie LOS Manner in which they are fs rmed. ibid. Reasons for their being more easy of tillage. 186 Reason of their variation of quality. ibid. Nctso disposed to the production of weeds._ ibid. Cause of their different degrees of fruitfulness ibid. CHALKY SOILS- 187 They are injured by some substances. 177 Circumstances which ee diemnas° in Kinds which have this effect:* bid, them oes ate« Reasons why those which are apparently State of the calcareous matter incorporated similar, turn out different on their with them, must be attended to outbid. being broken up. ibid. The combination of other substances with Causes of the contradictory facts respecting, the calcareous, alters its effects. ibid; in agriculture é eal78 In union with magnesia, is prejudicial to Causes of soils producing one sort of crop in vegetation:- 188 preference to another:_ ibid. Causes which form distinctions in«1 ibid Depth and quality of sub-soils:. ibid, Applications suitable for improving them- 189 The cause of differencesin them.. ibid. Reasons why much strength of draught is Causes of the difficulty of ascertaining. ibid. required in‘« 190 Methods in which attempted;. 179 Great attention to the tools employed on, Chemical analysis 5;. ibid. always necessary;= bight Natural appearances. ibid. SANDY SOILS::« ibid, Nature of plants produced by.- ibid. Mode of formation of: S é quibid, Advantages of each. ibid. On what their variation depends“ wey Pic Necessary to have recourse to experience ibid. Why less benefited than others by heat and Have been described under a variety of use- moisture- 191 less local terms. 180 ne to be attended to in improv- May be distinguished under a a heads. ibid. 2 them:.. ibid. CLAYEY SOILS 3 A. exbid. Koohe itions proper in different cases 2 Abid. Causes of the differences of;<. ibid: Reason why different applications are use- Circumstances to be attended to in improv- ful in different districts:=<“aid. ing them,. 181 Means of supplying them with eral: Applications most useful for; aoe datter‘. ibid. Methods of laying them on°. ibid. Methods in which manures may be applied Advantage of proper modes of tillage in 21-83 to them: 02 Necessary to be kept as dry as possible at all Thin soils eas:ly cultivated: Zoubid. seasons-. ibid. Causes of the disadvantages of; S ADIG, Advantages of this paca in different GRAVELLY SOILS:«“aabid. cases. ibid, Materials of which composed, various Jota iC. Circumstances to be atrended to in their til- Different arrangements of:~408 lage. ibid. Why subject to burn z. ibid. Means ofa iscertaining their aie:. 184 Lefects of, bow r moved 5 ore LOAMY SOILS:= ibid: Applications proper for in eifeceat cases, ibid. &dmit of variety f said. PEATY OR MOSSY oy‘S:- 104 Substances of which composed. ibid. Met with extensively in some districts vnbid: Manner in which they recede from clays. ibid. Causes of the varieties of E> gabid. Circumstances on which their lightness and Stratified order of-:+4) Bide friability depend é;. 185 Cause of great differences in 105 On which their colours depend:;. ibid. Hiehly retentive of water.>. dbidk Admit of improvement more readi ily than clays ibid. Injured by its evaporation:> 100 Cc : PAGE, Means of improvement in:. 196 Oxygenation supposed to retard the de- Applicatidns necessary: fo:~ ibid struction-of:. 168 VEGETABLE EARTH, OR SOIL. 197 Means of promoting the increase of é. 109 Nature of, in different cases A. ibid. Causes which render it too light for grain Formation 0%, how effected; ws eilbids= crops‘ 5. 200 S.E.C.84E0 N VIL. MANURE S. PAGE. PAGE. MANURES°:. 202 Circumstances to be regarded in their pre- hears undergone in substances in the for- paration; 3 ee 21G mation of:; if ibid: In their combination and mixture with Fluid, elastic, and volatile matters, chiefly other matters::. ibid. prepared i n the soil: we ibid. In their application end use 2 ibid. Are in different proportions according to Woollen rags, hair, feathers,&c. probably cf circumstances 203 inferior advantage: 5 AB! The more gross matters ap} plie sd to lands Animal of more durable effect than many chief Ay termed manures;-) Ibid: other substances; peeerbide Changes necessary in these to fit them for the ANIMAL DUNGS-: S PeEbIG. support of vegetation 3. ibid. Nature and goodness of; SED. Much difference i in, accordit ng as they abound On what Ae latter depends in general ibid. with certain substances or principles ibid. Kinds of employed: sybid. This probably the cause why some matters Effects of, how produced: 2ao'tbid, are so.superior to others when used Night- soil; C mes equally::. ibid. Of birds and other animals:. 214 Other modes in which they contribute to the Circumstances to be attended to in the col- growth of crops.:«. ibid: lecting of i: OI: Difficulty of arrangement of:. 204 Of swine:::. ibid, May probably be usefully divided into animal, horses and cows:- a tbid, vegetable, fossil, saline, and com-\ttentions im the mixing of with abhor sub- ound manures ibid. stances.‘. 216 MANURES FROM THE DECOMPO- Of sheep::: ibid. SITION OF ANIMAL SUB- Attentions in the application or use of on STANCES; ibid. land E:.. Abidk How they contribute to the support of MANURES FROM THE DECOMPO- plants: ibid. SITION. OF VEGETABLE SUB- Differences in the constituent princiy iples of. STANCES:=. ibid, may produce differences in their ef- Methods in which they are prepared forthe— fects:§- 205 support of plants‘. ibid. Their tendency to putrefaction:* ibid. Different matters suitable for, formed during How promoted:.- bid. the decomposition of:, Circumstances to be attended to in. ibid. Reasons why they differ in their effects on HARD ANIMAL SUBSTANCES P. 206 land:‘ 210 Different natures of:. ibid, Substances that may be used, various. ibid. Bones, horns, hoofs, and others 4~ ibid: Refuse vegetable snbstances; aibidk Circumstances to be atterided to in their pre- Manner in which they may be rendered paration, mixture, combination, and useful 5: serbid. application:« abid, Green crops::. 220 SOFT ANIMAL SUBSTANCES;. 207 Sea mee:‘, 22) Various kinds of: 5 5@ibids‘Tanners’ bark: E. 229 Greaves; sugar-scum‘= ibid, Mud from various places i;. 223 Refuse of manufactorics; FTO Malt-dust: E“soibid; Wish, blood,&c.‘:~ ibid: Refuse of oil-cakes,&c.‘. ibid. Ce OL NT PAGE, MANURES FROM THEAGENCY AND DECOMPOSITION OF FOSSIL SUBSTANCES é 224 Calcareous matter in general.-s abid. Reason of the different effects of, in different cases‘: o ibid; Why it may vary when prepared from diffe- rent substances é 20225 Lime, or calcined calcareous matter.#8. ibid. Effects of in its active state, or that of quick-lime i f ibid. In its effete state, or that of carbonate of lime 4 gj OD From its combinations with different: substances; pe ibid. From its containing phosphorus» Abid. General remarks on the use and applica~ tion of lime: 42220 Lime stone;; F.232esnote; May be employed as a manure without calcination 3:= 285 Manner of preparing it for use in this state: SP aabid. Different effects of, when thus applied. 236 Soils on which most useful bs~ SiDids Lime stone gravel: LP arpig: Manner of rendering it more generally useful 4;* ibid: Chalk e.° ibid, Nature of i; er bid. Mode of using it with the greatest chance of success: ou wileyels Effects of on various kinds of soil. ibid. Proportions in which applied on each kind: 287 Marle z:. 238 Different kinds of, noticed:>“abide Manner of ascertaining them described ibid. Agree in some properties 5. 239 Manner in which they should be applied in different cases 4 sae Sloyel Proportions in which they may be em- ployea: E2AO Used on tillage and crass lands. 241 Circumstances to be attended to in their application in each case.. ibid. Particulars to be regarded in repeating the application of,; Mr. Holt’s estimate of their expence Sea sand: F Utility of, asa manure: Soils on which it may be employed Quantity to be used F Mode of application;« ibid. )} Common sand Nature of°°‘ EN T§&, How it may be useful on land: MANURES FROM THE AGENCY AND DECOMPOSITION OF SALINE SUBSTANCES; Different sorts of, may be used'; Modes in which they produce their beneficia effects; j z Nature of particular substances explained Bieachers’ refuse. Soap-boilers’ waste 5 Vegetable ashes-: Peat ditto“: How to be applied: Coal ashes 3>. Soot; C Modes in which it may be useful as a manur} Manner of applying it: Reasons why substances containing saline matters should be preserved in sheds; Muriat of soda, or sea-salt 5 Utility of as a manure, not well ascer- tained:: How it may promote putrefaction: Other ways mentioned in which it may be usefully employed: MANURES FROM THE COMBI- NATION OF DIFFERENT SUB. STANCES:: Farm-yard compost;:; Nature of substances from which formed Means of promoting its formation Manures may frequently be used with more advantage when combined, than in their simple states:‘ Circumstances necessary to be regarded in the mixing of: Manures much increased in this way Cautions to be regarded in using different e substances: S Lime in its different states, alkaline, saline matters Z applied to land in different cases Circumstances that must be attended to in their nee j t>, in their use in this way: MEANS OF TICGMEN'TING Ant WiLAIND O iy A WU LVELGUIN TING ANI VING MANURES substances to be pre- fA:, Attention to the form and construction of the farm-yard necessary.- Form of, described; C2 ibid, ibid. ibid. « 247 ibid. ibid. 5 aks . 249 250 AS)! QR se ibid. ibid. » 25% . 259 -7 ZOO - 201 ibid. ibid. ibid, « 262 CEO’ NATIT ES N= 28; PAGE, PAGE Manner of proceeding with diffcrent vege~ States of, in which they may be appl’ed table matters in£262, with most advantage:«272 Py mixing of lime with 4. 265 Modes of applying in different cases ee By preventing evapor ation; 5 enleyel. To arable lands: Seabids By cc sllecting d different sorts of materials. ibid. To grass lands:. ibid By folding sheep;, 267. Seasons in which their application may be By managing different green crops. 208 best performed in ditlerent instances ibid. By preven ing the waste of the soil of pri- Circumstances respecting their putting into vies wesi bid, land, described; vi2gA By attention to the saving of different ani- When applied on the surface, what neces- mal matters:- 270 sary to be attended to;=. inid, By collec: ing vegetable earth. 271 Means of applying them in the most saving By the proper mavagemen 1i of dunghills> a 1bid. way‘ oe GENERAL/ APPLICATION OF MA- Kinds of manure that may be used to most NURES;. 272 advantage in different cases. 278 ee SECTION VIII. DRAINING OF LAND. PAGE, MUCH water necessary to the Cal growth of plants 228) Highly injurious to, when retainedin or upon soils in over-proportions é. ibid, Hence the necessity of removing it, by drain- ing such lands previously to other improvements= ibid. Circumstances on which the successful per- formance of this business depends. 282 The different stratified nature of the ground to be attended to. ibid. Distinction of the strata in different eases;. iid. In elevations or hills.. ibid: In lower grounds. ibid. Reason of their irregularity in| different in- stances 2p ibid. Manner in which water is nes and collect- ed on elevated situations, and brought down to the lower ones. 283 Different watery appearances produced there- by 5 as swamps, morasses, oozing springs, weeping rocks, large springs, rivulets,&c. ibid, Break out at different Aietances! according to the nature and regularity of the stratum on which the water passes__ ibid. On what the difference of farce Seneaes in different cases ew eibide Nature of the impervious strata on which the water is conducted. 284 Clayey and compact marly strata, chiefly the kinds on which water is conveyed They extend to different depths in different cases:°. ibid. . ibid. PAGEs The clayey generally the more super- ficial;>; 284 Nature of the intervening porous materials in different cases«ibid. Different situations of ground in respect to wetness 5 AS Methods of removing it in dimetent cases and situations AE land: seibids Circumstances to which attention should be paid in this view. 286 Causes from which wetness as respecting agriculture mostly arises. ibid. General methods of removing, by intercept- ing the water of springs:. ibid. Different cases of this°. 287 By cutting of drains. ibid. By perforating, by means of the auger. ibid. Cases where the common method of cut- ting various deep drains may be practised with success. ibid. Where perforating the thin impervious strata to the open porous ones may be made use of;= ibid: Circumstances that tend to show the pre- sence of springs: 289 note. Cases in which water may be intercepted by cutting into the sides of elevated grounds, and carried off by suitable means at nigh levels. 290 Drainage of lands lying below the jevel cf ‘the sea, only to be effected by expen- sive machinery~ cibide Encircling them with large Gictes might be beneficial:= ibid. C0 7: TF ye. 8, PAGE, Surface wetness, from the retentive nature of soils and peculiarity of situation, removed by hollow superficial drains properly formed-- 290 In grass land 4 ee DIG In arable land P ibid: METHODS OF DRAINING BOGGY LANDS- 201 Circumstances on which it depends i in diffe- rent cases: sp ibide Manner of levelling for- 292 note. Different directions of the strata produce differences in-»' 205 Means of ascertaining the principal spring, in cutting drains-. 204 Effects of cutting them improperly. ibid. Cutting in cases of irr-gular banks-. 205 Mode of draining in narrow confined bogs, where the porous stratum contain- ing the water unites at but little depth below the retentive material- 206 In those of a more extensive kind 5 7 In marshy or hollow lands adjoining rivers ibid Medes of forming the drains in these cases. 299 Kinds of most useful- 301 Sorts of materials employed in filling them 302— 323 Nature of bricks used in constructing them ibid. 326 What requisite to be attended to in putting in the earth afterwards;. 303 Signs of stoppage of- aa toi: Mouth of drains to be guarded 2- ibid. Circumstances which show the drains to be effectual e*aibias Method of drainage where the ades stratum is porous, different from‘hat of those just described 3- 304 Drains to be made in the most depending parts, through the upper surface soil to the reientive stratum: 2 Abide Boring then necessary to let down the water. 305 Same purpose eff cted by deep pits or wells ibid. Drains in those cases to be made narrow, and filled w.ih stones ao Os Attention necessary in forming the ridges, when the land is to be in tillage S iDid; Nature of porous stratum first to be ascer- tained::=. bid. METHODS OF DRAINING HILLY LANDS 3. 306 PAG! Drainage of hills or elevated pasture- grounds, what necessary to be attend- ed to in;. 306 Drains made according to the position of the strata:- 10Id. Trenches necessary to be formed high up in the wet soil, to intercept the springs. 308 Other cuts lower fae requisite in some cases a et Die Both sides of hills may often be drained by cutting into the dryer:> iid. Houses conveniently supplied with water in such cases ee toids May sometimes be raised e a great heightin.“- 309 The cuts or bores not to be made too deep in these cases ibid. METHODS OF DR AINING MIXED SOILS::. ibid. Reason why more generally expensive 5 bids Manner of cutting the drains in. ibid. Means of ascertaining the best situation for-° 5 Sie Modes of in several varieties, described 311 Reason why the drains should be cut in a horizontal direction; ole Fewer drains necessary in these soils a ibid Cause of, explained ibid. METHODS OF DR. AINING RETEN- TIVE SOILS;=; bid. Of forming the drains in the different cases 313 By the plough, or the spade ibid. 318, 319 Other cases of~ 313 Implements made use of in cutting them 320 The miner(see p. 12). 322 Best season for making them.. ibid. Size of, in different instances a- 323 Materials for filling them; ae bids Expense and duration of, in different cases 324 note, 32 METHOD OF DR AINING. MINES, QUARRIES, AND PITS sey Circumstances to be attended to in different cases- 328 By cutting off the springs ibid. By letting the water down into the porous stratum below: oe ibid: Uses to which water mav be converted in some instances of this kind 33G Observations on draining in general ook GO NWwRE N DS SE©. Tal O.N TX. PARING AND BURNING. PAGE. PARING AND BURNING: 335 Practice of, adopted at an early period;“ibid. A process in which various changes are pro- * duced in soils:. ibid. Some of which probably lessen fertility ibid. Others greatly promote it:. ibid, Consumption of vegetable and animal mat- ters prejudicial«,,, bids The conversion of the fresh vegetable e pro- duct into saline matters, highly bene- ficial°. ibid. Combination of oxygen with the soil, of great utility.. se 1b1d. The sales matters seem to be the cause of the great luxuriance of crops after- wards 5. ibid. Must tend to exhaust the land;_ ibids Great stimulant power of, useful in promo- ting vegetation, 330 Manner in hie lime may be necral when used with the ashes F ibid. Injury only done by the loss of vegetable or animal mat ei:» ibid. The earthy matter not capable of being lessened by it,.., Abid: Frequently left in a more pulverizable state etic. Loss of vegetable matter probably not so much as supposed by some writers ibid. Ashes produced in the process, shown to be highly useful A. 337 Nature of the saline substances. ibid. Fixed alkali, and vitriolated tartar, aes n use- ful for the purpose of vegetation s ibid Other modes in which the se he s§ may be useful in promoting the growth of crops..+ bbid: By the reduction of all sorts of coarse vegetable materials:. ibid. Rendering them more readily acted upon by other substances in the soils. ibid, By preventing the land in this way from becoming too open and light for grain Crops;. ibid. By the Reins in many cases being render- ed more mellow and fine, and there- by more suitat- for the reception of the roots of growing g plants 33 4 PAGE By the complete destruction of weeds, in ‘ some instances, the lands are more at liberty to support the cultivated crops A 338 The practice porbably more adapigg tosome sorts of lands than others‘._abids Least useful on the thin light soils, or such as have been in tillage. ibid. Most advantageous on the stiff, heavy, coarse, and sour soils, or such waste lands as are infested with coarse productions of any kind places EDIG: This supported by the general experience of agricultors:+ 380 The reason of, explained ibid. The opinion of an able writer upon.¥, ibid. On mossy or peaty soils must be practised with great caution:. 340 Improper for the operation in some cases;: ibid. Dr. Anderson’s opinion against the prac- tice on 5= ibid. A fact respecting, in other sorts of land. ibid. Improper management probably the cause of.this j: pastors May however sometimes be employed on them z 1, ibid. More caution necessary than in other soils ibid. The practice general on the coarse, waste, heavy sorts of soil 3. 3At Utility and advantages of, ackn owledged 1 by most writers on agriculture 5 ibide Mr. Middleton’s opinion of, in breaking up land; ia SIGS Opinions of others stated« 342 Causes of objection to the practice of paring and burning 2 niedbidd Origin of these:+ ibid. No loss of soil in, but from the vegetable or elastic matters:« ibid, This not so great as supposed» 343 Clayey soils sup pposed by some to be most liable to injury from improper ma- nagement of;- ibid. By others supposed useful in mellowing the soil 5: ibid. Mr, Young’s opinion of the objections made in fen districts;. ibid ae baw Ra ©. 0. NY EN FS; PAGE, Facts show liltle danger to exist when pro- perly performed:. 344 Differences in the method of performing the operations: ee bids Probably necessary from the differences of soil:.. Manner of proceeding most useful in diffe- rent cases meaibide Skirting-- 549 Beat-burning; ap eibicl: {mplements employed in the performing of, different:. ibid. Advantages of each 4; 340 Ploughs most expeditious when they can beused ibid. Season for the process 4. 347 Dry weather highly necessary a sloryel, Spring months generally the best=1wibid. Mast vary, from the nature of crops. said: For rape and turnips°. ibid. For barley and oats: For wheat Thickness of parings should depend on the nature of the soil Mr. Boys’s opinion of Usual depths of Circumstances to be regarded in spreading the ashes é Particular mode of, in some places Objections to ; ibid, Expences of, in lighter sorts of soils. ibid. In fen districts: 349—351 Manure produced by: Most advantageous methods of cropping after the process in different cases Estimates of the expence and profits of Utility of the practice é How may be rendered less necessary General observations on SHEEG T I O Niak, FALLOWING OF LAND. PAGE, FALLOW!ING:.« 358 In preparing‘ands by means of, various changes také place in the substances that form soils= f= bias A high degree of mellowness and pulveriza-= tion mostly effected by it ibid. By such means the different materials be- come more uniformly and ¢ xtensively blended together: Fe ilbide Advantages of this in the grow'h of crops. ibid. Dews and moisture more readily admitted thereby: ibid. Destruction of weeds in, also useful in im- proving the soils:» 350 Other modes in which pulverization may be beneficial: eat bice By admitiing the atmospheric air more abundantly into the interstices of the soils 5 SiG By the formation of carbonic or other : acids in consequence of it Pea bide Of ammonia, or volatile alkali«ibid: Of nitrous acid 3= bide Of fluid carbonic acid. 5 rere! The practice of fallowing in these ways more extensively beneficial than has been supposed;- 360 Js more ad pted to some sorts of land than others; 4 a eibide In some, unnecessary or injurious eeEipig: On the lighter and more dry soils On such as are rich from the application of manures: Manner in which it proves hurtful in each Useful in the wet, stiff, and tenacious clayey soils, in various ways: By permitting atmospheric air to enter more tully into the cavities of the soils, the matters that promote vegetation are more extensively produced; The roots of plants allowed to penetrate and take them up more freely by the great increase of surface that thus takes place. The destruction of weeds more effectual in this way P Can only perhaps be effected in wet soils by summer fallowing: Ploughing them in winter often renders them more stiffand adhesive Dry gravelly soils may mostly be managed without this process, but wet and clayey ones cannot‘ No modes of cropping perhaps fully effectual in the latter: On such soils they will not therefore obviate the occasional use of summer fal- lowing ° 2 e ibid. ibid. ©<> 2093 355 ibid, » 390 ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. « 362 ibid, ibid co N fF EWN 2& PAGE. May sometimes lessen the necessity of its being repeated;. 362 Without this process many useful products could not probably be formed in the soils so as to promote vegetation. 363 Green crops are, however, necessary to be cul- tivated as much as possible, with the view of keeping stock: eae bide Sorts of plants most useful on, in thisway. ibid. Ruta baga= A<2 bia’. Peas: i. ibid. Wheat A:. 364 Clover~ ibid: From the great varieties in such soils, diffe- rences in the use, repetition, and modes of fallowing, may be necessary_ ibid. These should be attended to by the agri- cultor: 7. ibid. Methods of performing it should be varied according to soil and circumstances ibid. Modes of, in different cases, described< ibid. Properest times of performing the different ploughings:. 364 How full pulverization may be best effected in::« 305 Different methods in which ploughing may be done with the most advan- tage in respect to the aération of the soils::. ibid. Ploughings asserted by some to be only ne- cessary:. ibid. Difficult in some cases to prepare stiff soils in this way:=3907 Their cloddiness prevents the root weeds from being destroyed, a ibid. PAGE. Only effectually destroyed by the pulve- rization of frequent harrowing and rolling; eoOF Picking off the weeds sometimes prac- tised after: 22) xbid. This method economical, by rendering fewer ploughings necessary oe DI. Frost more powerful after mane toy Little danger of such soils being made too fine:. ibid. This proved by experiment» ibid. Other methods of fallowing that have been recommended, too intricate to de- serve the attention of farmers. 368 What necessary to be regarded in the appli- cation of manures afier, in different cases‘. 2 EDI, This sometimes wholly unnecessary*@abid. Frequently found more useful for the se- cond crop after;. 369 Reasons why the cultivation of full green crops may often be more useful. ibid. Depends probably on several causes. ibid. Land always Jeft more fine and mellow after large green crops are grown> 370 Why they seem to improve the land more than light poor crops:.»ibid. Hence also more advantageous to the culti- vator than naked fallows~= 21bid, Should be more frequently introduced both on light and’ heavy soils:. bid. Are admissible on the latter more frequently thanisingeneral supposed by farmers ibid, How best managed on: nck Ibid. Observations on green fallowsin general. ibid, sa C TI'@N Xi. CULTIVATION OF ARABLE LAND. PAGE. CULTIVATION OF ARABLE LANDS. 373 Considered in regard to those that have not been under the plough, and such as have been in a state of tillage pee ibid. In the first sort many preparatory operations necessary to be performed. 374 PEMOVAL OF VARIOUS OBSTRUCTIONS TO PLOUGHING: ibid. Stcnes;. Sibics Different kinds of i feeibide Fiow best performed; 7 ibid. Necessity of in different cases, explained 376 May frequently be converted to useful pur- poses:. ibid, PAGE. Land proprietors should be at part of the expense of: OF Clearing from wood-;* ibid. Different according to circumstances« ibid. How performed in trees of the timber kind; ee bias By trenching with the spade cae Vi By the plough.. ibid. When the roots have been somewhat removed, a crop may be taken. ibid. Afterwards more effectually cleared. ibid. Mostly a better practice to do this at first A eabid. Reason of which, explained e ibid. AGE. oKR 379 ibid. ibid. ibid. 377 ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. €@W TE N FT,§, PAGE. Manner of in plants of the shrubby kinds 377 Different plants prefer different kinds of soil ibid. Broom; bramble; furze; thorn; dwarf siallaww saibid. Soils on which each grows“most lux- uriantly described Aer DIC g Alteration of by the application of suita- ble substances, how advantageous in destroying them ace ibids Substances to‘be applied i in this view. 378 Methods of extirpating them when grown large=F ai0I0. The practice of burning in the furze kind, to be avoided as much as pos- sible~ ibid. Necessary to keep such lands in tillage till there is time to fully destroy them. ibid. When laid down to grass, most beneficial to be pasiured with sheep gue, ibid. Heath A a7 Nature of the land on which produced. ibid. Affords less vegetable matter for im- provement of than other plants saeibics On this account less friendly to the growth of useful crops 5. abide Practices to be adopted in removing it and in bringing the ground into tillage ibid. By cutting:- eabid. By paring and burning:. ibid. By burning only#37380 ‘What necessary to be attended to in each_ibid. Implements most useful in cutting it. ibid. Lime necessary to be applied to in. its caustic state:“« ibid. Jn. large proportions: 2; ibid. Mr. Young’s opinion of. w; paid: Manner of doing it>-abid. Should be in a fine powdery.‘state and equally. spread out j e« 381 Soon produces beneficial effects+ aibid. Methods in which they are effected.. ibid. Slight tillage necessary after= ibid: €ases in which it may. be destroyed with- out breaking up“ ce aibide Modes of cropping on in different instances 382 Principal object in, to be laid down to grass ibid. Green crops to be eaten. off, essentially necessary to:-.. ibid. Turning down green. crops, sometimes practised on.. ibid. Not so useful as ine them on the land- ibid. Cases in which it may be employed»2, ibid. Should be returned as soon as possible to grass seebias Other descriptions of land approaching to this 3 aids 3 PAGE. Such as are productive of rushes and other coarse plants: 383 Of ant-, mole-, or other sorts of hills ibid. Much effect, produced in the first kind ae draining: ibid. Utility of paring and burning i in ou ibid. Other methods suggested as more advan- tageous ibid. Mixing the turfy re with Bue lime supposed a less wasteful plan ibid, Reason why it may in some cases be usefully employed 384 Ant-hills may be mixed in the same way ibid. Proportion of lime should not be too reat ibid. Method of by the flay- plowghhte sometimes very useful e, abid. Stiff, wet, clayey soils:«) a80 Modes of tillage in. 3. ibid. Deep stirring often necessary». ibid. This often effected by the miner sa Did= Dr. Anderson’s opinion of its utility ibid. Manner in which it drains the land ibid. Other modes of accomplishing it described 387 Manner of rendering such soils mellow and fine by lime 388 The necessity of paring and burning lessened in tnis way ibid. But must be employed in ee iouelt swards abounding with rough plants ibid. Repeated ploughing frequently necessary in breaking up wastes: a Digs. Different intentions of ibid. Nature of soil, climate, kind of crop, and. method of sowing, to be considered in‘ ibid. Manner of levelling the land 389 Implements employed in: ibid. Kinds most useful ibid. Manner of bringing boggy lands into to tillage. 390 Crops most proper for 391. Deep mossy soils A: ibid. Methods of cultivating them=. sibide By floating the moss ibid. By the application of lime. without floating mee: Methods. that have beer followed wn Seok land mentioned ibid. Method of applying the lime 01 on 395» Quantity made use of i ibid. Manner of sowing the crops. on. 390 Crops most proper to be cultivated on ibid. Close thick green ones most suitable ibid. Potatoes; turnips; winter rye; rape. ibid. Grain crops;. proper sort of for--307/ d coN F EN YT S& PAGE, PAGE. Grass seed; kinds of proper for fate oor Impkments of the plough kind most proper Methods of tillage in, described- ibid. for performing the business in dif- RipcEs. 3898 ferent sorts of land described. 414 What necessary to be attended to in forming ibid. Suffoli iron swing-plough; the Rotheram On clayey or loamy soils:#. 300 plough; and Small’s plough- ibid. On marshy land:‘A» ibid. Importance and advantages of ploughs being On sandy and gravelly soils A ¢ 1610. properly constructed 3 oe etbid. On peaty or mossy soils A- 400 HarrowinG i és 5 2h Ridges in these latter, mostly formed by Ee utility of:#2 ibid. “the spade:. ibid. Kinds of harrows to be salad in different Maiiner of performing the work in. ibid. cases eo ti bin. May be increased in breadth in deep soils Manner of being made use of in. ibd. of this kind:. ibid. Draggs; scufflers; eae. and. culti- Gener! direction of in al! sorts of soils ei. bid. vators:« ibid. North and south, the most proper. ibid. Fixed harrows often useful in preparing land 416 Metheds of forming them in billy lands. 461 Methods of harrowing to cove: the seed in Advantages of in different cases described ibid. different cases described:.. ibid. Altering ridges on old cultivated Jands- 403 Proper season of performing the business in What necessary to be regarded in. 404 different soils.- ibid. Modes of performing in different instances ibid. Particular‘manner of accomplishing the Mechanical contrivances disadvantageous in ibid. work in wet poachy soils see) 7, An improved method recommended by an Disadvantage of this mode stated ibid. experienced writer;. 406 How performed when grass seeds are sown ibid. Expense of in different ways- 407 Rotuine: sibid. Other modes of levelling ridges deseribed. 408 Utility of in diferent views e ibide The plough should be mostly employed for. 409 In the way of piel down the lumpi- PLOUGHING;: ibid. ness in heavy soils PANS Circumstances to be attended to in per- How it proves useful in destroying weeds forming:-- 410 and rendering the land level o#F ibid. In heavy soils;:- ibid. Manurine of tillage lands 2«aibid. Tn light soils 5- 411 Attentions requisite:»> thid, Depth‘of in different casés- ibid. Kinds of manure proper for, in different Frequency of ploughing different according cases; 3 419 to the soil, Ss. 413 On heavy soils ip. ibid. Repeated stirring in general, more necessary Gn those of the middle sort:. ibid. on the stiff and heavy soils, than On marshy soils| a 420 those of the lighter kinds=e ibid: On light soils=. ibid. On soils long in tillage, generally less ne- On mossy or peaty lands: 422 cessary. ibid. Nature of the crops to be attended toin. ibid. For drilling land soe always Be in a fine Reasons of explained: ibid state of tillage. ibid.. Proper modes of laying on for particular Nature of crops mostly directs the frequency sorts of crops ibid. of ploughing iands. ibid. Modes of performing the business under Some sorts demand more tillage than different methods of culture 423 others- ibid. Manner in which manures should be chiefly A fine state of tilth generally"vourable ibid. employed. ibid. Tuil’s opinion of tillage in general- ibid. Depths to which deposited 3 5 ZOE Crops liable to be much injured by weeds Quantities in which made use of A405 should always have land well pre- Seasons in which belt applied:. ibid. pared by tillage:. 414 General attentions 2«2 426 May often bé done by the growth of plants Calcareous substances Mi ibid: that demand oes culture while Sundry(animal and other) substanees A288 growing: ibid: Expente, estimate:.» 430 By such as have large roots of the tap or Seasons for application 3 nie 31 knobby kind:. ibid. PLOUGHING IN GREEN CROPS; Aa SS Beasons why land in a fine state of tilth is SHEEP-FOLDING;| 33 most favourable to vegetation. ibid. Modes of performing it j‘ibid. C1 GaN. Tako Net: Ss. PAGE, Where most useful in this view> 434 Drilling, or what is called the new mes Green crops see loles' thod, explained 3: f entions in the execution of. ibid. This probably older‘han the Giles. WARPING:::« 435 Where capable of being employed to moft JViethod of performing ibid. benefit::.“ Principle by which the benefit of, is produced 430 What necessary in=: Directions for the performance of, note ibid. Implemen s most suitable for°° Soils most proper for 437 The advantages of each method shown: Expense of» ibid. Comparative statements of, under different Most eligible crops afterwards- 438 circumstances.: SowINnG-. 438 Culture necessary in each method during the Attentions in, indispensably necessary». ibid. growth of crops::; Theory of vegetation- 439 Horine. Attentions in the choice of seed. ibid. Kinds of implements most proper for indi. Criterions of the goodness of. 442 ferent cases°.: For ascerta! ining such as has been burnt WEEDING:-° in the stack 443 Implements proper for°.. Change of seed, when necessary in different| RovTaTioN OF CROPS:‘< views- ibid. Importance and utility of::: Modes of preparing the seed:. 445 Those most proper in different sorts of soils Reasons of: 446, Courses of crops; Utility and advantage of, j in various in- Particular methods of‘cultivating various "stances ibid. sorts of crops. wre Broadcast, or what is commonly termed the Wheat:-: old method, described 4 A57. Rye‘ 2 Where capable of being practised with ad- Barley° A° vantage 458 Oats:°° Other methods more. useful in some cases. ibid, Beans.°°° - SES PAGE, 459 ibid, A61 ibid, 408 A476. 480. 495 406 500 504 505 508 ibid. 509 512 538 539 507 571 577 590 LIST OF PLATES” IN THE FIRST VOLUME. Plate J. Plan of Woburn Farm-yard. II. Swing Plough........- sec ee eee re etre reste ereee to face Page 40 Ill. Kentish and Norfolk Plough’..........-. cece cece reece renee ibid, IV. Common Wheel Plough........0-- eee ee eee eee eee e recente ibid. V. Double Wheel Ploughs........-. 6. eect ee cet ee cette ne eee ibid. VI. Improved Wheel Ploughs........0-- ss eee eee e cece cere sees ibid. VII. Draining Ploughs.......... cece ce tee mene cc erect eee ees ibid. SEED: Drill WIS IMCS ie ooo cs occ sceposlp sinteae’s sm erce es© k+ wader ee|=«ee od ibid.. Pe= Hlors@ El0eS 0. ce tees cat CUBA, SR Se ao A eee ee ae ibid, Da GSC OTS) a een peace Cabins O°: ie igin A Cacia aera ibid.. Bae@omimOMeLATTOWS 6 6 oo;« oc te gether wie o's 6 a%e ghee sve ee to= oe okens ibid. XII. Improved Iron Harrow...-. 6. eee eee eee een nee cere cerns ibid. SCTE feet IOvaVU Sas Os& bad Gg Ak b BDO DEG Oo oe SOU GO Oe Geode oo UC UOU Gaon ibid. XIV. Thrashing Machines....... eee ee ee cece et ee eee e eee sees ibid. DeWitt hai Mule 2s 0s ae ec sot oes ccetetnaetnitet Me aot Peg ee ibid. VE Norolk aud Sutfolk Elorse Rake 4%...+. 22 2d fe we ee el ro ibid. MOVIE. Carts and Waeeons 50 ane ee te ln Be ee ge tw eee ibid. Pea Dacnsi tn ee ett ene ote ss Re ee REN. GE TS 64 XIX. Stacking Apparatus and Granary..... esse eee eee ee eee eee ibid. XX. Horse Stables and Single Cattle Sheds.............6.-..---0-e- ibid, SOE. IDyewlbules(Carsales GINEGS Boos Ae So oo Bie OU Obs o oh eeu cub ooncite ibid. XXII. Dairy-House and Implements.....--.-+e eee eee cee ee ee eeee ibid. XXIII. Steam Boilers arid Bruising Machine.................---+- ibid. SORKIN VII ss es se ae, Oe ges| PRR ACE den. 6 caer ibid: XXV. Dairy Farm Houses and Offices.......2 0. ee cece eee e eens via! OW 1@amm Warm Elousesiand:@nicede.. s 28 60,60. a:--0, o-oo so ole oe suche Fhe XV Ee Mixed’‘Harm Houses and Ounces 6.6. so 5 aire wos Spleens. o> ibid. OCW 1” Param© ftages ces) 0 ae ibid. OS Mia edie VEnGes ooo. 5 ioe ws open ewe oie bce e wicie cela 8 oye aitgeheke«ie ibid, Bio UTS 1B edie: Rete apne Oe Oe a nie emmIn oine Sr bo ono kas ibid. PRONOUN EE CANE CMCES 58a ic aici eerie nse ee shale ee teases amen s ibid. OXEXGIEVe GG ateorama Stiles: o.8 co snes goat sci sleue ats 6 Ciomecsms Rien eros 143 BONN Wie Ostet eMOM7OL HVOAGS, 2 6 ys) sicGsecthc cuctele aise sures 6 ataceretole es cae 174 SOLSOVUE{Oona btivesvoin Gir Wont nae Bers cane on one obo hy ae ibid. DXOV TL Tnplements for repairing Noads-. se ee de es ibid, ORC LEE, BH oibanlements):.19. 6, eegoys os 2S Pe es. Heenan ibid. XCD Drainage of Bossy Landsrom Spmnes 50.6 o, e. t 332 MOL Deamace:ot Bocwy.and: Wet Hands... oo as cece eee ts ee ibid. ET Dramace ot Low swampy Sands res ee wine ibid. MLII. Dramage'of Hilly Iuands and Mixed Soils... 2.02. 0.5 6.. ibid. XLII. Drainage of Land where the Soils are porous above and retentive DCO Wea ee ere sce aero es ee ates ibid. MLV. Draimace efLand im various Soils. 0... ss. ses nas ibid, SLV: Drainave of Wines@Qaarness C75... Gigs eels oe sone+> ibid.. XLVI. Dramasewt Water from Mincralsj8c¢. 0. ic es wie eo ibid. DOI WA Wig cmb Otero ie ee See ge eae cuetee oa Pete eee: ss ibid, et Vil Sections ae UD TaING) ei oo eee rei ee et go gta ibid, 2 SAD OOM Bite Tay iro orl Conan they an hes ne oo Gro ae ee ree rnd ibid, it. baring, Ploao le x5 cs a pee ns iat ier ro seats ce se Ss rs 3506 els bVand, EVOesi* Se ts ares eee ce ee er penton Vereen a ss 500 wel.-Usetul Parse Hoe. ss oer ep ee we ie nk 505 HOEUD,“Plone st Oetiee se,. cis. et cere eter arte ae CO eke ee wri ons ale 507 * The descriptions must face the plates to which their numbers refer, in CAMP CPU'S / i finenTAne > stirrer 4. \ ‘ pf? LLO0 ax Vall //3, WS i S 2 2 j wn SS\| J Os» Aa 4q; oa$ u Wax Ss% ) S;~ SS | Ls : } a L ~ SAVGOIS LE OR? Ds @ ad f ALENT /y Of / O0C) Rt 7) 7> Matha lo hr Li Le [¢ Richard Phil lips Vist NY] ng) o~/ : Re Cos a!/ nN w Bi; ¢ ts 63/ en N A s 5 On ay| ~) ST} ta| a“ P): toa bey a rae| 3 k NS 2°$. » he\ iy Ww\ >. 2 Lublishd Cet. 25 TLDS: “PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. SECTION I. Implements of Hufbandry. Iinplements employed in the Praétice of Hufbandry—Circumftances to be attended to in the Conftruc- tion of them.—P LOUGH s—Different Kinds neceffary for different Soils and Situations.—S WING- Provcus—Variety of—Capable of extenfive Application—Peculiarities in their Conftruttion— The Advantages of which—The Rotheram Plough—Small’s Chain-Plough—Ploughs fuitable for light friable Soils—Expence of them— Dutch Plough—Suffolk Iron Swing-Plough—Advantages of on ftrong cohefive Land.—W HEEL-P LOUGH S—Conftruétion, various, according to Soil, Fc.—Lefs. Skill in the Ploughman neceffary for them—Reafon of Wheels being added to Ploughs—Ufes of them—Friétion of them caufes Refiftance—Mr. Middleton's Opinion of them—Oljections to them— Should feldom be employed by good Ploughmen—Sorts, of Soil mof? proper for—Fertfordpbire WV beel- Plough—Kentifo Turnwri-Plough—Norfolk Wheel- Plough—AImproved common W heel-Plough— Two-wheel-Plough—VV heel-Plough of the Len Diftri?s—Double or Two-furrows-P.0igh—Skim= coulter-Ploughs—Trench-Plough—Uyfes and Advantages of—The Miner—Its Conftruction and Ufe—Paring-Plough—Double-mould-board-Plough— Common Draining-Plough—Mole-P lough— Draining-furrow-Plough—-Marking-Plough—-Single-hoe- Plough.-DRILL M ACHINES-— Confiruction of them varicus—Principles on auhich they foould be made—Circumftances to be ree garded in choofing them—Mr. Amos's Drill—Mr. Cook’s Drill—Mr. Ducket’s Method more fimple—Mr. Mellard’s Drill—Advantages and Uses of—Expence of—Mr. Bayley’s urnip Drill — Its Ufes on One-bout Ridges Conftruction of—His Drill for all Sorts of Grain—Conftruc- tion of it— Bean Drill for wide Intervals.—Its Form and Make—Drill Barrow—The Ufes of— The Extirpator—The Ujes and Confiruction of—Urtility of, to be Joewn by further Trials.— HOES — Difference of—Cook’s improved, Horfe- Hoe—Amos’ s expanding Horfe-Hoe more advantageous— On what Soils msft ufeful—M*Dougal’s Hoe—Purpofe to which it may be applied—Improve- dpe} LoS 7 Saas L ment in the W heel of—Hoeing may be well done by the common Plough—Experienced Harmer, his Opinion of the Ufe of the Plough in this Way 7 oad v 7. a. y 0 rally employed—Lhe Method of employing them—Purpofes to which they are adapted—Confiruchion of ScUFFLERS and SCARRIFIERS—More gene- them—Mr. Cook's,&5°c.—Experienced Farmer’ s Remarks on them— The Inftrument he ufes dem feribed—Ufes of Scarrifiers and Scufflers in general— Objections to which they are liable—Not in common fo effettual as the Plough.—Dracs—General Conftruction of—Ufes of— Common Drag —Duck-footed-Drag in fome Cafes more ufeful—W ay in avbich the Teeth foould be put. in— HARROW S—Litile Improvement of—To be adapted to particular Ufes and the Nature of the Scils— B 2g Implements of Hufbandry. Kind of Teeth moft proper—Inconveniences of Harrows in generaleHow remedied—Harrows avith running Bulls—Conftruction of Harrows—Brake- Harrow—Deuble-Harrow—Common ime proved Harrow—Mr. Graburn’s Harrow—Ufes of—Mr. Knights Harrow— Advantuges of— Harrows proper for Grafs Seeds—Bujh-Harrow—Mode of Harrowing.— ROLLER s—Conftruce tion of—Common Roller—Spike-Roller—Drill-Roller—Proper Size of Rollers—THRASHING Macuines—Principles of—Improvements of—Objettions to—How cbviated— Circumftances on which their good Thrafhing depends—Circumftances to be attended to in ufing them— Additions that may be made to them— Mr. Middleton's Opinion on the Ufe of them—Their Advantages over the Flail—_W1nnow1nG Macuinéis—Different Kinds of—Cors’s and Rogers’s on good Plans. —CHAFF-CUTTERS—Different Conftructions of—In general toa expenfive—Cook’s Nailors—Im- provement in one made by the Succeffors of Winlow.—RAKES—Generally well known—Spring-teethe Rakes—Stubble-Rakes—T witch-Rakes—Mode of confiructing them.—W HEEL-CARRIAGES— Circum/flances to be attended to in their Conftrudtion—Waggons for Hufbandry—Faulty Conftruc- tion of the Berk/bire—Improvement of fuggefied—In general difadvantagous for the Purpofes of the Farmer.—Ir1sH Car—Ujes and Advantages of.—CARTS—Single-horfe-Carts moft ufeful—Obfer- vations on the Advantages of One-horfe-Carts—Clofe-Cart, Defcription of—General Conftru€ion of—Coup-Cart—Drag-Cart—Corn-CarteHay-Cart—Farmer’ s-Cart— Quarry-Cart— Remarks on Carts in general. = r HERE is fcarcely any part of the extenfive and important fcience of agriculture that has received greater improvements within thefe few years, than that which relates to the conftruction of the implements which are neceflary to be employed. Since a tafte for the art has fortunately been diffufed through the country, and men of great Knowledge and fortune have been induced to engage in it, perfons of ingenuity and mechanical talents have been brought forward and fufficiently encouraged to exert themfelves either in the improvement of the better kinds of the old inftruments, or in the invention of new ones, by which means more convenient and ufeful inftruments and machines have been provided for almoft all the various operations and proceffes that are continually to be performed in cultivating land, and managing the different kinds of bufinefs neceflarily conneéted with it. Among the variety of different im- plements which have been thus prefented to the attention of the agriculturift, fome, as may eafily be conceived, have appeared, that are evidently much too expenfive and complicated in their conftruétion for the purpofes which they are intended to ferve, and others, probably from a want of practical information in the inventors, have not been properly adapted to the ufes for which they were defigned; but in ge- neral they have been fuch as have contributed much to the prefent very improved {tate of the art. 7 The backwardnefs that maybe obferved, and which is fomuchcomplained of in fome particular diftri€is in refpet to the ftate of their cultivation, would feem to depend, in fome meafure, on an attachment to fuch implements as they have been in the habit Implements of Hufbandry. 3 of employing, however imperfeét they may be, in preference to fuch as have been re- cently invented orimproved.‘This, in fome cafes too, may probably arife from the want of capacity inthe farming labourer to make ufe of new tools with eafe and con- venience to himfelf; and in others from farmers themfelves being frequently unac- quainted with the inftrumental improvements that have been made, or not fufliciently convinced of the advantages that may refult from the ufe of them. In the conftruction of every fort of tool for the purpofes of farming, as the chief objects ought to be the rendering the bufinefs of hufbandry more complete, eafy, and expeditious, and the introduction of a fyftem of economy in refpe& to the labour that neceffarily attends it, great care fhould be taken that they be well adapted to the purpofe for which they are intended, and not unneceflarily heavy, while they pof- fefs fufficient ftrength and firmnefs for the various ufes to which they may be applied. It is well obferved in an ingenious and interefting periodical publication, that there are no fort of implements that admit of greater improvement than thofe of hufbandry, on the principle of diminifhing weight without in any degree abating ftrength.“ Every man knows,” fays the author,“ that if a.beam of any length be made of equal thick- nefs throughout its whole length, and a weight fufficient laid upon it, it will inevita- bly break in the middle, and never at either of the ends; yet, unlefs it be in the poles of a fedan chair, he can fcarcely recolleét an inftance in which weight has been diminifhed upon this principle. On the contrary, it is not at all unufual, in the conftruction of fuch implements, to fee the thicknefs diminifhed nearly one half at the very weakeft place by means of a mortife cut out in it there, while its thick- nefs in other places is four times greater than would enable it to bear an equal burden. No attention is paid to placing the wood in that pofition wherein it would be beft able to refift the preffure to which it muft neceflarily be fubjeGted; although it is very well known, that the fame quantity of materials may be made to bear in one po- fition above ¢en times as much as it could do in another. It is well known, that mortifes weaken the wood to an aftonifhing degree when injudicioufly placed; yet it is no uncommon thing to fee two crofs-mortifes, each of them of twice the fize that in any cafe could have been neceflary, made through a beam perhaps at the very weakeft parts of it, juft as accident may dire&, without even an attempt to vary their pofition, far lefs to avoid them entirely, which in many cafes might be done without the leaft inconvenience. It is well known that a fmall brace, judicioufly ap- plied, may greatly augment the ftrength without adding to the weight of an imple- ment; yet contrivances of this kind, which are obvious to the mereft tyro in mechanics, feem to be totally difregarded; far lefs do the conftruétors of fuch tools: think of adopting new devices of this fort, which a very moderate degree of inge- auity might eafily fuggeft. The importance of having every part firm and compact, 4 Implements of Hufbandry.— Ploughs, in an implement that is fubjected to jolts and fhaking, is univerfally recognifed; yet, from the mott trifling confiderations, we fee this principle departed from, and loads of fuperfluous materials added, in vain, to fupply the defects that are thus pro- duced.” He concludes by obferving, that“ it is not to one implement only that_ thefe obfervations apply, but to almoft every common implement of agriculture*.”” The above principles, though extremely plain and obvious in themfelves, are circum- {tances which feem indeedto have been greatly overlooked by the practical farmer, and too little regarded by thofe who have been principally employed in making inftru- ments of this nature; as in almoft every diftri& of the kingdom, notwithftand- ing the many ufeful inventions and improvements which have lately been made, we may{till meet with different forts of implements that are not only exceedingly awkward and inconvenient from their clumfinefs, but which are ufed with much dif advantage, on account of their great weight: fituation, and fome other caufes, will, however, render a difference in regard to ftrength, and other circumftances, necef- fary, and by them the operator muft frequently be guided in the conf{trudtion of tools for the purpofes of hufbandry. As moft of the implements of this kind are made ufe of by perfons who have but little knowledge of the nature, power, or ac- tion of machines, and as they fhould be generally in the hands of farmers, they ought always to be conftruéted upon the moft plain and fimple principles, of fuch kinds of materials, and in fuch ways, as that they may-be afforded at a cheap rate, nothing having operated more unfavourably to the introduction of new implements among this clafs of men, than the great expence that attends the procuring of them. $ PLOUGHS. As ploughing, like many other operations in practical hufbandry, muft often vary in the manner of its being performed, it is: evident that no one particular fort of plough can be fuperior to all others, in every feafon, and under every variety of foil, or inclination of furface; different foils, fituations, and ufes, will of courfe require different kinds of ploughs, though there are, undoubtedly, fome that are capable of a much more general application than others. It-has, in- deed, been obferved by the author of a late work on hufbandry, that“ the plough which colts the leaft money, is the lighteft to trail, and makes the beft work, 1s of moft value;”” which, in general, we believe, may be truet. In the forming or conftru€ting of all forts of implements of this kind, there are a few general principles that ought invariably to be attended to 3 fuch as the giving the throat and brea/i, or that part which enters, perforates, * Anderfon’s Recreations in Agriculture,&c. t The Experienced Farmer. « ws Implements of Hufbandry.—Swing-Ploughs. 5 arid breaks up the ground, that fort of clean, tapering, fharpened form that affords the leaft refiftance in pafling through the land; and to the mould-board that kind of hollowed out and twilted form which not only tends to leffen fric- tion, but alfo to contribute greatly to the perfect turning over of the furrow- flice.‘The beam and muzzle fhould likewife be fo contrived, as that the mov- ing power or team may be attached in the moft advantageous dine of draught. This is particularly neceflary where a number of animals are employed together, in order that the draught of the whole may coincide. Swing-Ploughs.—As this fort of plough is not incumbered with wheels, it muft be the moft free from friction, and the refiftance which neceffarily proceeds from that caufe; confequently may, in general, be faid to be the lighteft of draught. In the conftru€tion‘of ploughs of this kind there is, however, confiderable va- riation in different diftricts; but when they are made of proper kinds of mates rials, and in the moft improved manner, they mutt be allowed to be inftru- ments of extenfive application and utility. As befides being effective in their opera- tions, they are not fo eafily put out of order as other kinds of ploughs; and, from the circumftance juft noticed, require in almoft every kind of foil, when managed by a good ploughman, much lefs{trength to draw them than thofe of a fimilar kind when conftructed with wheels; confequently give confiderably lefs fatigue to the horfes, or teams of any kind, that may be employed in draw. ing them. In the mould-boards of moft of the improved ploughs of this kind, there is that peculiar form of curvature which leflens refiftance in turning up the ground, and which contributes to render the earth of the furrow equally and well laid over to its fituation.; 3 The rotheram-plough; Smalls chain-plough, and a plough recommended by the Board of Agriculture, as well as feveral others to be met with in almoft every arable county of the kingdom, are formed in this way. Light thin foils, with little tenacity of furface, fuch as are commonly em- ployed in the growth of turnips, may be well managed by almoft any of the ploughs that are in general ule; but as the chief excellence of a plough for this fort of foil would feem to be that of its poflefling light weight, eafy draught, and being capable of leaving the furface in any defired fhape in refpect to height of ridge, thofe of the light fwing kind ought certainly to be preferred. Ploughs of this fort have for fome time been much employed in moft of the _ northern counties, and in the fouthern diftriéts are now much more frequently met with. In many places they do not coft more than forty or fifty fhillings. That fort of plough which is commonly known by the name of Dutch plough, is a light fwing- oer ee sotalh nity ahaa sume element nt dienes iniataa haa a eg ROR“* a soar“-eocnange sn enero itil 6 Implements of Hufbandry.—Wheel-Ploughs. | plough, which, from its not requiring great ftrength to draw it, may frequently be i ufed with advantage on fome of the lighter forts of foil, which are pretty free | from{tones and other obftru€ting matters of that nature. But where the land is of | a ftrong, heavy, cohefive quality, and where the roots of vegetables, or other fub- i ftances, afford confiderable refiftance and obftruction, a much ftronger plough muft be employed. Here the Suffolk tron fwing-plough will, probably, be found a much better, as well as a very neceflary and ufeful inftrument, efpecially | :| when managed by a judicious ploughman. The advantage of this inftrument has ny Wii! been particularly fhewn in breaking up fome of the{trong heavy lands of the | King’s farms in the great park near Windfor. It not only does its work well, but . with greater facility than many other kinds of ploughs which are frequently em- ployed on thefe kinds of foil. The part to which the team is attached in this fort of plough is an excellent contrivance for the purpofe which it is to ferve*. Wheel-Ploughs.—Vhe manner of conftructing thefe ploughs, like thofe of the {wing kind, varies confiderably in different places, according to the nature of foils and other circumftances; but in every form, and in all fituations, they probably require lefs fkill in the ploughman. Wheels feem, indeed, to have Hh formed an addition to ploughs, in confequence of the want of experience in this clafs of men; and in all forts of foil, but more particularly in thofe which are | of a ftony and ftubborn quality, they afford great affiftance to fuch ploughmen, || enabling them to perform their work with greater regularity in refpect to depth, and | with much more neatnefs in regard to equality of furface. From the friction caufed | by the wheels they, however, give much greater refiftance, and confequently demand more ftrength in the team that is employed; and, befides, are more expenfive in their conftru€tion, and more liable to be put out of order, as well as more apt to | be difturbed in their progrefs by clods, ftones, and other inequalities that may be | on the furface of the ground, than thofe of the fwing kind. It is alfo obferved by a late ingenious writer, who feems to have paid much ae attention to the invention and improvement of implements for the purpofes of | hufbandry,“ that with wee/-ploughs workmen are apt to fet the points of their fhares too low, fo as by their inclined direétion to occafion a heavy preflure on the wheel, which muit proceed horizontally;” the effet of this{trugele, he conceives, to be an increafed weight of draught, infinitely beyond what could be fuppofed: for which reafon, he thinks the wheel is to be confidered as of no importance iz fetting a plough for work; but pafling lightly over the furface, it willbe of material aid in breaking old leys, or ground where flints, rocks, or roots of trees occur, * Young’s View of the Agriculture of Suffolk. Implements of Hufbdndry—Wheel-Ploughs.> and in correcting the depreffion of the fhares from any fudden obfiruction, as well as in bringing it quickly into work again, when thrown out towards the furface*. But an able writer, in{peaking of the agriculture of Middlefex, though by no means an advocate for wheel-ploughs, remarks, that‘¢ on a comparative view of the whole of any two extenfive diftrits, whereof one is tilled with wheel- ploughs, and the other by fwing ones, as Berkfhire and Norfolk againft Middlefex and Surrey, including every defcription of ploughmen ufually met with in thofe counties, it has appeared to him, on many occafions, that for neatnefs of work wheel-ploughs have the advantage. This circumftance, and keeping the men in good temper, is, he thinks, probably of more confequence than a little difparagement in point of draught t.”| Notwithftanding this, the objections which we have juft mentioned, the weight of the carriages for the wheels, and the trouble of fixing and moving them, are inconveniences that operate ftrongly again{t the ufe of this kind of plough in all cafes, but more particularly in thofe of general tillage. An intelligent farmer in one of the midland diftricts, however, affures us, that the rotheram-plough, with one or fometimes two wheels fixed near to the end of the beam, without any carriage, goes very light, and is very ufeful; fuch alterations as are neceflary requiring very little time or trouble. Where two wheels are employed, the plough does very well without a holder on a good tilth or light fward, except at the fetting in and turning out. Wheel-ploughs fhould, however, probably be feldom had recourfe to by the experienced ploughman, though they may be more convenient and more manage- able for thofe who are not perfectly informed in that important and ufeful art. This fort of plough will, in general, be found moft fuitable for the more ftiff tenacious foils, and thofe in which ftones, flints, or other obftacles of the fame kind abound, the moft advantageous and defirable properties under fuch circum- ftances being thofe of ftrength, and of not being eafily thrown out of the ground. For general purpofes in fuch foils, perhaps the Hert/ordjhire wheel-plough, which has a piked fhare, may be the moft fuitable implement; but where the ground is very ftrong, and where very deep ploughing is required, the Kenti/h turnwrift- plough, with a chifel-pointed fhare, fhould probably be preferred. On light, loamy, and friable foils, where deep ploughing is not neceflary, the Norfolk wheel-plough will be found a convenient and ufeful tool, as being compact and light in its form, doing its work with neatnefs, and requiring only a{mall draught. * See Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I. vp. 419. } Middleton's View of the Agriculture of Middlefex. re) Implements of I ufoandry.—W heel- Ploughs. The rotheram-plough, with a wheel as above, might probably, in many cafes, be made ufe of with equal, if not greater advantage, from its being very light and requiring little ftrength in the team. The improved common wheel-plough, and likewife the two-wheel-plough, are implements which will be found ufeful in certain kinds of foil where the more complex ones cannot be employed, as in breaking up frefh grounds,&c.‘The former has been lately much improved by the addition of an iron earth-board firmly {crewed to the coulter, which in fome places 1s called a flay. It is made ufe of when ploughing turf, by which it‘s taken off and turned into the furrow, when the plough immediately covers++ with earth. It is obferved that, by this manage- ment, turf, at one ploughing, has the appearance of a fallow, and harrows nearly as well. A little more ftrength in the team is however required*. The latter has generally a check-chain, by which the wheel is pulled up, sn order to be out of the way in opening ridges and clearing up furrows.. There is alfo in fome of the fen diftricts a kind of wheel-plough, which has much refemblance to the Dutch paring-plough employed in Cambridgefhire, which is a good inftrument for ploughing where there is much ftubble, or where the want of proper management in the farmer has fuffered twitch-grafs to become abundant. The mould-board in this plough has a good fweep, and the fhare a proper form, which fhould be conftantly kept fharp by means of files, and be well fteeled. The coulter in this fort of plough is a fteel wheel, which is well adapted for the purpofes ire of Lincolnfhire, +r i fg it we have juft mentioned. Mr. Young, in his account of the agricultv remarks, that Mr. Cartwright affixes to this plough a bean-drill of great fimplicity, that drills upon the centre of the preceding furrow, while the next is turning; 2 3) ct Laue) (2) Low} poe) with which apparatus it muft be a very convenient and ufeful impleme: variety of purpofes in arable hufbandry. A/ thle e trips Pea AR IAS re: te Fee p The double or two-furrow plough isan implement that has not yet, perhaps, been i y fully tried in different kinds of foil; but which certainly, when well made, may, in many forts of land, be advantageoutly employed. It produces two furrows at once, and in fome of the lighter forts of foil, has been found to perform its work in a tolerably neat manner. It requires, however, great. powcr in the draught, efpecially in ftrong foils when dry and ftony, and does not even in fome cafes anfwer well. But for ploughing level fandy lands into wide ridges it may, in general, be a good tool, though it is obvioufly more confined in its work than a fingle plough. The chief and moft important advantages attending its ufe are, in the faving of the attendance of one perfon, and in doing nearly double the work in the fame length of time, with * Pitt's View of the Agriculture of Staftordfhire, @ Implements of Hujbandry.—Two-Furrow-Ploughs. 9 but little more ftrength in the team. Ploughs of this kind are made either with or with- out wheels. It is, however, obferved by the inventor or improver of them, that-thofe which he has contrived, from the clean fharpened conftruction of the breaft and throat, will be enabled to break up deep{tiff land with infinite fuccefs; in which cafe, the coulters fhould, he fays, be fet nearly ftraight with the throat and fhares; but that in crofs-ploughing or ftirring, they may be fet three-fourths of an inch to- wards the land, by which greater difpatch may be obtained in feed time. Should they carry too deep a furrow, the correftion of their fhares, he obferves, is obvious; but if they hug too much to the land, or go unfteady to the ploughman, it muft proceed from a want of fetting them true, relatively to each other, and from an undue regulation of the cops, as in this a nice attention is required. It may fugeeft itfelf, he further remarks, that two-furrow-ploughs are unfit for hilly ~ ground; but he thinks the very reverfe is the cafe. The effect, he fays, of ploughing acrofs the inclined plain or hill, is that of carrying the foil in time to the bottom of- the field, which muft be carried bodily up again at a great expence: let fuch land, fays he, be therefore worked from top to bottom; one furrow being carried with the hindmoft or land fhare up the hill, and two down, fo that the power may be apportioned to the weight with which it has to contend, and the needlefs toil to the team be faved. That power which was required to carry two furrows up, would be fuperfluous in carrying the fame down the hill; and the effect will be as three to four, or an acre and a half inftead of two acres in a day. And as deep ploughing is not much required, except where the cultivation of tap-rooted plants are intended; he thinks that two-furrow-ploughs, though they fhould be deemed incapable of carrying a deep furrow, which, he contends, is far from the truth, mutt come into admirable effect, as a twofold advantage can be taken of the feafon in fowing, and the bufinefs being done at half the expence. But where long ufage, and the convenience of conftant road, confine perfons to teams of heavy corn-eating cart- horfes, thefe ploughs become objects of great importance; becaufe their teams will not, he conceives, feel the difference between their common fingle-furrow working one acre, and the well-conftru@ted two-furrow plough with two acres a-day. Itis remarked in addition to this, that fome of the midland counties, as Leicefter and Stafford, have been greatly benefited, under thefe circumftances, by the ufe of thefe ploughs, although they have not been fo conftruéted in the throat and breaft as to leffen the means of refiftance. And obtufity in thefe parts not only adds incalcu- lably to the weight, but is liable to break the furrow, and thus fpoil the work. It may likewife be obferved, that removing refiftance, not only removes the labour c 10 Implements of Hufoandry—Two-Furrow-Ploughs. of the cattle, but is equally advantageous in increafing the ftrength of the im. plement. It is{till further remarked, that this fort of plough has lately been found ufeful in his own country, in even breaking up ley-ground, although formerly only in com- mon ufe for fallowing, not being thought capable of ploughing leys, as, from their conitruction, requiring too great ftrength in the team; and that a premium has lately been given for this fort of plough, working ley-ground only. He ftates alfo, that one acre and an half of ley-ground was broken up by four oxen with great eafe to them- felves in three hours and fifty-five minutes, they having, as part of a conftant courfe of work, ploughed feventeen perches fhort of an acre of the fame kind of ground the fame morning: this was performed in order, he fays, to prove the effect of moveable plates at the extremities of the mould-board, that the furrows might be laid more or lefs flat; as mould-boards formed to lay furrows in ley, fo as to give the greateft quantity of mould or foil to harrows, cannot be of that fhape or form bett fuited to make good work in ftirring earths, more efpecially the laft, which ought tobe thrown up in{mall feams, as it were, that the feed may be properly buried. For this purpofe it has, he afferts, hitherto been ufual to rip off the plate and drive in wedges, by which the mould-plate mutt be liable to be injured; and from the trouble attending the operation, it has often been omitted, and confequently the land imperfectly worked. This inconvenience may, he fays, be remedied, and the mould-board be adjufted with great facility and expedition, by having the neceflary parts of the mould-board or plate cut off, and afterwards conneéted with the fixed parts of it. by means of flat hinges, or of thin flexible plates of tempered fteel, or of hard ham-. mered iron, fo as to admit of thefe parts being fet to hav with the fixed part of the mould-board. e different inclinations By means of two fcrews pafling from the infide through the lower parts of the handle of the plough, oppofite the back parts: of thefe moveable pieces,. they may be kept at any defired degree of inclination ac- cording to the nature of the work to be performed. As.ley-grounds.cannot be laid too flat, or feed earths-too much on an edge,, by this improvement in the mould.. board of thefe ploughs he thinks it m ay be readily adjufted for either purpofe, as.it may be rendered more flat or more convex, according to the circumftances of the cafe. That part of the mould-plate the moft liable to wear fhould be made. of double the thicknefs. of the others, in order to render it as durable as the reft of the plough.. The increafed weight of draught when thefe moyeabl € plates were extended, cid not appear, he obferves, on trial, in a two-furrow-plough, to be, by the cops,. more than twelve pounds, in ley-ground at fix inches depth. The friction in fur. | | | i ¥ Implements of Hufoandry.—Shkim-Coulter-Ploughs. 11 rows required to be laid flat, was, it is faid, lefs than could have been fuppofed; probably in both furrows not more than from twelve to fix pounds*. It is remarked by the fame author, in another work, that in order to qualify ploughs of this kind for broad work of every defcription, breaking up of leys not excepted, thefe plates are abfolutely requifite; and that in fingle ploughs they are almoft equally fo. he principle of this moveable plate, fays he, though it may not at firft catch the attention of every one, has found ftout advocates in ploughmen, as it faves their right arm much trouble in wedging and hammer- ing mould-plates, and their right leg much exertion in attempting to tread flat the furrow which the plough had left on an edget. But, notwithftanding thefe ingenious and interefting obfervations, from the na- ture and conftruction of fuch ploughs, they muft obvioufly be much more limited in their application than fuch as are fingle; and under fome circumf{tances, as where the land is full of{tones and uneven, perhaps wholly inapplicable. Where, however, the circumftances of the land are fuch that they can be intro- duced with any probability of advantage, they ought not to be overlooked, as be- ing conducive, by their great difpatch of work, to economy in farming labour, which is certainly an object of much importance. Skim-Coulter-Ploughs are a fort of ploughs that may often be employed with advantage on extenfive farms, where there are fuch kinds of lands ds require them, Of thefe ploughs there are many different ones adapted to particular ufes and fitua- tions; fuch as the Trench-Plough, which is fo contrived as to turn up the ground to a great depth, in foils of different kinds, where there is fufficient{taple. It is an exceedingly ufeful implement in various cafes, as, by means of it, land may be opened to any depth in feparate horizontal flices, the weeds being thus cut off in the firft operation, while the next raifes a flice or portion of frefh mould from below the foil which afforded the former crop, and depofits it upon the rubbifh before turned down, by which means more abundant nourifhment. is prepared for the crop that is to follow. For thefe purpofes, however, in all foils, a{trong team muft be had; but only one fuch tillage is required for moft crops. From the flices of earth raifed by this plough, being placed one over another, the ground generally harrows well, and the growth of weeds is in a great meafure prevented. It is confequently evident, that, confidering the num- Der of ploughings generally given in the ordinary way of preparing lands for * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. # Somerville's Syftem of the Board of Agriculture. i || ian | i) ie { ae ge. i Fi \\ i } if | =>=— nites— ee oe oe 7; es= 1 Implements of Lf ufoandry.—Miner-—-Paring-Ploughs. a crop of barley or turnips, and under the following fyftem for wheat, and the labour and expencé in the latter cafe, of raking, picking, and burning weeds, that the advantages of the trench-plough mutt be greater than is, perhaps, gene. o rally fuppofed. There is alfo another confideration of fome importance in this fyf. tem of management, which is, that the ftaple of the foil is increafed in depth, and its parts fo divided and loofened, that the fibres of the roots of the crop are more at liberty to range, and of courfe to take up their proper nourifhment, which muft render it more certain and of better quality. A plough of this kind, with a double fhare, one placed directly over the other, has been much employed by fome good cultivators in the fouthern parts of the kingdom. By this means, one narrow fhallow furrow may be taken off the furface, and another beneath it any moderate depth that may be required; and it will perform its bufinefs to ten inches in depth, as well as only five or fix. It is an highly ufeful tool in putting in one crop immediately after another; a mode of cultivation which could not indeed be well prattifed without it. In this way rye, or other green crops, which have great height of ftem, may be turned down without leaving any part of them {ticking out in the feams or crevices between the furrows; whatever is turned in be- ing really covered, by which means the furface is of courfe perfectly free from weeds, and clean for the fucceeding crop of whatever kind it may be*. The Jiner is another plough, which is ufed for opening ground to a great depth; it is made very ftrong, but with a fhare only, not having any mould- board; it therefore rather loofens than turns up the earth. In deep ftiff foils, where the furface mould is good, it may be conveniently employed in the fame furrow af- ter a common plough, in order to ftir the ground to a greater depth. It is in ufe in fome of the northern counties; and Doétor Anderfon mentions it as an implement that all farmers who have land fuitable for it fhould have in their poffeffion. It is an extremely ufeful tool where working deep is neceflary without bringing up the inert under ftratum or fub-foil, as in loofening the ground for carrots, or other tap-rooted plants, and in eradicating the roots of thiftles or other weeds which ftrike deep in the earth. The Paring-Plough is a neceflary m{trument where the prattice of paring and burning is much required, as in bringing into cultivation heath, moor, and other wafte lands. It is conftru€ted in fuch a manner that the furface of the ground can be cut off to any depth, which is an advantage that can fearcely be obtained by any other means. * Annals of Agriculture, vol. x. p. 190 a Implements of Hufbandry.—Draining, Marking, Hoeing, Ploughs. 13 The Double Mould-Board-Plough is a kind of plough that may fometimes be employed with advantage in making furrows, and fetting potatoes, cabbages, and other fimilar crops, and in earthing up thofe and other vegatables that are planted in rows.‘The fame purpofe may, however, frequently be anfwered by a plough of a lefs expenfive and lefs complex. kind. In the furface-draining of land, different forts of ploughs are in ufe in different places, according to the difference of the foils, and the objects of the farmer. The Common Draining- Plough, which is employed in fome of the midland counties,, for the more general purpofes, is a good, and not very expentfive, tool. And the A/ole- Plough, invented by Mr. Adam Scott, and as improved and made ufe of in the midland counties, is likewife an implement of this kind, which, in fuitable foils and fituations, as in pleafure-grounds, and where much regard is had to the furface- appearance of the'land, may be of confiderable benefit in forming temporary drains. It makes a drain without opening the furface any more than merely for the paflage of a thin coulter, the mark of which foon difappears. This.in{trument is chiefly em-- ployed in fuch grafs-lands a: have a declination of furface, and where there are not. many obftruétions to contend with; but it may be ufed in other kinds of land, as on turnip-grounds that are too wet for the fheep to feed them off, or where on account of the wetnefs the feed cannot be put into the earth. With this plough the: drains fhould be made at the diftance of ten or fifteen feet in ftraight lines,. and: all fo contrived as to difcharge themfelves into one large open furrow, or grip, at the bottom of the field. As it requires great ftrength to draw this implement, it can only be ufed where a good team is kept. It is fuggefted by a very intelligent practical agricultor, that in deep clayey foils it may be highly ufeful, but that where there are beds of gravel or fand intervening, it cannot be employed with advantage. The Draining-Furrow-Plough is another plough of this clafs, which may be em— ployed for making large open furrows, by which the water may be taken off from the furface of the land. It will frequently be found a neceflary tool in thofe clayey’ foils where water ftagnates on the furface of the ground, and which cannot be re-- moved by the more general: modes of under-draining.. The Marking-Plough is an ufeful inftrument for. the purpofe of ftraighten- ing, as well as regulating the diftance of ridges, where the practice of drilling is in ule. The Single Hoe-Plough is likewife an implement which, from the great fimplicity of its conftruction, may be of much utility in ftirring the mould in the intervals of grain, or other crops, and laying it to the roots of the plants, thereby deftroying and pre- venting the growth of weeds.. The mould-board in this plough is fo contrived that 14 Implements of Hufbandry.—Drill-Machines. it can be raifed or depreffed according to the nature of the crop, and the intention with which it is employed. Drill- Machines. In the conftruétion of all implements of this fort the ereateft attention fhould be paid to have them as fimple in their mechanifm as poflible, in order that they may be ufed without difficulty, by thofe who have but little knowledge of the nature of fich machinery: much care fhould alfo be taken to have them fo made, as that they may perform their work with correctnefs; that the feeds, of whatever kind, may be delivered and depofited in the ground with the greateft evennefs and regularity; and that they may not be bruifed or injured in any way during the operation; as the want of proper attention to thefe particulars feems to have confiderably retard- ed the progrefs of the drill fyftem of cultivation. Various implements of this fort are in ufe in different parts of the ifland, which are contrived for the purpofe of ftirring the earth, and drilling different kinds of grain and feeds at the fame time; but in the choice of fuch tools the farmer fhould be chiefly directed by the fituation of his ground, the nature of the foil, and the kinds of grain which he intends to cultivate. In general, however, the more fimple the conftruction of fuch in{ftruments, the better they perform their work: one and the fame fort of drill cannot, however, anfwer on farms of large and{mall extent; they fhould, therefore, be adapted to the fize of the farm, as well as the nature of the foil and crop that is to be cultivated. The machine which was propofed and made ufe of by the ingenious and in- telligent improver of the drill hufbandry, feems to have been by no means well adapted. to the purpofes of the fyftem, and on that account probably contributed to retard the progrefs of the art. It neither few the feed in fufficient quantity, or with fufficient accuracy, though its general principle appears to have been fufliciently clear and fimple, from its having become the model of many fubfequent implements of the fame kind. Alate ingeniousauthor has recommended many interefting and ufeful improvements in this machine, fuch as enlarging that part of the axle-tree which delivers the grain into a cylinder of fome inches in diameter, with excavations in the rim, which rim rifes above the corn in the feed-box, and lets drop again into the {feed-box whatever grains fill the holes above the level of the rim, as that fide of the cylinder afcends. By thefe ingenious contrivances the quantity of feed delivered is rendered uniform, and none of the grain is in the way of being crufhed or otherwife injured,‘The whole machine thus becomes fimple in its conftruction, and of no great expence, which are circumftances of the greateft importance in fuch machines. yf I Implements of Hufbandry— Drill-Machines, 15: The great fimplicity of this improved machine confifts, the author obferves, firft,. In its having only a feed-box, and not both a hopper and feed-box as in fome others, as that of Mr. Cook; fecondly, in the flues which conduét the feed from the bottom of the feed-box into the drill-furrows not being disjoined in the middle, in order to permit the lower part to move to-the right or the left, when the horfe deviates from the line in which the coulters pafs, as in Mr. Cook’s machine, which in this is per- formed by a fimple univerfal joint; thirdly, in the horns or fhafts behind, between which the perfon goes who regulates the coulters, being equally fixed to the coul- ter-beam and the axle-tree, while in others, as that we have juft mentioned, they are all of them moveable joints, like a parallel rule for the purpofe of counteracting the {werving of the horfe, which is. here done by a fimple univerfal joint; fourthly, in altering the dimenfions of the holes in the axis of the feed-box, by fimply turning a{crew, fo as: to adapt them to all kinds: of feeds which are ufually fown on field lands; fifthly, in the{trong brufh of briftles which{weep over the excavations of the cylinders beneath the feed-box,{trickling them with fuch exaétnefs that no. fupernumerary feeds efcape, and.that none of them: be the leatt broken or injured, which is. the cafe in other machines, as the orginal one of Mr. Tull; and laftly, in its greater fimplicity rendering it lefs expenfive in its conftru€tion, and lefs liable to be out of repair, as well as the management of it more readily and more eafily underf{tood*. In the fame ingenious and philofophical work the author alfo defcribes a feed-. box, the invention of Mr. Swanwick, of Derby, by which the feed may be depo- fited with ftill greater accuracy. This box is forty-eight inches long within;- which. {pace is divided into fix cells, for the purpofe of fowing fix rows of feed‘at the fame time, as in that juft defcribed; and at the bottom of each is a hole for the féed to pafs through into the feed-flues, but without any revolving axis, a wooden bar about four feet eight inches. long, and three-eighths. of an inch in thicknefs, through which there are fix perforations, each of them exactly one inch long, and half an inch: wide, and three-eighths of an inch deep, which is the thicknefs of the bar that fup- plies its place. The centres of thefe holes are exactly eight inches diftant- from each: other, correfpondent to the holes at the bottom of the feed-box, over which it is made to flide backwards and forwards in a groove. In this fliding motion it paffes under{tiff brufhes, which are placed. over it on each end of the holes, at the bot- tom of the feed-box, and ftrickle off the grain as the holes in the fliding bar pafs under them, by which the quantity of feed is meafured out with a confiderable. de- * Phytplogia, p. 608, iG Implements of Hufbandry.—Drill-Machines. eree of accuracy. And in order to increafe or diminifh the quantity of grain de- a~~ 3 a 4 livered, the flider is covered with a cafe of tin, which has fix perforations, exactly but inftead of the bit of tin being cut “<4 > we correfponding with the holes in the flider out the whole length of the hole, part of it is left at one end equal to the thicknefs of the flider, and is bent down. after the flider is put into the cafe, in the fame manner as the tin cylinder in the above machine.‘This cafe is moveable about an inch backwards and forwards by turning the finger-fcrew, and thus the holes are made larger or fmaller in order to{uit various forts of grain, or different quantities of the fame fort.‘The flider is moved forwards by a bent iron pin which is attached to it, and which pafles into a ferpentine groove fixed to the nave of the wheel, and backwards by a fteel{pring at the other end of the feed-box. It is obferved that the fimplicity of the flider at the bottom of the feed-box in this inftrument may be, in fome refpects, greater than that of the wooden and tin cylinders in the former one, as this has but fix holes to meafure out the feed, while the other has twenty-four; but that, perhaps, in other refpects it is lefs fo, as in this there are twelve brufhes, one on each fide of each of the fix holes, whereas in the former only fix brufhes rub upon the tin cylinder. It is probable too, that as the recipro- cating motion of this flider muft be quick, as it muft aét once every time the peri- phery of the wheel of the carriage has pafled nine inches forwards, it may not be fo eafy to execute as the cog-wheel and uninterrupted movement of the axis and cylinder in the preceding drill*. A machine of this kind, invented by Mr. Amos, and defcribed in his treatife on drill hufbandry, is faid to be a good, cheap, and convenient tool. Grain, feeds, and pulfe of all forts, are aflerted to be eafily fown by this inftrument on every defcription of land, in any quantity, and at fuch depths and diftances as may be required. It is conftructed with fpherical cups and fows, at a great variety of different diftances, both in refpect to the rows and the intervals, performing its bufinefs with much difpatch and little{trength of draught+. The drill part of the machine may be fixed to the beam of any common plough.‘There are, however, feveral other imple- ments of the fame kind made by different perfons, which have been found to per- form equally well. Mr. Cook’s improved Drii/ is a well-conftructed inftrument, and on certain light foils is found to anfwer perfectly; but on others it is faid to be liable to deliver the grain with fome inequality. An intelligent agricultor, who has had much expe- rience, of it, however, remarks, that it is an implement which will depofit any * Phytclogia, p. 609,+ Amos on Drill Hufbandry, Implements of Hufbandry—TLurnip-Drill. 7 quantity of feed on the acre, at any required depth, with intervals of eight, nine, eleven, or eighteen inches, and at two, three, or four feet width, with confiderable exaétnefs; and that wherever it fails of fuccefs, he fuppofes, it muft proceed from the want of proper attention in the perfon who makes ufe of it. With him it has been found ufeful upon all foils, except fuch as are{tony or rocky, and he thinks it may be employed with equal advantage on ftrong clays and clayey loams, as on thofe of the lighter kind.‘This drill is conftru€ted fomewhat on the fame principle of that which has been juft mentioned, and is certainly capable of pretty general application. One invented and employed by Mr. Ducket is alfo fimple in its nature, and likewife faid to be capable of being managed with great eafe, by an ordinary workman. A machine of this kind, which the Kentifh farmers find very convenient for drilling wheat, barley, oats, peas, tares, and various other crops, is made by Mr. Wellard, of Deal. It is drawn by two horfes a-breaft in a double pair of fhafts, and drills feven rows at a time, feven inches apart. From the peculi- arity of its conftruction, any quantity of grain required per acre can be drilled, and from its great fimplicity it is not liable to be put out of order. It cofts about four- teen guineas.| Turnip-Drill.—An ufeful inftrument of this fort has been contrived by Mr. Bailey, for fowing turnips on the tops of one-bout ridges. In this implement the defects of {owing too much or too little feed are obviated. It confifts of a folid cylinder, made of iron or brafs, about two inches in diameter and one inch broad, on the furface of which are formed fifteen or fixteen cavities refembling the form of a femi-egg when cut longitudinally, and as deep as to hold four or five feeds each. On the back of the cylinder, a little from the top, is placed the hind part of the hopper, to which is fixed a piece of iron or brafs one inch long and half an inch broad, hollowed on the infide into the form of a Gothic arch, the fides of which mecting the fides of the cavities in an oblique angle, prevent the feeds from being bruifed: at the lower end of this piece of iron, or gatherer, there is a flit three-tenths of an inch long and one-tenth wide; and at the back of-it, a thin flat piece of iron moves up and down by means of a{crew at the top of the hopper, which enlarges or leffens the orifice direétly above the cavities, and increafes or diminifhes the quantity of {eed delivered, as the operator may think proper.‘This flip of iron, or regulator, is let into a groove made in the board which forms the back part of the hopper. The cylinder is fixed before the cavities are made, on an iron axle one inch {quare, turned very true, as well as thofe parts of the axle which turn in the col- lars fixed in the handles.‘To the ends of the axle, two wheels, twenty-fix inches in diameter, are fixed, which turn the axle and cylinder round, and which in D 18| Implements of Hufbandry.—Improved Drill. a pafling through the hopper containing the feed, bring forward in each cavity 2 number of feeds and drop them into the fpout, by which means they are conv eyed to the coulter, which forms a channel on the top of the one-bout ridge in order to receive them. If the cavities in this drill be made to hold five feeds when the regulator is {crewed ¢lofe down, and there be fixteen of them, it will depofit eighty feeds each revolution; and from the diameter of the wheel being twenty-fix inches, and the cir- cumference eighty-one inches and a half, eighty feed will be fown in eighty-one and a half inches, or nearly twelve in a foot.‘This being the mnijnum quan- tity, by{crewing up the regulator the number may be increafed gradually to fifty or fixty in a foot; which is far more than is neceflary, except in particularly un- favourable fituations.| Another Dri/l conftruéted by the fame gentleman for fowing all kinds of grain, in any quantity, and at any diftance, feems likewife to have confiderable merit.‘The in- fide part of it, by which the quantity of feed is regulated, is an iron axle one or one and one-fourth of an inch fquare, Bae which are fixed, at nine or ten inches diftance, ive or fix or more brafs fluted cylinders, the flutes being rather more than a femi- Saeees five-eighths of an inch in diameter, or five-eighths wide and fix-eighths in depth. o thefe are fitted hollow cylindrical rims of hammered iron, which have fegments eae down at right on to form exactly to the flutes of the brafs cylinders; the cavities of which are increafed or diminifhed by the fegments of the iron cylin- drical rims fliding backw ay and forwards in the flutes. This is performed in all the cylinders at the fame time, by a rectangular{pace being made in the brafs cylin- ders, through which ia a{traight piece of iron moving on fridtion-wheels, and faftened to the plates, and alfo the cylindrical rims. A lever moved by a{crew paffes through the frame; one end of which is forked, and made to fit exa@tly the fides of the collar or plates of iron. By turning the fcrew the lever moves the whole of the rims at once, and the cavities are increafed or diminifhed at pleafure, and almoft inftantaneoufly, even while the machine is going and at work, fo as to fow all forts of grain and in any proportion. When Yurnips are to be drilled, the large hopper is taken off, and a fet of{mall ones fixed upon the half-eg cavities at the end of the brafs cylinders, and the quantity of feed regulated as in the turnip-drill juft defcribed. For fowing beans and peas at wide intervals, as from twenty-feven to thirty imches, Mr. Bailey makes ufe of a drill with only one wheel and one cylinder, which a man wheels before him in the furrow: or a method which he finds better, is, to fix it in the body of a fmall plough drawn by one horfe, with one ftilt that Implements of Hufbandry.—Drill-Barrow—Hocs. 19 paffes between the wheel and feed-box. By this means the wheel moves on a{fmooth furface between the land fide and mould-board, and the feed is depofited at a re- gular depth. For beans he finds two inches to anfwer very well. By means of the fame plough he has fown both wheat and barley at different intervals from fix to twelves inches, and one and a half or two inches deep, with good fuccels; and for{mall concerns, he thinks that this cheap and fimple apparatus will be found very elicible and advantageous. The drill is fixed to the plough by two pieces of iron going from the ends of it, one to the beam and the other to the ftilt; which moving round on bolts, allow the wheel to fall and rife with every accidental hollow or eminence. The lower _ part of the coulter is kneed or bent to bring it to the fame plane with the land fide of the plough. The Drill-Barrow is an inftrument contrived with much fimplicity, and well adapted for fowing fome grains and{mall feeds, as it can be readily regulated in refpe&t to the proportion of the feed. It, however, fows only one row at a time, which in many inftances is inconvenient. This machine would be much improved +f it were made to drill feveral rows at once, and capable of being regulated in re- fpeét to diftances for the feed. In fome places this drill is much efteemed for putting in bean crops, in doing which it delivers into the furrow. HOES. Or this kind of tools there have been a great number invented at different times both for the purpofe of being drawn by horfes, and ufed with the hand. Mr. Cook’s improved horfe-hoe is unqueftionably a good implement for hoeing crops at certain diftances; but for narrow irregular diftances the expanding horfe-hoe, contrived by Mr. Amos, is probably a preferable inftrument, as its moveable fhares render it capable of being regulated to different fpaces, according as the crops may have been drilled with greater or lefs intervals. It will be found moft ufeful on light friable foils, and where the ground is in a mellow condition. This hoe is conftantly made ufe of by fome good farmers in Lincolnfhire for beans, cabbages, potatoes, and fuch- like crops, and found to be very effective*. M‘Daugals’s improved Hoe is conftruéted on a fimple principle, and anfwers the ‘various purpofes of a hand-hoe with great eafe and convenience, efpecially where the grain or pulfe has been fown in equidiftant intervals.‘The wheel in this in- * Young’s Survey of Lincolnfhire, > LET on z a atk 77 ee £0 Implements of Hufbandry.—LfLoes. ~ ftrument fhould, however, be made folid, as the open wheel is Hable to clog and fill up when the ground is foft and wet. But in mellow foils, and where hand-hoeing is practifed, the implements of this kind which have been invented by Mr. Ducket are probably more ufeful; as from their being heavier in the iron work, and having fhorter handles than thofe in common ufe, they would feem to be more effective. Hoes in fome refpects fimilar to thefe have long been in ufe for hoeing the{trong land of the vineyards in Portugal*. But notwithf{tanding thefe inftruments, the bufinefs of hoeing may frequently be well performed on{tiff foils, and where the diftances of the crops are pretty wide, with any common{mall plough that has a broad fharp fhare. With thofe inftru- ments the workman can go to what depth and as near the rows as he pleafes. It has been obferved, and probably with truth, by a late writer, that he can find no- thing equal to a‘* plough for the purpofe of cleaning land and earthing the crops. He has tried,”’ he fays,‘* double-moulded or double-breafted ploughs to earth up the rows, but that they will not at all do in drill hufbandry, as you cannot humour them to the width of the rows, which are fometimes a little wider or narrower; and if they vary but an inch or two, it deftroys the effet intended, as the mould cannot be regularly raifed, and the corn will be in fome places high, in fome low. A common plough will perform this work to perfection; the expence amounts to not more that one fhilling per acre, and‘the fervice rendered the crop is worth a pound at leaft, exclufive of the advantage of cleaning the land better than by any other means; for when you fee a weed you may,” he fays,“ with a common. plough go fufficiently deep, or give it what direCtion you pleafe.”? And in{peaking of this kind of tools he further remarks, that as fuch weeds. as. {trike with a tap-root are not eafily cut by the fcarifier when it happens to be blunt, but are often dragged down and left growing, he has invented an inftrument fuperior to the plough or fearifier for the purpofe.‘It is made,’ he fays,,“* of a triangular form, witha beam, and two fmall wheels under the beam to run before it, in the fame manner as in the Norfolk plough. There are three coulters, with a fhare riveited under each of them, made fharp at the point like a fleam, and about fourteen inches wide. The coulters penetrate under the mould as deep as the plough, and, without moving the earth much, cut up thiftle, brackens,&c. better than any in- ftrument he has yet met with. Where fuch weeds are very numerous, he ules a heam. with one wheel, into which he puts one of the coulters, to cut between * Communications. to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I]. and Somerville’s Syftem of the Board of Agriculture. @.- Implements of Hufbandry.—Scarifiers and Seufflers. QI tHe rows of the drills: it will penetrate any depth required. The one with three fhares will, with a pair of horfes, do as much work in one day as three ploughs.” It is however obferved, that this machine will work only upon light land where the fallow is well broken and nearly clean of twitch. Where kitlocks grow it will alfo, he thinks, be found very ufeful; and it is of fuch a fimple conftruction that any perfon may make it*. SCARIFIERS ano SCUFFLERS. Turse are inftruments which are in a great meafure fimilar to that juft defcribed,, and which feem daily to be coming into more general ufe for the purpofe of clear- ing and rendering arable land fuitable for the reception of the feed, as well as for fcarifying and ftirring the earth between the rows of drilled crops. They are likewife fometimes made ufe of for clearing ftubble after the crop has been taken off, but for which they are not probably good tools. They are made of various. forms and conftructions, and have commonly a great number of iron plates or feet, the edges of which are well{teeled and kept harp.‘Thefe are moftly fixed to the ends of an equal number of iron bars forming a kind of legs. Some of thefe tools are alfo made with wheels, and others without them; the latter fort anfwer equally well for many ufes, and are much lefs expenfive.. A pair of handles are generally fixed on behind, by which the implements are worked, and, by the difference in the— degrees of preflure, are regulated in refpect to depth at the pleafure of the perfon who has the management of them.‘he feet fhould have a fort of triangular fhape, each of the fides of which may be about fix inches in length. They fhould be fo contrived as to cut up the roots of weeds at a good depth, and not be eafily thrown out of the ground by fuch obftructions as they may occafionally meet with. They may be ufed with different numbers of tines or teeth, according to the dif- ference of intention with which they are employed, and in proportion as the land is clean or foul, loofe or tenacious. The implements of this kind which are made by Mr. Cook are very good ones; and others, contrived with great fimplicity, are defcribed in many of the reports publifhed by the Board of Agriculture. The main object of thefe inftruments is, that of leflening the ufe of the plough; and in certain fituations and foils they may, without doubt, be employed with more advantage to pulverize the earth and clear the lands from weeds. Lands which have been once ploughed over, in preparation for barley or turnips, may be * Experienced Farmer, vol. II. p. 86. 99 Implements of Hufbandry—Evtirpator. An ed 7 eafily rendered clean and fine by them, and the ufual fubfequent harrowings and ploughings be made unneceflary. As the imple lement of this kind which has been defcribed above, cannot, as the inventor aflures us, be employed except where the ground is light, and‘* where the fallow is well broken, and nearly clean of twitch*,” it may be objected to on that account.” But there is, befides this, another objection to this fort of tools, which is that of their being liable to clog much when the land is wet, an inconvenience which confiderably leffens their general application. In the conftruétion of the improved Scufffer employed in fome of the midland diftriéts this inconvenience has however been attended to, and in a great meafure correéted. The wheels in this inftrument are made a foot and a half in diameter, and’the length of the hoes'two feet, having a flight curve. It is alfo fo contrived, that it may be drawn by two horfes abreaft, or at length, as may be found moft proper and con- venient. The Evtirpator is a machine of this fort which feems to be ufed with advantage in fome parts of Suffolk, as well as other counties, for deftroying weeds, and clear- ing fuch lands as have been once ploughed for the reception of the feed. It is drawn by two or more horfes, according as the foil is more or lefs heavy and tenacious, and as the depth required is greater or lefs. It does much work in a little time. When employed, it may be fixed to the wheels of a common wheel-plough, and be regulated in refpect to depth in the fame manner. If the land has been once ploughed over and laid a fummer fallow, the common way of proceeding with this inftrument is to work it over twice with it; the firft time about two inches deep, and the fecond croffways about four inches in depth which, by afterwards running a common harrow over it, renders it proper for the drill or fowing. Lands ploughed in Autumn, and intended for{pring crops, may alfo be well prepared for the feed by this inftrument. The fhares in this tool are commonly made about nine inches long, and nearly of the fame breadth, being attached to a kind ftem or fhank of ten inches in length, at the diftance of about twelve inches. It has led ges before and behind; the firft of which is about five and a half inches long, and the latter fix feet in length, both having the iquare of four inches: the diftance of thefe ledges from each other is ge- nerally about twelve inches. The beam is feven feet in length, en the elevation of about three fect. It has likewife two handles behind. Tt is faid to anfwer on all lands, and to be capable of being managed by almoft any ploughman. Now far the expeditious way of preparing ground by this tool % Experienced Farmer, vol. I. Limplements of Hufeandry.—Drags—Harrows. 23 cel may be effectual, muit however be fhewn by more general and extenfive trials than have probably yet been made with it. The Cultivator is another tool calculated: for the fame purpofes; the invention Cc Mr. Cook, to whofe ingenuity the cultivators of land are greatly indebted. It confilts of a diagonal beam, in which are placed a number of narrow fhares;‘and when employed in this way is in many places termed a tillage fcarifier, but when ufed with broad triangular fhares it has the title of{cuffler. The whole, when com- plete, forms the cultivator. All thefe kinds of implements may be confidered as in fome degree appendages to the drill, and may frequently be applied to the fame wheels. In comparifon with the plough they feem, however, inftruments of very limited ufe, yet in different inftances they may be neceflary and convenient in the management of arable land. DRAGS. Tuese are tools of a fomewhat fimilar kind, and employed both for the purpofes of clearing land and preparing it for putting in the feed. They are made with confider- able difference in different parts of the kingdom. The common drag is moft generally made ufe of, but the duck-footed one, with four rows of teeth, is preferable in many cafes, as it does its work more effectually. A late writer recommends an inftru- ment of this kind, in which the teeth are fixed in by wedges inftead of fcrews, fo that they can be put in and taken out readily, and be fet to any depth, as a very ufeful tool*. Implements of this fort are commonly made of a triangular form, being about {even feet in width behind, and having thirteen or fourteen teeth in each of their fides, fet in fuch directions as to crofs each other, being faftened at top either by {crews or fome other convenient means. Where fuch implements are made ufe of occafionally as fcarifiers, the teeth fhould be wedged in fomewhat in the manner of eoulters, and a proper fet muft be had for the purpofe. HAR ROIS. ImpLemMENTs of this fort are not only ufeful, but particularly neceflary, in the practice of hufbandry, both for covering the feed and preparing the land for its * Experienced Farmera 24 Implements of Hufbandry—Harrows.. — reception, though they have yet undergone but little improvement; the chief circumftances in which they have been rendered more convenient are in the pofi- tion and mode of fixing in the teeth, the direction of the bulls, and the manner in which the horfes are attached to the implements. It muft be evident to every one the leaft converfant with the bufinefs of harrowing, that no one harrow, whatever its conftruction may be, can be fuitable for every fort of foil, or can act with equal effect on fuch grounds as are rough and{mcoth, or firm and loofe; they muft be adapted to the nature of the land and the particular purpofes the operator has in view*. In the lighter forts of ground, a light harrow with fhort tines or teeth may be fufficient; but in ftrong and tenacious foils, or fuch as have been newly broken up from the ftate of old leys, or from a ftate of nature, fuch as moors and waftes, a harrow which pofleffes much greater weight and has longer teeth is to be preferred; and even where the land is rough and not eafily reduced, as in fallowing ftrong clays, two harrows faftened together may frequently be neceflary, in order to fully reduce and break down the cloddy foil. For thefe pur- pofes, too, it is better, efpecially where the land is tenacious and abounds with the roots of weeds, that the harrow fhould not be too thickly fet with teeth; as in fuch circumitances, where it has a number of teeth, it is not only foon choaked up and prevented from working, but confined too much to the furface, by which the foil is very imperfeétly reduced and broken down. In performing the bufinefs of harrowing, much time is often loft in turning at the ends of the ridges, where two or more common harrows chained together are employed, by their hitching on each other, or turning over, and requiring the driver to ftop in order to put them right again. To remedy this inconvenience, harrows have been contrived with running bulls, a mode of conftru@tion which has been found to anfwer well. This inconvenience may however be correéted in a much eafier and lefs expenfive way, as by faftening the inftruments to each other by means of proper hooks and eyes, or what are termed coupling irons in fome. places, by which contrivance the different harrows rife and fall at the fame time, and are kept from ever getting upon each other. The pofition of the teeth, fo that they do not move in the fame line of direétion, is likewife an object that has been attempted to be eflected in different methods; but the moft fimple and expeditious is probably that of having the harrow fo formed, as to be fome inches narrower before than behind, and at the fame time to be capable of being fet to different widths, fo that the diftance between the teeth may be regulated by increafing or * Gentleman Farmer, p. 19. Implements of EHufbandry.—Harrows. 95 diminifhing the difference between the fore and the hind parts of the harrow. Common harrows may likewife in fome meafure be prevented from having their teeth moving in the fame directions, by being fo yoked or attached to the horfe as to move on the land fomewhat in a diagonal line*. In the conftruction of all the larger forts of harrows, it is of the utmoft importance that the tines, or teeth, have a flight inclination forwards, and in all kinds of thefe imple- ments that no two of them move exaétly in the fame line of dire@tion. By thefe improvements, harrows are capable of doing a great deal more work, of keep- ing more clofely to the ground, and of cutting as well as tearing up more effeCtually fuch weeds as they meet with. It is a good practice to have the teeth, at leaft of large harrows, faftened into the bulls by means of nuts and fcrews, in fuch a way as that they can be removed with facility when neceflary; or, perhaps, a ftill better method is to have the heads of the teeth made{quare, and put upwards into the bulls, having long holes in the parts that come above them, into which fquare wedges may be put in order to keep them faft and prevent their being loft. Harrows are alfo fometimes conftructed with teeth of unequal lengths. The firft row of tines, for inftance, being a quarter or half an inch fhorter than the fecond, and fo on. Thefe harrows have been faid to do more work, and to be more readily cleanfed of weeds and other fubftances, by which they are liable to be choaked up. Narrows, formed in this way, are common in fome parts of Devon- fhire, and have lately been introduced into Leicefterfhire with fuccefs by Mr. Hanford.‘This kind of implement is made in different ways, and with different uumber of bars or bulls, but from three to five is the moft common, and the quantity of teeth vary in the fame manner. The Brake-Harrow, the Double-Harrow, and the improved Common Harrow, are all of them good tools when applied under proper management: a harrow in- vented by Mr. Graburn, and reprefented in the Report of the Agriculture of Lin- colnfhire, feems alfo to poflefs confiderable merit, efpecially for lands in which the ridges are narrow and round. There is a Harrow defigned by Mr. Knight, which is likewife well contrived for obviating the difficulty and inconvenience of turning, as well as leffening the 1 1 Sy(aE ae ie.( leu. a.:~ draught of the horfes, as it is conftructed with wheels; but it would feem to be much too complex and expenfive in its conftru€tion for general ule. In many He; rT~. fe‘ Cc srt} * Robertfon’s General View of the Agriculture of the County of Perth, =) 2 E si ae AFT ee OE> 79. 86 i mp lements Oj ti UjDANU&}‘Yo— Lolli PS. is e#4407 4 yr Tarai ray aye) Oty 7~ ae p kinds of land it muft alfo be extremely liable to be prevented from working . faba; Ts Segre ep SPD So SA» ee ON. ae renee by the wheels being clogged and filled up. For putting grais feeds into the ground, =/ i P€_ 7 Ps light harrow, with fhort teeth, 1s moftly to be preferred. $s orm ~ A) ~ teow pat Yonoed A Bujh-Herrow, or that fort of harrow which is formed by the interweaving of fome fort of bufh-wood into a kind of frame made for the purpofe, and raifed in the ty‘ f-] wo i be 2=Nn1WWeEHntivwv we Vy se| 37ACr> 7 Oo«« fore part by two fmall wheels, may trequently be employed for the fame ule, as 1, E= e arthy fterac 17 raatfe Ia Q well as for harrowing in dung, or other earthy matters, into erats lands. ro 2..° fy 4 sare see a ie Harrowing, in general, is by much the beft performed by driving the horfe or horfes by whip reins of fufficient length to permit the perfon employed to walk after the har- et rows. By this management he can clear the harrows as occafion may require, and proceed in his bufinefs with greater difpatch. It is now a pretty general obfervation. among the intelligent cultivators of land, that the bufinefs of harrowing is more effec- tually and more advantageoufly performed by fingle-horfe harrows, than by fuch as ree quire two horfes. In the attachment of thefe implements to the power which is to draw them, the common method is by a ftrong fort of ftaple fixed to one of the corners of the harrow by a bolt; but a mode which appears more advantageous, is that of connecting the muzzle with a perpendicular pin at one corner of them*. ROLLERS. TuEsE are moft commonly made of wood, caft-iron, or{tone, according as one or other fort of material is moft ready and eafy to be obtained; and are of different fizes and weights, in order to fuit different purpotes.. In conftru€ting heavy rollers, the workman fhould be careful that they have not too great a diameter, what- ever the material be of which they are formed, as the preflure is diminifhed where the implement is of very large fize, by its refting on too much furface at once, except an addition of weight in proportion be made. By having the rolier made fmall, when loadedto the fame weight, a much greater effeét will be produced, and a confiderable faving of expence be made in the conftru@ion of the implement. All the larger forts of rollers fhould have double fhafts, in order that they may be drawn by two horfes abreaft; and fuch as are employed for arable lands fhould have a fcraper attached to them. This addition faves much time, and prevents the driver the trouble of conftantly feraping the machine, elpecially in wet feafons, and elayey tenacious lands. Strong frames are alfo neceflary for rollers; fo that proper weights may be put upon them; and open boxes or carts placed upon them may tometimes be requifite, in order to contain any additional weight that may be though * Agricultural Report of Perthfhirs. eS fe ut he : Pe eu ee ay ¥ 4 PAAPIIFO KF ma Lar Ff(i ¥3#7 Linplenn 1416|£LUf/VENE PV) ummm{ > s to receive{tones or other matters that may be picked up from 4 4_ c proper, as well a the ground. Pieces of wood or ftone, as. heavy as a man can lift, are the mott fuitable fubftances for loading thefe implements. with, where they have not the ad- vantage of boxes. The Common Rollers, fach as are mottly ufed for rolling wheat in the fpring, and grafs feeds, are generally about five or fix feet long, and from fifteen to thirty inches in diameter; but thofe employed for flattening one-bout rides, in order to prepare them for drilling turnips upon, are commonly fhorter and of much lefs diameter. Spike-Rolter.—This kind of implement is formed pretty much in the fame man- ner as the common roller, except in having the addition of a confiderable number of {pikes made to it.‘Thefe rollers are principally employed where the foil is itiff and cloddy, in order to reduce and break down the lumpinefs, and bring the land into a fine{tate; and when well conftru€ted are, in many cafes, good and effective tools for the purpofe. Drill-Roller.—The Norfolk farmers, we believe, have the merit of this inven- tion. It is formed with rings of caft-iron, round that part which conttitutes the roller, at{mall diftances from each other; by which means drills are made in the land, and the intermediate parts rifing into ridges, the corn of courfe chiefly falls into them, being. thereby better depofited in the earth, and better covered than it would have been if fown upon the furrows without them. The main obje& of this practice is the faving the expence of dibbling, though it is not by any means fo good a practice. On light grounds, where preffure is required, it may, however, be em- ployed with great advantage. It may alfo be made ule of in dry feafons for reducing {tiff clayey lands which are under fallow; for which purpofe it is, perhaps, a more efficient implement than the fpike-roller.. Where this roller is made ufe of, the feed is fown broad-eaft, and covered by means of a{mall or bufh harrow. The wooden rollers which are frequently, and with great propriety, had recourfe to, for rendering grafs and pafture lands{mooth and even, are in many places much too large to produce the powerful effet they are intended to have, without a proportionate increafe of weight was added, for the reafons which have been juft given. They fhould there- fore be made lefs in fize, and be loaded, in order to produce the great degree of preflure which is wanted in thefe cafes. As in turning at the ends of ridges or fields, rollers, from their not mov- ing upon their axis, but being drawn. along the furface of the ground, are liable to tear it up, and make deep holes and depreflions before they come again into the direét line of draught, and are not brought round without great exertion in the team; it has been attempted, in order to obviate thefe inconve- niences, to conftruct rollers in two pieces, and by the divifion in the middle to F€¢ S's ar, wv“i a £8 Implem ents of Hufbandry.—-Th raj fhing Machines, enable the different parts to twift round on their proper axis, one forward and the other in a retrograde direCtion. When formed in this way, the cylinders are beft when made of caft-iron. In the rolling of ground, efpecially when fuch rollers are employed as are com- pofed of one piece only, it is by much the beft method, where it can be accomplifhed, to go round the whole field in fomewhat a fpiral direction, and by that means keep continually proceeding without the neceflity of making fhort turns; and in rolling down grafs feeds with corn crops, this mode is in general to be ee; but grafs lands may be rolled in any direction, though the mode of rolling ridges feparately _ is evidently more troublefome than that of crofling them. THRASHING-MACHINES. Tue thrafhing of corn, by means of machinery, has been long in ufe in the northern: diftricts of the kingdom, and mills of this fort are now becoming general in moft parts of the country; and upon arable farms of confiderable extent they cannot but be highly advantageous, as they fave much labour and expence. In the making of thofe machines, attention fhould always be had to the fize of the farms, or rather the quantity of grain that may be grown on them, and the mill proportioned accord: ingly. They are moftly conftructed on the principles of the flax-mill, and are moved either by water or horfes, the firft by far the beft method where it can be had; che grain by thefe machines being, as it were,{wingled out of the ears by means of beaters which are attached to a cylinder that moves with very great velocity. Since the introduction of thefe machines, many improvements have been made on them;. a{creen has been added for the grain to pafs through into a winnowing-machine, and a circular rake to remove the ftraw from it; as before this addition the ftraw was forced out from the beater upon the upper barn floor, and’ required much time and labour in fhaking and putting into order, which by this contrivance is faved.. In working thefe mills, four perfons are commonly neceflary; one takes the fheaf from the flack, another places it ready for the third who is to feed the mill, and the fourth removes the ftraw to prevent its colle€ting in too large a quantity. It has. been objected to thefe machines, that they do not thrafh fome forts of grain clean; this has been partic pot the cafe with barley. It is, however, obferved by an intelligent writer, that the circumftance on which the good thrafhing of this kind of ~ eee depends, is the iron ¢ overing under which the beating wheel, having fix beaters, moves: in fome machines this j is fixed, while the beating wheel is capable af hk Ino raife Jo y¢ Tod eafiire 1 of being raifed or deprefied at pleafure; but a recent improvement is to render the and Was time ved. heat Implements of Hufbandry—Thrafhing-Machines. 29 ‘ron roof moveable, and the wheel fixed; and the iron is placed fo near to the beaters that the grain is rubbed, as well as ftricken out of the ear*. In fome machines of this fort, the beaters are a little rounded; but it is probably a better practice to have: them of the common flat form. In fome large mills of this kind the rollers take in about three hundred inches of erain in a minute.‘Fhe medium length of the ftraw being eftimated at about thirty inches, and fuppofing half a fheaf to be introduced into the machine at a time, the whole fheaf will be equal to fixty inches, and the machine when fupplied with a mid- dling quantity of water will thrafh. five fheaves ina minute. But in refpect to the performance of thefe mills much muft depend on the attention with which they are fed, as a fmall negle& in this point will make a very confiderable difference in the quantity of work done. An excellent defcription of a mill of this nature is given in a[ate publication, in which it is remarked, that in fuch mills five people are commonly neceflary to keep the work going on without embarraflment; but that this depends greatly on the conftru€tion of the machine, fome of them being fo contrived, that the work can be performed with much fewer hands. The manner in which thefe people are employed’ is this: One finds conftant work in carrying the fheaves to the man who feeds or puts the unthrafhed corn into the machine, and in loofing the bands; another is required to feed the machine; a third to carry off the ftraw; the fourth to attend the fanners, and lay afide the cleaned grain; and a fifth, where horfes are made ufe of, to take care that they go regularly; and that by means of five men and four horfes they will thrafh at the rate of five quarters in the hour on a medium, and when the crop is rich, and eafily thrafhed, confiderably more: confequently if a thrafhing-mill was to be employed for a whole day, or nine hours, it would thrath forty-five quarters; but in that cafe it would be neceflary to employ two fets of horfes, The expence is calculated in this manner:. YO ae et Hire of eight horfes, at 2s. 6d. each per day,.:: 1“O30 Five men’s wages, at Is. 6d. each, get a; os@: 2-7-6 La In this account the hire of the men and horfes are, it 1s conceived, charged at the higheft rate, and that the expence of thrafhing forty-five quarters of grain would coft 11. 7s, 6d. or about 7d. each quarter. But that taking the average expence of * Yaoung’s View of the Agriculture of’the County of Lincoln. 4 |'} \q ‘| Hi ie ie Hit i) 30 Implements of Hufrandry.—Thrafhing- Machines. thrafhing forty-five quarters of grain with the flail, throughout the whole kingdom, including an equal proportion of all kinds, cannot be, it is{uppofed, eftimated at lefs than 3]. 7s. 6d. or ts. 6d. each quarter, which makes a difference of about 11d. each quarter. It is alfo farther obferved, that fince the introduGtion of thefe mills, the grain is thrafhed by the ordinary fervants on the farm, and without in any material degree obftruéting the operations in the field; farmers in general employing their men and horfes in this bufinefs in bad weather, when other operations cannot be carried on. The whole expence of conftructing a thrafhing-mill, including the building of the fhed for covering the great wheel, does not, in almoft any cafe, exceed 100l. The ordinary annual repairs may, one year with another, amount to 5]., which added to the intereft of the primé coft, makes the yearly expence tol.; a fum for which any quantity of grain, however great, that may be fuppofed to grow on one farm, can be thrafhed, and that too in a manner much{uperior to what can be done by manual labour. The expence either of erecting thefe machines, or of keeping them afterwards in repair, muf{t be confidered by every intelligent occupier of a corn- farm as a fecondary object, when compared with the advantages that are derived from them; fuch as the performing of the operation at lefs than half the ordinary price, and affording the farmer the means of fecuring his grain from being embez- zled: befides, the faving, in regard to fuperior clean thrafhing, as has been now well afcertained, is not only more than the annual expence of repairs, but fo great as, on a farm of confiderable extent, to reimburfe the farmer for the whole of his expenditure in the courfe of a few years. Therefore, confidering the increafing {carcity of labourers, and the recent great advance in the rate of labour in all the better cultivated parts of the kingdom, the introduétion of thrafhing-mills into com. mon ufe cannot but be highly beneficial. There is, however, one difficulty in the introduction of thrafhing-mills into the fouthern parts of the kingdom, which arifes from the manner of harvefting all kinds of grain, except wheat, which cannot probably be eafilyremoved; as the corn, in order. to be clean thrafhed, fhould be put into the machine as ftraight and regular as poffible. For while the fheaves, after being loofened and fpread on the board, foas to be eafily taken in by the feeding rollers, are paffing between them, they keep the {traw fteady, by which means the ftrokes of the beaters or feutchers operate with more force and effect in feparating the erain from the ears; whereas, if the unthrafhed corn goes in fideways or irregularly, the thrafhers can have but little power upon it. This would no doubt frequently happen in thrafhing corn which has been mowed with the feythe, and whichis harvefted in every refpect like hay, fo that unlefs the the at lefs 1, each ls, the laterial g their Not be “of the , The added which e farm, one by ¢ them corn: erlved dinary mbez- 1 now ) great of his reafing ul th | COMs o the kinds order ar as yas to p the with afhed On it. owed {s the Implements of Hufbandry.—iV innowing-Machines. 81 unthrafhed grain be put into the mill in fall quantities, it is almoft impoffible that it can be completely feparated from the ftraw*. But. though, when the fize of the machine is confiderable, the expence of ereé- ing it may be from eighty to one hundred pounds, according to fituation and mate- rials, fmaller ones may be erected at much lefs, as from thirty to fifty pounds. Some of thefe kind of mills have rollers or{mall mill-ftones added to them, for the purpofe of crufhing and grinding grain for horfes,{wine, and other animals; and alfo inftruments for cutting{traw into chaff. On the neceflity of employing machines of this kind, it is remarked by an able writer, that it is the only method left for having the corn cleanly and properly thrafhed.‘They are fo quick in the work, that the whole may be done under the eye of the mafter, and the corn fecured in the granary without the leaft pilfering. The faving, by this means of thrafhing, in the extra quantity of corn procured, and the fecurity again{t having the corn{tolen in the chaff, it is alerted, amounts to an advan- tage in favour of the mills of about ten per cent on the corn crops; in fome cafes, to one fhilling a bufhel on wheat, and very generally to twenty fhillings an acre on the wheat crops fT. 7 This machine has undoubtedly many advantages over the flail, as well as thofe of faving time and hands; asin thrafhing damp corn, not capable of being fully accom- plifhed in any other way, efpecially in wet feafons; and with{mutty wheat, which is thrafhed by it without any mifchief being done to the found grain, the{mut not being crufhed comes out whole, and is blown away with the chaff. The principal objeGtions that have been made to thefe machines, are the great ex- pence of ereCting and ufing them, their tendency to diminifh the labour of the poor, and their affording too great a fupply of ftraw at a time. Thefe objedtions are, how- ever, of little confequence, when the general utility and advantages of fuch ma- chines are confidered; befides the latter are either fuch as have nothing to be apprehended from them, or as may be readily obviated. The difficulty in regard to the flraw may be eafily removed, by having it properly ftacked up or cut into chaff. WINN OWING-MACHINES. _ Macuines of this fort are in pretty general ufe, where thrafhing mills, to which they may be attached, are not erected: they are made on different principles accord * Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture.“% # Middleton’s Report of the Agriculture of Middlefex.\s 32 Implements of ufoandry.—Chaff-Cutters—Rakes. ing to particular circumftances. Thofe contrived by Mr. Cor, of Leicefter,” on Mr. Winlow’s plan, are good implements, and will drefs grain with much dif- patch. And there are others which are employed in the northern diftridts, which are made by Rodgers, that are alfo upon good and convenient principles: as well as many more in different places which have‘great merit in their conftruction, and do their work well and expeditioufly. They are made of different prices, from three to five or fix pounds, and will laft many years when the materials of which they are formed are of a proper kind. CHAFF-CUTTERS. Or thefe ufeful implements there are a great variety formed on very different principles. There feems, however, in general, to have been too little attention paid to their conftruétion, as there is fearcely one fo cheap as to be fuited for gene- ral ufe."Thofe made on Mr. Cook’s and Mr. Nailor’s plans are in much efteem in many places; but one lately conftructed by the fucceflors of Mr. Winlow and other manufa€turers, in which the ftraw is regularly brought. forward by an iron cylinder contrived for the purpofe, as the implement is turned round, and cut by means of three knives fixed on the wheel, would feem to be more convenient. Straw may, however, be well and expeditioufly cut by almoft any of thefe implements; but in many diftri€ts, from their great expence, the common cutting-box is{till in ufe. As the principal objects aimed at in this fort of machine are thofe of expedition, and the lefflening of labour, it is obvious that many of the improved inftruments of this kind muft anfwer thefe purpofes much more effectually than thofe that were formerly in ufe, efpecially where they are attached to any great power, fuch as that of horfes or water, as in the cafe of thrafhing-machines, or other mills, for which they are in common adapted, ImpLEMENTS of this kind are employed for different purpofes in practical huf bandry. The common //ay-Rake is too well known to require any defcription; but a late improvement upon it feems to deferve notice. This is the making oi the teeth to ferew into the heads, and faften with fcrew nuts, by which the danger and inconve- Mence of their dropping out is prevented. Wh thefe Spring-teeth-lakes one perfon is faid to do confiderably more work than-with the common wood rakes; and they are made ufe of both for hay and ter,“on uch dif. $, which iS well as 5 and do om three they are different ition paid for gene- ‘h efteem low and ran iron 1 cut by it. Straw ents 3 but in ule. thofe of mproved ally than ny great or other tical huf- but a late > teeth(0 | inconves 1 F hay and Implements of Hufeandry.—Rake—Waggons, 83 ¢orn with great eafe and convenience. Rakes afe conftructed in this way,‘and fold by Mr. Cort of Leicefter. The Corn-Rake is a large rake made ufe of in many diftnids for raking together the grain after it has been mown. It is fometimes made with wooden teeth, feven or eight inches in length; but as thefe are very apt to break, it is a much better method to have them of iron, in which cafe they fhould be a little bent forward. As it requires great exertion in ufing thefe rakes, they fhould be conftructed in as light a manner as is confiftent with the work they have to perform. The Fwitch-Rake is a fort of rake which ts frequently neceffary for the clearing of certain defcriptions of land from thefe, as well as other kinds of weeds.‘The beit way of making it is probably with a double row of teeth, thofe of one row being placed oppofite the intervals of thofe of the other. By this means it is rendered a more convenient and effectual implement. The Hor/e Stubble-Rake is a large heavy kind of rake, with ftrong iron teeth, fourteen or fifteen inches im length, placed at five or fix inches diftance from each other, having a beam about four inches fquare, and eight or ten feet in length. {t is commonly drawn by two horfes, and is very effective in clearing ftubbles. Wheel Carriages for Hufbandry. The WVaggons which are employed in hufbandry are conftructed in different forms, and of various dimenfions, in different diftricts; and, in general, without fufficient attention to the nature of the roads, or the materials that are to be carried. They are indeed commonly much too heavy and clumfy to be convenient. The Berkthire waggon would feem, however, to be conftructed on a more neat and con- venient principle than thofe which are made ufe of in moft of the more foutherr counties: it is neither fo heavy nor fo high, while it poffefles fufficient flrength, and is eafy in the draught.} A very ufeful improvement in this carriage has been fuggelted in a late publi- cation, which is that of leaving the{pace fufficiently deep in the bed of the waggon fer the fore wheels to lock round im the fhorteft curve, as by the prefent mode of conftru€tion much time is loft in turning at the ends of fwaths in carrying hay, and on many other occafions. In this way the inconvenience may be removed without doing the fmalleft injury to the fymmetry or ftrength of the carriage*. But thole employed m Gloucefterfliire are preferred to any others in the kingdom, by an * Acricultural Survey of Derkthire. sy oar enn pen eS nant nei i IRA— iit Hy ii ee ee ne ena oe 54 Implements of Hufbandry.—~-Waggons—=Trifh Car intelligent writer, who has attended much to the fubject; as by means of a crooked “fide-rail, bending archwife over the hind wheel, the bodies or frames of them are kept low, without the diameter of the wheels being much leflened. The bodies are likewife made wide in proportion to their fhallownefs, and the wheels run fix inches wider than thofe of moft other waggons, whereby advantages in carrying top-loads are evidently obtained*, In many diftriéts, waggons are the principal carriages employed in getting in the hay and corn, and carrying them to the market, and likewife im bringing manure, coals, and various other materials. In fuch cafes they are generally drawn by the whole team on the farm, and two men, or a man and a boy, are neceflary to attend them in performing the bufinefs. But this fort of conveyance, however well conftructed, from its great weight and unwieldinefs, as well as its expence, feems far from being advantageous to the interefts of the farmer; as while it is highly deftructive of the roads, it requires great power in the draught, which muft be procured at much expence, without affording an adequate compenfation in the quantity of materials which it conveys. It is however fuppofed by a later author, that in performing diftant carriages, where the roads are level and fubftantially made, and the waggons at all times fa/y loaded, one of them may probably be as advantageoufly ufed as two or more carts of lefs dimenfions; but that where labour is required to be performed with expedition, as in the harvett- ing of hay and corn, fuch unwieldy machines are ill calculated for the purpofe; and that on every occafion, where they return only half or a third part loaded, the farmer. muft obvioufly fuftain a confiderable lofs t. The ufe of heavy carriages being found inconvenient in performing fome forts of bufinefs, farmers, in particular inftances, have had recourfe to a lighter fort of vehicle for conveying manures, and other materials of the fame kind, upon land, while large waggons are employed for other purpofes. In this way the improved Irifh car has been made ufe of, and found well adapted to the conveyance of fuch fubftances, a good horle being capable of drawing with eafe and expedition more than a ton weight. In its confiruction it approaches much to the fquare form, being only a few inches longer in the bed than it is broad; the wheels are made low and broad, with a flat bearing, and placed under the body of the machine. From thefe dif- ferent circumftances it poffeffes many advantages; it can be readily filled, pafs con- fined gateways with facility, and be drawn upon foft meadow or ploughed grounds with much lefs injury and inconvenience. From the cylindrical form of the rims of * Marfhall’s Rural Economy of Gloucefterthire,+ Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture. Ooked em are lies are C inches p-loads > in the Nanure, | by the ) attend ght and interelts t power ding an lowever ads are of them nfions; harvett- fe; and Jed, the forts of fort of n land, proved of fuch n more a few broad, efe dif- fg con- rounds rims of ylture- Implements of Hufbandry.—Caris. 85 the wheels much lefs refiftance is faid to be given in'the draught*; confequently heavier weights can be drawn.‘The bufinefs of huthandryinctheiand ts ehichy per~ farmed by this fort of imall carts where hay or corn in the{traw 1s to be carried, ladders being added. They are, however, thought inferior to the fingle-horfe cart by fome perfons who have clofely attended to them f. Tuz Carts ufed in agriculture are made with much variety in different diftricts, but, like waggons, are probably, in general, too heavy in their conftruction to be employed with the greateft advantage. In fome places they are fo formed as to be, when empty, full as heavy as one horfe can draw, efpecially where the wheels are broad, and of courfe much refiftance occafioned by the increafed frition. Nothing can, indeed, be more injudicious than the enormous bulk and clumfinefs of the farm carts commonly employed in fome diftri¢ts; and the inconvenience and lofs. that refult from the ufe of fuch clumfy carriages are greater than can be eafily imagined. Befides, in confequence of the great height of the wheels, the nave, fpokes, and fellies, muft all be made of fuch weighty materials, in order to render them moderately{trong and firm, as not only to add a prodigious uaneceflary load to the horfes, but greatly to enhance the expence of fuch vehicles.‘The difficulty of loading the cart, too, is fo much increafed from the fame caulfe, as at leaft to double the expence that it might be performed at. And, on account of the number of horfes that are required to draw them, and the time loft by the men in filling them, as well as the damage done upon retentive fubfoils by their being torn into deep ruts, they are clearly fhewn to be lefs advantageous than thofe of the fmaller kind. Lightnefs in a carriage that 1s to go upon land, is a quality of the firft import- ance in the bufinefs of a farm; this is particularly evident when it is confidered that by fuch means, with the fame{trength of draught, more than four times the quantity ‘of work can be done in the fame length of time. Low wheels in vehicles of this fort alfo enable a much heavier load to be drawn; and of courfe render{mall carts preferable on that ground as well as thofe that have been flated. Carts, if properly con{tructed, for many kinds of weighty goods need not, independent of wheels and axle-tree, weigh more than one hundred weight, and for moft purpofes they need not exceed two hundred weight. Large waggons, as well as heavy-conftruat- ed carts, fhould, therefore, except in particular fituations, be exchanged for thofe * Cummings’s Paper in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I. + Annals of Agriculture, vol, XVIII. ae 56 Tinplemenis of I. ufbandry.—Single- Hor fe Carts, of the lighter kinds, by which more work may be performed in an equal length of time, and with much greater eafe and convenience. Single-Hor/e Carts.—The large wains, or heavy four-horfe waggons, which are yommon in many of the fouthern counties, are not only reprobated, but in a great meafure exploded in thofe of the north, where one and two horfe carts, with fome variety of conftruction, are moftly made ufe of. One horfe with thefe carts draws from twelve to twenty-four hundred weight, and on good road fome. times thirty, with great facility. In the moft improved cart of this fort, the bottom, when placed on the axle, projects, on each fide, over the inner heads of the naves, fo as nearly to touch the{pokes of the wheels; from which acquifition of breadth the capacity of the cart is much increafed, while the fide ftandards, by being brought nearer to the perpendicular fituation, are enabled to fuftain confiderably more weight. This is termed the Clofe or Coup Cart, and is about five feet three inches in length, four feet in breadth below, and four feet three inches above, having a depth of one foot three inches, and containing about a cubic yard. The wheels are commonly about fifty inches in height, and the axle-tree moftly formed of iron, though wood will anfwer the purpofe tolerably well. A very intelligent agriculturift, who has paid much attention to the importance of carts in hufbandry, found in conftrudting fingle-horfe ones that the capacity of waggons was by no means a juft rule for them. From thofe with which he was acquainted, containing in the bed, or duck, ninety-fix cubical feet, being twelve feet long, four feet wide, and two feet in depth; it was fuppofed that to give one horfe the fourth of the load of four, it would only be neceffary to give them a{pace of twenty-four cubical feet, or to make them four feet by three, with a depth of two feet; but it was foon obferved that the power of a horfe was fo much greater in working fingly than in a team, that they might be enlarged fo as to have the dimen. fions of five feet one inch in length of buck, three feet feven inches in breadth, two feet in depth, and to contain thirty-five cubical feet and a fra&tion. This places ina ftriking point of view the advantage fuch fmall carts have over large ones in the quantity of work performed*. On the fubject of fingle-horfe carts it is alfo obferved by another praétical writer, ‘* that thofe which are in ufe in various parts of England appear to be the beft cal- culated for the purpofe of carrying all kinds of goods, except fingle trees, blocks of itone, or any other article whofe weight may be too much for the{trength. of fuch carts, and which cannot eafily and without lofs be divided into feparate loads; in all or moft places where the roads are particularly bad, either arifing from foft * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XVILL ¥ length Ch are but in Carts, h thefe | fome. ottom, aves, readth rought more inches ving a wheels f iron, tance ity of e was twelve ye one 1{pace th of reater imen- , two laces 1e$ in iter, t cal- ks of ‘fuch Implements of Hufbandry.—Single-Horfe Carts.$7) mud and clay, or large ftones, and where there are deep ruts, efpecially in hilly countries, and where the people are poor, and confequently particularly ftudious»to keep their expences under as much as poffible-—Thefe are the places* and the people with whom fingle-horfe carts are in common ufe; and is a ftrong proof of the economy of the plan.’*** It is equally certain,” he obfeives,‘that where the coun- try is level, the roads free from ruts, and the people rich, they indulge in expenfive horfes, and in teams of parade and fhow. Such, for inftance, as thofe ufed by the brewers and diftillers of Middlefex and Surrey.” It is alfo farther ftated, that he has four of thefe one-horfe carts in ufe himfelf; and that in loading the gravel of flints they are always filled to carry twenty-five cubival feet, and for manure from thirty to forty.‘The great fuperiority of thefe carts is rendered{till more ob- vious and ftriking by the obfervations that‘* two horfes, yoked in fingle-horfe carts, will draw as much as three horfes yoked in one cart; that a common carrier at Carlifle who many years employed a waggon, has laid it afide, and now ules fingle-horfe carts only; as he finds he can, by that means, carry much greater weights{.”” It is likewife fuppofed in the fame work, that the fuperior goodnefs of the roads in Cumberland may be afcribed to the general ufe of fingle-horfe carts; and that wherever waggons are employed they are the deftruction of roads, efpecially where the country is hilly, and where they are under the neceflity of having the wheels locked, as in fuch cafes the banks are ina manner ploughed up by them. The fame objetions are equally ftrong againft large and heavy carts, as they produce the fame bad effects only in a fomewhat lefs degree. It is, in fhort, ftrongly contended that waggons cannot be advantageous to the farmer, fince the fame number of horfes yoked in fingle-horfe carts will draw con- fiderably more than when yoked fix or eight together. Befides, it is conceived that fingle-horfe carts are fuperior on other grounds; they are loaded and unloaded with greater eafe and convenience, and are more handy for almoft every purpofe, and fix or eight of them may be managed by a man and a boy at very little expence. In thefe carts too, the fize of the wheels can be adapted with the greateft exact- nefs to the height of the horfes, and be placed with more convenience in regard to the centre of gravity of the load, by which the draught is confiderably leffened. * The mountainous diftrias of Derbythire, Wales, Cumberland, Dumfries, Dumbarton,&c.&c + Agricultural Report of Middlefex. { Agricultural Survey of the County of Cumberland, Implements of Hufbandry.—Carts. QQ QD In fa& the Cumberland farmers, and thofe of fome other counties, are fully horfe kind. This of view by an accurate obferver, and found in almoft every inftance to be greatly fuperior to waggons, oF tumbrils, for almoft all the various purpofes of the farm*. convinced that very ye reat advantages are derived from ufing carts of the fingle- srt of cart has likewife been compared in many different points Where fmall carts are employed, it is frequently the cuftom to have different forts for different purpofes; thofe of the clofe kind being principally employed in carry- ine out dung, compoft, and fuch-like compact heavy materials; while others made of oO a kind of frame-work are occafionally placed on the fame wheels, and ufed for conveying bulky loads, fuch as corn in the ftraw, hay, and other fimilar fubftances, and which are in confequence denominated corm and hay carts. But the fmall cart, which is termed farmer’s-cart, as well as moft of the{mall-fized carts, and all thofe of the larger kinds, by having ladders attached to them at the ends and fides, may be conveniently employed for all the purpofes of the farmer, without the trouble, inconvenience, and expence, of fucha number of different forts of carts. A very convenient and ufeful form of cart for almoft all farming purpofes, efpe- cially in hilly diftri€ts, is in ufe in fome parts of Wales, as about Llandillo; it is commonly drawn by three horfes, one in the fhafts, and two abreaft before. The wheels are fo made and placed, that the weight principally lies on the perpendi- cular fpoke; the body of the carriage is fhort and rather broad, but made with fuch a curve as to give the load an inclination towards the axle-tree. This cart ferves different ufes; the body conveying dung, coals,&c. while by the addition of fhelvings inthe way juft noticed the different crops can be carried with great facility. When carts are intended for the quarry, and confequently carrying very heavy weights of folid materials, fuch as broad flat ftones, flates,&c. they fhould be made low and without ledges, in order that they may be loaded and unloaded with care and convenience, and be fufficiently{trong to prevent their giving way under the preffure of fuch loads, Some ingenious mprovements have lately been made in carts, in order to prevent the too great rapidity of their motion in going down fteep hills, and for adjufting the pofitions of the centre of gravity of the load, fo as to have a fuitable bearing en the horfe, or other animal, which draws them in fuch cafes. The firft has been effected by means of friction on the fides of the wheel, by the application of what is termed a friction-drag, inftead of the ufual inconvenient and dangerous method of locking the wheels: and the latter by a kind of toothed rack faftened to * Young's Annals of Agriculture, vol. XVUI. fort int tean dire efta clea fort mt fully ingle. - Points greatly farm*, nt forts | Carry. nade of ed for ‘ances, >{mall s, and 1s and rithout “carts. elpe- ; It is The endi- - with $ cart dition cility. heavy id be with inder vent fting ring ha Implements of Hufoandry Carts. 39 the front of the cart by a fcrew, and worked by a pinion and handle fixed to the pole, where the cart is made to be drawn in that way; and fo contrived as to admit of the fore part of the cart being elevated in proportion to the fteepnefs of the de- clivity, by which means the weight of the load is thrown more upon the axis, and confequently relieves the necks of the cattle which are employed in the draught. Another more fimple method of accomplifhing this point is by a{trong piece of iron,‘which is bent fo as to form part of the arch of a circle, the radius of which Is nearly equal to its diftance from the axis of the cart, and which is perforated with holes, for the admiflion of a{trong iron-pin, by which the body of the cart is kept at any defired inclination with the pole. The friction-bar, or drag, by being connected with the tail of the cart by a{mall chain, and to the front by a clofely notched or toothed rack that catches on a. {trong{taple, can be made to afford different degrees of preflure on the fides of the wheel, according to the nature of the hill, or the inclination of the driver*. From the circumftance of this application of the drag, it has been termed a drag-cart. By thefe ingenious and fimple contrivances. many advantages are produced, the danger to which horfes and drivers are frequently expofed is obviated, much time faved, and the deftrudtion of the roads confiderably leflened. As it has been fhewn that thofe parts of the neck and fhoulder-blades on which the collars reft in draught-horfes have that degree of flope, or inclination, which. forms an angle with the horizon of about fourteen or fifteen degrees, it is plain that the line in which they draw fhould form the fame angle; as in that cafe they will pull in that line of dire@tion which coincides. the moft with the fhape of their fhoulders, and, of courfe, all the different parts of their fhoulders will be equally preffed or aéted upon by the collars. Hence horfes draw more in cons formity to their mechanifm in a floping, than an horizontal line of direGtion; and the power or advantage which they have in overcoming the refiftance of obftacles in this direction is likewife mechanically great, as may be eafily demonftrated. On thefe principles, therefore, fingle-horfe carts muft be more advantageous than teams, as in the latter cafes many of the horfes muft draw in a horizontal direction, confequently in a way that is inconfiftent with their mechanifm, and the eftablifhed principles of mechanical fciencet. This likewife places in the moft clear and fatisfattory point of view, the neceflity of having the wheels in all forts of carts properly adapted to the fize of the horfes or other animals employed: in them. * Lord Somerville’s Paper in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, yol. I, $ Walker's Syftem of Familiar Philofophy, p. 167. 40 Implements of Hufbandry.—Carts But notwithitanding the evident advantage of employing fingle-horfe carts m many diftrias in preference to waggons and heavy carts, it is obvious, from the nature of the roads and grounds, as well as many other circumflances in other places, that they cannot be generally had recourfe to; but that in refpect to the conftruction of them, as well as to moft other implements made ule of by the hufbandman, there mutt be a difference according to the nature of the fituation and the lands and roads on which they are to be employed. It muft, however, be ad- mitted, that im moft of thofe diftrids in which a number of horfes are put into one cart, confiderable advantages may be derived from a reduction in their weight, and from their being made in a lefs clumfy manner, as well as from the rims of the wheels being made cylindrical inftead of the ufual conical form, - + Cummings’s Paper in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. TH. tHe carts ji 8, from the CeS TD other fee to the e of by the htuation ang ever, be ad. put into one Weight, and nins of the weet i & DRILL MACHINES 0 P ppeyee os = Zz lt i Al al an== =(jr‘lb. WL fh/ ae r= CS lil=e :|=} TF yo =m&=n “—y Hy INT / mT a = = A peste(ite y” 4) ws ':=== WZ A — Wy Z Gp =n mu if ii = PLATE TL Swing-Ploughs. [ To face Page 40.] Fig. 1. Is a reprefentation of the Rotheram or patent plough. As this fort of plough is not incumbered with wheels, it muft be the moft free from fri€tion, and the refiftance which neceflarily proceeds from that caufe; confequently, may in general be faid to be the lighteft of draught. Fig. 2. Reprefents Small’s chain-plough, which will be found highly ufeful in cultivating ftrong lands and rough grounds; for, fhould the fhare, or coulter, fuddenly meet with any obftruction, the ftrain would be immediately thrown upon the chain, sflend of the beam. Fig. 3. Is a fwing-plough, with Lord Somerville’s peeeares mould-board. From the clean fharpened conftruction of the breaft and throat of this plough, deep ftiff land may be broken up with great fuccefs; and as the extremity of the mould-board is moveable, the furrows may be laid more'or lefs flat, according to the circumftances of the cafe. Pi iN 73 S184 7 BY hos Hp daa Pe Re ehcp] oe bab icmran seins Se; L712. f. Exhibits a Double J LOURi) WILE d in Leicefterfhire. It requires a itrongs team, but = 4 o Fes ry eu loushs two acres in the day, and goes fteady, without holding, from one psi a i Pp O pts a rs) aa ays i>& Lil O 8 I 1 one€Na oF the turrow LV f Hat! to the other. It is made by Mr. Hanford, of Hathem in that county, and cofts about Gest Fig. ZL. Is a Single-wheeled Skim-coultered Plough. It is an ufeful implement, and capable of being ufed with the common, without the fkim coulter. It is made as above, and cofls about 31. 135. 6d. At Fig. 3. is feen an Improved Wheel Plough, invented by Mr. Tugwell; Q t The different dimenfions of which are: from 1 to3— 6 Deo Free eS Ona a: 4 sto6— 2 OM MMW Co 7to6— O24 1tos8— I 1togo— 3 Heel to tuck hole of fhare— Tuck hole to point of fhare— ato b‘— oN tof gaf4 dtoe— Su * ctod— dtoe— Diameter of wheel— dtof— gtoh— bmg CTO Rae O mOWN oa etoi— ktol— Breadth at heel— Breadth of in— Top of beam at the heel to ground— o oy(ey OSS) Ot DS te SS) OS EN aS oS = Mould board projects at top more than breadth at heel— o; Ded nts atwo-furrow wheel plough, invented and recommended by Lord Somerville, ig-4. Reprefents plough, j particularly where deep ploughing is not required, and where expenfive teams are kept, as Plate V. continued. performing double the work of other kinds. a4, the moveable parts of the mould boards at- tached to the fixed parts by means of flat hinges, thin flexible plates of tempered fteel or hard hammered iron, fo as to admit of being fet to form different inclinations with them. This is effefted by means of fcrews pafling from the‘nfide behind thefe moveable parts, but which are not{een in the figure. Thefe{crews are fo contrived as to keep the moveable pieces in any pofition, according to the nature of the work, fo as to lay the furrow-flice more or lefs flat. The parts of the mould plates marked with the dotted lines cc, as moft liable to weary fhould be twice the thicknefs of the others, to laft as long as the reft of the plough. Oards ate | or hard This is It which pieces in re or lefs to wear, PLATE V1. ‘mproved Wheel Ploug Sx bs. (To face Page 40.] At Fig. 1. is reprefented an improved two-wheel plough ufed in the Midland diftriGs: a the cheek-chain to pull up the wheels in opening ridges or clearing furrows. It is m rade by Mr. Handford in Leicefterfhire, and cofts, with a double fet of fhares, about 3/, Fig. 2. Exhibits a wheel-plough ufed in Suffex for light foils. QS. Pe) It is ufually drawn by two horfes abreaft, direéted by the holder by reins from the handle, and works fteadily, difpatching much work. Ploughs of this fort are made by Wingham of Nut B Chichefter. At Fig. 3. is a back and fide view of the fame plough. ourn, near Fig. 4. Explains the manner of fixing the wheel and draught. Fig. 5. Reprefents another wheel-plough employed in hard foils, with three or four horfes fingle or abreaft. It is found ufeful in doing a great extent of workin the day. qa Wi t i PLATE Vil, Draining-Ploughs. [Zo face Page 4o.| Fig. 1. Reprefents a draining-plough made ufe of in Lcicefterthire. fig. 2. 1s the reprefentation of a drain- or gutter-plough vecommended by the Duke of Bridgewater; in whicli a 4 is the beam; cd the handles; e the fhare or fock 3/ the coulter or firft cutter of the fod, fixed to the fhare 3g the other coulter, or fecond cutter, which feparates the fod from the land, and direéts it through the fpace or opening between f and g; this coulter is connected with the fhare and beam; 42 the fheath; 2 the bridle or muzzle ta which the fwingle tree is attached; /mmtwo wheels of caft iron, which may be raifed or lowered by fcrews at 2 prefling upon the flat irons 00, to which the axis of each wheel is fixed. Thefe wheels regulate the depth which the fhare is to penetrate into the earth; pa chain with an iron pin to move the fcrews at o. Tt has been found ufeful in forming gutter-draing on grafs lands where the foils are of 2 retentive nature. The power of fix horfes is required in drawing it in foils that hav been drained before. But in opening the old gutters four horfes are fufficient. fig. 3. Is a plough employed for opening the furrows in tillage lands. Fig. 4. Is a draining furrow plough ufed in Northamptonhhire. fig.§. Reprefents the mole-pleugh invented by Mr. Adam Scott, in which a is the beam: 6 the coulter; and c the cone which forms the drain. It has been lately improved fo as to require much lefs force of draught, by having wheels placed before, and a roller behind, but which are not fhown in the figure. This is an effeAtive implement on lands of the iff elayey kind. Fig. 6. Is a fe€tion of the drain, formed by the mole-plough. Fig. 7. Is a plough for under-draining, in which a is a fmall roller for regulating the depth of the plough; 4 a rolling coulter to cut the turf or other coarfe herbage on the furface. It may be taken out when ufed on arable land; ca flat fhare edged in front; d bottom of fhare rounded above, oval at the bottom, and pointed to make an opening for the water; ¢ pin head for regulating fhare, fo as to form drains at different depths; fbeam, which is ftrong and plated. It may alfo be wrought by attaching a pair of low wheels with the fhafts, by a chain to the hook g. 2. e€ nok PLATE VIII. Drill Machines. [ To face Page 40.| Fig. 1. Reprefents the infide part of an ufeful drill machine, by which the quantity of feed is regulated. a. x an iron oe I or 13 inch joe upon which are fixed, at 9 or Io inches Pee z i Ai ee| Pope Se Se ee ae gt diftance, five, fix, or more, brafs-fluted cylinders, the flutes being ra ther more than a femi-circle& of an inch eee or 5 wide and£ deep. r. m are hollow cylindrical rims of hammered iron, which have fegments turned down at right angles, to fit exactly the flutes of the brafs cylinders; the cavities of which are incr eafed or diminifhed by the feg ments of the iron cylindrical rims fliding backwards or forwards in the flutes. This is per- formed in all the cylinders at the fame time, by a re>Ctangular fpace(7) being made in the brafs cylinders, through which paffes a flraight piece of iron 7. 7, moving on friction wheels at;. and faftened to the plates at J.&. and alfot the cvlindri Acre a 1. ¢ 7 oer afz, and taitened to the pilates ati. Xs anc( O cy lindricai TIMS f. 7%.« VU. IS a iCVET, he fulcrum of which is f, and moved by a fcrew S, pafling through the frame at V. The end at /.& is forked, and made to fit exa€tly the fides of the collar or plates of iron z. k. By turning the ferew S, the lever moves the whole of the rims at once, and the cavities are in- creafed or diminifhed at tact this is done with the greateft facility and linefs, even while the machine is going and at work; which is frequently neceflary, ead the land varie co arhdeeey| in quality, upon different parts of the fame ridge: and almoft inftantane ufly, to fow any kin d of grain, and in any we ee which is fhown upon the fcalee.o p, by the index&. 9 fixed to the end of the lever at&. Fig, 2. Is a view of the machine Ee ready for work. The one and fpouts may be hung differently, as reprefented by the dotted lines, and which is probably the better mode for hilly lands. When employed for fowing turnips, the large hopper is taken off, and a fet of{mall ones fixed upon the half-egg cavities at the end of the brafs cylinders: the quantity ts regulated by a tongue fcrewing up and down. This machine was invented 2 Mr, Bury, and defcribed in the Northumberland Report. Fig. 3. A drill plough very ufefnl_in fowing turnips, invented by Mr. Mure. a the fpindle on which the feed-box is eon; 54 the crofs piece in which the drill coulter c is faftened; + ; d the mould board; e the beam; f/f the handles; a the copfe by which it is drawn. nv Fig. 4. Is the reprefentation of a turnip-drill, 1 ted by Mr. Knight. a the iron wheel running on the edge formed by two concave fides, be the groove for the feed; da whee moving on the fame axis with the former, and turning the wheel ¢bya ftrap, gives cut the feed. By having different fizes of wheels, d. b, more or lefs feed is fown as they increafe or diminifh the rapidity of ¢. d the tube through which the feed pafles into the channel formed by the iron wheel; e feet of the implement; f fix lengt k cl 5 {eed-box; 4# the handles. There are two holes before the axis of the great wheel for re- ceiving two pieces of cane, which mark the wo er width 1 of the intervals between the rows. The angle on the edge of the wheelgand the weight of the implement, are more or lefs acute and heavy according to the ftreng af the foil. I Plete Vi i continiked, Fig. 5. An implement for drilling turnips, in which the wheels are folid. Tt has been ufed 2? re> Cc 13 c with fuccefs on fome of the Duke of Bedford’s farms. Fig. 6, Another drill of the barrow kind, which has been found to anfwer well in fowing turnips. Fig. 7. Se@tion of feed-box g on a large fcale; the wheel c the fame: it is fixed on axis 7, which is pierced with holes at K. A fmall brufa marked/ rubs againft the cylinder to clear out feeds that may be detained in the holes. been, ufed ms r‘ Lin lowing } keke, 1 ON axis ly ler to cleay PLATE X. C be ie [To face Page 40.4 Ar Fig. 1. is the reprefentation of a Scufler employed with great advantage by Mr. Graybura in Lincolnfhire, in putting in grain crops on turnip-fed lands after one ploughing.‘The feed is by this implement fcuffled in, and the neceffity of a fecond earth avoided. Fig. 2. An implement of the fame kind, that is made ufe of in Northumberland for hoeing bean-crops drilled at thirty inches. It is alfo capable of hocing and ftirring ftrong lands in dry feafons, when the plough cannot be employed. With other proper hoes put into it, the purpofe of fcufflers and cultivators,&c. is anfwered in a very cheap and eafy manner. a b the beam five feet in length, and in height at 616 inches; ce and de curved lines having a radius of 24 inches from c and d as centres: a to f the length of{tilts 42 inches; the length of the fhanks of hoes from gto under fide of beam 15 inches; length g to 4 7L inches; breadth from g toz s$inches: ce, de holes in the fides, and cd in the end, for the reception of fmaller hoes for light foils, as to hoe from 18 to 30 inches at once. When made a little wider to take in four hoes, it anfwers well for hoeing wheat drilled at 10 or 12 inches. It is drawn by a fingle horfe, and cofts only from 30 to 4os. fig. 3. Shows the fizes of the hoes. Fig. 4. An Improved Cultivator with wheels and handles. It is found ufeful in preparing and reducing ftiff heavy foils. From its weight, and the great length of the tines or coulters, itis a very powerful implement. Fig. 5. Is the reprefentation of a Sward-cutter, or implement for cutting tough fwardsin a crofs direction previous to their being broken up by the plough, or before the operation of paring and burning is begun. It is likewife ufeful for breaking down and reducing the cloddinefs of tillage lands, when in preparation for different forts of crops that require a high degree of pulverization. Different parts of the machine are reprefented at No. 1. 2. 3—-No. 1. AA,&c, is a fquare frame 3 feet 4 inches from the fore to the hind part, by 4 feet 3 inches, the breadth of the ma- chine within fide 5 the timber(when of fir) 4 inches{quare, placed on two wheels BB, 3 feet diameter. CC,&c. are fix{trong pieces of wood, called bulls, 3 feet long, 54inches broad, the thicknefs 6 inches at E, and tapering to 3 inches at F. Into thefe are fixed the cutting wheels, which are iron, 13 inches diameter, 3ths of an inch thick at the centre, about an inch diameter, for piercing holes to fix the iron axles in; from that they are to be of fuch thicknefs as will allow the edges to be well fteeled. The wheels are fixed by two bolts going through the bulls. GG,&c. are hollow pieces of wood, called ¢hor/s, each 34 inches long, which inclofe the bolt MM, and keep the bulls CC,&c. at their proper diftances, but may be made longer or fhorter at pleafure, according as the{ward requires to be cut in larger or fmaller pieces. The iron bolt MM goes through two pieces of wood or iron, PP, 7 inches long, clear of the wood, fupported by iron ftays fixed to the frame, and through all the bulls). HH, No. 2. and 3. a cylinder or fegment of wood, 7 inches diameter, called a rocking treey which goes acrofs 2 See 7. bo k eae 5] Plate M. continued. 1 1 Meta Goal ane Alat+ each ad 1 ted by an ir bolt 0 the frame, and moves on tne pivots ixea info if, one at cach end, fupported by an iron bolt or (3 J piece of wood mortifed into the frame, 8 inches high, as appears at No. 2. and 3. to which ze~ 1 VO ante Antoancter. 9c U0 ON yr a 6 chains or ropes are fixed by hooks, at different diftances, as you want your cuts, 9, 8, 7, Or 6 : oe-. oane 1 cae inches from one another, and are joined to the end of each bull in which the cutting wheels run: fo that when the rocking-tree is turned about by the lever I, fixed in the middle of it, all un; fo that en th g the bulls with their cutting wheels are raifed out of the ground at once, as at No, 3. by which means the machine may be turned without any danger of ftraining the wheels. LULL,&c. No.1. 2. 3. are weights of freeftone, 26 inches long and 6 inches broad; the under one 4 inches thick, the upper one 3 inches thick; weighing about 64 lbs. the under, and 48 the upper; each of them having two holes, through which iron{pikes, firmly fixed in the bulls, pafs, in order to keep them fteady. When the ground is eafily cut, the under fone may anfwer; when more difficult, the other ftone may be added; fo that every wheel may have 7 ftone weight upon it, which has been found fufficient for the ftiffeft land and tougheft{ward the machine has ever been tried on. Weights will anfwer fully better, but are more expenfive. The lever I, No. 2. 3. which ought to be 5 feet long, muft have a fliding rope on it, fixed to the back part of the frame; fo that when the cutting wheels are all taken out of the ground three or four inches, by the rocking-tree’s being turned partly round by the lever, the rope may be fixed to it by a loop over the pin R, No. 3. Thus all the cutting wheels are kept out of the ground till the machine is turned; and then, by moving the loop off the pin, it flips back towards the frame, and the lever is gently let back to its place, as in No. 2. by which the cutting wheels are put into their former pofture, by the weights fixed on the bulls in which they run. PP, No. 1. a fmall bolt of iron, with a hook on one end of it, to ftrengthen the bolt MM, to be hooked on the centre of it, and joined to the frame by a nut and fcrew. For a fingle- horfe f{ward-cutter(which has only four cutting wheels), a pair of fhafts are ufed, and may make the two fides of the frame without'any joinings.‘The width of the frame, in proportion to the double-horfe{ward-cutter, is as four to fix. One man manages the machine and drives the horfes. He begins his operation by firft meafuring off 20 or 30 paces from the machine on each fide, and there fixing poles. He then cuts the field acrofs, as near at right angles with the ridges as he can. Fig. 6. An Extirpator ufed in Suffolk for the purpofe of clearing land; which is faid to be a very effective implement. In the figure is feen a back view of the machine, when put together ready for work: a the fhares, eight inches broad and nine inches long, which are fixed to ftalks, rifing ten inches. The diftance between them is eleven inches: 4 the hind ledge, fix feet long, and about four inches fquare: c the fore ledge, five feet and a half long, four inches {quare; the diftance of thefe ledges is twelve inches: dthe beam, feven feet long; its ele- vation is three feet three inches. See fig. 7. e¢ the handles. Fig. 7. A fide view of the beam. Fig. 8. Reprefents a fhare with its ftalk. This implement is capable of being fixed to the wheels,&c. of a common wheel-plough, and made to go fhallower or deeper in the fame manner.| PLATE XI, ‘Common Harrows. [To face Page 40.] IMPROVED Common Harrows are much employed ia many diftricts, fiz, 1. 1s a Common Harrow, frequently made ufe of in firtt reducing the uneven furface left by the plough. ao 2. A Double Harrow of the fame kind. Fig. 3.A Jointed Brake Harrow; to which are handles fixed behind for the purpofe of raifing it occafionally, when it may be neceflary to clear it ay roots,&c. figs a. Ys an Im TESS LALA ES made ufe-of by Mr. pein es in Lincolnfhire. From its being connected by hinges in the middle, it maybe emp d ployed with great advantage where the ridges are much raifed. It is recommended in the Agricultural Su: rvey of that diftrid. Eig eN ESP GE invented by Mr. Knight, by which the ftrefs on the horfes is rendered lefs, and the harrow not fo liable to choke up. Itisconitru€ted with two joints, A A, 1 in the axle-tree, one of which Lk covered, as when the harrows.are at work; the other un= covered, to fhow the conftruction of the joint; and two joints, aa, in the front of the bar, by means of which the oliabiliy of the tree, and that of the bar, humour the wheels, and keeps them in their proper dire€tions in the furrow.; and, requiring«very little fcope of ground, the turnings are rendered convenient and eafy. Jf in working the land the breadth of the furrows isvaried,-it is contrived, in order to make the harrow narrower» that that part of the bar B, which is faftened by two-pins b.4, may be taken off when requifite; part of the axle-tree, and part of the hind-bar C, both which are faftened by the iron bolt D, are alfo to be removed; and the remaining outward parts to be joined and faftened by one of thetwo pins in the bar, and bya fhorter bolt d, fhown feparate, and intended for the ae tree and hind- bar. And when two horfes which-are unequal in height are wrought, as the horizontal direc- tion, or evennefs of the joints, may be deftroyed in fome degree; to remedy and fupply the deficiency in the horfes, the whipple-tree E is made to be heightened or lowered by means of notches ¢, fhown feparate, to which it is conne&ted by aring. In light barley-lands, to ac- commodate the harrow for one horfe, by narrowing it as directed above, there are two{trings conveyed by two rings from the axle-tree, through two loops, ff, under the front bar. The wheel F, under the hind- bar, which is fhown enlarged and feparate in the plate, will fupport the bar; and by this affiffance the harrow is conveyed to the field on the axle-tree bar, asa fubflitute for a fledge: there are alfo two wooden pegs. oo. b which the harrows, when g Pegs, y) &§) turned upon the carriage, are fecured. To leffen the expenfe of iron in this harrow, an axle- tree and joints may be readily conftruGted in wood, upon the fame principle as fhown in the plate feparate at G3 though preference fhould be givento iron. If the wheel under the hind- bars be not adopted, there isa flider H, thown feparate, which works with a pin, and, when not wanted,.is turned and faftened under the axle-tree. As it is often found ufeful to heighten ot lowerthe harrow occafionally, particularly on broad lands rifing in the middle; where of courfe the middie harrow takes moft hold, and generally requires the leaft; this may be eafily effected, by fixing irons, with notches, like thofe on the fore-bar, by which the whipple-trees are fupported, on the hind-bar, inftead of the hooks, and putting the hooks on thofe irons. At ue 6. A Pour-/quare Harrow, employed on new-inclofed and broken-up lands in the midland diftri€ts, where the ground is very uneven. Fig...An Improved Harrow, with running bulls: By this contrivance the harrows are pre- vented ao riding on each other, or turning over at the ends of the ridges in returning. They are made by Mr. Hanford, and found to anfwer well in Leicefterfhire. The price about 31. 3s. PLATE Xt Improved Tron Harrow. [To face Page 40.] Tuts gives the reprefentation of an iron harrow, which Mr. Young has had conftru@ed of that metal from finding that thofe formed of wood are liable often to fall to pieces, and be- fides to be too light for fome forts of work. Every tooth fcrews through a double frame feparated by iron wafhers for greater fteadinefs, and there are handles fixed for the eafe and convenience of lifting or preffure. Thefe harrows are found to anfwer perfectly well. The price is 61. 6s. It is obferved that all harrows fhould have handles, that the clods, or tufts of weeds, may not be dragged along, to fave the trouble of raifing them in order to clear them. Any fmith may conftru@ a pair from this reprefentation, varying the fhape according to circumftances, Satan tetenen 7aeeceeeiedieee cee ne> ——-— bs-- So ciaeiapasininateadaasdeaibihiaMitinagenibrameniniihe es 2 tae ener ne PLATE. Xt. Rollers. [To face Page 40.1 Fig. 1. Is the reprefentation of a common grafy-roller, employed for rolling hay lands the county of Middlefex. It is drawn by three or four horfes abreaft. lik Fig. 2. Is a common frone roller, made ufe of in many of the northern diftricts for rolling arable lands. Fig. 3. Exbibits the plan of a furrow roller invented by Mr. Pinchard, for rolling the fur- rows in hilly and other lands, where the common rollers cannot be employed. 2 met on th ter), whict metal DD, that 4 of fraw Th whee no whic the Up Cave te ed ae PLATE XIV. Thrafhin i Machines. [To face Page 40.| Fig. 1. is the reprefentation of a powerful thrafhing machine, in which B Bis a horizontal board or table five feet long by three feet four inches broad, on which the corn CC is evenly fpread, and prefented to the caft-metal fluted rollers RR(four inches in diameter), which take it regu- larly in, and by their weight and fharp edges hold fait the ftraw while itis flruck. or thrathed out by the pieces of wood SSSS, fixed in the cylinder DD, and projeGting three inches from its furface. This cylinder is made with ftrong arms, on which are fixed the pieces of wood, and cafed round with narrow inch deals; the whole fecured from flying off by flrong iron hoops furrounding them at each end; the former are covered with plate iron, to prevent their wearing. Thefe, when they ftrike the corn, move in an upward direction RE, with great. . velocity, and throw the corn as it is thrathed, and the ftraw as it leaves the fluted rollers, againft the circular rake KK, and upon the wire{kreen G, from whence the ftraw is taken by the rake, and delivered upon the floping board L, down which it flides to the floor N, while the corn paffes through the fkreen G into the hopper H, and from thence to the inclined board I; but in falling from Htol a{trong current of air, raifed by the fanners FFF, blows the chaff over the floping board O, and the light corn againft it, which falls into the fpace P, and the chaff into M, while the good grain flides down the inclined board IE, to the floor at Q., from whence it is taken and put into a fecond winnowing machine, in which are placed proper rid- dles to fuit different kinds of grain.. This fecond machine is moved by a. rope going over a pul- ley, fixed in the axle T, and is fet a-going, or ftopped, at pleafure, by a{tretching pulley, as eccafion may require. But where the fituation will admit of the board Il being placed about four feet from the floor, the fecond winnowing-machine may be placed dire€tly under it, and fave the trouble of lifting the corn. The whole is put in. motion by an overfhot water-wheel fourteen feet dia- meter, which makes from five to fix revolutions per minute, according to the-fupply of water; on the axle of this water-wheel is fixed a large{fpur-wheel aa, of 160 cogs(1524 inches diame- ter), which drives a caft-metal pinion 2, of 16 cogs(15,28 inches diameter), on the axis of which is placed another fpur-wheel ¢, of 63 cogs(60,1 inches diameter), that drives the caft- metal pinion d,. of 16-leaves,(15,28 inches diameter).on the axis of which is fixed the cylinder DD,(four feet diameter, and five feet long) with the four projecting pieces of wood, S5SS, that thrafh the corn as defcribed above.. The large fpur wheel a alfo drives the light cog wheel e, of 63 cogs(60,1. inches diameter), fixed on the axis&/ of the rake for taking away. the ftraw. The rollers ace moved by the pinion 4, of 16 leaves, working into: the flight caft-metal wheel f, fixed on the iron axis ii of the lower roller, on which axis is alfo fixed a{mall pinion g, of 8leaves, working into another, /, of equal number; fixed on the axis of the upper rollers which gives the two rollers an equable notion for taking in the corn. This axis is fixed into the upper roller, either by an univerfal joint, or with. a fquare tapering end, to allow.the upper roller to rife and fall,. according as the corn is fed-in thicker or thinner; and the con- cave board RE is hung ona bolt, to aliow it.to rife and fall with the roller. Plate XIV. continued. When the rollers are required to move{wifter or flower, they may be driven very conve= niently from the end of the axle of the rake, by fixing a caft-metal faced wheel on it, with three rows of cogs,(8, 10,and 13) working into a fhifting pinionof 8 leaves, fixed on an iron axle; at the other end of which is put a fmall bevel wheel of twelve teeth, working into another of eight teeth on the end of the axle of the lower roller. The fanners are moved by a crofled rope, paffing over a pulley T, 10 inches diameter, fixed on the axis of the cylinder, and another V, of 8 inches diameter, on the axis of the fanners. The rollers take in nearly 300 inches of corn per minute with amedium quantity of water. w andy explain feparately the manner in which the{mall wheels are attached. This machine was found to anfwer well at Chillingham by Mr. Baily. Fig. 2. Exhibits another thrafhing machine conftruéted on a different principle. Fig. 3. Reprefents the plan of it. reTy Conve. With three \ iron axle( ) another of DY a crofled linder, and nearly 200 PLATE XV, Chaff- Cutter. [ To face Page 40.| Turs figure reprefents Mr. M* Dougall’s Patent Chaff-cutter, which muft be confidered’ ag one of the mot ufeful inftruments of the kind ever invented. In this machine the inventor has been particularly careful fo to conftruct it, that, in cafe it fhould be accidentally broken, it might be eafily repaired by any common mechanic.‘The fubftance to be cut into chaff may be preffed as hard as the workman choofes, by fimply placing a weight nearer to the end of oC S eas\t~ Wict= 1? Bee the lever. But the chief excellence of the inftrument confifts in Mr. Ms Dougall’s having judicioufly applied a fpiral groove in the room of the endlefs fcrew, commonly ufed by other c.. F~ z°£ agricultural inftrument-makers; by means of which he has in a great degree got rid of = 6 Fy rc a Aoyaae friion; and the lever may rife to any height aa Lo without putting the machine out of works 2 PUA XVI. Norfolk and Suffolk Hore-Rake, |[To face Page 40.| @ REPRESENTS the Norfolk and Suffolk Horfe-Rake: an ufeful implement, much employed on the large and middling-fized farms in thofe diftri€ts, and extending itfelf into others. It is made ufe of for barley and oats inthe place of the hand-drag or dew-rake, fo named from being chiefly employed while the dew is upon the ground, before fome other fort of harveft work can: be undertaken. A man and horfe, driven by a line, are capable of clearing from twenty to thirty acres in a moderate day’s work, difpofing the grain in lines across the field by lifting up the rake, and dropping it from the teeth without the horfe ftopping. It is recommended by Mr. Young. The price is from four to five pounds. Atl Fig. fometim contents Fig. 3 flraw, 01 Fig. 4 fingle hi teracted bd, whi or centr ate, Fig. moved. means Fig. of heavy Frr.8 and retail Fig. 1 Fig. Hs lightn Fy and Wage Wheels a with the Carriage, PLATE XVII. Carts and Waggons. [‘Lo face Page aoe} At Fig. 1. is reprefented a common light one-horfe cart for various ufes. Fig. 2. A clofe fingle-horfe cart, ufeful for conveying manure or other fimilar purpofes: it is fometimes termed a coup-cart; the body refting upon a fort of frame, by which contrivance the contents can be readily difcharged. Fig. 3. Is a cart made ufe of in fome northern diftricts for conveying hay and grain in the firaw, or any other bulky materials, where only one horfe is employed. Fig. 4. 1s a front view of a Drag- Cart recommended by Lord Somerville; it is drawn bya fingle horfe in- thafts. The too great velocity of the cart, in defcending fteep hills, is coun- teracted by a friction-drag or bar, 4 b, fixed behind by a chain and before by a toothed rack, bd, which catches on a ftaple, by which the preffure is regulated by the driver. The pofition, or centre of gravity of the load, is-alfo regulated by a toothed rack fixed inthe front of the cart atc.‘ Fig. 5. Is a fide view of a cart of this fort, defigned for oxen, the friflion-drag being re- moved. In thisa more fimple method of adjufting the centre of gravity of the load is adopteds as feen at a 4, by the curved iron with holes in it for receiving a pin to hold it at any height re- quired. c. A fmall chain to hold the cart from going too far back in fixing it 3d d, upper part of cart for containing bulky loads. Fig. 6.. Reprefents the body of a cart which can be enlarged occafionally for bulky loads by means of the flides aa. The fides alfo put on and t»ke off at pleafure, as fhown by b 4,&c. Fig. 7. Exhibits a view of the Quarry-Cart, a ftrong low cart for the loading and carrying of heavy ftones, and great weights of other kinds. Figs. 8 and g. Reprefent an axletree and box con{truéted by Mr. Rowntree, which run light and retain their oil perfectly. Fig. 10. Is the reprefentation of a waggon employed in the collieries for conveying coals. Fig. 11. Is a reprefentation of a light waggon much. ufed in Berkfhire: It is valuable, from its lightnefs, for harveft and other fimilar purpofes. Fig. 12. Is another waggon, which partakes, in fome degree, of the properties of the cart and waggon, whence it has been appropriately denominated Hermaphredite. The pair of fore- wheels and fhafts, as a a, are occafionally attached to a common Cart, bb, by a pole connected with the axle, to which are added the ladders d d. This is a light, cheap, and convenient. carriage, and will carry nearly as much hay or{traw as the above waggon. 3 PLATE Wil Drill Machine. [To face Page 40.| Fig, 1. and 2. Renrefent Cook’s improved Drill and Horfe-Hoe. fig. 1. 1s the drill implement; aa the fhafts applied to the axis of the wheels; 44 the wheels; ¢c the coulter-beam, having holes at proper diftances for the coulters; dd the handles fixed to the coulter-beam, as well as the axis of the wheels, by ftaples or hooks and eyes; ¢ ¢ upper{eed-box in partitions covered by a lid: ff lower feed-box in partitions; gg flides between upper and lower feed-boxes, for regulating quantity of feed; 44 cylinder with cups of different fizes for grain or feeds of different fizes, which take up.and drop the feed into the funnels 77, to be conveyed to the drills in the land££; Ja hook applied to the axes of the wheels, to receive the links of a chain from the coulter-beam, in order to prevent the tubes from being difplaced in crofling gutters,&c. ma pin of iron projecting from the coulter-beam, which by being lifted om hook/ bears the coulters out of the ground in turning,&c.» a cog- wheel; o another cog-wheel turned by wheel 7; p a lever and ftring pafling over a pulley to the axis of the cylinder 4, by moving which to the notch in{taple g, the wheel o is lifted out ef generation with wheel 7, by which means the diftribution of feed is prevented at pleafure; v an iron bar perforated with holes, by which, with the pin put through the holes, the feed-box may be elevated or depreffed fo as to keep the lid level in all fituations; ss two{taples in th ends of feed-box for receiving flips of wood with canvass, to prevent the wind interrupting the feed, as well as dirt from falling from the wheels into the funnels 77. fig. 2. Is the fame implement fet for horfe hoeing. The fhafts, axis, wheels, coulter-beam, and handles, the fame as in fig. 1.; the feed-box ee, the cylinder, 44, the funnels ii, and the coulterg kk being removed; and the hoes aaaa@aa introduced in the place of the coulters, dc a guide rifing from the hoe-beam for dire€ting the hoes; cc the thanks by which the machine is drawn. fig. 3. Is a profile of Mr. Amos’s expanding horfe-hoe and harrow; a the regulating wheel to inches in diameter, capable of being adjufted fo as that the fhares may cut at various depths 5. the beam, fix feet and a half Jong and three and a half fquare; c leading fhare,. riveted on fhaft d, is an equilateral triangle of twelve inches; dfhank of{hare fixed in beam, two inches by half an inch fquare; e edge of expanding fhares, two feet long and five broad; f\eft hand mould-board, two feet long and ten by fix inches fquare, made of light wood, hooked on iron rod g, and fixed to fhank 4 by{crew bolt; g iron rod pailing the hind part of leading fhare, the fore part of expanding fhares, the mould-board hooks, and the beam in which it is fixed by nut and fcrew; 4 iron fhank fixed to the expanding fhares, kneed at topy where a circular part paffes the beam, and regulates the width of the expanding fhare; i the handle three feet from the ground Hine, and the part held by, three feet behind end of beam; & profile of fmall triangular harrow with expanding fides fixt to end of beam. fig. 4. A horizontal view of the expanding hoe and harrow; 4 the beam containing mortices for the fhanks of the regulating wheel and leading fhare; ¢ leading fhare, to which expanding ones are fixed by bolt g; dd expanding fhares fixed to leading one c; ¢¢ circular 6 > 1 ee Vil ee 2 te ae Plate Viil. CCNHhCE. ng fhares, which go through beam and regulate width bolts pafling through them and beam; dotted lines fupper parts radiuses of fhanks fixed to infide of expandi of hoe, fixed to different widths by of mould-boards; g middle bun of expanding harrow hree inches{quare and two feet nine inches three inches{quare and two feet fix inches long, fixed to middle one long 3 A expanding buns, rcular iron radiuses fixed in expanding buns, and ferving to regulate by ftrong hinges; Zi two Cl the harrow to any width, Fig. 5. The profile of a fix-fhared horfe- by Mr. Amos by the addition of two caftor-wheels to regulate depth. It moves with eafe to right or left; aa fe&tion of coulter- bar of drill, to which it is fixed by eye-bolt; 4 piece of afh three inches fquare and fixteen long, narrow before to hook on bolt pafling coulter-bar 5 ¢ another piece thirteen inches long, Exed between iron bar at twelve inches diftance by four the bars are two inches broad, half an inch thick, and forty-one long; d fection of coulter-bar four by three inches{quare, moveable between pieces of wood and iron bars 5 s long and one and a half by half inch{quare, fixed in coulter- g fhare with fhank fixteen inche bar, being riveted in hind part of fhare; 2 caftor-wheel, i ht inches in diameter and tv ick ’ g} two thick at centre; f handle fixed to piece of wood c by two bolts and{crews. Fig. 6. A horizontal view of a{ix-fhared horfe-hoe; a coulter-bar of drill, to which it is fixed between which coulter-bar moves on bolt, in which are holes for fhift- ing in different ways} d bar ia which hoes are fixed; jigs. 8. and g. manner of fixing them when rows of corn are eight or nine inches afunder 3 g gg three fhares in form of triangle, two fore fides of which are feven inches long, and hind fide fix; f handle for left fide fixed to end of fide frame by two bolts: the numbers 1, 2, 3) 4) reprefent four rows of corn at nine inches hoe on the principle of the pentagraph, improved {crew-bolts 5 in working; 6 c iron bars, apart. Fig. 7. A horizontal view of coulter thirteen inches long below coulter-bar. There are feven, which are ufed in place of hoes in ftiff flony or weedy land. Fig, 8, A profile of a coulter made fharp on fore edge in order to operate more eafily, a re Pe pee adle one ) reg gulate improved th eafe to ece of aff lter-bar; e by four a fect ion ron bars; n coulter- it is fixed for fhift- 1em when two fore ‘o end of ne mches ne inches There aré | glia ts >. im A SECTION Il, Farm-Houfés and Of ICES. rm Buriprncs—Too little Attention in the Conftrudlion of—Facility and Difpateh of Bufinefs conneéted with Form and Arrangement Uriel igen el Diffribution of, neceffary--- When not the Cafe, much Lime lof ig the Conveyance of Materials—Size of, propor tioned to that of the Farm—Whén of the grazing Kind few Buildinss necefjary—‘ T hefe chiefly of the cheap fed Kind—Permanent Roofs moftly advantageous—LExpence faved by W alls with ae ol Coverings—— This Plan only recommended in particular Cafes—Different Sorts of Sheds nec Pars y for diferent Kinds of Cattle—Cool ones fer Store Cattl—lVarm ones for Feeding Stock—I Difft erent Accom~ modations neceffary for Dairy Farms—Cow-Houfes large—Conveniences fer the various Operations of the Dairy—For Corn Farms Buildings more numerous— Calculated to fuit different Purpofes— Stables fufficiently large—Cow and Feeding Houfes adapted to Nuuber and Kind of Cattle—Bara and Granary fufficiently large—W here Thrafbing-Machines are eretied need not be fo extenfive— Conveniences for young Animals of different Sorts—Horfes—Cattle—Hogs— Poultry.—FARM Housts—Dimenfions of, regulated by Size of Farm—Should be airy and commodious—Ground- floor Plan—Parlour—Kitchen— Back Kitchen—Clofets forevarious Articles—Dairy— Pantry— Cellar—Divided above into Lodging Rooms—Thefe large for the Sake of Ventilation—Windows snore outwards in the Walls advantageous—Floors of, raifed a Foot or more— Hip-Roofs pre- ferable to Gable-Ends—Thicknefs of Walls according to Materials—W ben thin, eafily penetrated- by the Sun or Cold-—Should be of good Thicknefs—Principal Objects in, Conveniences and Cheap~ nefs.— BARNS—Size and Conftructicn of, various—Where Thra hing-Machines and Stacking are in Ufe, large ones unneceffary——Dimenfions larger where the Flail, and Houfing Grain, are prattifid—Sliaes neceffary for the Admiffion of Air—Confiruétion of Floars—Beft of Oak Plank—Clay and other finilar Kinds of Eloors liable to crack and break up—When formed of Plank, fhould be ploughed and tonguedy and have a Foundation of Brick-work—More fecure and freer from Damps than when nailed to Sleepers—Floors of Brick nearly equal—Thrafbing Eloor— Twelve by eighteen Feet a good Size— Addition of Elues or Drying-Floors ufeful— Cow-Houfesy or other Offices, ntay Srequently be provided on the Ground Floors—This Method has various+ 1 fs ae fe m a ry Y- re.] n44 F, I ayn Advantages—Le/; ON enfive—Saves Room—Grain more Jecure—Chamber Barn Floo s—Lafiei to thrafb upon—Pitching-Holes u veful in every Form of Barn—U nloading in the Barn more “exp BE EE ES a» firmly built-—Have extenfrve Flooring-—Contrived to avoid Labour—LEffcéted by particular Conftrudtion of Eloors—Lree V Ventilation by latticed Windows G % ( 42) aSpouts or Ventilators on the Top—A /quare the beft Form—Neceffary to be placed on foort Poffs or . Pillars of Stone—Should be lined with Boards clofely joined together—Outfide covered with Weather= boarding—In common Granaries, Attention not necefjary to all thefe Points—Need not be fo ftrongly built—Mof proper Situation in the Barn where houfing Grain is not prattifed—Ma chinery for raifing the Corn neceffary.—STABLES—Elegance not requifite in—Consfortable and conve- nient ones neceffary—Should be fo contrived as to preferve nearly an Equality of Temperature at different Seafons—Muft be provided with proper Drains for the Removal of Moifture—Moveable Shutters, as Windows, fave Expence—Racks and Mangers—Economy and Convenience in Cotte frruttion of—Large ones difadvantageous—Should have a more perpendicular Pofition than ufual— Placed conveniently in Niches in Walls—Sparred at Bottom to admit Hay-Seeds—Conveniences ta collee? them ufeful—Hatches fave Time in feeding—Mangers need not be the Width of Stalls— Small Boxes convenient for—Cheap Method of forming Stalls and Racks—In this Way fparred at Bottom—Hay-feed Box neceffary—Single Stalls better than. double—Attention neceffary in paving Stables—Should approach to a Level—Moaiflure removed by[mall Middle- Drain—All the Drains to empty into a large one—Stall Drains covered by perforated Oak Planks—Main Drains placed at Ends or Bottoms of Stalls—Shallow open Drains lefs expenfive—Pavement of Stalls foould have very flight Inclination to Drains—Advantages gained by this Conftruétion of Stalls—-Size of Stalls —Five Feet a good one—Divifions of fhould be high—For Stallions and young Horfes fparred ta the Top—Or divided by Doors hung to‘back Pofts of Stables—Latter Method ufeful for Mares and Foals—Harnefs Place near the Stable necefJary—Situation for Corn-Bin— When placed above fhould feed by a Spout in Stable—This Mode has Advantages—Cow AND FreDInG 1 ouszs—Nearly fimilar—Calf-Pens in them fometimes—A Plan not to be adopted—Better at a fmall Diftance— May be contrived to fuit either Purpofe—In the Form of fingle or double Sheds—Muf be capable of free Ventilation—Require little Labour in cleaning—Have Drains to keep the Cattle dry— Free Circulation of Air neceffary in—W ithout it Cattle liable to Difeafe-—Sheds open behind fometimes ufeful—Air-Holes in Roofs occafionally necefiary—W indows in Gable-Ends frequently ufeful—Ad= vantages of[uch Means—Feeding of Animalspromoted in this Way—Modes of Con/truction— Circum- frances to be attended to in—Common Method injudicious—Feeding from Holes without—Objeétions to —Moft convenient Plan of, in fingle Sheds—Double ones more economical and nfeful—Lefs Extent of Building, neceffary in—Lefs Deftruction of Fodder—Room over ufeful in all Sheds—An intelligent Feeder’ s, Opinion on— Double Sheds not fuppofed fo advantageous—Rooms over prejudicial— Plan recom= mended by him—Room in the Middle of, neceffary—Keeping Cattle clean and dry, Ufes of—Contriv= ances for leffening Labour effential—Means of doing which— Attention to paving Stalls neceffary —This frequently not done—Double Stalls ufeful—The Expence of greater—AIn many Cafes unne- ceffary—Conveniences for Food and Water necefary—Drains and Refervoirs Joould conftantly be formed.—GAL F-PENS— Situation of—Near Cow-Houfe—Mode of laying Floors of—Difagree- able Effuvia thus avaided—Moveable Divifions in, ufeful—Troughs and Racks fometimes neceffary »—Lood more equally diftributed by them—TIn general not requifite—D AIRIES— Advantages of good ones— Are of different Kinds—Conffruction of each——Proper Situation of—Moft advantageous covering vy of-—T hatch ufeful for—Stone Walls alweys preferable—Proper Height of Ceilings of—Eigh Win CE 48%) t Pofts 0 or Weathers dows necefary—Should have Frames with Gauze firetched on them—Utility of—Lloors of—Beft Sort fb firongly of Materials for—Proper Manner to be laid—Well near neceffary-—Mode of fitting up—V effels for fa chinery:—Of different Materials—Lead—Marble—Slate ones made by Mr. Hind at Swithland, near nd conve- Leicofter—Firft muft be kept clean— Plugs and Cocks neceffary for Coolers arge Cock for Water erature at requifite--Flues for conducting Heat fometimes neceffary in them—Circum/tances to be aitended to in - Moveable,; Ceilings and Walls—Churning-Room near the Milk- Houf2—Fire-Place neceffary where Utenfils are ce in Cotte hae Slabs or Strips of Wood neceffary on outfide of—Smoking of Chimneys in, prejudtcial— eae Tad) pales 2 2 O aio sb..Shela Fy eee yf 11 ftom beefe- Dairy——Milk-Houfe for near! ly fimilar-—Here fom timesufeful to have Mailk-Shelves—Pref] ing or Scalding Houfe on fame Plan as for Churning—Should always have a good Prefs in—Salt- ing-Room—Laid with Flags— Strong Table and Shelf neceffary— Cheefe-Room— Beft over the Dairy niences{9 om—Commonly above Cow-Houfe or Kitchen—Reafons of.—SHEDS—Highly convenient—Modes of a hae confiructing them—U/eful for various Purpofes.—STRAW-Houses——Lrequently ufeful—Save cae a oats and Time—Prevent Litter-—Roor-Houses—Neceffary to the Supply of Winter Food—Roots y Drains or other Vevetables—PouLtrr-Hovuses—Circumftances in Conftruétion of.—Hoc-8 TIES—- uns placed Mode of cor irudiing them—Troughs contrived to prevent Wafte of Food—Boilers for preparing bould have: Food, fometimes requifite in.—CoAL AND Woop Houses—Mof ufeful Conftruction of—W 0oRK- e of Stalls SxHops—Utility of—Toot-HousEs—Circumftances to be attended to, 1t.—S TORE-ROOMS— fparred ta Situation for—Various Ufes of—Farm Servants’ Rooms—Necefary on large Farms—Aa- fares and: vantages of—Beft Situation for—Ground-Floors of Stone or Brick—Upper ones of Plater or Brick ove fhould—Mode of forming them—Arrangement of Beds—Free Circulation of Air in, necefary.—PI- — Nearly GEON-HousEs—Should be large and roomy—Beft Situation of—Form of, not material—Sort of Diftance— Covering neceffary for—Should be fecure againf? Vermin—Conftruction of, when built feparately— be capable May have Sheds under them—Obje€tions to Voed- Coats—Entrances of fhould face the South—Large attle dry— Holes improperomi eather-Bourds above them neceffary— Methods of forming the Ne/ts——Forms of 1 fometimes—Sheds the befi—Proper Situation of—CONVENIENGES FOR PREPARING CaTrrTLeE-Foop— ful— Ai Advantages of in feeding Animals—STEAM BorLERS—Ufeful in various Ways—Defcription Circum- of—Other Contrivances propofed---Ufeful for other Purpofes.---CoRN CHEST S---Neceffary and eco~ je Pions to nomicale--Small Tub fometimes fufficient---Beft Conftruétion of---That of the Granary ufeful on large sf; Extent Farins.---CORN STAN DS---Con/ftrucion of, various---Beft Mode of---Form of the Duke of Bedford's intelligent at Woburn Abbey---Peculiar Circumftances in the Formation of---Materials moft proper for-~-Slates ox Elags Mees ee jor Bottoms of---Not neceffary when the Foundation ts well laid---This kind f Stand ufed by Mr. Bakewell—BrE STANDS.---FaRM Houses AND OFFICES---Situation i Arrangement of---Moft economical in faving Labour---Proper Situation of--- Near the Centre of Farm---A Square the moft proper—Offices erected on expofed Sides of---Not attended to in buildine Karm-Houfes---The/e fhould be at a Diftance from Offices---Sometimes fuch as to overlook the Ope- rations going nMeape be adapted to the Bufinefs--- Nature of Gr ound frequently points out Situa~ lan recome _Contrive ; necefary sfes untit-= 4 oan tls be yiani'y Difagree@= é fary tions==-General Obfervations on the Expence of Farm Buildings.—Eftimates of. nécel}' rf of good s covering bse In the conftruction of farm-houfes, and other buildings neceffary for the economical oh Vile":;: igh Wi eis and advantageous management of farms, too little attention feems hitherto to have been paid, confidering the great praCtical importance of fuch abjedts. It is obvious, AA Farm Buildings. however, that the facility and convenience of carrying on different operations mutt greatly depend on the judicious form and-arrangement of fuch ereétions. By commodious diftribution of fuch buildings, fervants are enabled to perform more labour, and with greater eafe to themfelves; as where offices are injudicioufly placed, much of their time mutt, of neceflity, be loft in the conveyance of different articles, fuch as fodder, ftraw,&c. from one place to another. The fize of farm buildings fhould in general be proportioned in fome meafure to that of the farm, and their conftruction be regulated by its nature and fituation. Where the farm is merely a grazing one, fewer buildings are required, and thefe are chiefly of the fhed kind, which may be formed in a cheap manner, of fuch mate- rials as are neareft at hand, or can be eafily procured. In fuch cafes the fheds fhould, however, always have permanent roofs, except they are built in the fields for f{ummer ufe only. On thofe grazing farms where the cattle are only houfed during the winter, or where a greater number of buildings are employed in winter than in the fummer, much expence in roofing fuch fheds may frequently be faved by ereting walls only, and fixing merely temporary coverings to them for the fhelter of the cattle; or by having pofts framed, and placed in fuch a way as to fupport hay-ricks, any other fort of rick not to be removed during the winter. By this means a warm roof is afforded, and a convenient fituation given for the ftlacks. This, how- ever, from its being a paltry and flovenly method, is only to be had recourfe to under particular circumftances, as where a better fort of cattle fhed cannot with propriety be built. On fuch forts of farms, different forts of fheds fhould conftantly be provided for different kinds of cattle: where they are intended for ftore ftock only, they fhould be open on one fide, as the cattle fhould be kept cool, otherwife they are apt to take cold when they are turned out, which they fhould always be every day when the weather is tolerable; but if they areintended for us cattle, they fhould be made much warmer, as in that cafe the cattle will thrive fafter, and there is no neceflity for turning them out, fo that the danger of their oe cold is avoided. Different accommodations from thefe will be neceflary for dairy-farms, they being moftly compofed partly of grazing and partly of arable land.. On thefe the cow- houfes fhould be fo regulated as to fuit the number of cows that can at any time be kept; and fuch other conveniences thould be provided as are proper for the dairy bac ve biais Wena i ee din fay; bufinefs, whether they be managed as cheefe, butter, milk, or fuckling farms. For fuch farms{mall ftables and barns-are, in general, fuflicient.. And for the arable or corn farm, as partaking in general.of both the other forts.. She. ede tne oices and buildings fhould not only be much more numerous, but calculated to nut the more aced, ope Ie CLES, ure to ation, thefz mate- ould, immer ng the in the ecting of the ricks, ans a how- irfe to 41 yt with led for fhould apt{oO - when » made ve eflity = Farm Buildings.—Houfes, AS fait the various purpofes of each. The ftables fhould be fufficiently large and con- venient, for the accommodation of fuch a number of horfes as may at any time be employed in the labour of the farm; and the cow and feeding houfes adapted to the quantity and kind of cattle kept or fed. The barn and granary mutt alfo be proportioned to the extent of ground under arable cultivation. Where thrafhing- machines are to be erected, the fize of the barns need not be fo great as in other cafes; as neither the height neceffary for the flail, nor room for a large quantity of corn in the ftraw, are required. Befides, thefe machines not demanding much elevation in the buildings where they. are placed, a granary and ftore-room may often very conveniently be made above them, which cannot be done where the barn. is required to be high. \ On this kind of farm convenient buildings fhould alfo be prepared for the breed- ing and management of young animals of different forts, fuch as horfes, cattle, hogs, poultry,&c. FARM-HOUSES. Tue dimenfions of the farm-houfe, like moft of the other buildings, fhould, in a great meafure, be regulated by the extent of the farm. It fhould be neat, airy, and have fufficient accommodations both for the family of the farmer, and the bufinefs that is to be performed in it. On the ground-floor there ought, at leaft, to be a good parlour and kitchen, with back kitchen, which may ferve alfo for a bake-houfe and brew-houfe, with clofets and other convenient places for depofiting different articles: and likewife a dairy, pantry, and a proper place for the purpofe of a cellar. The upper part may be divided into lodging-rooms or bed-chambers, which thould be rather large, in order that the circulation of air may be free and unre- ftrained. The windows are better to be tolerably large than fo{mall as they are commonly made, and the fathes placed nearer the outfides of the walls; for it is evidently a miftake that they are better preferved from the effects of the weather by having them fet fo much within the wall as is ufually the cafe, as the wet cannot be fo readily dried up. By not properly attending to thefe circumftances, the ap- pearance of houfes of this kind are frequently rendered gloomy, and unpleafant..[ft will alfo be of great adv antage in refpect to health and cleanlinefs, tohave the ground- floors raifed fixteen or eighteen inches above the furface of the ground.. The kind of roof fhould be determined by the expence of materials and aa er ene cumitances; but hip-roofs, with vents within the buildings, as being cheap} are, AG Farm Buildings.—Baris- probably, in general to be preferred to thofe where gable ends are had recourfe to. It is juftly obferved by a late author, that hip roofs require no more materials, while gable-ends caufe more expence of building, and an unneceflary accumulation of weight upon the end walls; and that vents made within-fide of the houfe are not only lefs liable to{moke than when in an outfide wall, but contribute much to keep the houfe warm, by attmg in fome manner as flues, and diffufing heat more or lefs throughout the whole houfe*. The thicknefs of walls, as well as many other circuntftances, muft depend on the eafe and convenience of procuring materials: where rough ftone walls are made, the thicknefs may be about eighteen inches or two feet; but where the{tones are good and properly formed for building with, or where bricks are employed, they nay be made much thinner; it fhould, however, be remembered, that when they ere too thin, they are readily penetrated by the heat of the fun in fummer, and by cold in winter. Such houfes ought, therefore, always to be built of fuch a thicknefs as to prevent the effects of thefe as much as poffible. In the conftruéting of houfes for the purpofes of farming, it is evident that confide- rable latitude muft be given, but, as architectural ornaments are not much wanted, the principal points to be attended to would feem to be thofe of providing fufficient conveniences without incurring great expence. Such buildings fhould be cheap and fimple in their form, and have a regularity of appearance. BARNS. IT is obvious from what has been already advanced, that the fize and con- ftruction of barns muft be varied in fome meafure, according to the cuftoms and fitua- tions of the places where they are to be ere€ted. Where thrafhing machines, and the practice of ftacking, are properly held ineftimation, largebarns ate quite unneceffary; but on fmall farms, and where a preference is given to the ufe of the flail, and the ftoring of the crops in barns inftead of ftacks, they fhould be of confiderably larger dimenfions, in order, not only to admit the neceflary quantity of grain to be ‘depofited in them, but to allow fufficient room for the free ufe of the flail. In fuch cafes they fhould not, perhaps, be lefs than eighteen or twenty feet wide, with height and length proportioned to the quantity of materials that are to be ttowed. Air fhould likewife be pretty freely admitted into them on different fides by means of flides or other contrivances, The conftruction of the floors fhould be par- * Beatfon’s Paper in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I. more on the made, nes are 1, they en they and by fuch a onfide- vanted, ficient - cheap d con- d fitua- and the eflary; and the y larger to be In fuch height ae means be pale Farm Buildings. Barns. Ay ticularly attended to, in order that they may be firm and dry: the firft purpofe is. probably beft obtained by making them of good oak plank; floors formed of clay, and other fubftances of a fimilar kind, being liable to crack and be broken up by the different operations that are performed upon them. When floors are made with planks, it is a good method to lay them upon a foundation of bricks, and unite the different planks by ploughing and tonguing. In this way floors are made more fecure, and freer from damps, than where they are nailed down to fleepers. The fize of the thrafhing-floors of barns muft vary according to circumftances; but twelve feet by eighteen would feem in general to be a good proportion. It has been obferved to me by an experienced agriculturift, that next to oak planks, and nearly equal for thrafhing floors, are bricks made of good tempered clay well burned,. made four inches thick, and laid edgeways with well-beaten mortar. The addition of flues and floors for the purpofe of drying might alfo be fometimes conveniently employed, and would frequently be found advantageous in moift and damp feafons. Where the fituation of the ground and other circumftances will permit, cow- houfes and other farm offices may be provided on the ground-floors, the barns, hay- chambers,&c. being above. The advantages of this mode of conftruction are, that it faves much expence in buildings, and occupies but little room, while the grain is in lefs danger of being{poiled by the introduétion of dirt or other hurtful fubftances- from the farm-yard, and more fecure from the depredations of hogs, poultry,&c. Chamber barn-floors are alfo faid to be more convenient and eafy for thrafhing upon. Thefe kinds of barns can only, however, be adapted to{mall farms, and then per- haps may often be faid to be attended with inconvenience. In whatever manner thofe barns are built that are intended for containing large guantities. of different crops, they fhould conftantly be provided with convenient pitching holes for houfing them at, as by this means the danger of injuring the floors by heavy carriages being drawn upon them, is avoided, and there is not any neceflity for thofe large and expenfive doors that have been in common ule: little injury will, however, be done to the floors by drawing the loads of grain upon them, when they are kept well littered with ftraw; and a man will unload nearly two loads of grain, when drawn into the barn and unloaded upon the mow, while he could unload one at a pitch-hole, GRANARIES, THe great objet in thefe buildings being the prefervation of a large quantity of grain I a narrow compafs, they fhould not only be ftrongly built, but be provided v4 Milano(anne Farm Puildings.—Granaries. t a De ‘ vt 1.; aa noe SOE ae Hie with a great extent of flooring on which the corn may be fpread; and as frequent firing or turning is nece! ffary for the fafety of the grain, it 1s obvioufly of much {i importance to have them fo contrived, that a gt dh of the manual labour attend- rea ‘no fuch operations may be avoided. This 1 Cae in fome cafes, by having them aA oO uc 1:< Q floy 4} 1S conftruéted with different floors placed in fuch ¢ direCtions that the corn has a tendency to the centre, and is let out by means of‘fiding fhutters; in others the fame advantage is gained bya number of hoppers, fituated in fuch a way as to allow of the grain being moved by merely drawing a flider at the bottom of the granary. Sufficient ventilation, which is highly neceffary in thefe buildings, is,infome inftances, provided by having{mall windows f{tronely latticed and covered with wire, as well as ftout fhutters clofe to the ceilings, and in others a free circulation of air is given by means of a number of air-holes and fpouts,-difpofed in horizontal pofitions acrofs the buildings. Where it is neceflary that the air fhould likewife pafs upwards, that dire€tion may be readily given it by having a ventilator on the top of the granary. The moft convenient form for buildings of this fort is probably that of a{quare, the fize of which may be about fourteen feet.‘They fhould when built feparately ftand on a fufficient number; ftrong pofts, or pillars of ftone, about four or fix feet above the furface of the ground, having very{trong wooden frames, the infides of which mutt be filled up with bricks. The girders, joifts, and flooring, fhould be firm and ftrong, that they may not give way by the great weight of the grain.‘The whole of the infide is rendered the moft complete, by being lined with dry oak, or good deal boards, clofely jointed together, and the outfide covered over with ftrong wea~ ther-boarding, well nailed to the timber-work of the frarne, and properly payed over with pitch or tar-varnith. But in conftru€ting granaries where the accommodation of the farm is the only object, it is quiteunneceflary to pay attention to all thefe circumftances, as a large quan- tity of thrafhed grain is feldom kept. Neither the fame ftrength or expence of building ds required as for thofe in which large fupplies of corn are depofited. It is proper, how-= ever, in moft cafes, that a place of fafety for corn fufficient for the reception of one half of the annual produce of the farm fhould be provided. Where the cuftom of houfing grain prevails, there is feldom room enough left for erecting a granary within the barn; but where that practice is not regarded, and efpecially where there is a thrafhing-machine, the beft and moft convenient fituation for it is the barn; proper tackle and conveniences for hoifting a the corn being .provided. Mary ALial\, ances, : well piven acrofs > that ary. e, the ftand above which n and whole r good is Wea- d over e only quan- ilding : how- Farm-Buildings.—Stables. 49 STABLES. In the conftruétion and fitting up of ftables for farm-horfes, it is not neceffary to attend fo particularly to elegance, as in thofe which are intended for the reception of horfes of other defcriptions. It is, perhaps, fuflicient to provide them com- fortable and convenient habitations; working horfes fhould not, however, be kept in fuch low dirty hovels as they frequently are, as nothing tends fo much to the keep- ing of thefe animals in health, as their having dry, clean, and well ventilated ftables. They fhould, therefore, be conftructed in fuch a manner as to keep out the fevere cold of winter, and the intenfe heat of fummer, and be provided with proper drains for conveying away every kind of moifture and naftinefs. The number and fize of the windows fhould be proportioned to the extent of the ftable, and be fo contrived as to open and fhut at pleafure. When it is neceflary to fave expence, fhutters may be adapted to, and fufpended in the windows by iron-pins, on which they may be turned as occafion requires. In the contriving of racks and mangers, regard fhould be had to economy and convenience. The common and too general mode of making them extend quite acrofs the upper end of the ftall, is not only a bad, but by no means a cheap method of conftructing them. Befides, in order to fave trouble, fervants are extremely apt to{tuff racks full of hay, however large they may be; from which various bad confequences proceed, and much hay is wafted and deftroyed by being either pulled down and mixed with the litter, or trodden under the feet of the horfes. The pernicious effects refulting from the pra¢tice of fuffering horfes to be conti- nually ftuffing themfelves with hay, are well known to thofe who are acquainted with the proper management of fuch animals, under whofe direCtions they are never allowed to have much hay in their racks atatime.‘here is alfo another difadvantage in this plan of fitting up ftalls, efpecially to farmers, as it ought to be their object to preferve every thing;—the hay-feeds are totally loit, which if good, and carefully fecured, might be of great utility and value. By the racks having fo much inclina- tion outwards, the feeds are alfo extremely apt to fall into the horfes’ ears and eyes, which often produce difagreeable effe€ts. From thefe confiderations it would feem that racks fhould have a more perpendicular direction than is commonly given them, not having a fpace of more than fourteen or fixteen inches from the wall; the bottom fhould alfo be fparred, in order to let the feeds fall down below, whence they may be removed by a fliding fhutter or fmall door. The fame advantages may H 50 Farm-Buildings.—Stables alfo be obtained by leaving niches in the walls for the racks, on which plan the{pars will be equal with the infides of the walls. If the niches and racks be made in the middle of the ftalls, two feet, or two feet and a half wide, will in moft cafes be fufficient; they fhould, however, be carried down low enough to admit of-a fmall box or drawer being placed underthem, for the reception of the hay-feeds. Racks of this fort may likewife be placed in the corners of the ftalls, and be made in-fuch a way as. that one nich may ferve two ftalls. They may alfo be placed in the angles: of the ftalls, without having any nich, and be made of a femicircular form. But in whatever way they are made, there fhould conttantly be a divifion betwixt them, which is probably beft made of deal, By this means the farmer will be able to know, with precifion, what each horfe eats, which cannot be done in any other way. Where the racks are put in the corners of the ftalls, it may, perhaps, be. more advantage- ous to have them{ftraight than circular; but in whichever way they are formed, the farmer fhould always. have a hatch fixed for each ftall, as by that means a great deal of time may be faved in feeding his horfes. It is equally unneceflary in the making of the manger to have it the fame width of the ftall; as a box or drawer fixteen or eighteen inches long, and twelve or fourteen inches wide, will anfwer every purpofe. It fhould be fo contrived that it may be readily taken out and cleaned whenever it is fouled or becomes furred with dirt. With the fixed mangers this can never be done, however they may be daubed by the faliva iffuing from the horfe’s mouth. during the time: of feeding, or the difcharges pro- ceeding from his noftrils when labouring under: colds, or other more dangerous diforders. There is another method of making ftalls, which, as being cheaper and more economical, deferves to be noticed: on this plan the ftable has neither racks nor mangers; the head of the{tall is boarded about three feet from the ground, having a.{pace of about two feet from the wall, in which the hay is to be depofited, the horfe pulling his hay from below, inftead of drawing it from above; which is not only more natural, but prevents the wafte of hay, much of which drops down and is loft when the horfe eats from a rack; but, by this. method, whatever falls is again received among that;from which it was taken. But even on this conftruétion it will be neceffary to have the bottom f{parred, within eight or, ten inches of the ground, and a box, hopper, or hay-manger, and drawer, fo contrived as to receive the feeds of the hay: where there are double ftalls the boxes may be divided in the middle. Single falls, where they can be conveniently, made, fhould, however, always be preferred.as more fafe. {mall Racks n-fuch ale les Sut in them, now, Vhere ntage- d, the it deal th of rteen adily h the faliva pro. eLOUs more : nor ving the not and gain will nd, eds dle. s be Farm-Buildings.—— Stables. 51 Paving of ftables is a matter of fome importance, though it has been but little attended to: whether the ftall fhould have a flight declivity or be perfe@ly level, has not, perhaps, yet been fully determined. It would feem, however, to be more natural and eafy for thefe animals to ftand and reft themfelves on a level furface, than on one that is floping, as it is obvious that the tendons, or finews of the paftern joints, muft be kept more upon the ftretch in the latter, than the former cafe. The chief difficulty in refped to a level ftall has been the conveying away of the moiture. This may, however, be well accomplifhed by paving the ftall quite level, and only leaving a fmall drain in the middle, extending within two or three feet of the upper end of the ftall. It thould not be more than feven or eight inches wide at top, forming an angle at the bottom. The depth of that end neareft the head of the ftall fhould not be more than three or four inches deep, having as much flope as can be conveniently given it backwards, in order that it may carry the moifture off quickly to the main drain, into which all the ftall-drains fhould empty themfelves. The fmall ftall-drains fhould be covered with a piéce of good ftrong oak-plank, in which a great number of holes are bored, and which is fo faftened as to admit of its being readily raifed up and let down: by this means the drains may be wafhed and kept clean and{weet. Main draims may be made at the end of the ftalls, or in any other convenient fitua- tion, for carrying off the moifture into the general refervoir. If they are placed at the bottom of the ftalls, they fhould not be clofer to the ftalls than two feet, in order that the{tale of mares may get readily into them, which would not be the cafe if they were nearer, unlefs the pavement behind the ftalls were made to decline a little towards them. Thefe drains need not be more than feven or eight inches wide at the top, but they fhould be covered with plank, in which holes are per- forated for conveying away the moifture.| In order to fave the expence of making main drains, a fhallow open drain may be made in the common way, with which the ftall drains may communicate by means of very{mall grates at the ends. The pavement or floors of the ftalls fhould havé a very fight declination from their fides towards the drains, to prevent any moifture ftanding on them;. an inch, or am inch and half will, however, be quite fufficient. From having ftalls conftrued in this way, feveral advantages will be gained; the horfes, by ftanding on a level, will be lefs liable to diforders in the feet and’ heels, and from the great declivity of the drains the urine will be more readily carried away, and not be fuffered to fpread; and, of courfe, much litter be faved, which is a matter of confiderable importance where ftraw is fcarce. 52 Farm Buildings.—Cow-Houfes and Feeding-Houfcs. The fizes of ftalls are different, according to circumf{tances; but four feet and a half are the leaft they fhould ever be made; five feet is much better. The divifions between them fhould be high, fo that{trange horfes may not fee each other. And where ftallions are kept, or young horfes required to be left loote in a ftall, they fhould be fo inclofed as to be incapable of doing mifchief. For thefe purpofes, one or more ftalls may be fparred to the top, or doors provided, which may be hung to the back pofts of the ftable. Where this laft method is followed, the ftalls ferve extremely well for keeping different mares and their foals feparate from others. Either in the ftables, or very contiguous to them, a place fhould always be provided for the reception of harnefs and other articles of the fame kind; and likewife a fuitable and well-fecured place for a corn-bin. If the{table be fimall, and it is, of courfe, the moft convenient to have the corn-bin in the room above, it fhould be fo conftructed as that the proper feed may be regulated and received from a fpout in the lower part of the ftable. This method faves much time and trouble in going to the bin, meafuring,&c. as well as in many in{tances much corn*. COW-HOUSES ann FEEDING-HOUSES. _ Ass these buildings refemble each other in many refpeéts, they may be defcribed under the fame head. In fome cow-houfes there are, however, an addition of calf- pens, and flight differences in the conftruction of the ftalls. But although the having calf-pens in the cow-houfe may occafionally fave trouble in carrying milk, it is a plan by no means to be generally adopted, as it caufes much uneafinefs to the cows, and prevents their giving their milk properly, or fufficient in quan- tity. Jt is a much preferable method to have the calves fo placed, or at fuch a diftance, that the cows cannot be difturbed by their cries, as by thefe means the cows will not only much fooner forget their calves, but feed the better, and afford a larger fupply of milk. Cow-houfes, or feeding-houfes, by a very little management in building them, may be fo contrived as to fuit either purpofe, as neceflity may require. They may either be made in the form of fingle or double fheds, but the latter is probably the better method, as by that means a great number of cattle may be well accom- modated at a trifling expence of building. The principal points to be attended to in conftructing thefe buildings are, that they be capable of free and eafy ventilation; that they require little labour in adminiftering the food and clearing away the excrement; * Communications to the Board of Agriculture vol. da Ons \nd hey one ung erve 1ded fe a 8, of be fo ut mn Ong Farm Be ae fo and Feeding-Houfes. 53 and that the ftalls be fo contrived as to keep the cattle perfetly dry, airy, and cool, and have convenient and fuitable drains and refervoirs for the reception of urine and dung. Thofe who have had much experience in the management of cows, know that a free circulation of air is as highly neceflary in thefe houfes as in ftables. In low and clofe buildings, where a great number of cows are put together, they are extremely hable to be difordered by the condenfed perfpiration and fumes arifing from their refpiration, as well as from the cold proceeding from the quick evaporation that takes places in fuch cafes. In this way cattle are frequently prevented from fattening fo expeditioufly as they otherwife would do. Where many cattle are together, the fheds in which they are kept would, perhaps, be beft quite open behind them, except for feeding cattle, which are well known to thrive fafter when kept rather warmer. When more free ventilation is neceflary, which is fhown by the wetnefs of the timbers above, it is probably the beft way to procure it by making additional. air- holes in the roofs or other convenient places of the buildings. Where there are gable-ends, windows may be made high up in them, with moveable boards fo con- trived that they can be opened or fhut as occafion may require. By thefe means advantages are gained, not only in refpeé to the health and fattening of the animals, but the duration of the building itfelf; for wood which is frequently wetted and dried in the way we have juft noticed, decays with aftonifhing rapidity. As any one the leaft acquainted with the animal economy muft know that it is utterly impoflible for fuch cattle as are kept in a ftate of conftant exceflive perf{pi- ration to feed well, and confequently get fat with expedition, which are the circum- {tances on which the farmer’s profit and advantage greatly depend, more attention fhould certainly be paid to thefe matters. An extenfive feeder in one of the mid- land diftricts, however, affures us that he has, from long experience, always found fuch cattle as feed the quickeft, whether within doors or without, to be thofe which are generally in a ftate of moderate perfpiration. In regard to the moft convenient plan of conftruction for faving expence in Jabour, and for allowing of the moft ready and expeditious mode of clearing away the dirt and naftinefs which is produced, there are many things to be attended to, but chiefly thofe of the form and arrangemient of the internal parts. It is a very common method to have pofts placed along the fides of the wall at the diftance of about three feet from each other, to which the cattle are faltened; a{pace of three or four feet being left next the wall for the reception of the food. This 54 Farm Buildings.—Cow-Houfes and Feeding-Houfes. is, however, a very injudicious method, becaufe the feeder is conftantly under the neceflity of going among the cattle in order to give them their food; except, in- deed, where they are fed from the outfides of the building, which is both an in- convenient and tedious method of proceeding. In feeding from without too, through holes made on purpofe, there are many objections. At fome periods, as in rainy weather, and when there is a great fall of{now, it will be almoft impof_i- ble to give them their provender. The moft eafy method to avoid thefe inconveniences in fingle fheds, is to leave a fufficient fpace before the heads of the cattle for the feeder to go, with fuch vehicles as contain the food, by which means he will be enabled to diftribute it with facility. In double-fheds, which are unqueftionably the moft proper, economical, and conve- nient buildings, the fame advantages are obtained by making the cattle to face one another, and leaving a fpace of about four feet as a paflage for the perfon who feeds them. By this arrangement a lefs extent of building is neceflary, and much lefs deftru@tion of fodder incurred, efpecially where a loft is provided in the roof for depofiting the provender, and other purpofes. This fhould alfo be done in the fingle fheds, and the eafieft mode is that of having covers or doors opening by means of hinges without, by which the different articles of food may at once be thrown in from the cart or waggon. In thefe cafes the fheds ought, perhaps, to be a little higher than they are commonly made, and the infide be covered above the cattle with boards. But double-fheds, a very intelligent feeder aflures me, are not only the moft improper and inconvenient, but the leaft economical, and moft expenfive in their conftruction; being attended with many inconveniences, and no advantage, that he knows of, except that of faving a little, and but a little, room. Sheds for cattle fhould never, he thinks, have lofts over them, as by that means the cattle are kept too warm and clofe; and unlefs the floor over them is quite clofe, which is ftill worle for the cattle, the fodder that is laid there is frequently fpoiled by their breath. He would always recommend fingle-{heds open behind, about twelve feet within, including a gang-way of two feet before the heads of the cattle, for the pur- pofe of feeding them: three feet, or three feet two inches, he has always found fufficient fpace for each beaft, except they be very large indeed. It is alfo very con- venient, he fays, to have a fmall room, about the middle of the fide of the fhed, with a door into the gang-way, for the purpofe of getting the hay into from the ftacks, which fhould be placed as near thereto as poflible. The keeping of cattle clean, dry, and free from difagreeable effluvia, is not only a bufinefs which demands much attention, in fo far as it tends to preferve their health, but which interefts the farmer in a high degree, from its taking up much the ) ie 0 iN . t00 ds, as Np offi. ) eave 2 hicles cility, onve- ce one 0 feeds ch lefs oof for in the means hrown a little e cattle ot only penfive antage, eds for tle are is{till ] their e feet le pul- found ‘V con- {hed, m the t only much Farm-Buidings.——Stables—-Calf- Pens. 55 time that might be otherwife employed. It is therefore of the greateft importance to have thefe kinds of buildings fo contrived ee sheep may require as little labour as poffible in removing dung,&c._ Thefe things fhould, therefore, particularly occupy the minds of perfons employed‘in making fuch e ees Where, from fituation and other circumitances, a convenient place ca oe e provided behind the cattle, for depofit- ing the dung at once, it will be by far the beft way, as much labour and expence in wheeling,&c. will b ate and the dune er not be in } Apu J e fa jured by it. Befides it will be prevented trom being f{cattered about the farm-yard, by which confiderable lofs is often fuftained. The proper conftruction and paving of flalls tend very materially to render the cleaning of cattle eafy and expeditious; though in fome places ftalls are{carcely eretet at all; the cattle either not being bound, or merely bound to ftakes without any divifions being made betwixt them, while in others they are confined feparately in narrow ftalls by rails, or the ftalls are made with only fhort divifions. Double-ftalls properly divided, and boarded fufficiently high to prevent the cattle from looking over them, are, in general, to be preferred; but ftails of this kind are certainly more expenfive, and in many inftances unneceflary. In feeding-houfes each ftake fhould have a box or trough for meat, and in the middle a conveni- ence for holding water, in order to ferve the beafts on each fide, which, in many inftances, may be filled by means of a pipe from a ciftern, or other place where water is kept.‘Thefe boxes or troughs may be made of either wood or ftone, and be joined together or feparate, as may be thought the moft convenient. Above thefe troughs a perpendicular rack: fhould be placed for containing hay, ftraw,&c. In paving the ftalls, the fame direCtions fhould be attended to as in that of{tables; for where cow-ftalls are paved with too great a declination, the animals always{tand in a very uneafy and uncomfortable manner, which is very prejudicial to their be- coming fat, or feeding well.; Proper drains and refervoirs for the reception of urine,&c. are alfo of‘aye reateft confequence, as without them it is utterly impoflible to preferve the anin sti lat are kept in fuch houfes, fo fufficiently clean and fweet as is neceflary. Befides the moifture or juice, which is continually iffuing from dung and other fubftances in‘a {tate of diffolution, muft be received and detained in them, or the farmer will fuftain confiderable lofs in point of manure. CALF-PENS: In the conftrudtion of calf-pens there are a few things that ought be kept in \ 56 Farm- Buildings.—Cal/-Pens— Dairies. the mind of the builder. Though they fhould not be fituated in the cow-houfe, they ought not to be at an inconvenient diftance from it. Great attention fhould likewife be paid in laying the floors, as it is of much importance in rearing fuch animals to keep them dry and warm. Calves, when intended for rearing, fhould always be kept dry andairy, and rather cool, or at leaft not over warm. By laying fpars about two inches broad upon joifts, at the diftance of two inches from each other, fo as te raife the floors two or three feet from the ground, according to fituation, they will not only be kept perfeétly dry, as the moifture will be drained off, but frefh air will be admitted under the floor, by which means the noxious unplea- fant fmells too frequently met with in calf-houfes, will be removed. It would alfo be a good practice to have ftalls or divifions in the calf-pens, fo that each calf might be kept feparate, by which means they would be much fooner fattened, and more fecure from mifchief. Partitions, if about three feet high, and made of any thin light wood, might be fo contrived as to be moveable at pleafure, and capable of being increafed or diminifhed according to circumftances. In thefe pens,{mall round troughs may be placed for the reception of milk, where the calves are intended for rearing, and flight racks for a little hay in the higher parts of them. By thefe contrivances the food would be more equally, and more certainly adminiftered to thefe animals*. Where great numbers of calves are rearing at the fame time, con- trivances might be adapted for fupplying all the different veffels at once, and with certain quantities of food, but this is not generally neceflary. DAIRIES. Tue advantages of good dairy management are, in common,{fo great, that every farm fhould have fuitable accommodations for carrying it on ina degree proportioned to their kind and extent. Dairies are of three different kinds: the butter, the cheefe, and the milk dairy. The laft is principally in ufe near large towns, where the milk is carried as foon as pofflible to be fold. A good butter-dairy fhould have three apartments: a milk-houfe; a churning-houfe, in which there fhould be a proper boiler, and other conveniences for fcalding and wafhing the veflels; and a place for keeping them in, as well as for drying them, when they cannot be put out of doors. The cheefe-dairy fhould alfo confift of the fame number of rooms, namely, the milk-houfe, the fcalding and prefling houfe, and the falting-houfe. The cheefe-room * Beatfon in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I. ufe, ould fuch hould aying 1 each Ing to od off, nplea. Ifo be ht be fecure n light ble of fall tended ; thefe red to >, CON- \d with t every rtioned cheele, 1e milk e three proper place ut out v Farm Buildings—Dairies,| iy > fs commonly at a diftance, but it might be very conveniently made over the dairy. For, the milk-dairy, a good milk-houfe, and a convenient place for fcalding,. clean. ing, and keeping the utenfils in, that they may be{weet, are only neceflary. As a proper temperature of the air is of very great importance, the fituation of the dairy fhould be fuch as that it may not be expofed too much to the heat of the fun in fummer, or the coldnefs of the air in winter. The inconveniences ener the latter being, however, more eafily removed than thofe of the former, a northern expofure fhould be preferred, and one which is covered as much as poifible by the fhade of trees or houfes. If fituated fo that the fun has no influence on any part 5] t | of it, it is the better. Where no rooms are made above the rc iry, the covering may be of thatch placed over tiles; but it is better to have rooms above, in which cafe the nature of the covering is not of fo much confequence. Thatch covering, in fuch cafes, is however certainly the beft, as being the warmeft in winter, and cooleft in a but tiles in thefe circumftances are unneceflary, and they pre- vent the thatch from being properly faftened to the roof, and by that means to be liable to be blown off. The thatch fhould be properly parged with lime-mortar on the infide, to prevent any duft falling upon the milk. Stone walls are always to be preferred in fuch buildings to brick, as being lefs permeable to the heat of fummer, and the coldnefs of winter. In regard to the proper height of the ceilings of dairies, different opinions are maintained. Eight feet, or eight feet and a half, would feem to be a fuflicient height for every purpofe. But of whatever height the ceiling of the dairy be made, the windows fhould always reach to the top, in order to prevent the ftagnation of air near it, and be latticed, with flight frames adapted to them, on which gauze muft be {tretched, to permit a free circulation of air, and at the fame time keep out flies, and other animals of the fame kind. Free-ftone flags are the moft fuitable for floors. They fhould be made quite {mooth, and well jointed; but where thefe cannot be had, or are too expenfive, {quare paving bricks, well laid and jointed, may anfwer tolerably well. Marble and other expenfive fubftances are fometimes employed, but they come much too high to be ufed in common dairies; but of whatever materials the floor may be compofed, it fhould always be laid in fuch a manner as to decline towards the middle, or fome other more convenient part, for taking off the water with which it may be wafhed or flooded in hot feafons. There fhould be a well, with a pump, for this and other purpofes, either in the dairy, or as near to it as poflible. If the dairy be fmall, it will be fufficient to have it fitted up with neat fhelves, for the reception of the veflels that contain the milk; but where it is ona large and 58 Farm- Buildings.—Duiries. extenfive fcale, it may be fitted up with fuch cifterns or coolers as are fufficient to contain a meal’s milk, when not allowed to be deeper than three inches.“They may be lined with lead, or made of marble or flate, where it is to be had; excellent ones are made by Mr. Hind, at the Slate Pits, at Swithland, near Leicefter, a laft fort of material; but from the former there will be little danger, if they be kept fufficiently clean*. Thefe coolers fhould be furnifhed with a plug at the bottom, and a cock to let out the milk, or the water when they are wafhed. At the backs of them, too, there fhould be cecks for the purpofe of letting in water to clean them with. A large cock ought likewife to be placed in fome convenient part of the dairy for letting water upon the floor when it is neceflary to clean it, and cool it in hot feafons. With a view to afford a neceflary degree of heat in the winter feafon, flues may be made to ee from the fires either in the churning-room, or the place where the utenfils are dried and kept in proper condition. Thefe flues ought to be conftructed in fuch a manner that the heat may be regulated as occafion requires, or wholly {topped if neceflary. Both the walls and the ceiling fhould be fo plaftered that there may be no cracks or crevices for the lodging of duft or infects. Sometimes a part or the whole of the wall above the coolers is fet with fmall glazed Dutch tiles, which gives the dairy a neat and clean appearance. The room for churning in fhould be as near as poflible to the milk-houfe, and be provided with a fire-place and furnace, and alfo a proper boiler for heating water to icald the different veflels, as well as other purpofes. It is an additional convenience if a pump can be had, with fuitable contrivances to it for filling and emptying the boiler. The place in which the utenfils are kept fhould likewife have a{mall fire-place in it, in order that they may be well dried, in cafe they cannot be put out into the open air, which is always the beft method,{tone fhelves being placed on the outfide for fuch purpofes. But{trips of wood placed in this direction=== of ftone fhelves would probably be much lefs expenfive, and the veflels be found to dry much bet- ter upon, them. The cream may be put into this room when the weather is cold, or juft before it is churned, which is frequently found to be a good pragtice. In all the chimneys the greateft care muft be taken to prevent their fmoking, as when that 459 is the cafe, it is highly prejudicial to the milk and cream, as well as the utenfils of the dairy. For the cheefe-dairy, the milk-houfe fhould be near! y on the fame conftrudtion with * Very good coolers might probably be made from the beautiful black flate lately found on the eftate of 1° Des ¥: x= AV O4 a0 2>\ Lord Penrhyn, in Wales, as it may be raifed to any thickne{s, and is capable of receiving a polifh nearly equal to marble, holly racks of the ry a nd be ter to nience ig the > init, n alr, -fuch elves ) bet- 1] the that ils of rwith Parm-Buildings.—Sheds. 59 that which has been juft deferibed; all the milk being feldom made into cheefe, there may be a neceflity for coolers. Where the contrary is the cafe, it may be more convenient to have fhelves for the milk veffels, by which means they will always be at hand for carrying milk to the cheefe-tubs, or copper when it is to be made warm. The prefling or f{calding room may be made on the fame plan as the churning- room defcribed above; only it muft be provided with a good cheefe-prefs, which is much more handy than having it at a diftance, as is often the cafe. It would, perhaps, be{till more convenient to have one room large enough to ferve for the feveral purpofes of prefling, fealding, and falting houfe. The falting-room fhould be laid with flags, and made fo as to readily carry off the water when it is wafhed out. It fhould alfo be provided with a{trong table or fhelf, for laying and turning the cheefe upon, until they are in a proper condition for being put into the cheefe-room. A convenient place fhould likewife be made near to, or in, the houfe for containing fmall fand, for the purpofe of{couring the dairy fhelves and utenfils. The cheefe-room may be made over the dairy, but it is moft commonly made above the cow-houfe or kitchen, the warmth of fuch places being fuppofed to pro- mote the ripening of the cheefes*. FARM-SHE DS. Turse buildings are often extremely convenient and proper for various purpofes of the farm.‘They are cheap and fimple in their conftruction, and erected without much labour. Places of this kind are moft commonly made fo as to lean to and reft again{t the walls, or other parts of buildings, the eafing or lower part being fup- ported by a flight wall, pofts of wood, or ftone pillars. Frequently, too, the whole of their roofs is fuftained by pofts or pillars. Thefe fheds are of much utility for preferving all the larger forts of farming implements from the effects of the weather, as well as for the protection of young animals of different kinds, fuch as horfes, cattle, fheep,&c, when they are turned loofe in the farm-yard.. They might alfo be fo contrived as to admit of ftowing large quantities of different kinds of hay, when brought from the ftack for the ufe of the cattle; by which it would be extremely ready and near at hand for foddering with; but not for depofiting it in when firit brought from the field, as in fuch cafe it would be‘much lefs valuable. They may alfo be applied to various other ufes, which abundantly fhews their importance in the economy of farm-buildings. * Beatfon in Commnnications to the Board of Agrienlture, vol. I. 60 Farm-Buildings.—Strav-Houfes—Root-Houfes—Poultry-Houfess STRAW-HOUSES. Were the practice of ftacking ftraw prevails, thefe houfes are not fo effentially abeuirses' it is, however, always advifable to have fome place or other in which a fmall quantity can be depofited for the daily fupply of different animals, as by this means much time, as well as ftraw, will be faved, and there will be much lefs diri é and litter about the yard. RCOT-HOUSES. WHERE a number of cows or cattle of any kind are fed on winter roots and vege- tables, fuch as carrots, turnips, potatoes, cabbages,&c. it is highly neceflary to have houfes of this fort, in which net may be placed and kept near at hand, when the feafon is bad, for the daily fupply of the cattle. But fome vegetables, fuch as cab- bages, will not bear to be laid up in houfes in any confiderable quantities, or for any confiderable length of time, as they are apt to run quickly into the ftate of fermen- tation, and become putrid. POULTRY-HOUSES. Inevery cafe where any confiderable number of poultry are kept, a place fhould be provided for coifining them in. This is particularly neceflary for the farmer, as he may otherwife not only fuftain confiderable injury by their depredations, but lofe much. of the profit arifing from them, by their being frequently killed, and their eggs loft in the hedges and other places. As a free and uninterrupted circulation of air is highly neceflary to the prefervation of the health and feeding of poultry, they fhould not be cooped up in dark reftri€ted hovels,‘but have a large fuitable place con- firucted entirely for their ufe. It is not, perhaps,-yet well afcertained, whether differ- ent forts of poultry do better when kept feparate and diftin® or not, though it would feem to be the cafe, as the economy.and habits of each are different. Where fufficient room can, therefore, be fpared, it will be the propereft method to have the entrances, as wellas the refting and breeding places of each fort, diftin€, from the reft; though the whole may be contrived fo as to be under the fame roof, and con- fequently be fed from the fame place, which will fave time and trouble. If room can be had, there fhould likewife be a yard proportioned to the number provided-for the Farm: Buildings. Hog-Sties. 61 whole ftock, which fhould be fenced in, in fuch a way as to prevent their flying over, or getting through, and which fhoul communicate with the poultry-houfe, and be well fupplied with water. If a pond or ftream of water can be had, it is fo much the better. By thefe contrivances it will be found that poultry of all kinds may not only be bred and reared with great facility, but be kept more free from dileafe and accidents. HOG-STIES. In the conftruction of thefe, little more is required than that they be made fuffici- ently dry and warm, and that fall yards or areas be provided for the holding of troughs, and the reception of the food. It is probably the beft and cheapeft method to make them with fhed-roofs, and neither very high nor wide; fix or feven feet wide is quite fufficient for a divifion.‘There ought to be many of thefe divifions, in order to fuit different purpofes, and contain different forts of hogs. Some fhould be made for fows when with the boar, others for brood hogs, and for farrowing, weaning the young pigs, and fattening in,&c. As hogs are apt to flop over and{pill a part of their food, by getting their feet into the troughs, there fhould be a thin piece of board nailed on the back part of the troughs, fo as to come forward, in a way to only juft admit their heads; and they fhould have a fufficient number of divifions, each rifing a little above the top of the trough. Many other forts of troughs may likewife be eafily contrived for prevent- ing the wafte of food, and it may be done by placing them in the divifions of the yards.; It would be of great advantage to have conveyances for water, fuch as open{pouts for inftance, paffing through the fties, in order that they may be frequently wafhed and kept clean, and that the hogs may drink when neceflary. In the conftruction of thefe buildings, care fhould likewife be taken that the ani- mals be fed conveniently, and without going among them. Wherea few fwine are merely kept for family ufe, they may, if fituation will admit, be fed with great eafe and facility, by having holes, and troughs placed in the walls of the back kitchen of the farm-houfe. By this contrivance much ftuff, which would otherwife pro- bably be loft, may be conveyed to them. Where a great number of hogs are con{tantly kept, it may be advantageous to have a furnace and copper near to the fties for preparing their food. 62£arm-Buildings—Coal and Wood Houfés—aW ork-Shops—Tool-Hou/fes. COAL anv IVOOD HOUSES. Firinc being every-where an article of confiderable expence, it is neceffary that a proper and convenient place fhould be provided for it. Houfes or yards for this purpofe have moft commonly been made without roofs or other coverings, but as coals are much injured by expofure to the fun and weather, they ought always to be well covered. They are more durable, however, when-made wet before they are ufed. Where large quantities are confumed, the large and fmall coal fhould be put feparately; and places made for putting cinders, and fuch wood as has been broken up: if peat or wood only be ufed, thefe houfes fhould be much larger and befter fecured in the roofs. Thefe places fhould always be fituated as conveniently as poflible for the kitchen.| WORK-SHOPS. Wuere the farm is extenfive, a place of this fort is extremely ufeful and conve- aient, for making and repairing different kinds of tools, as well as for preferving tnaterials ready feafoned and prepared for the purpofe of conftructing or mending ploughs, harrows, carts, wheels, and other implements of hufbandry. By. this means the farmer is fure of having his timber in proper condition, and always ready to his hand. Thefe fhops fhould always be provided with a good fet of carpenter’s tools, a bench to work upon, a lathe for turning different things, and a con- venient grind-{tone; and a blackfmith’s fhop. may often be neceflary on farms of very confiderable extent. It would likewife be of advantage to have a place for timber, anda faw-pit near at hand.‘The latter might be made under the fame roof with the work-fhop, if con- venient. In the former all forts of wood or timber, and the broken or worn out implements fhould be depofited. TOOL-HOUSES. Tue{maller forts of tools, fuch as{pades, forks, rakes, fcythes,&c.&c. being exceedingly liable to be loft, a place fhould be provided for laying them in when not inufe. Sacks, ropes, twine, nails, and old iron, may alfo be laid up with them. For this purpofe the place need not be large, but it fhould be dry and free from damps. Of this room, the mafter of the farm fhould always keep the key, in order that he may readily know where to find fuch tools, or other articles, as he may want. oken etter ly as LY@- ving \ding y. this ready nter’s - CON; ms of near ‘CONs n out eine n not hem. mM ps- that nit ant. Farm-Buildings.—Store-Rooms—Servants’-Rooms. 63 STORE-ROOMS. Tue farmer, in particular fituations, frequently finds it neceflary to ftore up fome of the produce of his grain; fuch, for inftance, as meal, in order to get a better price for it; he fhould, therefore, be provided with a fuitable ftore or meal room.‘Thefe rooms fhould be as dry as poffible, and perfe&tly fecure from vermin. An upper floor is probably the beft for fuch purpofes, provided the articles can be conveniently and eafily conveyed to it. They ought to be furnithed with ftrong well- made chefts, for holding the meal, or other articles, that may be put into them. If meal, it fhould be well rammed or prefled down, by means of a proper beetle, in order to make it keep{weet and well. FARM SERVANTS’-ROOMS. Wuers farms are extenfive, and, of courfe, many fervants required, efpecially if they be unmarried, proper and convenient accommodations for fleeping, and, where they find their own provifions, for preparing and drefling them in, are not only necei- fary, but highly advantageous both to the farmers and the men; they fave much time, which would otherwife be loft, in going to their meals, and keep them together fober, fteady, and ready for their bufinels. Befides, the men in this way are much more comfortable, and live confiderably cheaper, than when it is the cuftom to go to public-houfes, or other fuch places, for their meals, which is too much the cafe in many of the more fouthern diftri@s of the kingdom, by which their manners often become depraved, and their conftitutiéns enfeebled, by the great ufe of fpirits, and other intoxicating liquors. ‘Thefe inconveniences are, however, the moft effectually provided againft by fuch fervants being provided for, where it can be done, from the tables of théir matters. Where this laft method is followed, the eating-rooms fhould be fo fituated that they may be overlooked with facility; but the lodging-rooms in both cafes are the fafeft, perhaps, when made ina building quite detached and diftin@ from the other houfes and oflices, perfons of this defecription being often extremely negligent of their fires, candles,&c. Whatever fituation may be fixed upon for thefe conveniences, the ground floors fhould always be of ftone or brick, and the upper ones made with plafter, as in fome of the midland counties; or brick, which is eafily and frequently laid. In con- S eae fe: 3 5 64: Farm-Buildings.—servants- Rooms. ftruéting thefe floors, the joifts are laid in the common method, then a ftrong fort of reed is fattened down to them, upon which the plafter is placed. If with brick, the joifts are laid twelve inches apart, and the bricks made to reach from joilt to joift, and joined fides and ends with well-wrought mortar; it might alfo be advif- able to have the ftairs made of the fame materials. In order to fave this laft material, there is, however, fometimes a flight coat of common lime laid on firft, fo as juft to fill up the inequalities; the platter being afterwards fpread about two inches thick upon this, in doing which great expedition mu{t be ufed. Where reeds cannot be procured,{mall thin laths may be employed in their ftead; thefe are, however, more expenfive. In the diftritts where this mode of conftructing floors is practifed, the’plafter is prepared and fold at the kilns for about fix pence the bufhel; and the expence of putting it on, if burnt and prepared, is about five‘pence the{quare yard. The places for the fleeping of fervants may be fo contrived as that feveral perfons may be accommodated in a narrow compafs; this is done by the beds being fixed and placed in double tires one above another, four beds in this way only occupying the room of two on the ufual plan. The approach to the upper beds may be rendered fufficiently eafy and convenient, by having proper{teps or ftairs; and may be made either on the fame fide with the other beds, or on the contrary, as from fituation, and other circumftances, is the moft fuitable. It will however be proper, and even highly neceflary, where fo many perfons fleep in fo fmall a compafs, that the win- dows be pretty large, and fo contrived as to readily admit of a free circulation of pure air*. Befides the buildings and accommodations, which have been already defcribed, there are feveral others that are frequently neceflary both for the convenience of the houfe, and the feeding and management of different kinds of ftock. Thofe of the firft kind are chiefly places for brewing, baking, wafhing, flaughtering animals in,&c. and for keeping pigeons, bees, and other{tock of a fimilar nature. The fituation and conftruétion of many of thefe are, however, not only fo fimple and well underftood, but muft fo frequently depend on particular circumftances, that it is unneceflary to give detailed accounts of them. * Though this method may fave much expence, as well as room, it will certainly be difadvantageous in point of health; for it muft be obvious to every one the leaft converfant with the nature of airs and refpi- ration, that the air of fuch fmall clofe rooms muft quickly be difoxygenated and rendered noxious by the breathing, perfpiration, and heat, of fo many perfons, and that unlefs feafonable fupplies of frefh air be admitted, dangerous confequences may enfue. ail a v o > {quar cribed, e of the ng fixed C | perfons cupyin endered ye made on, and nd even the win lation of of terin v fe) nature. s by the é ple and that it nd refpi- e(h air be qgeous 10 rh - ) 1g us PL. XV Improved Barn. 7 HH Wil AU PLATE AVIC. Barns. [To face Page 64.] Avr ig. 1, is reprefented the plan and elevation of a Double Barn. Fig. 2. The ground plan, a and 6 the thrafhing-floors; ¢ a dotted line, fometimes built fo as to form a pattition. Fig. 3. Is the plan and elevation of an Improved Barn. Fig. 4. The ground plan: e¢ the thrafhing-floor;£ bin or room for thrathed grain; 2 ftairs leading to granary, with place under for roots,&¢.3 d place for tools or other purpofes, fig. 5. Shows the plan and elevation of a large Open Barn. Fig. 6. The ground plan; f the thrathing-floor placed towards one end;& g cow-houfes containing eleven ftalls on each fide; 4 h calf pens with fparred floors; i-adouble ftall, with two fingle ones for four cows;& two ftalls; /a workefhop, root-houfe, or place for keeping implements. The corn in the ftraw is kept above. The large openings in this barn fave much expenfe in building. Fig. 7. Front and end elevation, with plan of a barn, and thrafhing-machine for a three- horfe power. It is contrived to winnow and clean the grain while thrafhing, and may he made to cut chaff,{plit beans, hoift the produce up to the granary, and execute various other forts of work, as grinding, pumping,&c. mnop, Fig. 8. is the{quare for the horse- path, the dotted circle the path. y, Fig. 9. is the upright fhaft in its centre; andz a granary or ftore-room for flraw, hay,&c. over it, At v, fig 8. may be made a communication to afford eafy accefs to the mill whencorn is lodged there for thrathing, The mill-head is ere€ted on a floor about feven or eight feet above the ground floor, to give room for the fanners or winnowing machine below. It is extended the whole breadth of the barn, and about 15 feet or more towards s from the back part of the mill at g by which, and being properly partitioned below, a very neceffary and ufeful divifion, z, may be got for containing the clean corn till drawn up to the granary: the door of this place may be kept locked for fafety.} The fpace ¢ contains the chaff blown from the fannersa door by through the partition to render the communication more ealy and expeditious from the part s where the unthrathed corn is laid: a door might alfo be made in the partition at w, but this is not fo neceflary, as may be feen where the ftraw goes, by ftanding on the thrafhing-mill floor, to which there thould be fteps up att. Ie may be made alfo to rake away the ftraw, and to throw it down to the part ¢, which will fave a perfon raking from the mill. The expenfe if, made to clean the corn and rake away the ftraw only, which in general is fufficient, will be about§0/. exclufive of flooring,&c. If made to hoift up the corn, ta fplit peas or beans, and cut ftraw, from fix to ten pounds more for each of thefe operations. Thefe plans are recommended by Mr. Beatfon, as very ufeful where barns and thrafhing- machines are neceflary. IPT ex STACKING APPARATUS& GRANARY. \\\ i| N\\ TT TTT iii > in nn o.|.) 2 erie Ve | Mi ZZ Wj A777 =| eg WN LZ | l {| \ i rin i i | | i) J PL. xy ———— SS——— PLATE XIX, Stacking Apparatus and Granary. [To face Page 64.| fig. 1. Reprefents a moveable fhed, which, after the work of the day, is drawn forward over the unthatched ftack. Fig, 2. Is a plan of the fame contrivance. 3 Fig. 3. The frame of a moveable flage. 7. 7, iron hooks. Fig. 4. The ftage, to be fixed, by means of the pins /. /, inte the holes of the frame. Chains are faftened on the plates m. m, and from thence put over the hooks 4.#4 Ovo corn into the upper loft; ddd air-holes, to ventilate the different lofts. Fig. lel. is put. mill. 6 7 Mig. 8. A g: i i The bottoms of the bins, formed ‘ig.§. A ftack with the moveable ftage erected againft it, . Is an elevation of a ftack on its ftand. he plan of a round ftand for corn ftacks. \ fection of the fame ftand. a plan of a ftand for an o€tagon ftack. Ss 3 To the elevation of an improve| vr 1 IAT e} Pp v fax ta leces the a5 the evat ¢ Improve gtanary. athe doors; otne crane tor listing tne Is a fection of thefames Shows the plan of the floor, in which the middle is higher than the fides. 1 Reprefents the method of conftru€ting the tops of the bins, in which the corn in the fame manner as the hoppers of a commen + eee HORSE STALLS& SINGLE CATTLE SHEDS. L Se=== i ee 2 Seer i| 7 SSS mal 2 Fig.8 é = 1/4 Fig. 3 c%\v/ ‘| Fug.2.< z N e~\ S| Z ATISSS lb J i>¢ 4 1 1 = L LTD ma Horfe Stalls and Single Cattle Sheds. [To face Page 64.] Fig. 1. Reprefents t the common method of placing the racks and mangers in ftables: a the pofitions of the rack; 4 that of the manger. Fig. 2, Shows the improved pofition of racks 14 inches from wall; a d{pars of rack; ac bottom of rack, fparred for feeds to fall down to d, whence taken out by drawer e in fi 33 fa door fometimes made ufe of in ftables. Fig. 2. Is a front view of rack and feed box. Fig. 4. Reprefents racks placed in niches in the wall fo as to ferve two ftalls; a divifion betwixt. Fig. 5. Shows the fame placed in the angles without niches; 4 divifion betwixt. Fig. 6. Exhibits the form of racks for the angles; c the divifion. Fig. 7, and 8. Show the manner of fixing the windows or fhutters: a the front view of window with fhutter fitted to it, being fufpended on iron pins in the middle at 44, on which it turns; 4, fig. 8. is a fide view, fhowing pofition of fhutter, cd, when opened a little. Fig. employed; it is 14 inches wide at bottom, and fparred for the feed to drop into a drawer; aa g. Reprefents a fort of hopper or contrivance, where neither racks nor mangers are boxes in the corners for corn; 4 4 hay-manger divided by the dotted line c. Fig. to. Is a ftall: a bed the ground-plan; ad inner end to which the horfe is tied. It is paved on a level from a to d and from étoe, a ee all feven-inch drain being left in the middle, ase fg, made to within 3 feet of inner end, forming an angle at bottom, as fhown in crofs fe€tior are 1; depth at g 4 3 inches, figping to din longitudinal fection, fig. 12. into which the fal fee pafs; thefe being covered by two-inch plank perforated with holes fecured by hinges or two iron pins, g/, fig. 10.“The main drain may be made at d in the end of the ftall, or otherwife as convenient. At fig. 13. is fhown a corn-bin: a the wall of ftable; 4 the floor of room; ¢ corn-bin with Pe| air-f{pouts;{pout below the bin in ftable; e a plate iron flider at its bottom with lock if neceflary; f another flider to regulate the feed between it and ¢, the feeds being this way eafily taken out. Fig. 14. Reprefents a fingle cattle fed: a the paflage before cattle; 4 rack f or hay or ftraw; ¢a room fon fodder, litter,&e: Fig. 15. Shows another method of conftrution in thefe fheds ufed in Shropfhire: d'the paflage; e perpendicular rack, with thin deals behind in pofition, f for hay: under/ is a fquare hole g, oppofite each ftall, for foddering the cattle through from paflage d. hefe were f defigned by Mr. Beatfon, and are cheap and convenient, Bf CUOTUEGEOGELAGRLEAUHLLIOTANIL T POOTOTTNLANTT TRON aac “V, Hr nem 0#EDS. TLE # amt ve DOUBLE C. PLATE XXI1. Double Catile Sheds. [ To face Page 64.] “Fig- 1. Reprefents a double fhed for cattle, in which a is the paflage before the heads; 5&{takes to which they are tied ups cc pofts or pillars for the purpofe of fupporting the roof. It may be an advantage to have racks when neceffary, as in fig. 15, Pl. XX. Fig. 2. Reprefents another form of dauble fhed, in which a is the gangway before the cattle; 4 a room over which may ferve many different purpofes. Fig. 3. An internal part of the fheds for containing the fodder. In fingle fheds it is con- trived fo as to admit its being put in from the cart by having covers that open on hinges: _the roof being fupported on pillars aa a, three or four feet in height, placed on the wall at the diftance of eight or ten feet from each other: 4 4 4 the hinges; ccc the covers; ddd rings for pulling them open-by; e¢ one of the covers open, and held by the catch fg, fig. 4. which is moveable on a fmall pin, the heavy end, 4, within the fixed boards, and the other, g, without, to catch in a’ hole made. for the-ufe in the cover when opened. Fig. 5. Reprefents plans of ftalls with flight divifions betwixt them, where cattle are bound ‘in pairs, asin many of the northern diftrifts: aaa the ftakes to which they are tied; 566 the partitions of the ftandings. Fig. 6. Plans-of narrow ftalls, where the cattle are not bound, but confined feparately ix them. sss the ftalls; w the paflage betwixt; ¢¢7 the troughs from which the cattle feed. Fig. 7. The elevation of the hind part of thefe ftalls: pp rails to lift out at the ends; ¢ a little hatch or gate fometimes made ufe of. i Fig. 8. Isa fe€tion of thefe ftalls: 6 4 fhort rails or braces to keep the cattle from touching with their horns. Fig. 9. A-plan of a ftall: c¢ troughs for meat; da ciftern for water between them, ferved by a pipe from a pond,&c.; ¢a rail-divifion or partition betwixt, when neceflary for confining them more fully. Fig. 10. Isa fection or view of one of thefe ftalls with the rack placed over it. Fig. 11. The plan of a double ca/f-pen: d the door; ¢ the paflage between the pens; f// the pens in which the fituation of the partitions is feen; gg gg four joints in which are holes for pins to keep the partitions in their places; 4a door or window at the end, and other air-holes may be neceflary; 7777 troughs for milk. Fig. 12. Is a fection of thefe pens; 4% the pofition of the racks. ee ao IN moll mga | i ee DAIRY OTT, == —_ f FIOUSE& IMPLEMENTS. | —L SS i] | AAA r. r|= ie‘ ANN | a. nN AA HM — A yl‘one it q ty)| ph i NU AN - fhown; D the gudgeon on which the body hangs 5 PLATE XXII Dairy-Houfe and Implements. [To face Page 64.| Fig. 1. Reprefents an improved form of Dairy, ufed by Mr. Wakefield, near Liverpool: ia which A is the milk-houfe; 2a athe coolers; a flab for laying butter upon after it has been made up; ¢¢c cocks for drawing off the milk from the coolers, one ferving two coolers by the contrivance of a fhort piece of leaden pipe from the holes, 0 00, which are ftopped by the plug p, being made fufficiently long to extend above the furface of the milk; d a large cock to throw water upon the floor, which is laid with a little flope from that part; ¢ eecocks at the back par¢ of the coolers for letting in water 5 f a door latticed, as fhown at Fig. 2; g another pannelled door. B the churning-room; 4 afire-place;& a boiler;/ large boiler or copper for fcald~ ing implements or other ufes. C. a room for airing or drying utenfils, and may be ufed as a laundry. Over thefe may be made fervants” lodging-rooms if neceflary. Fig.3. A view of the infide of the dairy at the end Q. Fig. 4. The improved barrel-churn with wheel. Fig. 5. Animproved upright churn, put in motion by a crank and lever, venient and ufeful where large quantities of butter are not made. Fig. 6. Rowntree’s improved butter-churn. Fig. 7. Bowler’s pendulum churn: A Ais the body of it; B an opening by which the cream ss introduced; C the cover of the large opening, the{mall hole on the oppofite fide not being E the upper larger pulley; F the fmaller pulley fixed on the axis or gudgeon; G G the rod of the pendulum fufpended from upper pulley E; H bob of pendulum; II the handle, moveable on a pin at a,{winging in the form of dotted line K K; L the trough for hot or cold water 5 M a projecting piece of wood for fup- porting the handle, I, when the churn is not at work. Fig. 8. Isa cheefe-prefs on the principle of the lever. Screw-preffes are, however, common sn mott dairies, as being more convenient and more eafily managed. In thefe cafes the ftone, or weight, is fixed in a frame of wood; in the upper part of which the fcrew atts fo as to readily wind it up or let it down as may be neceflary. which is very cone parts form, iron| furna a rou which full w vent t roots be fo readil F; toll ort the mack to fli Or lefs fig, hogs ross sLcatescesast ar es oe es anon ane aa ee SSS Sa——=== SS——————SS——————S5585085868686—060—0—00 SS ao Dad SSS==== ee=5 ————————————: PLATE XT Steam Boiler and Bruifing Machine. [To face Page 64.] Fig. 1. Is the reprefentation of a Steam Boiler for potatoes or other roots, in which the parts A BC D in it and in fg. 2. are formed of brick or ftone, being conftrufted in a cubjcal form, about three feet in every direction. athe door of furnace;&the afh-pit; ca fhallow iron kettle twenty inches in diameter, and feven or eight inches in depth, placed over the furnace. BC a flat fmooth ftone covering the whole of the work, in the middle of which ig a round hole cut out, to admit the iron kettle in a clofe manner. E a cafk, the bottom of which is perforated with auger-holes and placed over the fteam kettle, when filled about half full with water. The cafk is then filled with potatoes, and clofely clayed all round, to pre- vent the efcape of fteam, and the cover put on clofe. da fhort thick plug, put flightly in a hole in cover, to afford air, or rendered moveable by a leathern hinge. F flue or vent, which may be built to a houfe or any other place. When the potatoes are fufficiently fteamed, the Toots are commonly removed by a wooden fhovel, or by turning the cafk over. But it might be fo contrived as to move on pivots in the middle of the boiler, in a frame, fo as to be readily turned upfide down when neceflary to empty it. It is made ufe of by Mr. Wakefield, near Liverpool. Fig 3. Is a fide view of Mr. Rowntree’s machine for bruifing different forts of grain, as well as peafe, beans,&c. for the purpofe of feeding horfe- or other forts of teams. It is likewife capable of application in the grinding of malt for brewing. Fig. 4. Is an end view of the fame machine. This machine is conftructed with two iron ‘rollers of different diameters, turned true on their axles or{pindles, each roller having a cog or tooth wheel. A roller with grooves is fixed under the hopper, to receive the grain from the hopper and lay it on the two rollers. To one of the rollers js fixed a fly wheel. The machine is made to be worked by hand or any other power. The upper wood frame is made to flide, and is regulated by a{crew according to the fize of the grain, and will bruife it more or lefs as may be required. AA the handles. BB the rollers for bruifing the grain. CC the cog or tooth wheels for turning the rollers. D the fluted roller which receives the grain from the hopper E. F the fliding frame. G the{crew for regulating the rollers. H the thoot or trough for conveying away the grain from the rollers. I the fly wheel for regulating the motion. K two fcrapers hanging on centres for keeping the rollers clean. L the frame. fig. 5. Exhibits a form of hog-trough contrived fo as to prevent wafte by fpilling, from the hogs getting their feet in, by having a piece of deal nailed on the back- it. Plate XXIV. continued, 1 8. Show the method of making the divifion in hog-troughs, which need Figs. 6. J. anc ‘lot go to the bottoms. g. Reprefents another method of preventing wafte, large deep troughs with open bottoms, to let the fo When liquid food is employed the lower trough may be of ftone, as feem Fie. by having a fhallow trough below, and above od pafs as it is confumed from the trough below. at A. Fig, 10. Is a potatoe the potatoe may be faved. “ig. x1. Is the Dublin potatoe fet{coop for the fame purpofe. fet fcoop invented by Mr. Slark, by which much of the fubftance of t £ " of ALTE DS PL. XXIV ;,= a Tum PLATE XXIV, Mills. [To face Page 64.| Fig. 1. Is the:reprefentation of a Windmill employed in Portugal, and which, from the differences in the conflruction of the fails, is fuppofed by Lord Somerville to poflefs a fupe- fiority in having the broad part of the fail at the end of the levers or booms, and con- fequently equal refiftance is overcome with lefs length of branches. And from this fhortnefs confiderable faving is made-in the timber of both the booms and fpindles, as well as in the height, firft coft, and‘future repairs. The advantages“arifing from ufing mills of this defcription are, that as there are four pee as well as four mafts for the ee Is, they are more eafil a Ac out to the win oe and And as the fails are ae in aes eft& poflible diretion| by means of the Genes it is ae ‘that a mill built on this plan will do more work than’ any common mill with an equal quantity of canvafs. Fig. 2. Reprefents a horizontal Hand-Corn Mill invented by Mr. Wright. The frame is 1f three feet fquare, and three and a half in height. The{tones are eighteen inches in diameter, and inclofed in the tub fupported by two crofs bearers; under which is a lever, having an iron pin or pivot, which runs through the centre of‘the bed-ftone, into a focket in the bridge of the upper{tone or runner, to which is attached the thaft and fpmdle, running through the eye of the runner and hopper, and fupporting the fly wheel and crank. A round piece of wood faftened on the fhaft ferves as a feeder; above is a{crew to regulate the feed according ilate Clic aCe as turned,-On the fide of the tub is athumb{crew fixed to the lever underneath, which regulates the-ftones aceording as turned. The fhaft runsthrough the-crown tree or crofs bar at the top of the frame,on which is the horizontal flywheel and-crank; to which are attached one or two handles, by which the mill is put in motion. Underthe ftonesis a drawer, in which are p T, tae = BA ye placed three-fieves of-different finenefles; one for taking away broad bran, another for the -coarfe pollard, and the third for ftapping the fine pollard, and letting the flower pats into the re) drawer; which is effedted by a ee ef iron fork running throu rh a hole in front of the S a drawer, and AN on one of the fieves. The price of the millis fixteen guineas, and one guinea for the fet of fieves. SG SE RES Fe ry farm-Buildings.—Pigcon-{Tou/es, 65 PIGEON-HOUSES. WHERE pigeons are bred for the purpofe of deriving profit from them, the pigeon-houfe fhould not only be large and roomy, but be placed in fuch a fituation that the pigeons may be fed with convenience, and without being dif turbed by the different operations that are conftantly going on about the farm-houfe. The form of the houfe is probably not a matter of much confequence, provided it be not made too deep in the infide; pigeons difliking to have their nefts low down. The floor fhould be clofely laid, and the fides well plaftered, and white-wathed over. The roof may be covered by any convenient and fuitable material, but tiles and flates are by much the beft; thatch being warm in winter and sere in ce may alfo: afford a very good covering. The great objeCtion to thatch for dovecoats is, that the pigeons are apt to fcratch it off; but when the ridge is fecur za by ridge-tiles, and very light hurdles are laid on each fide of it, that inconvenience may be prevented. The whole muft be made perfectly fecure againft the entrance of rats-and other vermin. Where buildings of this fort are quite detached from the other offices, it is, perhaps, the beft and cheapeft method to ere& them on pillars of brick or ftone, or{trong pofts of wood, about fix or feven feet high from the ground. In the latter cafe, the upper parts of the houfe may, likewife, be principally compofed of wood; and the under part will ferve as a fhed for various ufeful purpofes.[ia ftable or cow-houfe the better, as it will have a tendency to keep the pigeons warmer in win- ter, which is material to their breeding early in the fpring, when they are of moft value in the market.‘The chief objection again{ft wood coats are, their being too cold in the winter, and too hot inthe fummer months. The apertures or openings’ for the entrance of the pigeons, fhould always have a fouthern afpect, as they delight in a funny fituation; and they ought not to be. too large: the common fize is larger by much than is neceflary.‘The number of holes muift be regulated by the quantity of birds that are intended to be kept; it 1s better, however, to have too few than too many; as a great number of holes renders the dove-houfe cold, and in any cafe but few are made ufe of by the pigeons. Above: thefe holes a piece of weather-boarding, fufficiently large for keeping off the wet, fhould conftantly be fixed up. Thefe boards are generally made fo fmall that they do not keep off the wet effe€tually. It is the general practice to make fquare holes of board for the pigeons to lay and breed in; but a neater method is that of employing fmall wicker bafkets open at the top for this purpofe: thefe bafkets may either be compofed of finer or coarfer mate-. as ae ry° i oy e 7 oy 60 La‘arm= Buil dings om CORVEIICHACES jor 4 pP?"E pari 18 Cattle Food—Ste UN=L301LEV Se : 7° 1? oe Cc ES f rials, according to the inclination of the builder, or the expence he withes to be 3 ]= rn bit Tittle ay are+ at. Nefts made in this way take up but little room, and are readily removed when- a SS ie eS ae ep Pie a ean them if th}(on: Sy EVER 11s necewary CO clean them, e elpecially li ney be iixed up in a convenient manner. YJNVALTYVE im,\ T 7 Fes, WA See LN ATIUNT WH Ww, th y CON VIGIN LILIN© CES FOR«PREPARING CA 7 LE FOOD. oO f Ir~mMme vner el y@ ale 7 alm>{} on fL nihy> ay| Ee s ee fj ee hf JN farms. Vv a lay ItOCK 15 aimoit conitantly eitner Kept, OF Occalionaliy y ro aw ae sear ar iP“tC ig VY OT fe pea iy, A FA ae rae~.( fs- fattened with different forts of prepared vegetables, it becomes an objeét of great 7 ~ lnax7 Ne ar eens se ANA J a7,- importance to have fuch accommodations as are proper and advantageous for per- Oo Pars forming the bufinefs. Fa) STE{ 7 ¥ 7 : Fs ES. W-BOl LER S bs fas what see /s° HE practice of boiling, what may be termed the artificial food of animals, in fteam, though extremely advantageous, not ae in the faving of time and expence, but in promoting the condition and feeding of them, has hitherto been, perhaps, too little attended to. Potatoes are the kind of food moft generally prepared in this way, and the method of doing it is perfectly fimple and eafy. It confifts in having a fhallow = oO iron kettle of about twenty inches diameter, and feven or eight inches deep, fet over a furnace, and fo fitted into brick-work or folid{tone, as to be perfectly clofe on every fide.‘To the top of this kettle, a tub, having its bottom perforated with a number of fmall augre holes, is adapted, the kettle being Previc oufly half filled with water. Potatoes muft then be put into the cafk, and the joining betwixt it and the kettle be well fecured by a luting of clay. A clofe cover, provided with a proper air-hole, muft then be put on, and the potatoes be{teamed by making the water in the kettle lay be taken out by means of a proper fhovel, or the cafk may be turned and emptied into al boil. When fufficiently done, which may be known by removing the lid, they - a"rT r OF ther fF, ital Te Ter a S ey rp 34 Y+} a sae or any other fuitable convenience for receiving them; and a freth quan tity again introduced, if neceflary. ‘Th a ran{ a tn ay 7c~tro sixy= ae conftrution of this boiler is extremely plain and eafy; but other apparatus for the fame purpofe may ibe Eu contrived, fo as to fuit the moft extenfive farms, ficient for{teaming es, aa rate of potatoes at ye fame time; and nea of en caiks as thefe, large fixed boilers with moveable bottoms, fo as to let out the potatc upon proper vehicles being placed under them, might be employed. Cafks sateidea on cranes, with flides in their bottoms for emptying them by, would, perhaps, be a 4 Farm- Building s.—Corn-Chefts—Corn-Stande. 67 {till more convenient contrivance. An ufeful apparatus of this fort is made by Mr. Cook. If boilers of this kind be fituated near to the kitchen, they may be conven uiently fy made ufe of for many purpofes of the family. y: E) CORN-CHESTS. Ir is equally convenient and economical for the ftable of even the common farmer to be provided with accommodations of this fort; much time as well as wafte of corn being faved by it. Befides, many other fubftances can, by fuch means, be kept ready aixed with the corn; fuch, for inftance, as cut ftraw, fplit beans, and feveral other articles that may be adv rantageoufly employed in the feedi ng of horfes. A common a bin or tub may, in fome cafes, be fufficient for the purpo fe; but on large farms, and where there is convenience, it is by much the beft to fe ve them conftruéted on the principle of the granary, which has been already defcribed. Where this 1 pla adopted, the form fhould be cubical, the bottom being made fomewhat in the manner 1 of a hopper, with a flider fo contrived as that it may ftan d about eighteen inches from the floor, by which means fufficient room will be given for taki ng out the provender.‘The fpouts may be fixed from fide to fide with great eafe and facility, and the air-ho oles be well fecured bya grating of iron wire. If it fhould be thought ~} L er 1eceflary, the flide may be fz he 1ed by means of a fmall lock and key, Fa> wy Oe, Wa Qy CUiluiv~3 4 AN TDS. Wuenre the very beneficial and advantageous cuftom of ftacking grain is prattifed, it will be neceflary to have€ proper ftands or ftaddles provided for fecuring the corn not only againft damp and moifture, but againit the-deftructive wafte of rats and mice. ‘The mode of conitructing thefe ftands varies very confiderably in different fitua- 1 1 tions and diftri@s. In fome places they are formed merely by placing twe \/ 17 pieces ot large timber sength-ways, and then putting fmaller ones crofs-ways upon - ue 2 pee:; S them. This i 1S, hx OW ever, a plan by no means to pe follow ed, aS It provides no cr ¥. 2 c] Ae ROE ee fecurity for the bottom of the ftack. In other cafes, a{trong framing of good timber: Pe Ss put upon pofts of wood, or what is better, of{tone about two feet high, provided C al. Stl al& with caps, on which it refts in a very folid and fecure manner. fal 1] but ine moit lecure method is to hay e thefe fort of ftands v alled, and well guarded by good copings. Corn-ftands s, conftructed in this w: ay, have lately been ereGed on the a ee Se oq 68 Farm-Buildings.—Bee-Stands. farms of his Grace the Duke of Bedford, at Woburn-Abbey, whofe extenfive know- ledge of the fcience of agriculture feems not lefs than his zeal in promoting its im- provement. The foundations in making thefe he ids being funk a confiderable depth into the ground, and the bottoms well laid, vermin eae get to the grain of the {tacks by working under them; and the upper part is rendered fafe by a project- ing coping of ftone or wood.‘Subftances fhould not, however, be fuffered to reft again{t them, or the loofe corn to hang down during the time of building the ftacks. In this way{tacks of the parallelogramical form may be built to any fize; but for {mall ftacks, efpecially where wood is employed, the oétagonal form of ftand fhould rather be preferred to the circular one, as the copings may be cut with lefs wafte, and from{maller timber; and it is juft as eafy to build a circular ftack on an octagonal ftand as on a.circular one*. Where ftone can be eafily procured, it is unqueftionably the moft proper mate- rial for the bottom; but brick, if properly made for the purpofe, anfwers very well, efpecially if proper care be taken in the laying of it. Slate, where.it can be had at a reafonable expence, will be a very good fubftance for the fame purpofe. Flag-ftones would hkew ife anfwer extremely well; but neither flates nor flag-{tones are neceflary, if the foundation be Jaid fufficiently deep to prevent the vermin burrowing under‘it. Stands of this kind were made ufe of by the late Mr. Bakewell, with much advan- tage; and other farmers, in the fame diftri&, probably employed them before him. BEE-STAN DS. Axtuoucu bees have hitherto feldom been much attended to by farmers as objects of profit, they certainly ought not to be overlooked in the fyftem of rural economy. But in order to turn their induftry to advantage, the farm mutt be pro- vided with proper and fufficient accommodations for them. Thefe are, perhaps, she moft convenient and leaft expenfive, when conftruted in the form and manner of flight fheds or ftands, and made of good feafoned wood, fo framed that the fore part of the fhed or ftand may be about fix or feven feet high, and the hind part five or fix. The top, and alfo the ends and back, muft be well covered with ftrong boards. The infide fhould, likewife, have a lining of very thin deal boards, and be furnifhed with ftrong fhelves, fo Bopperonre as to fuit the ppeber of hives, boxes, or glaffes, that are to be placed in them.‘To the front, which is open, thin * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol, I Ne Furm-Buildings—Situation of Farm-Houfes and Offices. 69 : 5 o 1 va eye 5 str] ae rm:-“1 wooden fhades fhould be fo fixed and contrived, that they may be raifed and de- leafure, in order to protect the bees both from the too powerful effects of the fun and the rain. The apiary, or bee-houfe, fhould always be slacéd in fuch a fituation as not to Ne 2 y “be much expofed to winds, as thefe animals are liable to be very much difturbed by i’ y y Sa them. It fhould likewife, if poffible, be near to water, and plenty of early blow- ing flowers, fuch as flower-gardens, turnip, muftard, and bean fields,&c. SITUATION ann ARRANGEMENT or FARM-HOUSES anv OFFICES. Havine thus diftin@tly confidered the houfes and different forts of buildings which are neceflary for the comfort and convenience of various kinds of farming, we fhall proceed to fhew the fituations and arrangements saat promife the moft advantage in refpect to the economy of human labour, the ae of expence in the conftruction, and the prevention of waite in the articles which they contain. Where a choice of fituation can be had for the farm-houfe a offices, it fhould certainly be as near as poflible to the centre of the farm, and rather elevated, by which means the various kinds of produce, as well as the manure of the farm- yard, may be conveyed to their proper deftinations with the greateft facility and difpatch; it fhould likewife be dry, weil fupplied with water, and the approach eafy and convenient. The three moft expofed fides of a fquare fhould always, where it is poflible, be chofen for the fituations of the different offices; that to the fouth being left free and open for the admiffion of fun and air. Thefe circumftances, however important they may be, feem to have been little re- garded in the building of farm-houfes in gener al, as we frequently find them occupy- ing not only the worft, but the moft inconvenient fituations that the farms afforded. Where the form of the ground and other circumftances are favourable, and ,| ene toto the molt pleatne. thou Be pee re ee readi y ¢ admit of ee Ve aly ene the mott pircaling, tilOUL 2) VY ho means the & ye Sa te ay\] me 8-|«- a Vs sae beft, fituation for the farm-houfe, is that of the middle of a regular tront. It 1s always much better to ae it at a{mall diftance from the offices and the farm-yard; from‘fifteen to twenty feet at each end will, in general, be fufficient. Where uni- formity is particularly attended to, thefe fpaces may be occupied by naked wails, or what is better, a fort of lean to fheds may be formed trom them tor various ufeful purpofes. It is alfo frequently neceflary in the defigns of farm-houles, and other buildings, that the daily tranfactions of fervants and labourers about fuch oO? y houfes and offices fhould at once be overlooked and examined. With this view Bo Aree yy flat ct fs) eR A ee na ye the common ntti a Or work TOOM 1nould Nave iuchna i O1MON, as that the bufinefs of 7: c jes ee A eee 1 faan tran fome ne part Of t A hil; that of the farm- the houfe may pe readall een YOM iome one pait Ot If, Whue t t .;} a y if A tr do~*~ NaN s fher yard and Out--bu bet lin YS May DE attended CO IF¥OM anocner. Df a val Le ail oO} In difpofing and connéCting the different buildings and offices, much attention is dG 2 y . 7 1]} 4 aps| Ad By eye ays) arti ikewife required, in order that they may be convenient and fuitable to the particu- Kwewihe required, 1n order that Icy j ] } Py>| Bele ar thea Pie natite ors Aiud woncmd tbe(ote at oe orc lar bufinefs of the farm. The nature of the fituation, and the fate of the ground, will for the moft part afford the beft direGions for 1 placine the drains and other conveniences for taking off the fuperabundant moifture, as well as the proper place for depofiting the dung and collecting the urine into; and thefe again will, in a great meafure, fhew w oe the ftables, cow-houfes, feeding-fheds, root-houfes, and other offices relating to them, fhould be fituated. The barn fhould obvioufly be at no great diftance from them; adjoining to which, on the fides, fhould be the barn-yards and ftraw-fheds, the two ends forming the flraw-yards and{tack-yards, In every cafe, perhaps, the ftables fhould be as muchas poflible detached from the other buildings, in order that they may be the more fecure from fire. The granary, where neceflary, fhould always be near the barn, or even in it; if a threfhing- machine be ereéted, it may be very conveniently placed over it. The dairy fhould be diftributed in fuch a way, that it may be equally convenient to the dwell- ing-houfe, and the cow-houfes and yards, and at the fame time be as little as poffible expofed to either exceflive heat or cold. The ho g-llies, as well as the poultry- yards, fhould, in order to avoid labour, be near to the dairy, yet not fo very near as to incommode it. ‘The diftribution of the inferior fort of bui dings gud conveniences muft be regulated by the particular circumftances of the fitua ns; but the principal and leading confideration, in directing every buildi: ng, ae the bufinefs for which they are deftined, and the faving of time, labour, and trouble, in the perform- ance of that bufinefs, by giving them the moft fuitable conne@j nand diftribution*, The nature and arrangement of the houfes and buildings proper for the accom- modations of farmers being thus explained, we may offer a few obfervations on. the expence at which they may be conftructed. This is, howey er, a point on which it is difficult to fpeak with much precifion, as various circumftances, in re efpect to the fituation and facility of procuring materials, muft obvi oufly make confiderable dif. ferences in all fuch eftimates; befides, the prices of materials, as well as labour, have confiderable local variation; but, as far as any general rule will apply on fuch fubjects, it is probable that, provided the farm be not‘under fixty or fev enty pounds a-year, one, or, at fartheft, two years’ rent, will be fully adequate to the building of x Pp ae<:: j:: P Al 4 * Beatfon in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I. L.XXv Dp Te Zh ie Orrict See io > RM HoOUS DaAtTRY FA fig. 2 z, Vary POL. Lig. nn Milk: hi MLS| PLY PLATE XXV. Dairy-farm Houfes and Offices. [To face Page 71.| Ar Fig. 1. is reprefented the plan and elevation of a farm-houfe on a fmall{cale where dairying is practifed. Fig. 2. Is the ground plan. Fig. 3. Shows the fituation and conneétion of the fheds and other out-buildings. And at fig 4. is exhibited the plan and elevation of another farm-houfe on a more extenfive fcale, for the fame management. Fig. 5. Shows the ground plan. Fig. 6. Explains the nature and arrangement of the different buildings for the ufe of the €attle, cc. Thefe houfes and offices are on the plan of Mr. Crocker, and defigned for farms of from 6ol. to 200]. a year, when the principal object is the dairy. Farm-Buil lding’s,—Dairy- Farms, rey every office, independent of the houfe which is required for fuch farms; and on all farms, of from three to four hundred pounds a-year, one year’s rent, or even much lefs in particular cales, will be fufficient‘for building the dwelling-houfes: and probably on farms of any extent, five hundred pounds is an ample allowance for ¥1° 7 -houfes, and one thoufand or twelve hundred for the ref{pective offices Various ufeful anid convenient plans and eftimates of farm-houfes and offices ie been propofed, for farms of different kinds, by Mr. Crocker, in a paper in the firft volume of Communications to the Board of Agriculture. For thofe which are wholly of the dairy kind, his eftimates are thefe: J DAIRY-FARMS. For a dairy-farm, of from fixty toone hundred For a dairy-farm, of from one hundred to pounds per annum. two hundred pounds per annum. Foufe. FHioufe. Mafon, for walls, chimneys, floors,£- 5. d. Mafon, for walls, chimneys, floors,£. 5. d. oven, furnace,&c.-=> SUn1O0 ovens, furnace,&c.==.02-46 Carpenter, for lintels, window- Carpenter, for lintels, window- frames, doors, beams, and joifts, frames, doors, beams, and joifts, partitions, roof, ftairs,&c.=" 92, E47..0 partitions, roof, ftairs,&c.- 11410 6 Plafterer, for ceiling, rendering, and Plafterer, for ceiling, rendering, plaftering‘—*--. 16.3.0 plaitering, and tiling-== 5% tio Smith, for locks, hooks, and twits, Smith, for locks, hooks, and twitts, latches,&c.-- oa Sink.&c.-~-= 1=Q4los Glazier---- 10 60 Glazier--=£005 SEOs Thatcher--- Sui oa Saigo 9 Painter---= OSES Painter«-~= iin=l2@ _————£280.90 £190 60 Out-Hou/es. Out-Houfes. Mafon, for walls of the cow- houfe, Mafon, for walls of the cow-houfe, calf-houfe, ftable,&c.+= 31. 45..6 calf-houfe, ftable, pig-fly,&c.- 28 3 Do. for pitching do.-== 76. c6 Do. for pitching or paving do. ao 5 Carpenter, for roofs to the cow- Carpenter, for roofs to the cow- houfe, ftraw-houfe, hay-houfe, houfe, calf-houfe, ftable, pig- ftable, calf-houfe, and pig-fties. 17 12 6 mics, ccc=--=-=15 16 6 Do. for floors: of hay-loft, doors, Do. for floors of hay-loft, doors, calf-houfe, rack,&c.-- 10 186 rack, and manger,&c.-- 12186 Thatcher---+ 26:52" 0 "Thatcher“-=== 7--TO7o-emith--= roe Oliao Smith, for locks,&c.-- 16 6 Neceflary-houfe to be placed in the Neceffary-houfe~--5e% 15-6 garden~---"< 5.30.0 15 52 14, 10+6 ee ee Lotal ¥£265"© Total£357 17 6 Thofe that are entirely employed in the growth of grain requiring more exten Farm-Building. —— Corte Faris. of buildings, the eftimates of courfe ftand confiderably higher: CORN-FARMS. For a corn farm, of from one hundred to two hundred pounds per annum. Houfe. Mafon, for walls, chimneys, floors, eae CE oven, furnace,&c.-= OA iI 0 Carpenter, for lintels, window- frames, doors, beams, and joifts, partitions, roof, ftairs,&c. SeiaGe 3° 3 Plafterer, for ceiling, rendering, and plaftering-- 7 on tr 8 Tiler--- 2. 3535OrO Smith--:=. 2270080 Glazier---- 34 14,0 Painter~--- 18 o £299 67 Out-Houfes. Mafon, for walls of the cyder- houfe, ox-ftalls, barns, ftable, waggon-houfe, and granary, and for pitching---~ 80, F, Carpenter, for roofs,&c.=) Oe 1253 Do. for floors, of do. and for rack, manger, windows,&c.-- 49 160 Thatcher-- 25 OKO Tiler-~- om Oe Ceiling the granary.~i4 T13, 4 Smith--~ eu Qiet3. O Neceflary-houfe 2° 10.6 For a corn farm, of from two h three hundred pounds per annum. Hou/fe. Mafon, for walls, chimneys, floors, oven,&c.->- 139 Carpenter, for lintels, window- frames, doors, beams, and joitts, partitions, ftairs,&c.- asi cA Smith, for hooks,&c.&c. a ae A Plafterer and tiler--- 84 Glazier~---- Ig Painter.--- Se SE £403 Out-Houfes. Mafon, for walls of pig-fties, ftraw-houfe, ftables, barn, wag- gon-houfes, granary, and for pitching---- 107 Carpenter, for roofs-=O Do. for floors of granary, hay-loft, barns, and for rack, manger,&c. 85 Thatcher~--- 40 Tiler, for the granary and for ceil- ing it-- eee 8 Smith, for locks,&c.-=e _Neceflary-houfe- nie 2 on| =e) 7 ty q undred to iil Q Pp ee ——== a—————== Naty ae Th PL. XXVL CORN FARM HOUSES& OFFICES. Barn js i. 6. Waggon house AM k P 7 L. Xxvy PLATE XXVI. Corn Farm Houfes and Offices. | To face Page 72.| Av Fig. 1. is feen the plan and elevation of a{mall farm-houfe. Fig. 2. Shows the ground-plan. Fig. 3. Exhibits the arrangement of the various offices neceflary for a{mall farm, where the produce is chiefly grain. At Fig. 4. is a reprefentation of the plan and elevation of a farm-houfe on a larger{cale. Fig. 5. the ground-plan of the fame. Fig. 6. Shows the diftribution of the feveral out-buildings that may be requifite for the farm. Thefe plans are recommended by Mr. Crocker; as calculated to ferve grain-farms of from one hundred pounds to three hundred pounds a year. PUCK VAl | MIXED FARM HOUSES& OFFICES. A . eo wr“Al agqgon ho.= Ox or Cow Sts: Fig. 3. ia i SSS WilelAS —— Kitchen | 20-0 L a 10 Stable| Tn nnn ans Tanapy ¢ Wm, ao Wits : Ul E y= i= I} E YY|i | Fug. 5 HiT! IN Swi po rE (os ff Parlour:_ Milk house r 7 iz- 0 Hy|©: MATT EY of> a 1a°; Ee ee 4 10-0 Store mom at< aT | b A kL. Kitchen Oy < pudcalding we TooTM RTT ella =/ reer PEAPE SX VIE Mixed Farm Houfes and Offices. [Lo face Page 72.] Avr fig. 1. is exhibited the plan and elevation of a farm-houfe, where different forts of management are carried on upon a moderate{cale. fig. 2. Is the ground-plan. Fig. 3. Explains the nature and arrangement of the various out-buildings: and at Fig. 4. is fhown the plan and elevation of a farm-houfe on a more extenfive feale, but adapted to the fame fort of management. fig. 5. Is the ground-plan. 4g. 6. Shows the fituation and diftribution of the feveral out-buildings. Thefe houfes and buildings are adapted to farms where a mixed fort of hufbandry, as arable and dairy, is practifed, and which extend from two hundred to four hundred pounds a year. They are after defigns by Mr. Crocker. Farm-Buildings.—Mived Farins, 72 There are others, which partake both of the nature of the corn and the dairy farm, in which a variety of buildings mult of courfe be required; the eftimates for thefe are confequently{till higher: MIXED FARMS./ For a corn and dairy farm, of from 200 to For a corn and dairy farm, of from 300 to £400. per annum. Houfe. Houfe. .' e Mafon, for walls, chimneys, floors,£. s. d. Maton, for walls, chimneys, floors,£. s. d 543-11 0 £300. per annum. oven,&c.--= TAT 2720 oven,&c..- Carpenter, for lintels, window- frames, doors, beams, and joifts, partitions, ftairs, roof,&c. Plafterer, for rendering, plafter- Carpenter, for lintels, window- frames, beams, and joifts, parti- tions, ftairs, roof,&c.- Plafterer, for rendering, plafter- ing,&c. ni ae-~* ga 6,0 ing, and ceiling do.--= 69 0© Smith, for locks,&c.-= gad Qk 10.0 smiiee-~-= AO 8 Thatcher-=-=<=©:~ Giazies=~- 26 oo Glazier o---= 437 6-6< alex-~= 635.00 Painter-~- oe 2 OO: Painter:=-=== 2 10: 6 £379 18 6£482 11 0 Out-Houfes. Mafon, for walls to the granary, calf-houfe, ftable, ox-ftalls, pig- Out-Heufes. Mafon, for wall of granary, cow- houfe, barns, ftables, cyder-houfe, flies, and for pitching“it-12'0 and pig-fties, and for pitching 123 9 6 Carpenter, for fs to granary,‘ ealf-houfe, ftable, waggon-houfe, ox-ftalls, barns, pig-fties,&c. and for floors to granary, barns, Carpenter, for roofs of granary, cow-houfe, barns, ftables, wag- gon-houfes, cyder-houfe,&c. and for floors of granary, barn, and &c.&c.--~- 102 17© hay-loft, corn-binns,&c.&c. 122° 6.6 Thatching, tiling, and ceiling the Thatcher-=_ 9-24 49 granary---- 33 126‘Tiling and ceiling the granary-'- 6G 166 Locks,&c.*- sei GO pe a8: or! Smelt-=== SO Neceffary-houfe--- 3136 Neceflary-houfe--- 3198 215<-2 0 287,17 90 Total£595 1 6 Total{766 80 In. the conftructing of new farm-houfes and buildings great favings may always be made where there are old ereétions, by making ufe of different kinds of old materials which are produced from them*. * Beatfon’s Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I. c=) L \ 4 Dail cbae Farm-B uildina's, soe SS TPAD-0 + Z= 2 Working room 5 7|™~ a= 17 eed|= at= eae———— on== Tle+ H ial Panty OTT, Yy, M4 g: QO EEE Z WITTE. A: j{ J 44 BRIA, Ap/ Uva ores ap, y Z ¢ Yylantry ZF anny Z Ok« Yt}; Li E mer= Chie yoorm Y‘ f 6-6 Ba ee i:: O-l E Cdlar Y 2| jai= Chad room Génom ia i J Uy rm ey Y) Cellar. > BY«. E Ld mss‘ g *U Z iz.»F 12 Y 5-65 CAaA@Y YOo-6/2 ¥ Wa ZZ HMMA, 64 Z A NS 2 A Z m@eexmaieaa& | 3 by 23 ex a bay) oe tot 3 e? ae: j a A ry)| 6-6 iS SS 7| f g f l lig 1 oy aartry mi i Bre Bri YY zB a by 1 Ny Y Y E parce YA QLLLAZ. Pinoyll ~ IY 22 io (Tae 12 Jt f Y 12; Z Ze Yo, BAe“by Ul Ay 7|? OB AN OF cS G Stomp—= p i Gila GA EA—{ZA—4Z/ ——3 SS PLATE AXVUI Farm Cottages, [To face Page 92.| Ar Fig, 1. is reprefented a fmall mudeqwalled cheap cottage, the chambers being lighted from the ends Fig. 2. Is the ground plan of it. fig, 3. Exhibits a cheap fort of cottage on a larger plan, built of ew’ dad. and are from plans of Mr; Crocker. Fig.§. Reprefents a circular cottage, recommended by Sir John Sinclair, Fig. 6. Is the ground plan of it; and Fig. 7. The fecond floor. Fig. 8. Is another cottage of the fame fort, but without any fecond floor. Jig. g. Is the ground plan or floor. Thefe are capable of being built wholly of brick at a{mall expenfe. Fig. 10. Exhibits the plan and elevation of two small-fized bricked cottages. Fig. 11. Shows the ground plan or floor: and, Fig. 12. The chamber floor. Fig:+3. Is the plan and elevation of two cottages of the fame fort, but of a larger fize and with hipped ends. Fig. 14. The ground plan or floor: and fig.15. The floor above. Fig. 16. Is the plan and elevation of two ffud-work cottages, with brick gable ends. Fig. 17. Is the ground floor: and Fig. 18. The floor above. Fig. 1g. Reprefents the plan and elevation of two cottages of the fame kind, but of a larger fize and with hipped ends. Fig. 20. Is the ground floor: and Fig. 21. The chamber floor. Thefe cottages are recommended by Mr. Kent, as being capable of being built at a moderate expenfe, and as convenient and well adapted to farm purpofes. 2 Eftimates of Brick Cottages with hipped Ends. BRICK COTTAGES WITH HIPPED ENDS. For two cottages of this fort of the largeft fize:— Bricklayers’ Work. The walls, 181 yards, at 4s. 6d. per yard=- Pan-tiling, with{mall-fized deal lath, eleven{quare, at 1/. 25. per {quare~- Double ftack of chimneys, and two fire-places in the chambers, and two ovens and oven lids>- Two flag-ftones for the chamber chimneys Paving, with white bricks, 125 yards, at 15. 4d. per yard Partitions lathed and. plaftered, on each fide, at Iod. per yard Ceiling, between the joifts, 125 yards, at 6d. per yard.- Falfe ceiling, in the chambers, under the joifts, two coats, 130 = yards, at Is. per yard- Plaftering the walls, 169 yards, at 6d. per yard- Glaziers’ Work. Ninety-feet of glafs, at$d. per foot Smiths’ Work. Four large cafements, at 6s. 6d. each Two fmall ditto, at 45. each-== Two ftoves for chamber fire-places.~= Chimney irons to hang pots on-- Carpenters’ Work Ge Three tons of pollard timber, at 1/. per ton Three tons and an half of deal timber, at 2/. 55. per ton Carried forward~ 93 boas hited 40 14 6 125-24 6 LO 23.0 O24: 0 $.°6 2 a S22 Ye eS 6 Io oO 4 4 0 = 89 o& 2-0-0 270 a 6. oO o 8 Oo O13 70 On 9.6 m————— 214 G 3° 0: 36 7 147.6 19 17, 6————— £94, 15 z 94 Eftimates of StucIVork Cottages with hipped Ends. i Brought over 94 15 2 di? Gs. ad fo 17.6 ‘Nine fquare and forty feet of roofing, at 9s. per fquare ne 4G Five{quare of{ftuddeg partitions, at 65. 6d. rm ri 6 Six fquare and an half of flooring joifts, at 75. 6d. per fquare 2. 290) use Six{quare of flooring, with white-wood deals, at 18s.$826 Twelve pair of door-cafes, at 25. a pair= J TAG Two pieces of timber to lay on the chimneys= Oss 0 Twelve doors, at 4s. each- a 2 Bey Eight windows, at 25. 6d.-each- ss To<6 ‘Two pair of ftairs, at 1/. os.-= 2 166 Nails, and irons, for the doors- Z 112 0 Two pieces of timber, the whole length of the building, for lintels, to lay the joifts on--- 060 Six fquare and an half of ceiling joifts, at 65. 6d. per fquare 2a. 2s Fight window-boards, at 1s. each-= Ge pan; Shelves and work to pantries~ e Cine Carriage, eftimated at-- é 8 6° 6 Add, to make the calculation even-- 6°10=r Sane ae tO Amount of the two cottages=-£140“Ga, 6 Amount of one--“ Le 70°. G20 STUD-WORK COTTAGES WITH HIPPED ENDS. For two ftud-work cottages, with hipped ends:— Carpenters’ Work. Fe es Five tons of pollard timber, at 14. per ton~ 5x0 220 Six tons of deal timber, at 2/. 55. per ton- 1310.0 Sixteen fquare and fixteen feet of ftud-work, on the fides, at 125. per{quare=== 9 73..6 Five{quare of ftud-partitions, at 65. 6d. per{quare- 1119. 26 Carried forward- 29 16© Eftimates of Stud-Vork Cottages with hipped Ends. 2m x Brought up- 29 16 oO Six fquare and an half of flooring joifts, at 75.6d. per fquare 2 26 Six fquare and an half of ceiling joifts, at 6s. 6d. per{quare© 23:9 3 Nine fquare and forty feet of roofing, at gs. per{quare 4 432.0 Six fquare of flooring, with white-wood deals, at 185.* rea PVRS Twelve pair of door-cafes, at 25. a pair== Ect. Twelve doors, at. 4s. each-== a...8.-6 Fight windows, at 25. each--= o 16 a Two pair of ftairs, at 1/. 5s. each-= 210 0 Shelves and work to pantries== 6.120 Two pieces of timber to lay on the chimneys- o 2 0 Eight window-boards-== G8 ic Nails, and irons, for the doors-- FO 6 Smiths?’ Work. Four large cafements, at 65. 6d. each- t 6-0 Two fmall ditto, at 4s. each-- o 80 Two ftoves for chamber fire-places=- 013 0 Four chimney-irons. to hang pots on=- om 7 6 Glaziers?’ Work. Ninety feet of glafs, at 8d. per foot-= Bo Bricklayers’ Work. Falfe ceiling,, in. the chambers, under the joifts, 130 yards, atis. 610© Ceiling between the joifts, 125 yards, at 6d.- 3 6 Forty-four yards of foundation-walls, at 3s. per yard~ G12 a Outfide lathing and plaftering, 122 yards, at rs. per yard 6 Oo Ten fquare and an half of tiling, at 1/4. 2s. per fquare- fi 1t+6 Infide partitions lathed and plaftered, on both fides- Cie eee Two ground-floor chimneys, and two fire-places, and two ovens and oven-lids--- LO: 2.-.0 Ay] t4 6 Carried forward= 53 18 9 2 t4--6 2 GO 59; 43° 3 Brought over Paving, with white bricks, 125 yards, at Is. 4: Lathing and plaftering the infide-ftuds, two coats of 169 yards, at 1s. per yard Two flag-ftones for chamber fire-places Carriage of materials, eftimated at Add, to make the calculation even Amount of thefe two cottages Amount of one Bi i Eftimates of Stud-JVork Cottages with hipped Ends. »V; # Re ee| hea Wy: aa - 8° 6°: 8 mortar, § 9 Oo - o 4:0 o"0<0 oe os ass Seg sg . 4-133. 0 0 -£: 664m.© In the letting or management of cottages, there are feveral circumftances that require to be more attended to than feems in general to have been the cafe. It fhould always be the obje€t of the proprietors of farms to guard the labouring 2 cottager, as much as poflible, from being injured by any improper conduct in the common farmer, while at the fame time his labour is effectually fecured to the farm; and alfo, that his little rent be exa€ted in the moft eafy and convenient way. The firft may, probably, be the mott eafily effected by the proprietors of lands keeping the cottages that may be upon their farms in their own hands, and not fuffering their tenants to have the direftion or management of them; and by their having juft and equitable ftipulations in refpeét to labour entered into between their cottagers and their tenants. The latter may be accomplifhed in various ways; but that which is practifed in fome of the midland diftriéts, of dedu&ting from their wages, at the clofe of every week, a{mall part propor- tioned to the value of their labour, and the annual fum which they pay for their cottage, in order to difcharge their rent, feems the leaft objectionable. It is obferved by an ufeful and well-informed wri is another plan relative to cottages, which gene v ar er on the fubjeét, that“ there uly anfwers extremely well, and that is, to leafe them off to induftrious labourers, for the term of three lives 5) bd> at their nomination; taking a very moderate fine, not exceeding ten or twelve pounds, upon a cottage worth about forty fhillings a-year; referving a fmall quit-rent, not exceeding half a crown a-year, and making ita point to renew any life which drops off, upon one year’s value only.” This tcheme, he contends, is beneficial for landlord and tenant; for though the former does not let his Farm-Cottages. 97 cottages for fo much as he might at rack-rent, yet what he does get, is all clear money; and by this means he preferves the value of all other, parts of his eftate, by keeping up a proper number of inhabitants. The latter, he thinks, finds his account in it, becaufe he makes a fettlement for his family; and can repair and improve his cottage at leifure hours with his own hands; and if he be an induf- trious man, he cam generally find a friend to lend him his firft fine, on fuch an occafion, if he cannot raife it himfelf*. This is a plan that has been attempted with fuccefs in different diftriéts; but it is, perhaps, better calculated for the large than the fmall proprietor. From what has been advanced, it muft be fufficiently evident that the build- eo ing of proper cottages for farming labourers is not merely a matter that interefts. _ the proprietors of land, infomuch as it renders the fituation of that ufeful clafs n° of workmen more comfortable, but which, at the fame time, has a great tendency 7 to promote the full and complete cultivation of the foil. lances > cafe. re* Kent's Hints, p. 217. uring, uct in red to emtent etors of and 1; and red into ed in ts, of: yropor if pay 101 onad “ there well, 2 lives, twelve a{m il o renew Inclofing of Land. IncLosiNG.—Advantages of, varisus——Contributes much to Improvements 1n Cultivation—Produce thereby greatly augmented——Urtility of, in producing Warmth and Shelter—Promotes the Fattening of Animals—Value of Land much increafed by it—Some Sorts more than others—Turnip Soils probably the moft—lVhere neceffary or not—Has not been fufficiently attended to—Caufes of this Negle—Sometimes arifes from Mifmanagement in the Direétion of Inclofures—Vartous Circum= frances to be regarded in—Urtility of certain Claufes in Bills of Inclofure—Building Cottages neceffary — Situation of thus improved—Methods of appointing Perfons to tranfa&t the Bufinefs of Inclofure— Circumffances to be attended to in—Utility of a general AG of—FENCES—Circumftances to be regarded in the Making of—Particulars to be attended to in—Should be regulated by the Kind of Farm and Nature of Soil— Effects of different—fized Inclofures—Middle-fized generally moftadvantageous — Difference of in Grafs and Arable Land—Circumftances to be attended to in each—Advantages of different Kinds.—W AaLLs—Different Kinds of, defcribed—Advantages of each—Nature of Foun- dations of—Modes of making of—Lift Walls—Dry Walls—Earth and Stone Walls, or Dikes— Method of forming them, according to Dr. Anderfon—Means of protecting them—May be made cheaply—Rendered mere lafting by dafbing, lipping, and hurling with Lime—Middleton’s Opinion of Valls in general—In fome Situations moft advantageous for a limited Time.—PAILING- FENCES—Cannot be generally adopted for Farm Inclofures—Different Kinds of, defcribed— May often be cheaply made—Utility of, in particular Cafes—Hurdles or moveable Fences—Should be formed of light Wood—Circum/ftances to be regarded in ereéting Pailing-Fences—Means of pre- ferving them from Decay—Live HEDGES—Aittention to Situation and Soil neceffary in raifing—- “Kind of Ground and Situation in which different Sorts of Plants may be moft ufefully employed— Different Advantages of the White and Black Thorn—The Willow-Alder, Furz, and Beech— Circumfances to be regarded in ufing a Mixture of different Sorts of Plants—Neceffary Preparation of the Land, and the Advantages of it—Proper Seafon of planting—What neceffary to attend to in choofing the Plants—In raifing them in the Nurfery—Moft advantageous Size of—Thofe of equal Growth fbould be planted together—The trimming requifite for them—Methods of planting Hedges— Vary much ia different Diftritis—On ditch Banks—On Sod turned up—On the plain Surface—Dif- jerent Ways of making them—Advantages and Difadvantages of each Mode—Methods recommended ae PAIS 4s: ae= F-< 5 by Mr. Middleton--Utility of them—IV hat neceffary in planting on Banks—Difadvantage of large 002 D0 1268 8 0 627; O23@ 641 8 0 Seatpee Holdingham CROC TOTES CK Oy 79 918 O O 1273 2 O‘ 3669 0 0 Dunften heath and fields 1957 0 20 LOST 2k 641.0 0 396- 1e+'3 1300 0 0O fTatrerfhall inclofure ANOS=2=15[ 21685 11 1706 Al 8 46110 3 626=202-0) Fense—Ditto embankment 892 0 26 838 13 9 387 19 9 450 14 0 3630 0 0O Anwick Fen- L097'=.0'=. 0 7103 16 0 5417 0 648 19 0 4070 0 0O The niuve embanked) fens from Tatterfhall r 19,418 I 34) 15,554 8 8 1941 16> 0] 13,592 12> 0|" 77,672 0 0] to Lincojn lIntereft at 54 Net gain to the Holland Fen 11 towns 922°000. 0,-0|.-25,300 0.70)-3600°..0%..0 21,700 O 0) 50,600. 0 O} per cent. Owners. Total- 92,033 2 30) 72,150 15 11} 21,490 16 5 50,659 19 6)175,191 13 es idles Tk. 7} 41,905 8 1) + Inclofing of Land—Fences. 107 ftroyed by diforders, fuch as the rot,&c. In confequence of fuch a fyftem, the markets would not only be better fupplied with fat cattle and fheep, but with different forts of grain and vegetables. Befides, the neceflity of making furrows, drains, ditches, and other paflages for conveying away and removing the fuperabundant furface water, in fuch cafes, would have a great effe&t in rendering low fwampy fituations more healthy and comfortable for their inhabitants. Much immediate as well as permanent employment would, like- wife, be created for the labourer in hufbandry, and the rural artificer; while beg- gary and robbery, if not wholly prevented, would probably be rendered much lefs frequent. On population too there can be little doubt but that it would have a good effect, from the great increafe of corn and vegetables of different kinds, as well as of cattle; and, as has been juft obferved, the augmented demand for labourers and artificers of various def{criptions which it muft produce. The faéts which we poffefs on the fubje€t are, however, yet probably too few to draw any certain conclufions from*. Therefore, in whatever point of view the bufinefs of inclofing common or wafte land may be contemplated, it promifes advantages of the moft important kinds. The humble cottager, the rich proprietor, and the nation at large, muft be equally benefited by the faiutary influence of fuch a fyftem, whenever it is allowed to take place. FENCES. In the inclofing or dividing of lands, by means of fences, regard is neceflary to be had to a variety of circumftances, fuch as the fize of the farms, and the nature of them, as well as the ufes to which they are to be converted; the climate, the elevation, fituation, and nature of the foils; the particular objects that are in view, or to be expeéted from them; and the materials of which they are to be formed. It is fufficiently evident that fuch inclofures as are chiefly intended for the production of grafs, ought to be fmaller than thofe in which grain is moftly to be cultivated and grown. On the lighter forts of fandy or gravelly foils, too, the divifions fhould be fmall in proportion to their dry- nefs, and the particular kinds of crops which can be raifed and cultivated moft commonly, and to the greateft advantage, upon them, And the in- * Middleton’s View of the Agriculture of Middlefex, p, 110. 3 yay\ Se AEN my yy a 108 Tnclojng of LANG rm LERCES, clofures on fheep downs, and other lands where there is confiderable eleva~ tion, fhould, probably, have a reduétion of their extent proportioned to their height, and the drynefs of the grounds; the thicknefs of the hedges being, like- es regulated by the fame circu nitances. We are, however, afiured, on the authority of an able agricultor, that in forty years’ experience he has always found that the grafs would begin to burn, and the grain to fuffer, firft, in a dry fummer, in finall inclofres, and particularly near the hedges. Where the divifions are large, and the foil moift, great care muft be taken in making proper drains to fupply the want of ditches, which anfwer the fame purpofe when properly formed. The frequency of full-grown hedges, high ditch-banks, and trees, on the firft fort of ground, has confiderable effect in preventing fuch lands from becoming too dry, for the fuccefsful growth of different crops. Itis ftated by a judicious writer*, that“equal care fhould be taken to guard againtt the extremes of too much expofure, and that of creating a thick damp atmofphere, as the health, thrift, and beauty, of animals are greatly promoted by proper fhelter, and a due circulation of air. For inftance,” continues he,‘‘a low, flat, and naturally damp fituation, divided into fmall inclofures by high hedges and broad fhaws, efpecially if they abound with trees, is totally unfit for the pro- duétion of corn crops, and{till more if it be expofed to a northern afpect, and inclofed with wood. In that cafe the fun is too much excluded, and the damp cannot be fufficiently drained and evaporated to prevent the redundancy of moifture from chilling the better plants, leaving an herbage that will be of no value to a farmer. On the contrary, if it be free from adjoining woods, be drained, and the ditches kept well cleanfed, it would make good permanent pafture or meadow. If, in addition to thefe, the hedges fhould be kept clofely cut or cliptt, the fields large, the trees{ trimmed to the height of twelve or fifteen feet, and every poflible method taken to promote the free admiffion of the fun’s rays, with a perfect drainage and evaporation, it would be fit for many of the purpofes of aration.” But though the ftagnation of the air in confined fituations, may have an in- jurious effect on vegetable, as well as animal life, by preventing the proper degree * Middleton in his View of the Agriculture of Middlefex. t Where hedges are clipt, they fhould be left wide at the bottom, and tapered up to a ridge at the top; for where they are left broad at top, as is often the cafe, they are apt to{mother the young thoots below, and the bottom foon grows thin. { There fhould probably be very few trees in hedge-rows. > Inelofing of Land,— Fences, 109 of evaporation from taking place; it is not lefs injurious to the feeding of animals than the growth of vegetables, when it circulates too much or too rapidly over a diftriét, efpecially where the elevation is confiderable, as in mountainous and hilly fituations; for, in fuch cafes, the warmth of the animals is too fuddenly carried off by the too frequently renewed application of cold air, and the growth of the vegetable thereby much checked and retarded. In fuch fituations, therefore, particular attention ought to be paid in planting the hedges fo as beft to break off the winds they would be the moft expofed to.“ It is as well,” fays the writer we have juft quoted,“ forthe purpofe of fhelter, fhade, and equable warmth, as of occafional freth fupplies of grafs, that the Leicefter- fhire graziers have founded their opinion of fifty acres in five inclofures, being equal to fixty in one.” It would feem, therefore, that whether land that is to be inclofed be intended for the purpofes of pafturing, or the produétion of grain, root, and fuch-like crops 3 it will be the moft advantageous to avoid the extremes of very large or very {mall inclofures, but that in the latter cafes they may be left more large and open than in the former. From feven or eight to fifteen or even twenty acres, according to the extenfivenefs of the farm, for fuch forts of land as are chiefly to be employed in the way of grazing, may, in generaly be the moft proper; and from eight or ten to thirty, in proportion to the magnitude of the farm, in common, may be the moft fuitable for thofe of the arable kind. But whatever be the dimenfions adopted for the inclofures, great attention fhould conftantly be had to the conve- nience of water, the pofition of the ground, the purpofes of drainage, and the bringing together as much as is eafily praéticable lands of a fimilar quality, or fuch as can be cultivated and fown under the fame circumftances, though it may tend to render them unequal in regard to fize, and irregular in form*. Where, indeed, there are no circumftances arifing from the nature of the fitua- tion, that prevents their being formed in a regular manner, the fize of the farms and the courfe of the crops that can be moft beneficially cultivated on them fhould be principally regarded; as by their being thus made to fuit the nature and extent of the farms, conveniences may be gained in the bufinefs of cultivating them, as well as in taking off their produéts, that no other mode of divifion could probably afford t. It may on the whole probably be concluded, that the more equable, in refpect * Anderfon's Effays, vol. I. p, 168. t Robertfon’s View of the Agriculture of the County of Perth. 110 Inclofing of Land.—Fences. to temperature, fuch fields as are intended for paftures can be made by means of judicious fencing, provided they be properly drained, and a due circulation of air preferved, the better they will fatten the animals that are kept in them; but that in grounds where grain and root crops are to be cultivated, except in ele- vated, hilly, and very sepa fituations, the fize of the inclofures fhould be larger, and the fences lefs calculated for the purpofes of fhelter, as the: free and equable admiflion of air has great power in rendering the growth of fuch kinds of crops healthy and vigorous, as well as in preventing them from being injured bis q ariety of caufes to which, under other circumftances, they muft be expofed suber ce the health of mankind, as has been already obferved, w ould, in many cates, be confiderably benefited by the adoption of fuch a fyftem of inclofure. Fences are of different kinds, and conftituted of different. mater! tals, accord- ing to the fituations, and the particular circumftances under: which they are made; but, in general, fo far as the farm is concerned, they may be cont fiderec either as walls and pailings, or hedges and ditches. It muft be obvious, from the nature of thefe different fences, that one kind of them, from its being formed of fome fort or other of dead material, muft, in every inftance, from the very period of its being completed, be conftantly getting worfe, or proceeding to a{tate of decay; while the other, as being compofed of various forts of living plants, where properly managed and ended to, mutt be advancing to a ftate of greater improvement and advantage.‘This difference fully fhews the advantage of having recourfe to one fort of material in preference to the other, wherever there is a poflibility of doing its but in fome diftri€ts, and many expofed fituations, it is frequently a matter of great difficulty and expence to procure fuch forts of materials as would be the moft beneficial for the purpofe; in fuch cafes, that fort muft of courfe be employed which is the moft ready and convenient. The dead kind of fences, whether they be formed of ftones, wood, or earth, can feldom, from the expence,be made by the farmer of fuch heights or in fuch ways as to be of much utility in affording fhelter; they will therefore be the moft proper for inclofing with, where that forms no part of the intention of the farmer or proprietor who is making the inclofure.. Where this fort of mate- rial is employed as a fence on elevated or hilly and expofed fituations, it fhould be conftruéted’in a more firm manner, and be made to ftand higher, than when ufed in lower and more fheltered fituations. wv o-o wo a 2 v ee oO a Ga 2s.&..o ov wv a ee a uw 2=& Fs its or SSS 7 ee PL.XXIX -WALL GHARPHBENCES. ae “a= Seeley, LR<= NY Vi Oi. / Se kee pena a ages S===———— A=<= cd b Se S22 Sa a= ae, ===== Ey fC= f l=—— on a a eo| > Aull l 5 TT TT ‘on fig. 6 fig. 9. ET. UN- Sah‘aha hs se fy eee ne=a eae Gy Bese ccen---..-.....-- 4 aa PLAX PLATE XXIX. Wall and Earth Fences. [To face Page 110.| Fig. 1. Reprefents common ftone walls coped with different forts of materials. At a the eoping is formed with brick, and at 4 with fod or turf. Fig. 2. Exhibits the front of a brick wall, and alfo a wall formed wholly of turf:@ the brick wall; 4 the turf wall. Fig. 3. Difplays walls conftructed of different forts of fub{tances in combination: a is a eurf and ftone wall; 6a mud and ftraw wall. Fig. 4. Comprehends a frame for conftru€ting mud walls with a dyke wall: a the mud wall frame, 6 a gallaway dyke or wall. Fig. 5. Shows a fimple dyke or ditch fence; the quicks are put in behind the earth thrown up, and proteéted by a dead hedge behind them. Fig. 6. Shows the double ditch, the earth taken out being formed into a bank in the middle. ‘Quicks may be planted on one or both the fides of the banks according to circumftances, and protected by hedges when neceflary. Fig. 7. Is a funk fence faced with ftone. When faced with turf this fort of fence fhould have a flanting form. Figs. 8. 9.10. and 11. Reprefent the manner of forming earthen fences, fo as to prevent their crumbling down and being deftroyed. It is recommended by Dr. Anderfon. Fig. 8. is a perpendicular feftion of it. Fig. g. isa fide view, and Fig. To. a perpendicular view of each row of turfsas it lies inthe fence.‘The mode of conftruction is thus: a long rut v exw fig. 1o. is made with the fpade along each fide, with the back to where the fence is to be, fo as to form the cut of the turf flanting outward, as at fig. 8. and 11.: another rut az fig. 10. is then made parallel’ to the former, at the diftance of the length of the turf a from it, with the face to the fence, fo as to flope inward as at R, fig. 11. in order that the firft row of turf may be raifed with facility: it is then cut into fods of proper breadth, as at dotted lines a fig. Io. which being raifed by the fpade are laid into the fence with the graily fide undermoft, as at a figs. 8.9. and 1o.: the other fide being finifhed in the fame way, the upper furface of the whole courfe is pared fmooth, and clapped down with the back of the fpade for the reception of the next courfe: another row of turf dz fig. ro. is then marked off to the diflance of the breadth of that at J figs. 8. and 10. from the former, with the face towards the fence; and the through band turf B on the oppofite fide being firft lightly laid, this is put acrofs the ends of them lengthways, fo as to form a fide band 4, figs. 9. and Io.? another rut cz is then formed at the diftance of the length of the turf ¢ from the former; but before it is raifed it 1s neceflary to draw arut in the line dz, with the back towards the fence, which gives it the form BAC, fig. 11. leaving a fmall triangular piece at 5; fo that when put up in the fence it has the pofition fhown at BAC, and thus permits the oppofite fide band© to join intimately with it, ] which would otherwife have proje€ted outward above as to D, fo that the turf O could not j he have joined it clofely, but have left a triangular opening in the middle, and thus rendered t fence lefs compaét and folid. The work is to proceed in this manner, always rutting the ough band rows of courfe with thofe that crofs t and placed with the graffy fide uppermoft, fo as to project a little, as at L/ fig. 8. only better thrown off, but the fence rendered more fecure from cattle and the effects of wind. At the foot o a ditch, as XX fig. 8. fhould be dug on each fide, a foot and a half or WARE two feet deep Plate XXIX continued. rf in both ends, but the fide bands only on one fide, beginning every o he fence. The top courfe fhould be cut a little longer than thofe fer fet on the edge, asin fig. 11. 3 as by this means the water is not being left a few inches in breadth, to guard againft the effects of yundation dry, and prevent the intrufion of cattle. ( PAILING FENCES. + ay jou mu Seber é hes { { i it tennnn ena neTOU ENA EOREES f f A i" TIM th i=" CLT y] il! Ue TTT vin AUARSVANANDRRUUATONGLOUEQQUQRODUOQONGDOGEROVOOOOUUON TT {| | MM| nT il UL WJ MA STITT {|| 4. GATT tht o LI HUA NTT || 1} PLY PLATE XXX. Pah ng Fences. [To face Page 110.| Fig. 1. Reprefents two different forts of paling fences: a, a coarfe nailed, undrefled, fawn pailing; d, a jointed, horizontal, dreffed paling fence. Fig. 2. Reprefents two other forts of paling fences: a, an upright light lath paling, fupported by refts as neceflary; 4, a fir paling of the horizontal kind, made from the thinnings of trees of that kind, the lateral branches being trimmed off two inches from the ftems. Fig. 3. Shows two palings of another kind: a, an upright fir paling with the branches left as in J, fig. 1. 6, an open nailed paling fence warped with thorns. Fig. 4. Contains two other forts of fences: a, an ozier or willow fence wattled together in three different parts; 4, a paling fence from growing trees. Fig. 5. Exhibits two forts of clofe paling: a, upright or park-paling; 4, a lath horizontal paling. Thefe are very ufeful kinds of fences where clofenefs is required.. Fig. 6. Isa moveable or hurdle-fence. fig. 7. A lamb-hurdle ufed in Lincolnfhire, for preventing the lambs falling into the ditches of the paftures in ftormy feafons.“The{paces between the rails are clofed by tarpaulin. Mr. Young fuggefts that flit deals may anfwer, being held in their places by the braces aa, one of which being moveable, the other fixed with nuts on the rivets, fo as to admit the board to take out occafionally. Fig. 8. The common hurdle. GWEDGE FRENCES. i fi ¢ = a VEN OS il§ SEs ay R\\\ Coe Ly ANY \\ \\y sy/ A] + i iq O. DA sxexex *L Ry PLATE XXX. Hedge Fences. [To face Page 110.]} Fig. 1. Reprefents a white-thorn hedge, with the leaves upon it, fo cut and trained as to leave it in the ridge form, or broad at bottom and narrow at the top. saa: Fig. 2. Is the reprefentation of a hedge in the face of a bank, as defcribed by Mr. Somerville, Fig. 3. Exhibits a hedge at the bottom of the bank. Fig. 4. Is a reprefentation of the Devonthire fence. Fig. 5. Reprefents a hedge-fence placed on the top of the bank. Fig 6. Shows another mode of planting a hedge upon the top of the bank, with the manage- ment of the young plants by a protection of willow-hedge, raifed by fetting the ftakes. Fic. 7. A hedge with a wall. Fig. 8. Shows a hedge on the wall. —_----=—~ SS ee a Sa=——— a a re reer cere as (VY NOP Fe A LOA IBS ANS anc WC HLED G. yin = Kine ewe ee I ag ss= a ee ee iv Se ay ANN UR ATT reo nA UU NS hg a ni il ee\ \y 1] LZ. ‘ata Gtr bey fi 28 a a(att i it oT ‘ ‘ a ecm al ta EC Ne ON (}; Ai Ky Vena CU IY 8 Ny‘ te" NOE Se aa eR PENCES. PY, SOx a) WA Ne 7 SN& Me KS. Zz o> SAN MS oe OY) ny p AIG : iq.0. VG é NYA v7 LNG) aA he Ee ype RY SAIUN i \\““ws . . Gah eae yy i, L.X XX] PLATE XXXIL Hedge Fences. [To face Page 110.] Fig. 1. Is a hedge in the middle of the wall. Fig. 2. A view of a hedge and ditch with a row of trees on the top. Fig. 3. A furze or whin hedge on the bank faced with ftones. Fig. 4. A furze hedge placed merely on the top of the bank. Fig. 5. Shows an old hedge cut over, and the young growth of the firft year upon it. Fig. 6. Is an old hedge cut over, fome of the old ftems left uncut and warped in to fill up the vacancies. Fig. 7. Reprefents the common quick-hedge, with the ftems nicked and bent down a little, being then bound at top with willows or hazels. Fig. 8. Exhibits the method of mending a gap, where the old hedge is cut down, by laying one of the old ftems, and confining it by hooks, then covering it with earth, fo as that it may fend up numerous fhoots to fill up the vacancy. ——_—————— ER i a a ra I OR ey ee LHIEDGE FENCES. XXX PLATE XxX SIL Hedge Fences. [ To face Page 110.] Fig. 1. Reprefents a hedge repaired in the manner as at fig. 8. Plate XXXII. and pro- tected by a{trong paling in the opening. fig. 2. Exhibits an old thorn-hedge cut down, and an opening repaired by planting young beech trees, protecting them as in fig. 6. Fig. 3. Is a hedge and paling. Fig. 4. Isa hedge with a dead hedge on the top of the bank for proteéting the young plants. Fig. 5. A hedge with ditch having a coarfe wall on the bank to protect the plants. Fig. 6, Reprefents a common dead hedge. fig. 7. Shows a dead hedge bound together at the top by edders. Fig, 8. Reprefents the form of dead hedge ufually termed fake and band, and fometimes Jake and rife. In it the dead materials are wattled in between{trong ftakes. —— Se oe eee eR ee ee Lnclofing of Land, Wh WALLS. Waenre ftones are abundant, and other forts of materials fcarce, the outfide, as well as the other fences, are frequently made with that fort of material. In the conftruétion of walls, different methods are purfued in different diftricts; they are fometimes made fimply of ftones, fometimes with{tones and lime or mortar, but perhaps more frequently by interpofing between the ftones fome earthy fubftance, fuch as clay, mud, turf, or any fimilar matter, and afterwards dath- ing or pointing them with mortar or not, according to the particular circum- {tances of the walls. The firft fort are denominated dry ftone walls; the fecond ftone and lime walls; and the laft earth and ftone walls*. It muf be obvious that where any fort of earthy material is employed in the forming of thefe kinds of fences, they can neither be fo good nor fo durable as where ftones alone, or {tones with lime, are made ufe of, as from the continual a€tion of the air, and the diftending powers of frofts, fuch fubftances quickly decay and moulder away, by which means the ftones are left naked and loofe, and the fences foon become in a ftate of ruin and of little utility. Walls of this nature fhould therefore only be had recourfe to where there are not materials for con{tructing the more laft- ing kinds. Stones, when made into walls in the dry way, if the work be properly_ executed, conftitute a very good and durable fence; but a better and more lafting, though in many fituations a confiderably more expenfive, method, is that of ufing lime, as by this means the walls are bound and cemented together, and prevented from going away and falling down. In preparing the ground for the foundation of walls, it thould always be dug up to fuch a depth as that the froft may have no effe@ on it; where the fur- face of the earth is fufficiently level, it is found a more preferable method to lay the foundation of walls on the turf than in a flight trench only, as in this way they are not probably fo liable to fink and give way. The foundation or bottom of this fort of walls fhould be two feet and an half wide, and the upper part from ten to fifteen or twenty inches, according to their height, which mutt vary in proportion to the nature of the fituation and other circumftances; but from five to fix feet is a very common and good height. They fhould always be coped at the top, either by means of ftones laid edgeways, or with turf about fix inches in thicknefs, put on in the form of an arch; the former is, however, by * In fome places this fort of fence is termed dyke. Sennen a ee == Se——— mn\ p 112 Inelofing of Land.—MWValls. far the moft advifable method, as being the moft durable, and affording much difficulties to animals in their attempts to get over. In fome places walls are made partly with a cement, and partly dry, and are termed /i/z walls; but where a flat bed of ftone can be had, they are generally conftru€ted without the ufe of any cement whatever, and if the work be well executed, they will continue a long time. In the building of dry ftone walls, two mafons ought conftantly to be employed oppofite to each other, in order that the furface of their work may be kept perfeétly level. Long ftones fhouid likewife be feleéted for the purpofe of being placed occafionally acrofs the wall, in order to bind it well together. Thefe are termed throughs, or through fiones, and are commonly put about the middle of the work, in the proportion of nine or ten to every rood of feven yards. The expences of building thefe different forts of walls in Somerfetfhire, Mr. Billingfley flates, to be per rope of twenty feet as follows:— LIST WALL. Te Se d. ‘Yo quarring or digging eight loads of ftone(25 cwt. each), at 3d. O20 To halling the fame, fuppofing the diftance half a mile, at 6d. o=4.-0 To building per rope(twenty feet), at 3s. 6d..- OF 3.26 ‘To feven bufhels of lime, at 3d.°-~ OnXp To covering with turf(if done very well)~ 7 me 2 RAE + P20.£1, 6 DRY STONE WALlLe Ja Sts Yo quarring as before- ne=‘ oo ws To halling ditto 2~.-. OC AGO To building, at 2s.-=-- O22=O ‘To turfing”= ad 3= ee RE eS Pi-O1 8 3 * In confequence of the advanced price of wages and of coal, fifteen or twenty per cent muft now be added to thefe calculations. hould wall, lones) f nine s, Mr. Ls it mutt now oad Thtclofing of Land«nl Pa fs,}] 3 When ftones can be got within a wheeling diftance, or about fixty or feventy yards, it is obferved that the coft will be reduced about two fhillings a rope; and that if the wall be wholly made with cement, it will be enhanced about two fhillings and fix pence the rope. And in-Northumberland the charge for winning and walling 1s from five fhillings and fix pence, to fix fhillings and fix pence the rood, of feven yards. The ftones employed in the conftrufling of every fort of wall fhould be ren- dered of as flat a form as poflible, either by quarrying, or fome other means, before they are made ufe of; as by fuch a practice fences of this fort are not only conftruéted with much greater facility and expedition, but become far more {trong and durable. In building of walls with ftone and lime, the early part of the fpring or the beginning of autumn feem by much the moft fuitable periods for the purpofe, as they cannot at fuch feafons be much injured either by the deftructive effedts of froft, or the too drying properties of great heat. In the forming of walls, or what in fome diftrifts are termed dykes, with earthy materials, or with a mixture of ftones and fuch fubftances, the methods that are followed vary according to the circumftances of the particular cafes. In fome, two or three feet at the bottom is conftruéted with dry round or flat ftones, in a floping direétion, upon which a coping of broad flat ftones ts laid, fo as to proje&t a little upon the fides, upon which rough ftones are again placed fo as to form a kind of ridge: in other inftances wrought clay is em- ployed in the way of mortar between each courfe of ftone; and in others again turf cut from the furface of the land is intermixed with ftones taken from the fields, layer upon layer. This laft is a kind of fence that may be formed in almoft any fituation at a trifling expence, and which may ferve the purpofes of temporary inclofure in many cafes. But if the ftones be left out, and the whole wall or bank be raifed in a floping dire€tion with turfs well filled up behind, a {till more firm and folid fence may be made. On ftone walls Mr. Middleton very juftly obferves, that“ fo far as the mere purpofe of a fence is intended or defired they are the beft of all, as they occafion the leaft wafte of ground, do no injury to the corn crops, do not harbour ver- min, and are free from the weeds and rubbifh that invariably accompany live hedges. Nor be it forgotten,” continues he,“ that they nearly exclude the greateft of all vermin, to a cultivated country, hunters*.” * View of the Agriculture of Middlefex. Q 114 Inclojing of Land.—Il¥alls, _It is remarked by an accurate pra€tical obferver, that the greateft part of the walls or dykes of the kind that have been juft defcribed, which he has feen, were made of a confiderable thicknefs, with a ditch on each fide; the heart of the dyke being made up with the earth that had been taken from the ditches, and only a thin facing on each fide was built of folid feal(turf) from top to bottom;“ the confequence,” fays he,“ of which is, that as the loofe earth that is thrown into the middle of the dyke fubfides much more than the feal_on each fide, the top of the dyke finks, and of courfe the two fide-walls are prefled too much upon the infide, fo as to bilge(or fwell) out about the middle, and quickly crumble down to duft.” To avoid this inconve- nience, he has always chofen to build dykes of this fort much thinner than ufual, they being only three feet and a half or four feet thick at the bottom, fifteen or eighteen inches at top, and five'feet high, taking care to have them built in fuch a manner as that every fod(feal) from top to bottom binds the joinings of the others below it, with as much accuracy as the bricks in a well-built wall. The uppermoft courfe of feal is cut a little longer than thofe that are immedi- ately below it, and placed with the grafly fide uppermoft, fo as to projeé a little on each fide, which is not only of ufe to throw the water a little off the wall or dyke, but is alfo of ufe in preventing fheep or cattle from attempting to Jump over it fo readily as they otherwife mightdo. Further experience has, how- ever, taught him, that in many cafes the coping will be more durable if it confit of a row of feal fet on edge; for when the flat-laid feal are withered by the fun in fummer, they become very light, and are apt to be blown off by the wind fingly; whereas, when they are fet on edge, as they lean upon each other, they are bound fo firmly together, that no fingle one can be carried off. He has like- wife found, that a wall, whofe foundation is ftone, though perhaps the{tones rofe no more than a foot, or a foot and a half high, having the upper part finifhed with feal, or of alternate layers of ftone and feal, if the dimenfions are the fame as if it were compofed entirely of feal, is probably more durable than any other kind of fence compofed wholly of either of thefe materials. At the foot of the wall or dyke, on either fide, is dug a fmall ditch about a foot and a half, or two feet deep, leaving a ledget of a few inches broad on each fide, that the dyke may not be undermined by the crumbling down of the loofe earth into the ditch.“« Thefe ditches,” he fays,“ not only help to give the dyke an additional height, and keep its foundation dry, but are alfo of ufe to prevent cattle from coming clofe to it, and rubbing upon it, or tearing it down with their horns, which they are very apt to do if this precaution be omitted.” t of een, t of hes, D to earth 1 the two ) out onve- ufual, en oF lt in nes of wall. medi ect a f the ng to how- confit {un in fingly; ey are - ftones r part 1s are than Tnclofing of Land.—lVallts. 115 In refpe& to dry ftone dykes, or walls, he obferves, that“ if you live in a country where good free-ftone can be eafily got, and lime canbe procured at a moderate price, a dyke built of thefe materials will be little lefs durable than a hedge; although, in general, it will neither be fo cheap nor fo agreeable. But that dry ftone dykes, unlefs built of the fineft quarried ftone, are of fuch a perifh- able nature, as to be fcarcely ever worth the expence of rearing; unlefs the field that you would wifh to inclofe has plenty of ftones upon itfelf, which mutt be carried off from its furface before the field can be improved. In fuch a fitua- tion,” he fays,“a man may in fome meafure be excufed if he fhould be temptedto put the ftonesinto dykes; becaufe the carriageof thefe materials may be faid to coft him nothing, and he might perhaps be at a lofs how to difpofe of them in any other manner. But in all other circumftances he apprehends it is very bad economy to rear fences of this kind, as earthen or feal dykes can always be built at about one-fourth part of the expence that thefe would coft, will anfwer all purpofes equally well, and if carefully built may be kept in repair for any num- ber of years, at a very fmall expence*.” It is likewife fuggefted that by having the joints in thefe fences bound in all direétions, the whole is rendered more firm and compaét than it could be made in any other way, and at the fame time more readily formed. And that as the chief inconveniences to which they are expofed are thofe of their being liable to be torn or rubbed down by cattle, and to moulder away by the effects of froft, and the a€tion of the air, it might eften be advantageous to fet the banks with ivy,{weet-briar, furz, or fome fuch kinds of plants, in order to protect them. As earthen walls, or fences of that nature, can be formed in moft fituations inthe way that has been defcribed, at the expence of three halfpence or two pence a yard, they feem well calculated for inclofing where cheapnefs is a primary objeét. Walls conftruéted in many of the modes that have been mentioned above, may frequently be made either more durable, or more ornamental, by being da/hed, lipped, or harled with lime. For a limited number of years, where ftones can be eafily procured, there can probably be little doubt but that walled fences may be preferable to moft other kinds, as they can be readily repaired in cafes of accident, and keep cattle very fecure. Where the land is poor too, with much expofure to violent and defolating winds, fo that live hedges cannot be eafily raifed, they may be found the moft advantageous fort of fences. *~Anderfon’s Effays, vol. I. p. 7. Inclojing of Land, PAILINGS. Fences conftruéted of timber can in but very few fituations be advantage- ouily employed for the purpofe of inclofing Jand, except for parks and plea- fure-grounds, or they be formed of the coarfer forts of wood, and placed on the banks or fides of ditches, for the protection of young thorn or other hedges, and for the dividing of fields, as occupying little room, and other ufes of the fame nature. The moft cheap and common fort of pailing made ufe of for the inclofing of farms is that in which two, three, and fometimes four long pieces of timber, but little dreffed or prepared, are nailed in a longitudinal direCtion to upright pofts of different thickneffes, according to circumftances, firmly fet or drove into the 2? ble, by having triangular pieces of fown wood faftened lengthways upon the ground. In fome cafes thefe fences are rendered more firm, ftrong, and dura- tops of the pofts, by nails or wooden pins, with one of the edges upwards, fo as to convey away and cover them from being injured by the effects of water.| This is a much better and cheaper mode than that of making holes in the top pieces, in order to admit the heads of the pofts to pafs through them; or than that of inferting them into the pofts, by means of mortices made in them. Where there are coppices of young wood, either of fir, afh, or other kinds, fences of thisnature may be formed at very fmall expence by the trimmings from them, as the work may be performed by any common ingenious labourer. Care fhould, however, always be taken that the horizontal pieces be not fixed at too great diftances from each other, as where this is not fufficiently attended to, much inconvenience may be fuftained by animals creeping between them. But a better fort of farm pailing may be conftruéted by having the pofts hewen, and confiderably thicker, and mortices formed in them to receive the longitudinal pieces. This, however, though certainly a more neat, and proba- bly, in moft cafes, a more lafting kind of fence, is attended with much more expence. As the cutting of mortices is liable to weaken the pofts, and by admitting water to decay them, it has been fuggefted to attach the crofs or hori- zontal pieces to them by means of ftrong iron ftaples*. Iron is, however, very fubjeG to be deftroyed by the a€tion of air and moifture, except it be kept conftantly well covered with paint, which is not only troublefome, but ex- penfive. * Somerville in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. II. mies s from yourers t fixed tended em. Inclofing of Land.—Pailings. 1A 7 st There are ftill other kinds of pailings that may be employed as fences in par- ticular cafes. Where fuch pieces of timber as are proper for rails are fcarce, a good fence may be formed by only having one nailed at the top, and phe, at the bottom, to the upright pofts; or, indeed, by having only one at the top=the middle being filled up by nailing fhort thin upright pieces upon them, at the diftance of fix or eight inches from each other, being in the latter way left longer, and drove well into the ground.‘The flips or laths in this fort of fence, as they are but fhort, may be eafily procured from fuch kinds of wood as are the leaft Se and which cannot be ufed for many other purpofes. Such, for inftance, as may have been procured from the lopping of timber trees, or the thinning of plantations; but in all cafes they fhould be well feafoned before they are made ufe of, as green wood not only foon decays, but is quickly torn by the a€tion of the fun. From the clofenefs of this fort of fence, it feems well calculated for fuch inclofures as are to be kept ina ftate of pafturage, and where young quick hedges of any kind are to be prote€ted and kept from the cropping of cattle. A clofe kind of fence may likewife be made by nailing upon any of the above framings, either im a longitudinal or upright dire€tion, pieces of fir, or any kind of timber, roughly fown into pails of about an inch in thicknefs, and of fuch breadths as the timber will allow, fo as flightly to lap over the edges of each other. When nailed on lengthwife, the upright pofts mult be placed in the eround, at fuitable diftances for the length of the coarfe pails or fhingles. There is a kind of moveable pailing- oe that may frequently be of utility in dividing inclofures or confining theep and other forts of Sees while pi are feeding on different forts of vegetable produftions, which would be muc injured, and not fed off fo economically, if they were not confined by ae fuch means. This is the hurdle-fence, which may be made of any{mall fort of wood, but fuch kinds as are the lighteft in proportion to their fize fhould be pre- ferred. On this account the willow, the poplar, and the alder, when well dried and feafoned, may be highly ufeful for the purpofe of framed hurdles. Good hurdies may likewife be made by wattling young hazle plants, or others of a fimilar kind, between upright ftandards. Thefe are not, fe fo. neat as the former, but in general are much cheaper. Where the framed hurdle is made ufe of, it is rendered confiderably more ready and convenient, as. well as more durable, though a little more expentfive, b) y having the parts that are to be ne in the ground pointed.vrith: iron. Where this is done a hurdle-fence can ee own inavery fhort time, In fome cafes it might likewile be of great utility to have fmall Tnclofing of Land.—Pailings. iron loops and gudgeons at the upper parts, fo as that the whole fence might be conneéted from one end to the other by them. In the ereéting of all forts of pailing-fences, but efpecially fuch as are of the more expenfive kinds, as thofe for parks and pleafure-grounds, great attention fhould be paid to-having the pofts of fufficient length, in order that they may be fet.to a good depth in the ground; as without this be done, and the poft-holes well rammed up, they are very liable to be pufhed and blown down, or become irregular in their appearance. The depths to which the pofts ought to be placed into the ground, muft vary according to the nature of the foil, and the height and kind of pailing, but where it is clofe or of much height, from two to three feet is, in general, little enough. Such a feafon fhould always be chofen for putting down the pofts, as that they may be well rammed up at the time. In wet feafons this fort of bufinefs cannot, by any means, be effectually performed; a rather dry period is to be preferred. As fomething of the nature of putrid fer- mentation is apt to take place about the part where the pofts come above the ground, by which the wood is foon mouldered and decaved away, it 1s neceflary to guard againft it as much as poflible, by preparing them in fome way or other. From charcoal being known to be highly indeftruétible, pofts have been charred at the bottoms with this view, and where the operation is well.and cautioufly performed, it may be a very ufeful method. The application of tar and different forts of oil paints has, likewife, been made with the fame intention; but as all fuch applications are foon difcompofed when placed in contaét with the moitt earth, they can of courfe only refift the decay for a very fhort time. Of thefe fubftances, thofe which penetrate the wood the moft, are always to be preferred, which fhould be applied when the wood is perfe€tly dry and free from moifture, and the pofts be left for fome time before they are put into the ground. Where pofts can be had with the bark wholly upon them, efpecially if they have been cut at a proper feafon, no application of any fort will be neceflary, as this covering is found to refift decay much longer than any artificial appli- cation of the nature of paint. Much advantage may often be gained in preventing the decay of pofts, by the groundon which they are placed been raifed into a fort of fharp ridge, fo that the water may never be fuffered to ftagnate about them, the holes being made up rather higher than any other part, a circumftance which is feldom much regarded. For the covering of farm pailings, tar, as being a cheap fubftance, when good and well boiled, with a little ocre for the purpofe of thickening and giving ita Inclofng of Land.—Hedges,- 119 body, is probably the moft ufeful general application. Jt fhould always be laid on in as hot a fiate as poflible, and the wood at the time be as free as poflible from moifture. Coal oil, if it could be rendered of a rather more thick confiftence, might probably be employed for thefe coarfe purpofes with great advantage; but when ufed in the form of paint, it is liable to become flaky, and peel off. HEDGES. In the raifing of quick hedges, the planter fhould always have attention to the nature of the foil, and the fituation of the ground, and of courfe adapt his plants to them; which may, in moft inftances, be done by attending to the growth of fuch plants as are already on the land; and he may employ either one, or a mix- ture of different kinds of plants, for the purpofe; but the latter pra€tice is not, in general, to be recommended. On dry and tolerably good foils, efpecially for outfide fences, the white and black thorns ought always to be preferred. The latter is not, however, fo certain a grower, except the ground have a rich and rather dry friable mould; but it is more lafting, and not fo liable to be cropped by cattle. Some practical planters think, however, that black-thorns fhould never be put in, except upon very cold and wet land, where white-thorns will not grow; and that crab-fets are even in thefe cafes much better; as they grow flow, make a forry weak fence, and are fure to run and fpread out into the inclofures, In low fituations, where there is much furface water, and where the foil is rather loofe and retentive of moifture, the farmer may have recourfe to plants of the willow tribe for the forming of his hedges, as under fuch circumftance they grow not only with great rapidity and vigour, but are capable of being con- verted to a great variety of ufeful purpofes. They do not, however, make a very good fence, and are fometimes apt to prove injurious to cattle, by their cropping and eating the young fhoots too freely. Young-cattle have been known to be killed by them. Where cattle are to be paftured, it is therefore better to have recourfe to white-thorns, as they may be very well raifed upon fuch foils, by care being taken in their planting to raife the ground where they are placed with tw or three table turfs. On thofe dry and fandy banks where there is not fufficient depth of foil for the fupport of the thorn, furze makes a tolerable fence,. provided it be not fut- fered to grow too high, and be clipped or cut at proper feafons.. But on fuch banks as are liable to be carried away by the wafhings of ftreams Inclofing of Land.—HHedges. vater, the alder and the willow may be planted with confiderable advantage, \ 4 as by throwing out a great number of branches from their roots, they affor L 5 c 7. E ES°'- And in very expofed and elevated fituations, the beech and the birch will pro- Sy ably be found the moft proper plants for raifing live hedges with, as experience 1as fhewn that, by proper atten tion, in fuch places they form good fences in a —" 1 in making a CO Wherever a mixture of different forts of plants is employed ch fhould always be chofen as are capable of thriving well on the fam KH a e foil, and in the fame kind of fituation, as well as of growing with near equal degrees ne foi without this a very imperfect fence muf t be ee. as while fome of the plants are getting forward with h great ae and luxuri- ance, others will proceed ina very feeble and fickly manner, from being checked ne a fhade and obftruétion caufed by the larger ones, thus rendering it thin, uneven, and defe&tive. Befide, fome forts see ants, by being blended with others in the making of live hedges, have a difpofition to{mother and deftr roy them, by too clofely uniting with, or intwining round them. Hon ee fic ckles, brambles, and many other plants of the fame nature, have conftan tly a tendency to pro- duce fuch effeéts in hedges. Before any kind of quick hedge is planted, the line of ground on which it is to be placed fhould be ploughed or dug up, and undergo fuch a degree of preparation, as will render the foil, of whatever kind it may be, perfectly mel- low and friable, as well as lefs difpofed to throw up weeds; as by fuch means the fibres of the plants will not only be more readily enabled to fhoot out and eftablith themfelves in the ground, but the plants be lefs liable to injury from the effets of weeds; from both of which caufes young hedges often fuffer greatly when the plants are put in, in the common mode, without the ground being fcarcely in any way prepared for their reception. In fome inftances, perhaps, as where the foil is extremely ftiff and tenacious, fuch kinds of manures as have a tendency to leffen the cohefion, may be of much utility; but in other cafes they do not feem to be fo particularly neceffary. After the ground has been thus well broke down and rendered fuitable for the young plants, the next thing is to put themin. This fhould always be done in the early part of autumn, in order that the earth or mould may fall down and get well fixed about their root fibres before the winter frofts fet in. When planted in early fpring, which is frequently the praftice, we have not found them to thrive by any means fo well, and to be much more liable to injury from the oo: | lly ine wel As ly mel means ut and ym the reatly being haps; S have r cafes for the Jone in wn and When nd them from ihe Tuclofing of alent—Tledges. 121 heats of the fpring and fummer, as they are feldom well fixed in the foil before thefe take place. Befide, it frequently happens, efpecially in the more northern fituations, that the frofts continue fo long as to protract their being planted out toa period when they can hardly be expeCted to fucceed. In the firft mode, if fufficient care has been taken not to injure the roots of the plants in trimming and taking them up, they fucceed with great certainty, and make avery rapid growth, frequently becoming a hedge a year or two fooner than when treated in the common method. It has been. moft commonly recommended to take the plants for the purpofe of making quick thorn hedges with, from the moft poor and worft kinds of foil, as by fuch means it has been thought that they would grow more vigorouily when removed into fuch as are of a richer quality. It muft, however, be confi- dered, that fuch plants as have been ftunted in their growth, or grown in a feeble and fickly manner, are not only a long time in recovering themfelves, but at laft feldom thrive fo vigoroufly as thofe which have been procured from a rich fituation. Itjis obferved by an able writer, that‘“ he has found, from reiterated experiment, that a ftrong and vigorous plant, which has grown up quickly, and arrived at a confiderable magnitude in a very fhort time, never fails to grow better after tranfplanting, than another of the fame fize that is older and more {tinted in its growth, whether the foil in which they are planted be rich or poor: fo that, inftead of recommending a poor hungry foil for a nurfery, he would, inall cafes, with to fet apart for this purpofe the richeft and moft fertile fpot that could be found; and, in the choice of plants, would always prefer the youngeft and moft healthy to fuch as were older, if of an equal fize.. That he fpeaks here from experience, and therefore does it without the fmalleft doubt or hefitation; being certain that future obfervations will confirm the juftnefs of the re- marks. As it has been found, by various praétical trials in forming white-thorn hedges, that fuch plants fucceed the beft as poffefs the greateft number of fibrous roots about the bottom of their ftems, it is a matter of importance to adopt fuch methods as tend to‘produce fuch effe&ts while they are in the nurfery. This may, probably, be much effected by tranfplanting at an early period, as the firft or fecond year, and lopping off.all fuch roots as have a te idency to ftrike direGtly downwards, or to extend too much in a lateral direction, the plants being placed in a very rich foil, and kept at a good diftance from each other, ta * Anderfon’s Effays, vol. I. T? i 122 « b> Inclofing of Land.—Hedges. order that they may not only grow ftrongly, but that the ground between them may be rendered fufficiently clean. It 1s remarked by the ingenious author jutt mentioned,“that in the winter fucceeding the time the thorns have been tranf- planted, the earth between the rows~ ought to be dug over with the fpade, taking care to go very clofe to the rows, and to work with a very y fharp-edged tool, the operator always taking care to force his{pade ftraight dowd with the ack of the fpade towards the thorns on each fide of the row, as clofe to it as poffible, fo as to cut the greateft part of the lateral roots as near the body of the plants as may be, which will tend to make them branch out into ftill more nu- merous raniifications. And if the ground be dug every winter afterwards, keep- ing at alittle greater diftance from the plant at each fucceflive digging, the roots will be Kept at all times fo fhort, and their ramifications will be fo numerous near the ftem, that when they fhall be lifted to be put into the hedge, they will not fail to be provided with fuch an abundance of mouths to imbibe nourifh- ment with, as to be in no danger of fuffering much by that operation. If,” continues he,“ the foil of the nurfery be fufficiently rich, and if the thorns have been tranfplanted while young, and early in winter, they will rufh up chiefly i in height, and fend out but ange lateral branches; which is a thi ing much to be wifhed for in a nurfery; therefore care ought to be taken, when they are firft tranfplanted, not to bruife or injure the ftem of the plant, nor, on almoft any account, to cut it over, unlefs the ftem was before fickly and ftinted. Neither ought the upright fhoots to be in any cafe fhortened while in the nurfery: but to facilitate the operations between the rows, any f{traggling fide- branches that may fpring out, ought to be cut off by the knife, or fliears: at the beginning of winter. In every fituation it will,” he fays,“ be proper that the earth between the rows be ftirred the firft winter by the /pade; but if the nurfery is of great extent, it may be afterwards done by means of the plough, with the utmoft faciiity*.” Between the rows of quicks, where fuch large fpaces are left, various kinds of garden crops of the dwarf kind might be cultivated to advantage, fuch as peas, turnips, fpinach, and onions. In collecting plants for forming thorn hedges, it has been generally the cuftom to prefer fuch as are very young and fmall; but it is probably a much better, as well as more expeditious pra€tice, where they can be procured, to have them Anderfon’s Effays, vol, I. Inclofing of Land.—LHedges. 25 ad much older and larger; as where the plants are of a confiderable fize, the hedge e ee arian© fae is not only much more readily formed, but the plants far lefs liable to be injured by the feverity of the winter feafon, or the heat of the fummer, and require a great deal lefs nurfing and protection, than where very young plants are made ufe of. In ufing plants of a large fize, care fhould, however, conftantly be taken to have their roots preferved as much as poffible. But whatever fort or fize of plants be employed, it isa neceflary circumftance to have all fuch as are to be planted in the fame fence, as nearly of the famevigour of growth and dimenfions as poflible; as by proper attention in this refpeét the fence will be lefs in danger of having gaps and thin places formed in it, which muti otherwife be the cafe from the inequality of the growth of different fized 1 plants. Befides, by properly forting them, the farmer may be more enabled to adapt them to the particular circumftances of the foil and fituation of his land. In preparing the quicks for planting, whatever the age or fize may be, the roots fhould be‘but very little touched by the knife, as it is always of advantage to the growth of the plants to have as many root fibres as poflible remaining. Some part of the tops of fuch plants fhould, however, conftantly be cut away, as from the injury which their roots fuftain in tranfplanting, they can feldom or ever fupply a fufficiency of nourifhment to preferve them from decay; in the older forts of plants more freedom in cutting may, however, be ufed, than in fuch as are young. The methods of planting live hedges vary confiderably in different diftricts, according to the cuftoms and kinds of plants that are employed. In fome cafes the plants are placed in an horizontal direGtion upon fods turned mould-fide upwards, in the face of ditch-banks, mounds, or walls, and covered up fo as to have but'a few inches of the plants without, in order that! not more than one or two vigorous fhoots may be thrown out by each. In this mode of planting, a good bed of mould fhould be made for the reception of the roots of the plants, as well as covering them well up, as by this means: they will be’ found to thrive much better. It is remarked, on the authority of much experience, that.© the: proper; method of planting this kind of hedge is, firft to turn up a little of the earth o A from the place where the ditch is to be made,,and Jay it upon the bank-reverfed, a fo as to forma bed for the plant about two inches thick above the folid ground, Upon this the thorns fhould be laid nearly in a horizontal pofition, but in- clining a little upward in the point, and having the ends of the ffems jut equal 124 Inclofing of Land.— Hedges. with the face of the bank, or projecting beyond it very little, not more ¢! half an inch. By this means, it is thought, the plants will fend out only one or two fhoots each, which will be the more vigorous, as there are fo few of them. Where a greater number of fhoots are fent out in any plant, it will be proper,” itis faid,“ to prune away all the fupernumeraries the firft winter after planting ¢ ) cutting them with a knife clofe by the ftem from which they fpring: for it is the largenets of thefe original ftamina of the hedge that will afterwards conftitute its ftrength, and not the number of fmall ramifications, as is too generally ima- gined. Jf the fhoots are numerous, they never acquire fuch a degree of ftrength as when there are fewer ofthem. But an eafier way ftill is, to rub off the fuper- numerary buds as foon as they begin to fhoot in the fpring. The plants being thus regularly laid, fhould have their roots immediately covered with the bett mould taken from the furface of the ditch; and the workmen fhould take care to keep that good mould well back upon the bank, and rather behind the roots, Jeaving the breaft of the bank to be made up by the lefs fertile earth taken from the bottom of the ditch. By this means the roots will have all the good earth about them, in which they will fpread with freedom, and draw from it abundant nourifhment; and the bad earth, which forms the breaft of the bank, will pro- duce much fewer weeds there than the good earth would have done, if it had been kept near the furface*.” As the hawthorn is, however, known to be impatient of much wetrefting near the roots, it ought never to be planted by the fides or on the edges of ditches that have much ftagnant water in them. The common method of planting quicks on the borders of ditches, near to the banks, is, indeed, in moft cafes and fitua- tions, a bad prattice; for whatever the nature of the foil may be, from the effe&s of the weather, and various other caufes, the mould on their fides is conftantly removing itfelf, and leaving the roots of the plants expofed and fupport. vithout In fome diftriis the banks on which the quicks are planted are made fix feet wide at the bottom, three and a half at the top, and two feet in height. Some planters likewife prefer a ditch on each fide, about three feet wide, and two fee deep, the fides being made in a floping dire€tion, and the bottoms not wider than fix inches; while others only make one ditch, the earth on the oppofite fide being pared off to a flope. Some prefer earth mounds, planting the quicks upon a turned fod, fix inches high at their bafis, and on the edges of the * Anderfon’s Effays, vol. I. 00ts, from earth dant pro- had | fitua- effects tantly thout x feet Some o feet wider "SS = = oO Inclofing of Land.—lTedges. 125 + ditches out of which they are raifed. Where this mede is followed, it would, probably, be better to plant three fods high, with the thicknefs of two furface {ods put under theirroots. In this way the furface foil is in moft cafes doubled, and in the thinner forts of foils nearly trebled, anda thick bed of the beft earth is. formed for the quicks to grow in. Where young quicks are to be planted, it has been recommended that the bank fhould be fuficiently wide, for inftance, not lefs than four feet wide at the top, that room may be allowed for planting two rows, at two feet or more afunder, on the flat furface of the bank; care being taken that the roots be inferted into the beft mould, and that the fides be floped in fuch a manner as. effeQually to prevent their crumbling down, with a ditch oneach fide. And in order to prevent the depredations of cattle, thorns may be placed loofely in the ditches. This method faves the heavy expence of pofts and rails, or dead hedges, as cattle cannot ftand nearer the ftems of the quicks than fix.feet, which is fuffi- cient to prevent their being deftroyed*. Mr. Billingfley has not, however, found this plan to fucceed well in Somerfetfhire. Inmakingquickfet hedges, Mr. Middleton likewifethinks it would, probably, be an improvement on the pra€tice which has been generally followed, to put two rows of quicks in, at about a foot and a half or two feet from each other, which on growing up might be cut alternately every five or fix years. The cut wood being by this means ten or twelve years old, and that left for a fence five or fix; which would be fufficient fora fence, as well as for the protection of the young fhoots on one fide from being cropped by cattle, while on the other they might be guarded by dead thorns thrown into the ditch. By this plan, hedges would, he fuppofes,, become extremely profitable to the farmers.‘ But the method,” fays he, « above all others the beft, if it fhould be found to fucceed, as it probably may, on a moift foil in a moift climate, is the grubbing of thorns five or fix feet high, in copfes,&c. trimming the roots, and planting them clofely on one fpit of the beft mould laid on the turf. This fhould be taken from where the ditches are intended to be made, and chopped well to pieces. Then raife a bank on their roots round their ftems at leaft three feet high, and cut their tops. level, two feet above the bank.” Of the advantage of this mode of making a quick fence at once, we are in fome meafure convinced by the trials we have made. It is neceflary, however, to the complete fuccefs of the plan, that the quicks be taken up with care; be * Middleton’s View of the Agriculture of Middlefex. Inclofing of Land.—Hedges. 126 fond planted at a proper feafon, and have a confiderable depth of fine mould for the fibres of the roots to fhoot into. A mixture of nearly equal parts of the{crap- ings of roads and good rich mould we have found them to grow by much the beft in. Ifthe feafon be,dry for fome time after they have been planted, it will fometimes be neceffary to water the earth frequently about their roots. ta?) Where the plants are put in upon banks, of whatever kind they may be, the: fhould always be placed fufficiently back, in order to prevent their being carried away by the crumbling down of the fides, and that they may be kept free from weeds, and the mould be betfer Jaid to them; inftead of the common diftance of four or five inches, it fhould probably be feldom lefs than ten or twelve. The large banks made by having double ditches are not, perhaps, to be adopted, but in very wet fituations, as they take up a great deal of land without affording any advantage over the fimple ditch. One ditch properly made will be enabled to carry off the water equally as well as two; nor is a double row of plants to be had recourfe to but in particular expofed places; as a fingle row, when attention is paid in putting them into the bank, will be quite fufficient for the forming of a good hedge. High banks, in whatever manner they may be made, feem only to be neceffary in fuch foils as are cold, wet, and fubje¢t to the ftagnation of moifture at partl- cular feafons, Where ditches on the fides are required, they fhould conftantly be made to flope down in fuch a way as not to be wider than fix inches at the bottom, as by this means the cattle will, in fome meafure, be prevented from walking in them, and eating the young fhoots. Care fhould likewife be taken in perform- ing this bufinefs, that none of the ftiff bad earth from the bottom of the ditches be thrown into the middle of the bank where the quicks are to be fet, as it would retard their growth very materially, and, in fome cafes, perhaps, entirely deftroy them., In other inftances the quicks are planted on the plain furface without any bank being raifed, a furrow being formed with a common plough, or a{pit of earth dug out, in which the plants are placed in rather a flanting direttion lengthways of the hedge, as well as againft the upright fide of the furrow or trench, at the diftance of about four or five inches from each other, covering them with a little of the mould or earth that has been turned up on the other fide, and treading it clofely totheir roots. The reft of the loofe mould is generally, in this method of planting, afterwards laid clofe to the plants by means of a{pade. Sometimes they are planted in the middle of the furrow or trench, the earth dU eS a| VAL ICU P Troy % AV ince of cellary parti- \ nade to tom, as Ciiviu S Y x-: Inclofing of Land.—Hedges. iar being brought clofe to them by the feet, and the raking of it up on each fide. There are feveral other varieties in the modes of planting, but which, as they differ only in the manner of preparing the trench or furrow, and bringing the mould te the roots of the plants, do not require to be particularly defcribed. In the laft method of planting, the young quicks are, infome places, put into holes made bya kind of dibble; but this is a practice that cannot be recommended, as the roots of the plants are not only too much confined, but the water, efpecially in retentive ftiff foils, is liable to ftagnate in the holes, and prevent them from taking root quickly, by which they are often wholly deftroyed. The method of planting quick hedges. upon the furface of the ground without much elevation, feems moft fuited to the drier kinds of foil, or fuch as would be rendered too dry for their growth by having ditches cut on the fides. But even in this way of proceeding, fome kind of ridge, or elevation, fhould be preferved, that the rain water may not injure the young plants by ftagnating too much about their roots. In planting the quicks where the ground is raifed, Mr. Billingfley advifes a trench to be cut in the middle of the bank, into which the fets are to be puta the diftances of about three inches from each other, with their heads a little inclining. The roots muft then be covered with a little of the beft mould, and afterwards the whole trench be filled up with rotten dung or compoft, only ftrew- ing fome more good niould on the furface*. But we are affured on the autho- ity of much experience and obfervation, that it is infinitely better to place them five or fix inches apart; and that it is feldom neceflary to ufe dung or compoft to the roots of them where the foil is tolerably good, and care is taken to pply it well to the roots, as it is apt to breed infeéts, which are very injurious = ap to the roots of the quicks. The diftances recommended above may, however, anfwer very well where the plants are fmall, and the fituation expofed; but fix or feven inches is better where the plants are of a good fize, and the fituation not too open. Indeed fome advife them to be planted ftill wider, as nine inches; and on good land, as much as a foot. Thick planting is, however, in general, to be preferred, efpecially in expofed places; as hedges, under fuch circumftances, for the moft part thrive the bet, efpecially for a few years; and they may afterwards be prevented from being liable to choke and deftroy each other by proper thinning. Where fencing vood is not eafily procured, it may alfo fometimes be a good practice to plant the quicks both in the face and top of the bank. In expofed fituations it will always be neceflary to fhelter and proteét the * View of the Agriculture of Somerfetfhire. = a) lad: y ae 1°28; Inclopiig Oo} Land.—Hedges. young plants by means of fome fort of dead fence, fuch as dead hedges, high banks, low walls, rails, or belts of planting. Where the firft is employed, it fhould be made about four inches diftant from the outer edges of the bank. The hedges for this purpofe are mofily about two feet and half high, and made of wreath, or brufh-wood, with a fuficient number of ftakes. This mode is not only much cheaper than that cf pofts and rails, but likewife confiderably better, on account of the fhelter and warmth which it affords to the young plants. In cold expofed fituations, Mr. Billingfley thinks that two /ets of dead fences may fometimes be required for bringing the quicks to maturity; the expence of which he calculates in this way:— dE: Sa de Making the bank---=° GP Ong Quick fets, eighty in a rope*--- 01.09 Planting and dunging---- Soa 2 Two dead hedges--.~- Om. 2 TF Making two dead fences--°~ O45 O.74.<0 Weeding plants for three years---- oO 8 Two additional dead hedges“--- O* 2 16 It is obferved that“ one waggon-load of writh will coft 17s.6d. and make about fifteen rope of fingle hedge. And that the old wood wiil pay for fundry repairs of the hedges, arifing from different accidents t.” In low wet fituations. it would probably be the cheapeft method to have recourfe to fhort willow ftakes, which might be put into the edge of the bank in a floping direction outwards, and to be bound together by means of an eddering atthe top. In this way the quicks would foon be proteéted by means of a livin fence. In the Devonfhire mode of planting on a high bank, fomething of this Yr fon] fort is practifed for protecting the young quicks on each fide. High banks are fometimes raifed with fods and earth in expofed fituations for the purpofe of protefiing young plants. Where ftones are plentiful, and the fods *'The price of hazel coppice-wood and labour being confide rably advanced, one fhilling per rope, it is obferved, muft now be added to this eftimate.‘ 4 Agricultural Survey of the Cuunty of Somerfet. ce] 1d make - fundry Inclofing of Land-Hedees, 129 made on the furface, walls about two feet high are raifed for the fame purpofe. Rails can be ufed where protection from cattle is only required. If belts of planting be had recourfe to with this intention, the moft hardy forts of trees or fhrubs fhould be placed on the outfide, and fuch as grow with more difficulty within them. Quicks for planting ought, as we have already obferved, to be taken from fuch nurferies as have been made on good foils; and fhould be ftraight in their growth, with clean ftrong /éems, and have been twice tranfplanted from the feed bed, being about five years’ growth from the haw. This fort of quicks have generally a great number of roots, which, as has been fhewn, renders them more certain of fucceeding on being planted out. It is well obferved by Mr. Middle- ton, that if quickfets are bought after they are taken up, the purchafers fhould beware that they are not thofe drawn up by the roots on the commons; that is, wild quicks; as they are ftunted plants which canker and never grow well. It is a cuftom with thofe people who live near to, and on the commons, when there is an inclofure, to colleét the wild quicks, cut the tops off within only a few inches of the ftems, and fell the roots. They commonly difpofe of them at a much lower price than the nurfery-men, but they will never make a good fence*. Thefe fences are frequently prevented from fucceeding fo well as they might otherwife.do, efpecially where the quicks are young, by the bottoms being neg- le&ted and not kept fufficiently clean. They fhould be well weeded and hoed as often as is neceffary, and every fort of rubbifh be carefully removed from about their roots and ftems. This may be performed in the moft eafy and beneficial ‘manner, by firft loofening the earth on the fides of the plants by means of a fort of fpud or three-pronged fork, as the roots are thus not fo hable to be injured, while the weeds are more readily removed. In young hedges, this bufinefs fhould always be done as early as poflible in the fpring, in order that the weeds may be prevented from feeding, as well as getting too great a head. In the cleaning of hedges, when fituated in the banks of ditches, it isa common practice to pare the furface off thinly by a fpade; but which, though it renders it clean for the time, not only expofes the banks more to the mouldering effects of the air and frofts, but in time fo reduces them that the roots of the plants are left expofed, and the ditches fo choaked up as to prevent the water from getting readily away. Where the fhovelings from the ditches in road fides, or other places, are laid up to the roots of the plants, which is often done when they are put in on high banks, \ oon eee TN sreat care fhould always be taken to lay'them up and fecure them well, by * General View of the Agriculture of Middlefex. S 130 Inclofing of Land.— edges. placing tough fods for them to reft againft; as where they are only bet or plaftered up by the fpade, they are foon apt to crumble and carry down with them I: parts of the banks, by which more injury than good is often done. The cropping of fheep and cattle ought alfo conftantly to be well guarded againft; but where this has happened, the bruifed{hoot fhould always be cut down within. an inch or two of the ground. The mould oa lik rales! be loofened and drawn up a little to the roots of the plants, by which they are ma to. grow not only more vigoroufly, but to fend out more numerous{hoots. All the operations for the above purpofes fhould, probably, be performed much more frequently than is. the common practice among farmers; or than has been generally fuppofed; as by fuch means the general growth of the hedges will not only be encouraged, but more numerous fhoots be fent off from the bot- tom ftems, and thus render them thicker. In regard to the propriety of planting timber trees in hedge-rows, there is fome difference of opinion; we apprehend, however, that it cannot in general be- adinitted to. any very great extent, though it ought not probably to be totally neg- le&ted. When planted in this way, the droppings of large trees do not only fre quently deftroy the young thorn plants, and thereby caufe holes or vacancies in the hedges, but Se aeeraniy| injure different forts of crops, efpecially thofe of the corn and grafs. kinds. Where hedge-row planting is, however, wholly difregarded, there is a naked- nefs, as. well as wildnefs of profpe&, which is highly difeufting to the eye of the traveller. Befides, as.in.this way timber trees are raifed with but little expence, or trouble,-there would feem to be confiderable lofs-to the proprietors of land, as ell as farmers, in not paying fome attention to fuch methods of. raifing ufeful and neceffary timber. When this. method is. followed, and for planting in the angles, corners, and other waite fpats of fields, the Scotch. fir, the beech, larch, fycamore, and birch, as being hardy trees, are the moft proper. The afh may, likewife, be made ufe of in one cafes. without any inconvenience.. It is, however, thought by fome that timber is raifed at a greater expence in this way than any other, when all the injury they do is taken into the account. The common cuiltom of cutting and clippi ng young thorn and. other quiclx hedges every year, however advantageous it may be confidered in point of the appearance of the F tence, is highly prejudicial to the growth. of the quicks or other plants, keeping them fmall and weak inthe ftems, ae rendering the hedges, as they grow old, open at the bottoms, On the contrary, thofe that are left to. pence, ind, as ufeful , and , and fe, be ought other, quick yf the cks oF edges, left t0 Inclofing of Land.—Hedges. 131 themfelves become ftrong in the fiems, and have large fide branches, which, by interweaving with one another, render the hedge thick and impenetrable. Thofe that are cut at proper intervals, as about every feven or eight years, have gene- rally a confiderable fuperiority over thofe which have been clipped from the time they were firft planted. Befides, there is a confiderable faving of labour, and the hedges are far more profitable. When pruning is neceflary, it may be performed in a neat and expeditious manner, by means of a pair of pruning fhears; the beft fort of which are thofe conftruéted with a ftrong fharp blade, about fix or eight inches in length, moving between two pieces of iron, with fquare edges as cheeks. The handles fhould be a good length, in order to give the operator fufhcient command in cutting the upper parts of the hedge, and the higher one three or four inches longer than the lower*. Some workmen, however, prefer for this purpofe an inftrument made fomewhat in the form of a reaping-hook, and extremely fharp, to which is fixed a handle of about two feet, or two feet and an half long. In the hands of an expert workman this, too, is a very good implement. The time at which hedges are ufually cut is the fummer, which, from the ftate of vegetation, is evidently the moft improper that can be chofen, as the plants by being cut, while full of fap or juice, cannot but be greatly injured. The moft fuitable period for this bufinefs would feem to be that of the latter part of au- tumn, when the growth of the plants is in a declining, or the leaft vigorous ftate. In refpedt to the manner of cutting them, various methods are adopted and practifed, but that which feems to give them the moft ufeful form, is by letting them have a kind of floping or narrowing direétion on both fides from the bot- tom to the top, as by fuch a mode the thickeft part will be in the bottom where it is the moft wanted. The reverfe of this is, however, frequently the cafe in cut or clipped hedges. The bufinefs of clipping or pruning hedges fhould not, as has been juft ob- ferved, be performed too frequently, as by fuch means they are liable to become thin in the bottoms, a defect which can only be effectually removed by cutting the plants down clofe to the ground. For feveral years after a hedge has been planted it fhould, therefore, probably undergo little cutting, except in the lateral branches that may fpread out; in the taking off of which, attention fhould always be had to drawit toa ridge-like form, or make it the narroweft at the top, as has been fuggefted above. On thefe points it has been remarked, by a very able and experienced writer, * General View of the Agriculture of Northumberland. ee ee===—————-—- Se ar 13% Inclofing of Land—Hedges. * that“ nothing can be more prejudicial to a young hedge than an injudicious application of the fciffars; and that although it be extremely common to clip the top of a hedge for a few years at firft, even where it is to be difcontinued ever afterwards, yet it would hardly be poflible,” he thinks,“ to contrive a pra@lice that would be more prejudicial to it than this is. The chief properties that conftitute the excellence of a hedge, are ftrength and clofenefs. Now,” fays he,“ a hedge can be made ftrong by nothing elfe than the vigour and fize of the principal ftems of whichit iscompofed. But it is evident that, by cutting the tops of all the radical fhoots, each of them is forced to fend out a great many {maller ones, as In a pollard-tree; and each of thefe{mall tems being cut again and again, are divided into ftill fmaller and more numerous ramifications, till their number is mcreafed to fuch a degree, and their fize, of confequence, fo much diminifhed, that the hedge may be faid to confift entirely of an infinite number of finall twigs clofely interwoven with one another, which have not fuf- ficient ftrength to make any confiderable refiftance to a furious bull, or other ftrong animal, who will eafily break through any part of fuch a hedge that he may chance to attack, however clofe it may appear to be. But if, inftead of being cut on the top, the thorn be allowed to advance upwards without any interruption, its ftem, hike that of any other tree, will continue to increafe in fize and ftrength, and, in a fhort time, become fo large as to be able to refift the whole force of any animal that we may have occafion to fear. They even in time become fo large, as to occupy almoft the whole fpace that was originally left between the plants, fo as to form,” he fays,“ a folid vegetable wall(if he may ufe that expreffion), which it is almoft impoffible for any force to overturn. It is therefore obvious,” he thinks,‘ that cutting the top ofa hedge when young, tends greatly to diminith the ftrength of it*.” He further obferves, that it will, perhaps, be a more difficult tafk to con- vince the reader, that this practice likewife tends to diminith the thicknefs of the hedge; although he flatters himfelf that he fhall be able to demontftrate this as clearly as the other.“‘ When,” fays he,“ the principal ftem of anytree is-cut over, the fap that would have gone to increafe the fize of its top, being ftopt in its afcent, forces out a great many fhoots all round the ftem, immediately below the place where it has been cut over. And when this is the eafe with a hedge, tne number of fhoots that are crowded together, draw the fap fo powerfully to that place, and occafion fuch a deep fhade below it, that all the horizontal fhoots * Anderfon’s Effays, vol. I, Inclofing of Land—Hedges. 13% which had fprung out from the ftem, near the roots, being deprived of their nou- rifhment, and the influences of the air, are checked in their growth, and ina fhort time totally perith, leaving the ftem at the root quite naked and bare. And as there are from that period no branches fpringing immediately from the under- part of the ftem to detain the fap in its paflage, and make that part of it increafe in fize, it there continues fmall and weakly; while the top, continuing to advance with luxuriance, becomes fo large and weighty, as to be with difficulty fup- ported by thefe fmall naked thanks, which gradually become barer and barer every year. But every one knows,” he fays,“ that if the bottom of a hedge be open, it is of very little confequence whether it be clofe above or not: and he leaves it to be determined by experience, whether this is not, in general, the condition of hedges which have been clipped in the top when young, efpecially in thofe cafes where the hedge has made vigorous fhoots the firft year. And if it fhall be found that this is in general the cafe, we muft conclude,” he thinks, “s that the praflice here reprehended tends to make the hedge thinner, as well as weaker, than it would have been if that operation had been entirely omitted. But if an hedge is allowed to advance in height, without being cut in the top, the fmall branches that fpring out near the root, not being ftarved:by the extra- ordinary fuétion, or fuffocated by the fhade of too luxuriant branches above them, continue to live, and detain a part of the fap, fo as to make the under part of the ftem ftill continue to increafe in fize and ftrength, and be well able to fupport the fmall top that it thus acquires. And if the moft luxuriant fide- ‘branches that may fpring out above, are from time to time pruned away, fo as not to be allowed to overfhade thofe that may be below, thefe laft will continue to grow as long as the hedge exifts. And as, by this management, there will be but few fide branches of any confiderable fize, the principal ftems will advance. with very great vigour, gradually tapering from the root upwards. He cannot,” he thinks,“ be too particular in adviling the hufbandman to beftow his atten- tion chiefly to the. proper formation of the upright{tems of the hedge, becaufe upon this the whole future ftrength of the hedge mutt,” he fuppofes,“ entirely depend: and if thefe are once rightly formed, it will be an eafy matter to give it every quality that we could with for ina hedge. For, if thefe ftrong{tems fhould be even entirely deftitute of fmall branches, abundance of them may be made to pufh out whenever it thall be thought neceflary, by only making a flight wound in the naked item, wherever you defire that young branches fhould appear: for, below every fuch wound, a number of{mall fhoots will fpring forth the enfuing feafon; the points of which being cut off, a ftill greater num- ¥ Inclopng of Land.— Hedges. ber of{mall twigs will be fent out, which, by being frequently cut, will, ina fhort time, form a covering as clofe as could be defired. The truth of this rea- foning,” he fays,** he experienced at a very early period of his life; for, having then had occafion to drefs a garden that was furrounded by an old hedge, which had always been allowed to grow as nature prompted, never feemingly having been touched either by knife or fciffars, he found the branches ftr rageling very far on every fide; all of which,” he fays,“ he caufed to be cut off quite clofe by the upright ftems, which then were left entirely naked, and appeared like as many may-poles placed befide one another. But by cutting a good many flight notches all along thefe ftems, at the diftance of a few inches from one another they were in one year entirely covered with young fhoots; which fmall branches, by being cut once or twice in one feafon, put out fuch a number of fmaller ramifications, as ina fhort time formed a coveting fo very clofe, that it. was hardly poflible to fee an obje& through it in any part. Nor did he ever in his life fee a hedge that, either for ftrength or beauty, could be compared with this one.: Many of the{tems were fix or eight inches in diameter; and they grew fo clofe to one another, that no> animal larger thana fmall bird could poffibly have penetrated it: ‘ From thefe obfervations,” he thinks,“ it will appear evident, that if we with to have a good hedge, either in refpeét of ftrength or clofenefs, it is of ii portance never to fhorten the top fhoots, at leaft while it is young; but it i always of ufe to prune the fides, cutting off all the lateral fhoots with the fciffars quite clofe to the upright ftems, after the firft year’s growth. And if, after the growth of the fecond year, it fhould happen that too many fhoots have fprung out at the top ef the firft year’s fhoots(which very frequently is the cafe), thefe fupernumeraries fhould be cautioufly pruned away with a knife; taking out all the firong upright-growing branches, e>* Another method which is pra€tifed by fon eee ers, and which is undoubt- edly better than that which we have juft defc“abek 1, is that of laying the hedges. This is, however, a mode chiefly employed when they are not very old, but thin and full of gaps or fpaces, where there are no plants, and is done by cut- ting off the ftems of the quicks clofe to the ground, leaving only one in the fpace of about every foot, which is trimmed nearly to the top, nicked, and then laid. down and interwoven in an horizontal pofition, either with fuch living ftakes as may have been left, or dead ones fet into the ground at about the diftance of a foot and half from each other. The top of the hedge is afterwards bound wit ftraight branches of hazel, or other{mall wood, twifted together in fuch< way as to inclofe each ftake, by which means they are fupported, and the layers kept in their proper fituation. From the tops of the ftems which have been thus cut, and thofe which are nicked, in a couple of years an abundance of oung fhoots arife, by which an excellent thick hedge is formed. In per- y 2 5 t Anderfon’s Effays, vol. I. lOW- ‘oots Bens of Land—Hedees. 137 forming this bufinefs the operator fhould, however, be careful to fil very well where the hollows or void fpaces formerly were, by la clofely down, and putting in proper ftakes. In making this fet of ia redges perfons employed begin at one end, and proceed regularly forward till the whole is laid down to the proper height, which, by a good workman, is very readily accomplifhed. In fuitable fituations, ae of willow oralder may be employed with advantage, as they frequently take root and grow well.‘This is an ex- a tremely good method of renewi ing an At hedge under fuch circumftances. The i i 1 ich principal objeCtion to the above plan is, that in he courfe o bP‘ew years the layers, efpecially if they be thick or ftrong ones, ie and the youn: ¢ wood underneath Is much checked and injured in its growth, by the droppings from them and the decayed bindings. But the beft, and probably the moft advantageous method of renewing an old hedge for the farmer, particularly where it can be protected from cattle, is that of heading the whole down to within a few inches of the ground or bank. By this means in a couple of years an aftonifhing quantity of young wood is pro- duced, fo as to form a hedge that can{carcely be feen through. Where there are ditches, the fcourings may be thrown up to the roots, which ferve as a fort of earthing up to the plants, and make them grow with greater vigour and ftrength. By this method, however, if the hedge be old, many of the larger thorns will frequently die. In laying the earth up to the roots great care fhould be taken, s injury is often done by overloading them, w hole fenbes being fometimes de- ftroyed in that way. Where, however, the plants are cut clofe down, and fuitable earth applied over them, a great number of vigorous fhoots are not only fent out fromeach ftem, but from their beinginthe ground frequently take root, and become independent plants, by which the bottom parts of the hedges become extremely thick and clofe. A flight ftake and edder fence muft be made in order to pre- ferve the fhoots from being cropped and deftroyed. Part of the wood which has been cut out of the hedge ferves for this purpofe; the remainder being either employed in making of other fences, or made into bavins for the ufe of bakers,&c.* by which aconfiderable profit is immediately produced. By this method too, where there are ditches, the fides of the banks are much preferved from being deftroyed by cattle, as the plants fhoot out both on the fides and the tops of them. This feems, therefore, to be a much better practice than that of making a 5 * In London thefe bavins generally fell at about a guinea a hundred, delivered. TT ~ 138 Inclofing of Land—Hedges. folid face to the bank, by means of either fods or ftones, as the young wood is not prevented from growing on the fides of the banks, or the banks fo liable to be thrown down by animals. Befides, there is confiderably more produce of wood from the hedge, which in many fituations is an objet of great importance. Ww ae hedges grow thin at the bottom, Mr. Harper, an ingenious Lancafhire farmer, was accuftomed to follow this pra€tice:“ He cut‘the wood very low, leaving the young and vigorous fhoots; after cutting away the old wood, he took a hand-faw, and cut away again that part of the old ftump, fo far as was fhaken by the hatchet in the firft feparation, and few the top level, fo that the water might not remain upon it. By this prattice,” he fays,“ the fhoots will grow ftronger, and more in number, in one year, than they would by the common practice in three years. When the fhoots are half a yard, or two feet long, he bends the young fhoots down, and, where room permits, makes a hole in the bank with a hovel, in which the fhoots are clofely tied down with hooked fticks, and covered up again with earth, when thefe young branches, with a little nurfing, will, by taking root afrefh, form a new hedge*.” But from the great trouble and confequent expence of this method, it can probably only be had re- courfe to in particular inftances. There can, however, be no doubt but that the lefs injury there isdone in the cutting of the plants, the better they will throw out young fhoots, and alfo the lefs liable they will be to decay from the ftagnation of moifture upon them. It has been fuggefted by fome planters, that quick hedges may much more readily be raifed by the warmth and fhelter of low ftone walls; they have there- fore propofed the making of both a wall and a hedge; to which there can cer- tainly be only one material obje€tion, which is that of the expence. Where there are plenty of flones, and the fituation is elevated, cold, and expofed, fuch a plan may be deferving of attention. The wall in thefe cafes fhould be about four feet and an half high, and be turfed on the top; the quicks being planted on a low bank raifed under it, and a dead fence made on the infide, in order to afford them protection}. After the quicks * Agricultural Survey of the County of Lancafter. + The expences of this as ftated by Mr. Billingfley, in the Agricultural Report of the County of Somertet, ftandth us:-«== Lor bs dy , Building four feet and a half of wall, ftones oa halling included o 60 Turfing-“°-.® 0.8 ‘Making bank and planting quick-«> a0 4 Carried forward,« o 6 6 rreat d re- that will the more there: n cers Vhere poled; urfed dead | uicks inty of £ Inclofing of Land.——IHedges. 139 ate prown up, the wall may be pulled down, and the materials be converted to other ufes. There is another mode of fencing, which is fometimes adopted in expofed fituations, where the foil is fufficiently good, which is that of planting full- grown floe, OF black-thorn, pretty thick, and mixing with them hazel, withey, the large briar,&c. cutting off their tops to the height of about three feet, on a bank raifed from two to three feet, with ditches fufficiently deep. This is not, however, a method to be recommended, except in fuch kinds of bleak fitua- Hons. The black-thorn abounds in moft places, and may therefore be eafily procured. The loppings of the plants may be ftuck along the fide of the bank, being well fecured by fuitable ftakes, fo as to guard the ftocks from being in- jured by cattle or fheep. This fort of fence is made at an extremely cheap rate, from the low price of the plants; and from their throwing out fhoots very ex- tenfively, with the afliftance of the briar, in fuch fituations, fometimes foon form a clofe and impervious hedge. In this way this fort of thorn does not, indeed, grow to any great height, but fufficient with the bank for the purpofes of confining and sheltering animals. If the fields be in a ftate of arable cultivation, the ditches, when made of a good depth, will prevent the running of the roots from obftruéting the plough* f. Io& Brought forward, 2 oe 62h Sets~~° 2 ie zm Cae One dead fence on the infide: S a fee Weeding== Z i: oe aaa Q°584.6 From which dedué the value of the ftones, at three pence per cart-load o 1 6 9° # Agricultural Report of the County of Somerfet. 4 One good waggon-load of thefe plants, it is obferved in the fame work, will be fufficient for twelve rope. The coft is thus eftimated: B ane eae Making the bank?“. e= oOo 1 oO per ropes / p zs Digging up and planting-= 3: eo. 1:86 Carriage of plants-=- z= 0 0 9 eo. 3-°3 Sam TD In refpect to the carriage, the price muft vary according to the diftance, and other circumftance. i Cn 140 Inclofing of Land.—Hedges, Where land is much expofed to the fea air, it is found extremely difficult to raife quick fences upon it as this air; probably from the fuper abundant quantity of muriatic acid which it conveys, and which is readily fepai ated from it, on ac- count of its loofe ftate of combination, is highly deftructive to the white-thorn, POST RASIE A Oe fe De in eed 6 PS ome Peer Spee and feveral other plants employed in the making of hedges. The beft mode in b a fuch fituati tion 1S iS probably that ot plat nti oa x beecl Ds as if feems, In a AIS me{ proof againft the injurious operation of dis kind of air. The bank on which it 7 is to be planted fhould be fix or feven feet high, and four or five in. width at the young beech plants are to be put in, in two or three rows, at P| top; om which the) about the diftance of a foot from each other, and fufficiently thick in the rows. In moft cafes no ditch is made; but in fome inftances the banks, or mounds, are prevented from crumbling down either by a low ftone wall, or fome other fuitable means. The growth of thefe plants is rapid, they therefore foon form not merely an excellent and beautiful fence, but one that is highly advantageous both in re- {pect to the fhelter which it affords, from the leaves being retained to a late period, and the annual profit that may be derived from it; as when at ma- turity one of the rows may be alternately cut and converted to various ufes, and. the others plafhed or trimmed fo as to yield much wood for fuel or other purpofes. This fort of hedge has, however, one great difadvantage, which is that of requiring fo large a quantity of earth for the making of the bank. In fituations fuch as the above, furze may often be made ufe of for a fence, as the young furze grows quickly, and without much difficulty, if they be raifed by fowing the feeds thickly upon pretty high and broad banks, with ditches on the fides. As the old parts of furze foon die away, it will al- ways be neceflary to guard againft the thinnefs produced in this way, which may probably be beft done by cutting the plants clofe down firft on one fide, and then on the other, every two or three years, to admit of which is the principal defign of fuch a broad bank; and thus have a fence on one fide or the other conitantly in perfection. The cuttings obtained in this manner may in fituations where fodder is fcarce be made ufe of, when bruifed, as an article of food for animals. This mode of training furze fences is, however, ob- jectionable, not only as wafting a great deal of ground, but as being liable, from the feeds being fcattered over the inclofures by the wind, to fill them full of this almoft eradicable plant. In planting hedges of willow and other aquatic plants, the ground fhould always be made as mellow and friable as poffible, and the fhoots to be em- Saami [J Inclofing of Land.— Hedges, 141 ployed of two or three years’ growth, and frefh cut off at the time of ufing them. They are then to be put into a narrow ridge of ground, prepared for them, at the diftance of eight or ten inches from each other, the tops being bent different ways, and plaited firmly together fo as to make afence*. The grey willow is probably the beft kind for this purpofe. In fome inftances the fweet-briar may probably be mixed with the willow to advantage. Whatever fort of fence is made in fuch fituations, it is perhaps a good practice to raife a pretty high bank with a ditch on each fide, and in fome cafes to plant hedges in each face of the bank, fo that it may afford fhelter to them while they get up, and that afterwards one may protect the other, and render their growth more rapid. The filling up the deficiency of hedges, of whatever kind t dead materials, though a very common practice, fhould be had recourfe to as feldom as poffible, as the hedges are by this means not only prevented from throwing out young fhoots to fill themfelves up, but the dead materials when they begin to decay Jeave larger openings than exifted before they were intro- duced. Where hedges are difpofed to become mofly, the mixing of lime, afhes, or fuch-like fubftances, with the mould of the banks, may frequently be of confider- able utility in removing it. In fome fituations, hedges made folely of dead materials are had recourfe to 1 hey may be, with =(ee.° a lo mh td. eae aks a Ca)= as a means of dividing inclofures. This is, however, a practice which, from the great expence of forming them, their conftant tendency to decay, and the 4 ae neceffity they have for annual repairs+, fhould never be adopted when there e t iS S the former purpofe, the longeft part of the cuttings from living fences, or other places, are.wattled by means of ftakes driven into the ground-at fixteen or eighteen inches diftance from each other, and bound on the top by means of ath, hazel, or willow bindings. This is termed a /éake and band hedge. With the latter intention, the fhorter and more bufhy fort of cuttings are generally employed, and either ftuck into the ground on the furface, the fide or top of the bank in a flanting dire€tion lengthways of the fence, and inclining a little to- wards the inclofure, or made into a low ftake and band hedge, in the way de- {cribed above. In making this fort of fence, great care fhould be taken not to * Anderfon’s Effays, vol. I. Thefe, in fome inftances, amount to from a fixth to an eighth or tenth part of the rent, 142 Inciofing of Land Ditches. place the dead materials too near the living plants, as by fuch inattention they are frequently much injured and retarded in their growth, from the felling down are trequently 1) 5 B r oar ha tea of the rotten and decayed parts of the wood. DITCHES. Tuese are conftruéted with different intentions, being fometimes formed only as a part of a fence, or as a drain, while at others they ferve equally the purpofes of drainage and inclofure.. But for whatever purpofes they are de- fiened, they fhould always be formed with floping fides, as when they are cut perpendicularly down, the furface of the land, or the fides, is liable to give way and fillthem up. In forming ditches, regard is likewife neceffary to the peculiarity of the foils, and the nature of their drainage, in order that they may be dug in a fuitable manner in refpeét to depth, and the dire€tion moft conve- nient for conveying away the water; much mifchief being frequently occafioned by its remaining ina ftagnant ftate in them, from thefe circumftances not being properly attended to. When ditches are made for the purpofe of fences, they fhould be fufficiently wide to prevent animals from getting over them, and be more than ufual floped in the banks, that cattle may not fo readily poach them in. In general, from feven or eight to ten feet in width, and from three to five feet in depth, confti- tute a pretty fecure fence. Ditches of this fort ought alfo to be more frequently cleaned out, and have their fides well pared down, than is the general cuftom among farmers; as by thefe means the grounds on each fide, and in the neigh- bourhood of them, are more effe€tually drained, and the water rendered much ' lefs ftagnant and pernicious to the health of the inhabitants of the diftrids. in which water ditches abound. The earthy materials obtained by this means may often be converted to a very ufeful compoft manure for various kinds of grafs lands, by being well mixed with a fuitable portion of rotten dung. Care fhould likewife be taken that they have proper communications, with fuitable outlets, as the brooks or rivers in the vicinity of them, as by a negle&t of this much mifchief is frequently produced. In wet marfhy fituations, large{paces of ground are frequently left between ditches which aét as drains. Under thefe circumftances, perhaps, the beft and moft profitable method that can be adopted, is that of planting them with ofiers, PLATE 2ecxIV. i ae at Hes Crates aNa Stiles. rep a ee [Lo face Page 143.] Fig. 1. A common /wing-gate with fimp!{s bar or brace. Fig. z. The common upright /wing-gate, which is more clofe than the former. Fig. 3. An improved upright /qwing-gate, which, at the fame time that it is more clofe, is iikewife more ftrong and ornamental than either of the others. fig. 4. Is a /wing-gate on an improved principle: a the projection on the fore part. of the bar-tree, rifing nine inches, on which the lower end of the diagonal bar, pafling upwards, refts; b b the diagonal bar, through which the three middle horizontal bars pafs; ¢c a perpendicular bar fixed into the uppermoft bar fix inches from the infertion of the diagonal one at@, and into ufeful the lowermoft ate; gate "the{pring on the fore-tree, by which it faftens. Thisis a{trong, fig. 5. A double gate of the fame fort; aaa three crofs bars; 4 the d the former. The objection to this conftruction is the great number of joints. liagonal bar, as in much room, but is ornamental. fig. 6. Isa gate moving on the centre with the appearance of two gates. This takes up| Lig. 7. Common folding gate, very ufeful in many cafes. . O é| Fig. 8. A clofe folding gate. fig. 9. Common ftile. Fig. 10. Another common ftile. Fig. t1. The wicket file. Fig. 12, The fimple ftone ftile. Fig. 13. The Cornifh file. Fig. 14. An improved ftile with rail.. a Fig. 15. Reprefents a fimple method, defcribed in the Northum rberland Agricultural Report, of fixing the hooks and eyes in} hanging-gates fo as to fhut in every pofition. The pofts being fet perpendicular, a plumb-line, a 6, is to be drawn on it: on this line, ata fuitable heigh place the hook c, fo as to project three inches and a half, and, at a proper diftance bel low, put in the hook dan inch and a half on one fide of the lit ne, and fo as to projeét two inches; then tae +(; place the top loop or eye two inches from the saw tree, and the bottom loop three inche,: anda half. For, if the wei ght of the gate be reprefented by the line a b, by the refolution of Se? Tee vat a forces this is refulvabie into other two Occ, and de, the former reprefenting that part of the ae 5= eves} as=“ P“S£L weight which preffes in a perpendicular pofition, and the latter that which prefles in a hori- EJ zontal direction, and gives the gate a tendency to fhut. SIE S. lore clofe, is e part. of the wards, refs; perpendicular at d, and into nal bar, as in his takes up||/ t/| f y ROMA 70 Feet: 10 ig ae 7 a ies iy with rail. 12, ultural Report j Lg. 5. I NA il ‘he pofts being nitable height, csi TT vie ce below, put inches; ten ‘three inches . refolution of at part of the fies in a hore THTTTTTITI N11) slo LL ots TT TTT st ql ie Aegis ay t GEE Tieuirden : ee ue i et a BK y ang GE: TRL ee ails fa rim UU NV AUOUL AN) ip rH sauna ALO i nm i ii ian ANT a Ht By ee — 4 a] fh AAR ati‘()°° Ac Dele IMpYrovers in his ne o the principal refidence, adopted in defray ing the expence of landlord, who the currency of a leafe, money, 146 Lnelofing ighbourhood, oO the general plan, rather than to undo always implies weaknefs, precipifancy, will be a led with propriety and pre and 1 ie favs he,‘f 1s to be fet down u pot farm-houfes. 1¢ ground: will admit, to faciliat teddings of the different farms oug It is further obferved in the fame wor k, that“ various 4 iS y ving them in proper repair, ” fays the writer,“ fuffice to mention what appears to and effeétual of a leafe, the whole e In nats If, on the othex Vad + by a judiciou z‘4 0} their tafte and their knowledge in rural affairs. t convenient; and every part will be deftined to Be| Au Gs 7 who have diflinguithed themfelves by 7 This is the time to corre& fh any part after it is executed, which, t and unneceflary expence. The whole; cifion, fo as to render it moft beautiful its, proper ufe... If a, agit, S S pie aoe and atter 16, ment may be difplaved a t] In place of giving any detail of the permanent intereft in the hand, a farm is to be inclofed dy ring : Q Eos~ a 1€1lfF Conwtruction. anc ] ey 1 the whole may 7 difpofition of the plantations, he Even the farms fhould be divided in fuch a manner, f the dwelling of ee tenant may be as central in his fields, as the fituati ncanees The he thinks,“ to im attention oes reiative ARES ES| ples methods have erecting inclofures in the firft inftance, and be the moft equ If afarm is to be inclofed and fubdivided at the commenc expence of making the fences ought to be laid mone the proprietor ought,” he thinks,* ftill to| ay ol and a contraét be made with the tenant to pay fuch an additional rent i name of intereft, as may be agreed upon betwixt both parties. In the provifion made for maintaining the fences in proper repair, the expence ought always to be mutual and equal on both fides, for very evident-re and thefe repairs executed by fkilful labourers, when required by either party, and completed to the fatisfa&tion of the landlord. fays keeping the fences in order; and it is prefumed that by the provifions pointed out, much contention and many expenfive law- {uits at the end of leafes may be avoided.” There can be little doubt but that, by attending to fuch cireumftance * Robertfon’s view of the State of Agriculture, in the County of Perth, e »e madean ornament out by the eround; and in the grofs fum of the rent, an eq juivalent may be charged for. the intereft of the pended in Few difputes,” he “ take place about fences, unlefs the agreement be very bungling; the bacak bone oo contention is, the -dges, that on of ae 3; and fitua- been fe, let itable ement 3S ut a afons, s, the either es, he 1g 5 the ef{umed ve law- CeSy the Inclofing of Land. 147 proprietors of land may frequently avoid improper plans and modes of managing the inclofures of their eftates, as well as prevent the fences, when once formed, from falling into that ftate of ruin and decay, which is too often the cafe where no fuitable regulations in thefe refpects exift between landlords and tenants. The general bufinefs of inclofing may likewife be rendered more eafy and con- venient, and thus afford encouragement to the beft, and probably the only means of introducing the moft improved and advantageous methods of cultiva- tion, and the reception of the greateft poflible produce from the land. a re ee--== So=—_ —. a_‘ zs lh Ene_———— sone- TF SN_- Hi am a SS = SECTION ¥. Conftruciion of Roads. ai: a 47 a: vs A 3 a D Sel Teh yaa. ROADS—Advantages of; various—Circumftances to be attended to in the Direéhion of-—Different forms of, confideredmThe Convex—The ConcavemThe Varieties of fiat Forms—No particular ce Carer:;: es ay he form fuitable perhaps Jor all Situations—V arious Circumftances in regard to Forms fiated—Some Objections to the convex Form, probably not well founded—Concave Form found adz antageous in Leicefierfbire—Peculiarities in the frat Forms, defcribed— Oljec?s generally aimed at in all— Beatfon’s Theory of Roads—Form of the Bafis or Bottom, of much Importence— Application of certain Principles an Conftruétion of—Different Circumftances to be attended to in—Various Advantages of fuch Conftruc- tion defcribed— Manner of forming the Drains in—When made on this Plan, Roads need not be /o wide —Much Land may confequently be faved—The Quantity of eftimated— Different Soils require a Difference in the Conftruétion of Roads—Methods of making them in fandy—In clayey—In boggy Soils—On the Sides of Hills—Should be kept from having Vater running on them in every Con- Jiruction—Modes of conftruéting iron or railed Roads—Advantages of—Where moft ufeful— Communication on parochial Roads—Defeéts of—Means of unproving them—Wheels of particular Forms injurious to Roads— Different Lffeéts of the conical and cylindrieal—Latter moft advantageous —Cummings’s Eftimate of the Difference in the Effects of—Lorms of Roads that are the leaft affeéted by Wheels in general—Fences on the Sides of Roads—Difadvantages of them—Circumfances necef~ Jary to be attended to in, Ir cannot be doubted but that good and convenient roads are of great ufe and advantage, whether confidered in an agricultural or commercial point of view; yet the beft means of forming and preferving them, feem, till lately, to have been but very little examined, or attended to. This will be obvious to every one who enquires into the fubje€t, as he may frequently find them laid out in the moft inconvenient and injudicious lines of dire€tion, and conftru€ted with confiderable difadvantage in refpec to materials, and the manner of their appli- cation. In marking out and directing new lines of roads, the furveyor, or the perfon who has the management, fhould conftantly keep in his mind a few inciples 4 1 a flesir IPUC J ~ = ' fo wide sent /. require i eo In bogey ry Cone uijep ui 4,4), articular mbageous off etted 4) nect/= e and view; have every put in with appli- or the q few Conftruction of Roads. 149 jeading principles, by which the bufinefs ought always, as much as poffible, to be regulated; fuch as thofe of fixing on the moft level, the fhortefl, and the cheapeft lines: for though they can, perhaps, be but feldom entirely followed, they fhould be regarded, in every inftance, as much as is in the power of the perfon vho marks them out. Where, however, thefe different advantages can all, or feveral of them, be united in the formation of a new road, it will certainly be advifable to proceed, without hefitation, in fuch a line; but where that is im- poflible, which, as we have juft obferved, mutt frequently be the cafe, that line or'direétion fhould be adopted which is the moft level, for it is obvioufly better to go fome way about in order to procure a level road, than to go in a firaight direGtion, and havea hilly, uneven one. Small elevations, or afcents, fhould not, however, be much regarded, as they may often fupply materials for the lower hollow parts, by which means the road is not only more conveniently made, but rendered nearly level. It may alfo fometimes be neceflary to pafs in the direc- tion of flight hills, with the idea of having a found, firm bottom, and a road eafily made; or to avoid fwamps, moraffes, and fheets of ftagnant water, through which roads are made with great difficulty and much expence. Befide, there are ofien other advantages in taking fuch dire€tions; as it can fcarcely have efcaped obfervation, that fuch roads as are formed on a genile declivity always wear the beft, are the cleaneft, and kept in repair at the leaft expence. In all flat coun- tries and level fituations, a flight declivity fhould indeed conftantly be given to the roads in their firft formation, which can eafily be accomplifhed by thofe who: underftand the nature and proper conftruction of them* Where communications are by fuch means to be formed with diftant difiritts, care fhould be taken that it pafs through fuch parts or places as may afford the greateft and moft permanent advantages, without regarding in an improper: degree the intereft of individuals. it is evident, therefore, that as much, in the proper performance of this bufi- nefs, muft always depend upon the{kill and judgment of the furveyor, he thouid,. invariably, in finally deciding on a line of road, make himfelf fully acquainted with the nature, circumftances, and fituation of the furrounding country, and attentively confider, after repeated examinations, which is, on.the whole, the beft and moft advantageous direétion to be fixed upon. After having deliberately decided in regard to the line of dire€tion, it will be proper, in the’ next place, to confider of the form moft fuitable for its conftruc- tion. On this fubject very different opinions are maintaineé. Some contend that roads fheuld be convex; others that they fhould be concave; others again. * See Beatfon in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, p. 128. vexity is great. ree io Conjiruciion of Roads. that they fhould be perfeétly flat from one fide to the other, and in the form of inclined planes longitudinally; and a few, that they fhould be perfectly flat in every direction. Itis probable, however, that no one particular form is calculated to anfwer in, or fuitable for, every fituation, but that they ought to be varied ac- cording to the particular circumftances and fituations of the country through which the. road is to pafs. A perfon who has been much engaged in this way affures us, that he has been clearly convinced, from very long obferva- tion and experience, that where roads have been made flat in the middle, with the fides a little raifed, fo as to collet the water to that part, with a proper y for it to pafs off longitudinally, they have always worn the leveleft, and, with proper management, been kept in repair at by much the leaft expence. n that part of the country where he refides, he fays, a turnpike road was formed upon this principle, about forty years ago, and though in the neighbour- hood of acolliery, and, confequenily, many heavy carriages pafiing over it at all times of the year, he believes it will not be too much to fay that it is the beft turn- pike road in the county, and repaired at the leaft expence of any, upon which an equal number of heavy carriages pafs. The convex or rounded form of roads is, notwithftanding, in general, per- haps, by much the beft, and certainly the moft common, but the degrees of convexity are very uncertain and indeterminate, depending for the moft part on the caprice of the perfon employed in the making of them. In general, how- ever, they are confiderably too much rounded, fo asin fome inftances to be very in- 5 convenient, and even dangerous-to the traveller. The adoption of this rounded mode of making roads, feems to have proceeded on the fuppofition that water would be more readily conveyed off into the ditches or drains on the fides. But this 1s not exaétly the fat, for much of the water is obvioufly detained on the furfaces of fuch roads by the tracks, irregularities, and roughnefles, produced by the impreflions of the wheels of carts- and other fimilar caufes, which by thus flagnating, and being agitated and wrought up by the frequent pafling of car- riages, and other heavy machines, foon renders the roads uneven, full of depref- fions, and almoft impaffable. The convex method of conftructing roads does not, therefore, effeCtually prevent water from refting upon their furfaces. But, be- fides this, there are other difadvantages attending this form of roads; the unequal preflure which the wheels of carriages muft have in fuch cafes, not only tends very much to break up and deftroy the roads, but, at the fame time, renders travelling on them very inconvenient and unpleafant, efpecially where the con- With the mode of forming and confiruéting thefe kinds of roads in the firlt in- an In this Dierva- | ak Se, With proper rer if wWalel s But he cons Confirufiion of Roads, 15-1 finmpea 1. CO TR} ay ra P pared Ore O. Fae 7 7: flance, a late writer alfo finds great fault, conceiving it highly difadvantag Gc 7 and a bfurd The im Yor rieti> eae 1| f_— t} fa>} 4 ae Yr~ a{] ofurd. he Improprieties complained of m the methods of preparing fuch cous: ds for the reception of the hard and more folid parts of the materials, are re- prefented in the fection of a road fo formed, which. may be feen in the annexed plate. When thus prepared and made up, it is fuppofed, that though it may be imagined that the whole of the water that falls on the road may be conveyed. away by the ditches or drains on the fides, yet if it be examined in a wet feafon Bs Bs BS S Alda za T= BS= ee== Atl- BS=> 94 yu>}= ores: se which have been juft defcribed, and may be had recaurfe to according to the particular circumftances of the different cafes. The author of a valuable communication on the fubje& of-roads*, has propofed a new theory of conftructing them, which, he fays, is founded on nature. It is well known that fome of the frata that are found in the, bowels of. the earth * See Beatfon in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol, I, de to |, and Ual fa. ealler ppear, It has, eels of it from tended n fifty, aS CONs. or parts round, ter eafe 1/01,— ended, ot run ble of atly be, ar; that ‘ich it Is at every Conftruciion of Roads. 155 are of fo clofe and denfe a texture, as not to admit moifture to penetrate them, while others are fo open and porous that they readily permit water to pafs through them in every direction, until it meets with fome obftruétion, or finds a channel to convey it off. Among thefe different /rata there is alfo much differ- ence in refpe€t to their denfity and porofity; and in proportion as they partake more or lefs of thefe qualities, they admit moifture to tranfude through them with greater or lefs facility. In further illuftration of his ideas, and in apply- ing thefe principles in the conftruétion of roads, it is obferved, that, fuppofing the fe€tion of a hill or eminence compofed of anumber of fata; if the upper- moft firatum or furface foil be of a porous nature, it is obvious that, any water falling upon it muft pafs through to the next fratum underneath, where if it cannot penetrate any further, it muft glide along the furface till it finds an outlet or vent at the bottom of the eminence. If, however, the fecond ftratum fhould be hollow for fome diftance, the water will lodge in that hollow, and conftitute a kind of pool or bog, asis often noticed on the tops of hills; but if in this hol- low place there be a communication with the third ftratum, which is porous, no water will ftagnate there, but will pafs through and run along the fourth /fratum, which is denfe, until it iffues at the fide or bottom of the hill. It is further evident, that if the firft or uppermoft fratum fhould be of a denfe texture, as clay, any water coming upon it will not only ftagnate in the large hollows, but in all the fmaller ones, as well as in the other irregularities and depreffions that may be on its furface. It is therefore clear, it is conceived, that in order to keep the furface of fuch a piece of ground as that defcribed dry, it is not of much confequence what fhape or form the furface has, whether it be convex or flat, fo that there be a communication with an under firatum fufficiently porous to carry away the water below: it is, however, of much confequence that the form of the upper furface of that /fratum on which the water is to glide, fhould be fmooth and even, in order that it may the more readily pafs off. This will probably be better underftood by confulting the fe€tion to which it relates, in the annexed plate. The application of this reafoning, in the formation of roads, is as follows: « Where a new road is to be formed, let it,” fays the author,“ be done in the firft inftance nearly in the ufual manner, with fuch materials as are on the fpot, and the nearer the quality of thefe approaches to clay, fo much the better. Inftead, however, of forming it convex, as is generally done, it fhould be quite ftraight on each fide, and meet in an angle or ridge in the middle of the road, hav- ing a flope from thence to each fide of about an inch in a foot; and fmall drains at thefe parts, for the more eafily conduéting away the water that may be collected 13 Confiruction of Roads. at thofe places. The road being thus formed mutt,” he fays,“be allowed to harden and fettle for fome time, before any other materials are laid on; great care muft be taken, while in that flate, to let no carriages or cattle upon it, and it thould be rolled with a long wooden roller that will reach at once nearly over one fide of the road. This roller fhould be loaded with a box of ftones to make it {ufficiently heavy, and that it may be the more portable when that box is taken off; and it may be fo contrived that, by changing the horfes from one fide to the other, there will be no occafion to turn the roller, in order to make it roll the fa ime {pace over again. Being rolled in this manner, will confolidate the materials compofing the ridge, and prepare it for receiving thofe to come afterwards: for i is a moft abfurd praétice to Jay hard materials in the common w ay, upon the fir form or bafis of a road, before it is fuitic siently firm to bear the ‘** Being thus formed and properly pene the next ftep to- taken is,’’ he thinks,“‘ to imitate the works of nature in dry foils as nearly as poffible, by form- ing a firatum penetrable by water, compofed either of fand or fandy gravel, or any other fubftance eafieft to be got, that 1s fufficiently porous to admit water to pafs through it.. This fératwm fhould be laid quite level one fide of the road to the other, filling up alfo the fmall drains on the fides(as may be readily feen by referring to the annexed plate). Over this are to be Jaid the beft materials that can be got for completing the road, confifting either of ftones broken very{mall, or of the beft gravel. or aoe 1 and extending’ from This coat of hard materials need not,” he fuppofes,‘exceed above a or feven inches in thicknefs, which being much lefs than is commonly ufed, will be a confiderable faving: and i even ftill be lefs,” he thinks,“if the directions herea{ ed to. If this covering confift of broken ftones, they fhould afterwards be laid er with fand or fine gravel, when eafily procured, fo as to fill up all the cavities p)’ f ee them. The fand or rubbihh from a free-{tone quarry is excellent for this purpofe, provided there is no mixture of earth in it, which fhould be care- fully guarded againft in every ftep taken afte er the road is firft formed. Thefe finifhing Saas being properly Jaid on and es witha rake, the whole fhould now,”’ he fays,* before any c carriages or horfes are admitted upon it, be well rolled with a heavy iron roller, divided in thre 1 three eopanteg? as reprefented in the plate on rollers. The writer alfo{ fugge‘fis“that it would fave much eX~ pence in repairing roads, efpecially new ones, if rollers of generally employed, as it cannot-be{ uppofed that they will immediately bear wheel carriages, or remain long in repair, when compofed entirely of loofe materials, unlefs fame pains be taken to confolidate them. R R olling would of courfe, it is fuppofed, produce the moft advantageous and ufeful effects, and it may fter given are{triétly attend- this kind were more es(as to be either nted In uch€X- e more s|y bear of loole ould 9 Conftruction of Roads, 157 tend very greatly to keep the roads in an even ftate, and free from deep ruts and hollows; and that nothing could conduce more fully or more effectually to produce and preferve firmnefs, without which it is utterly impoflible to have good roads.” The advantages of having a road laid out and conftru€ted in this way are faid by the author to be thefe:“ that by having a level furface, every part is conve- nient and fuitable for carriages, and will, of courfe, be equally made ufe of; from which the deep ruts, fo common in other roads, will, in a great meafure, be prevented. It will, on this account alfo, be much eafier kept in repair; and if well managed at firft, will be conftru€ted at lefs expence than by the common modes of making roads, efpecially in fandy foils, or where fand or gravel can be procured with facility. On fach a road the draught too will be cont fid eafier. It is likewife a great advantage in thefe roads, that by having an under erably firatum through which water can penetrate, and the fpaces among the harder materials being filled with the fame kind of porous material, no water can ever ftaznate on the furface, nor can it ever in wet feafons become fo dirty as other roads; all the water that falls, except, perhaps, in very heavy rains, being con- duéted away underneath, as well as in every part.” In concluding that, from the interftices between the different parts of the hard materials being“ led up with loofe porous fubftances, eae which moifture can readily pafs, roads never become fo dirty or water ftagnates fo much upon them, the abildons is pro- bably miftaken; as. a very fhort examination of the matter will clearly fhew, that whether the covering of roads be of fand,{mall ftones, or gravel, when they be- come pulverifed sue the wheels of carr lag es, which-they foon will be in dry wea- ther, and on wet weather coming on will be wafhed into the various interftices of the ftones, or other a materials, effe€tually blocking them up, and thus ren- dering the furface completely puddled, to ufe a term employed in ground works, and thereby to retain water eqt 1ally with any clay. Sometimes it will be requifite, it is fuppofed, to have crofs drains-carried under the fences from the fmall 6 ide drains mentioned above, at the diftance of every — ten or fifteen yards, where the level of the ground will admit of them. Thefe may be made of any fuitable material; if of wood, it is conceived that an inch in the bore will be fufficient. Such a narrow paffage muft, hosever, be very liable to be choked up and obftructed; it would, therefore, be much better-to have them two or three inches, or of fuch fizes as may be fuited to the quantity of water that may at.any time come upon them. It is to be particularly noticed, that on all floping roads ona declivity, where the water is apt in heny rains to run upon the furface or at the fides, that it ought 158 Conftrucion of Roads. never to be fuffered to pafs in the fame dire€tion more than ten or fifteen yards, but at fuch diflances to be conduéted away to the main drains, at the fides. By this means it will do little harm, as it can never increafe to more than a weak ‘ftream; but if it be permitted to run one or two hundred yards, it will probably be {welled to fuch a fize before it paffes off, as to wath away much of the materials, and do confiderable damage to the road or fences on the fides of it*. need: not be. quite fo wide.as they are in common, as the whole furface of them from‘fide to fide will be in ufe. From twenty to twenty-four feet wide, he thinks, will be fufficient; except it be in the vicinity of large and populous towns, or near extenfive works where a great number of carts or other Carriages are employed, in which fituations they may with propriety be made much wider, as from thirty to forty, or even fifty feet. In the interior parts of the country, twenty feet in width will, indeed, anfwer every purpofe. It has been obfervedin many places where the roads have not been more than eighteen or twenty feet wide, and properly made from fide to fide, that they were in much better condition than the neighbouring.ones, which were from thirty to forty, or fifty feet in width. On thefe.wide roads, formed in the common way, there is, it is obferved, feldom jore. than eight oriten feet in the middle of them generally made; the remainder -on each. fide being taken up with heaps of ftones,{crapings, and rubbith of other kinds, which, though.they may be fometimes wanted in repairing the roads, fhould not be{uffered to remain in fuch fituations, as they may be dangerous for horfes and carriages:in the dark. Befides much valuable land is, he thinks, loft to the. community+, and confiderable injury frequently done to the farmer, When made on this conftru€tion, the ingenious author fuppofes, that roads by the feeds of noxious weeds which are fuffered to ripen and be diffeminated from fuch fituations. The difference of foils makes confiderable difference in the conftruction of roads.* Where the foil is of the fandy kind, roads may be made with great facility on the plan juft defcribed,-as there will be little more to do than level the furface properly, fill up the different hollow places, roll it very well withthe long * Beatfon in. Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I. + The mode of calculation by which he attempts to fhew the quantity of land thus left is this:*«Suppofe,” ays he,“the medium neceffary width of roads to be feven yards, or twenty-one feet, amd that the medium width now made is eleven yards, or thirty-three feet; this is, upon that fupofition, four yards wider than is neceflary, which in every mile is-a lofs of one acre one rood and two perches; and fuppofing there are 5,000 miles of fuch roads in the whole kingdom,‘there is a lofs 6f more than 6,300 acres, which, if eftimat- ed the fame as the improved value of the wafte lands, at-27s. per acre, and at thirty years’ purchafe, would produce 255,150/.: a fum which, if laid out in improving the roads and making eafy communications through different parts of the kingdom» would,” he thinks,“ be of the greatgft public advantage. Tt them de, he Ly IU owns, TAC 45) are der, as twenty t wide, ndition width. eldom ainder f other Suppote, e medium er than 1s there are if eftimat yale, would nynications ge, Conftruttion of Roads. 159 wooden roller, and lay on fuch materizls as are intended to finith it with, in the manner that has been already defcribed, and afterwards roll it yery well with the heavy iron roller. But if the foil confift folely of a deep loofe fand, the beft and eafieft method of making a lafting road, is to ¢onftru@ it to the intended width for the hard materials, at the fides.of which channels fhould be dug eighteen or twenty inches in depth, and about the fame width; thefe muft.be filled and firmly built up with ftrong turf or clay, or any other folid fubftance that will prevent the materials to be laid on the road from fpreading to either fide, openings being left at every ten or fifteen yards to let the water falling on the middie part of the road pafs through more readily. But where the. nature of the ground is fuch as t require to be made up, a{mall wall of the fame materials muft be built on each fide, inftead of the channels, nearly of the- fame height as the furface.of the road is tobe. By this means the hard materials which are laid on will be prevente* from{preading, which is the chief reafon of roa‘s in fuch foils fo fuddenly giving way; and thefe materials will not be fo apt to fink down into the faad, efpecially if it have been well rolled before their ap- plication, and at times after it has been finally completed*. If materials can be readily procured to cover the road.from fide to fide, and it have a fence at each fide, the walls will not; it is remarked, be fo neceflary, as they are principally in*ended to keep the folid materials together, where.they are not to be applied the. whole breadth of ihe road. Should thefe fmall! walls, however, be found neceflary, the fpaces at the fidcs, by being coated with grav. or free-ftone fand, will make good foot-paths. In clayey foils the roads are, it is obferved, for the moft part extremely bad and difagreeable; and-principally for this reafon, that proper fteps are not taken to guard again{t water ftagnating on their furfaces. This may, indeed, occafionally arife from the want of materials,{uch as fand and gravel, though it is far from being commonly the cafe. It is remarked, in the valuable paper juft quoted, that“ it feems hardly ever to have occurred to thofe who have had the direStion of fuch roads, that fwd, properly applied, would, in a great meafure, remedy all the defeéts complained of;” and there are very few diftri€ts.of a country, it is added, in which fome fort of fand, free-{tone, rock or fandy gravel, may not be obtained, by proper exertions, though» in fome fituations it may be procured with greater expence and difficulty than in others... But where no hard materials at all can be had, if the roads were formed in a.fimilar way to tho‘e we have d:{fcribed above, the inconv: niences attending them would moft probably be readily removed. The clay ey founcation fhould be pared. * See Beatfon in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol, I. 160 Conftrudiion of Roads, away in fuch a manner as to form a ridge in the middle of the bafis or bottom part; and flight openings or drains be made at every ten or fifteen yards, or at fuch places as are hollow, in order to conduct off the moifture into the prin coal drains "The epee thus prepared, being then filled up with fand, or fome yee porous fubftance eafily procured, and finifhed in the way that has been already mentioned, a good road may be formed. The manner of effecting this bufine’s may probably, however, be better underftood by confulting the plate. In making roads ae rh bogs or morafles,‘the firft thing to be done is to drain or draw off as much of the ftagnant water as poflible, which may often be be! accomplifhed by cutting ditches or drains of fufficient depth on the infide of the { Ase PR my SE Re| lea wren Aloe WN Ey GA AR Pies 14 fences, where they are“incfolEil, or deligned to be inclofed, on the fides.- For purpofe, fuch drains fhould, however, be formed a confiderable time before any thing‘urther 18 attempted. Twelve or fixteen months, according to the{tate and circumftances of the cafes, are probably little enough, as the ground, if very boggy, will fettle very much after the water is taken off, and in fom e parts probably more fan others, as the foil is more or le!s moffy or een ade of water.“Thefe vill, therefore, be better difcovered by fuch a delay, in order to their bein up and levelled, which is readieft done by the materials cut from off the elevations, or fuch other fubftances as are near at hand. But in whatever way this is done, the furface fods fhould be carefully pared off, both from the elevations and hollows, by a fuitable autties fuch asa paring fpade, and laid afide until the hollows and depreflions are filled up and quite levelled; they fhould then be Isid on again, by which means the whole furface will be rendered not only level, but of an equal degree of toughnefs, which is a point of confiderable importance. After thefe preparatory fteps have been taken, the breadth of the part defigned for the reception of the hard materialsis to be marked out, and covered with fand, or fuch other porous fubftances as have been mentioned, to the thi_knefs of ten or twelve inches at leaft.‘This fhould then be well rolled, and finifhed in the ‘way that has been already defcribed. If this plan be ftri€tly adhered to; there can be little doubt of making good roads, even on mofly or boggy fuils* Other methods of i ditids roads through thefe foils are, howevel uses prattifed, as by laying a foundation of broom, furze, heath, willow, or other mate- rials of the fame kind, and then p acing the hard materials upon them; but fand -or fome other Rar hard material is aly vays to be preferred, where it can be readily obtained, and where the line of the road is rendered proper] y dry before the materials are laid on; as woody fubflances foon be egin to decay, and confes * See Beatfon in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I. Athawas 0 toni otf.} atluch crains Aili a athao © ULLET } Tea y iis ¢ Milli’.S . i 7 an equa! defigned ‘ith fand, {s of ten Confirudicn of Reads. . + sq 4 quently let down fuch mate:ials as are placed upon them, and thus quickly der the whole of the bufinefs to be performed over again. In conftruéting roads in all kinds of foil, the fame rules and directions that have been given above muft be attended to, only varying them according to the nature of the materials that are to be employed, and fuch local circumftances as may have any influence. When roads are to be cut or formed on the declivities of hills, there are a few circumftances to be attended to, in addition to thofe which have been fpoken of, in conftruéting roads where the ground is nearly on a plainor level from fide to fide. It not unfrequently happens in thefe cafes, that the part to be hollowed out and removed affords a fufficient body of materials for making the road, and the parts from whence they areremoved feldom require any covering to be placed upon them. This, however, muft be regulated by the nature of the foil, and folidity of the bottom which is thus left. Where the whole breadth of the road is made from the folid, and that has a fufficient degree of hardnefs, no extraneous materials whatever will be requifite, but in cafes where the foil is a compound of clay and gravel, or where it is of a very foft earthy nature, an application of the principles and dire€tions which have been already advanced will be neceffary in forming it. Where the lower part of the road is to be made up from that which ts to be removed from the upper, it fhould be conftrufted confiderably higher at firft than the proper level, or bottom of that part from which the materials are taken, in order to allow for the fettling, which may be much haftened by rolling; but the hard materials fhould on no account be laid on before this has been well accomplifhed. Where the eminence is of much height above the road, the fall of water is fometimes confiderable. In general, it is the beft method, in thefe cafes, to ftop the water ata fhort diftance from the road fide, and thereby prevent it from running down the face of the bank; for if it be permitted to trickle down in this manner, it will quickly, by means of frofts and other caufes, deftrey the bank, and choak up the drains, whether they be open or covered ones; if covered, the earth, which is conftantly mouldering down from fuch caufes, will foon become fo clofe and compat, that the water cannot pafs through it to the drain, before it runs off upon the road; and if open, they are kept clear with great trouble and difficulty. But by ftopping the water about five or fix feet from the bank, and drawing it away toa proper outlet, the road may be kept dry with greater certainty and eafe. Should the face of the bank have any irregularities, the water, in fuch cafes, may be taken away, by having the drain to recede from a en 162 Conftruciion of Roads. the bank in fuch places, and keeping the courfe conftantly on a due le avel; the fame purpofe might be obtained by letting it be taken off in the ies by means of fmall receffes faced up. with ftone, or by fpouts made of wood and fet upright in the bank at th ai hollow places, and communicating with covered: crofs drains under the road*. In Jaying out and conftruéting thefe, as well as all other kinds of roads, it is like- wife obferved, that care fhould conftantly be taken that no water runs upon them, except what falls in rain. But in cafes where this cannot be ae prevented, and where a fiream of water muft of neceffity run on the fide of a road, the drains or ditches, which as has already been obferved are the beft on the infide of the fences, muft be made of fuch dimenfions as are fufficient to take the water that may come into them at different feafons. Thofe fmall drains,. filled with fand or gravel, which have been fpoken of above, are only fuitable for fuch roads as cannot have any fuperabundant quantity of water at any time coming yng them. That roads may be conftruéted in the ridge or floping form that has been de- icribed above with much propriety and fuccefs, in various fituations, there cannot be much doubt; though experience, which is probably the beft guide, would feem. to thew, that the flightly convex fhape is not only more generally applicable, but. that which admits of the materials being laid in the moft advantageous manner, in refpeét to the preffure and wear of heavy carriages, as well as other points of im- portance. But whichever form may be adopted, the road fhould never have musi Te ies in the middle, or be greatly rounded, only fo much that the wa- ter may be well and eafily taken off+; as where either the one or the other is the cafe, there muft be great inequality produced in the preffure of carriages, by the weight being fo much thrown on the lower wheel, and an increafe of friction, from the infide of that part of the wheel through which the axle-tree paffes bearing too hard againft the foulder, and the outfide too. much on the pin which confines it in its fituation; by which the difficulty of the draught is greatly. augmented and rendered more inconvenient for the animal. And further, ac- cidents are more liable to take place in conveying top loads, or fuch fubftances as are of a liquid nature tf. There is another method of conftruéting roads, which may be applicable in eertain circumftances, and particular quent This is that of forming, them of rails of wood or iron, of different fizes, according to. the fituation and weights. * See Beatfon in Communications tq the Board of‘Batictaisre? vol; I. + Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture, yol. 1V. p. 78. + Holt’s Hints in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I. which reatly tT, ace tances ible in hem of eights Confiruction of Roads.—Repairs.| 163 that are to be carried, with grooves in them for the wheels to run in*.‘Thefe are laid on a perfect level, and inclined planes formed where neceffary, the ground being firft formed true, and rendered dry by drains. By which, and the ufe of proper machinery, heavy carriages may be forced up or let down as the mature of the cafe may require. As roads of this kind are very liable to wear out where wood is employed, it is probably the mof advifable, in moft cafes, to have them made of caft-iron; and they fhould always be double, one being placed at a {mall diftance from the other, having communications, at fuch diftances as may be convenient for the purpofeof paffing in either diretion: where iron is ufed, it is by much the beft way to have the rails fecured in ftone-work, as when prepared in this way, it would be very little liable to be out oforder. The carriages, of whatever kind, which are to travel on fuch roads, muft be adapted to the purpofe; the bef general mode of conftru€ting which, where heavy loads are to be carried, would probably be that of their having low iron wheels. The principal advantages of roads of this nature are, that great weights may be conveyed on them at little expence of team, while they do not coft much more in forming than well-made turnpike roads. Extenfive roads on this plan are met with in different places, as near Colnbrook-dale in Shropfhire, and at Orrel near Wigan, Lancafhire, for the purpofe of conveying coals,&c. It is probably in fituations and for ufes of this kind that fuch roads can be had recourfe to with the moft advantage, as by means of them the cutting up and deftruction of other roads may be much leffened or wholly prevented. Repairing Roads.—However common the practice may be for the furveyors, or overlookers of roads, to permit them to be much cut and broken up before any effectual means are employed in repairing them, it is certainly extremely injudicious and expenfive; as experience has fully fhewn, that it is much the moft economical plan to never allow them to get out of repair to any confider- able degree. Where circumftances will admit of it, the beft, and probably the moft faving, method of proceeding is, that of having fuitable experienced per- fons appointed in every township or diftri@, or for a certain extent of road, for the exprefs purpofe of feeing what parts are in a bad condition, where water {iagnates, or deep and improper ruts are formed, and to repair and remove them as expeditioufly as poffible. In filling up and repairing the hollow parts, as well as the tracks which are formed by carriages, care fhould conftantly be taken that all the water be previ- * When made of iron, from 20 to 40 Ib. per yard is the ufual weight: 33]b. is fufficient for carry- ing two tons. A bar of bet-iron, one inch and half in breadth and£ of an inch in thicknefs, is fome- times fixed on wooden fleepers for the fame purpofe. 164 Conftruction of Roads=——Repairs. oufly well drained off, and the loofe mud or earth effeftually removed. In fome cafes, however, wheel-tracks may be reftored to a proper ftate, merely by the re- moval of their fides, without any filling up; but the fubftance thus removed is highly improper for being depofited in the ruts again, being of too foft and earthy a nature for fuch repairs. Indeed, the common pra€tice of throwing down the fides of wheel-ruts in order to render them level, is but a very tranfitory and ineffe€tual repair. Suitable hard materials fhould always be had recourfe to in fuch cafes. In conftru€ting and repairing roads, it 1s alfo a circumftance of more imports ance than is generally fuppofed, that the quality of the hard materials fhould be as nearly equal as poflible, and that where ftones are employed, that they be broken down as much as can be to an equality of fize; for it is well known that where the fize of the ftones made ufe of is various and unequal, the road will wear in holes and uneven. This is fufficiently fhewn by what happens in a road when ftones Jie at or near the furface which are larger and of harder qualities than thofe of which the reft of the road is compofed, as hollows. or depreffions are conftantly produced by the oppofite wheel to that which paffes over fuch ftones. This alfo affords a reafon for removing every.thing out of roads that has any tendency to throw carriages of any kind too much on one fide, and for immediately*filling up and repairing the parts of wheel- ruts which are more cut down on one fide than the other. Where gravel or ballaft is employed, it fhould, likewife, be as equal as pofiible, and well freed from clay, and all forts of earthy materials that it may contain. This feparation might probably, in fome cafes, be greatly promoted by having the gravel dug in the autumn, and letting it be once or twice turn- ed over during the winter, after having been thoroughly moiftened, in order that it may be expofed to the a€tion of the frofts, in a ftate the moft fuitable for being broken down.and feparated. In regard to the fize of the ballaft that is made ufe of in repairing roads, though it is common to.require it large, fuch as is of a middling equal fize is, in general, to be preferred, as binding better and fooner on old roads. In the winter feafon nothing fhould be done to roads in.the way: of repairs, except in cafes of neceflity, fuch as the reftoring of places that may have fud- denly given way, or been much cut up. The mud and ftagnant water on the furface muft, however,. be-conftantly attended to.and removed; and proper ma- terials may, during this feafon, and efpecially when there is. a hard froft, be colle&ted and carted to.fuch fituations as may require them when the fummer advances, which is the proper time for making and repairing roads. But in fome 1G Tes Ved is earthy Wn the ory and fe to in mport fhould hey be known he road lappens and of hollows which ing out uch on - equal as at it may promoted ice turn- ‘der that rable for that is fuch as ig better , repails, ave fud- yon the oper mae froft, be , fuminet . But# . Conftrudtion of Roadsv—Repairs. 165 doing this, unlefs the repairs are to be immediately performed, fuitable places thould be provided for them, inftead, as is the common praftice, of depofiting them in heaps on the fides of the roads. About the Jatter end of March, or beginning of September, when fuch periods are fufficiently dry for the bufinefs, is by much the mo proper for putting frefh materials upon roads, as they are then not prevented from binding or be- coming firm, either by too great drought, or too much wetnefs. In the firft a moderate coat, where it is wanted, fhould be laid on, and in the latter a more full and complete one. But before any fort of material is applied, the road muft be well feraped and cleaned, and the hollows and foft places, after being {cooped out, and the bottoms well loofened, filled up level with good hard ma- terials, rammed in by means of a heavy rammer. In this way fuch places are rendered as hard and firm as any other part of the road. In the application of the furface materials afterwards, great care fhould be taken that they be fpread out as equally as poflible over the whole. By rolling with a heavy roller, as has been already noticed, much advantage may be derived in the reparation of roads, efpecially if the hard part of the materials thrown out by the preffure of wheel-carriages, be reftored previoufly to the operation of fuch a roller; as it can hardly be fuppofed that materials, how- ever good, when put on in a loofe manner, can remain in their fituation, or be durable, though it is a pra€tice too commonly followed by the overlookers of roads, who but feldom employ any kind of inftrument for the purpofe of confoli- dating the materials they apply in making repairs. If this mode was made ufé of at an early period, before any very large portion of the gravel or other matter was removed, in many cafes no other means whatever would be neceffary. With a view to reftore the ftones, gravel,‘and other materials, which may have been thrown up or difplaced by the a€tion of different kinds of wheel-car- riages, implements of various forts have been propofed;. but the common rake and fpade, in the hands of an expert labourer, are probably the beft. The road-harrow, invented by Mr. Harriott, feems to anfwer pretty well where roads: are repaired with fmall ftones or gravel. The inventor afferts, that“ aman, 2 boy, and two horfes, will do three miles in length in one day, completely har- rowing down the quarters, and drawing the ftones together, which, by means ot the mould-boards, are,” he thinks,‘* dropped into the ruts, far better than a man can ftub them in.” Where fuch a machine can be ufed, the faving of expence may, of courfe, be very confiderable; a reprefentation of it may be feen by confulting the annexed plate. Rolling in the manner that has been already defcribed fhould, hewever, if 166: Conffruetion of Roads.—Repairs. conftantly be had recourfe to after the ufe of this harrow, in order to make good work, or render the road fufficiently firm and folid. In making the repairs of roads, the choice of materials muft chiefly depend on the facility of their being found, and the convenience of conveying them. On the principles which have been laid down, it muft be evident, that a good foun- dation for a road is a ftratum of any porous fubftance, fuch as fand, or fandy gravel, or even the refufe of free-ftone quarries. The harder materials being then applied, the beft of which are ftones broken very{mall and evenly, or gravel, andthe more hard and brittle the ftones are the better. One load of ftones prepared in this way is faid to be more valuable in repairing roads, than three loads of fuch gravel as is taken from the beds of rivers, or from commons, as it furnifhes a firmer bottom, at the fame time that the furface is more equal, uniform, and durable. Where other ftones can be procured, thofe of a calca- reous nature fhould, however, never be employed, as they foon moulder down, and undergo a fort of decompofition, by which a kind of clay is produced, that in wet feafons renders the roads extremely dirty, and caufes them to retain wa- ter on their furfaces, which is prejudicial in a very high degree. Where fmall ftones are made ufe of as the finithing coat, they ought always to be thinly {pread over with fine gravel or free-{tone fand,in order that the crevices may be well filled up, and the road be thereby rendered more durable. Where roads are repaired with ballaft, after the holes, tracks, and hollow places, have been properly filled up, and the water well drained off, as already noticed, a flight covering, in places where it is wanted, after the foundation or ground has been well loofened at the bottom, fhould be applied at the times, and in the manner ftated above. If roads repaired by this fubftance be covered too foon in the year, it is, however, apt to be too much reduced before the winter fets in, which is the time they ought to be in a good and firm ftate. In the forming and repairing of communication parochial or private roads, attention fhould conftantly be had to the different principles and circumftances which have been detajled in conftru€ting thofe of a public nature. Under the prefent fyftem of management, in thefe cafes little improvement is, how- ever, to be expetted, as the means are far from being fufficient for the purpofe, and thofe who have the temporary direétion of them, are feldom fufficiently well informed in refpe& to the nature and principles of conftructing or repairing fuch roads, to perform the bufinefs to the greateft advantage. Indeed, until the veryinadequate and inefficient plan of ftatute Jabour be completely done away, and a fuitable equivalent in money raifed, and at the fame time perfons of know- edge, experience, and information, with proper falaries, be appointed for manag- t fandy Ng then gravel, f ftones , than mmons, e equal; a Calca- r down, d, that thinly may be hollow already indation e times, roads, {tances Under , how- urpole, ciently pairing atil the e aways f know: manag- Conftruction of Roads.——R epairs. 167 ing the expenditure and application in each diftri@, under the control of the acting magiftrates for the time, or fome fuch power, it is almoft utterly impoffible that fuch roads can be-either made or kept in a good ftate of repair. Mr. Donaldfon, in his“ Modern Agriculture,” has thrown out fome hints on this fubje@, which are not, perhaps, unworthy of attention. After recommending the abolition of . thofe ancient ftatutes that regulate the performance of ftatute labour, he advifes that in every county the juftices of peace be invefted with power to-affefs the inhabitants of the diftrict by fome equitable ratio, whereby they may pay only in proportion to the benefit they receive.‘* Were this generally done,” fays he,“ as is the cafe in feveral parts of Scotland; the counties divided into diftricts of fuch fize, that the proprietors could conveniently meet as occafion re- quired; the money arifing from the commutation a& colle@ed by one perfon, who fhould be allowed a certain per centage on the fum colle&ted, be continued during good behaviour, and be refponfible for his conduét to the gentlemen of the diftritt; the money fo collected be afterwards expended under the direétion of thefe gentlemen, and the whole be fubjeét to the review of the quarter-feflions;—the parifh roads in thefe kingdoms would,” he thinks, «“ foon be materially improved. If to thefe regulations a. power were added to mortgage the fum arifing from the commutation of the ftatute labour for fuch a number of years, and to fuch an extent as was found neceffary to put the ufeful private roads in a complete ftate of repair, they might, in a few years, be made the reverfe of what they are at prefent. This laft mea- fure would,” he conceives,“ be found the moft effeétual that could poflibly be. adopted, and is, probably, the only one that, can be reforted to for the: purpofe of effecting an immediate and general improvement.” But, whatever methods or plans may be thought the moft advantageous and effe€tual, in removing the inconveniences which have fo long been com- plained ef, in the badnefs of parochial roads, it is obvious that, in addition to this, they muft have confiderable effect in improving the ftate of agriculture, by leffening the quantity and expence of labour, as well as by facilitating the means of conveying certain kinds of materials, without which the attempts of the farmer in carrying on improvements, mutt often. be very circumfcribed and ineffeétual. In general, private or parochial roads are made fo narrow as to admit of car- riages paffing one another with difficulty, except in particular places. They are alfo, in many inftances, extremely circuitous and winding, by which much time is loft. in the carting of materials. The fide drains are feldom fuffici- 168 Confirudion of Roads.—L feats of Wheels. ciently opened and kept clear, on which accounts the roads fuffer confiderabiy, as from large quantities of water ftagnating upon them, deep floughs and yuts are readily formed. Roads have been fuppofed to be fubje€t to much injury and deftruGtion from fome particular forms of wheels; thus broad ones, though conveying immenfe weights, have been recommended and encouraged, in preference to thofe of the narrow kind, which carry comparatively but a very light load. But it is not the breadth of the wheels which ought exclufively to be confidered, but the form or conftruftion of them, and the weight of load that 1s placed upon and carried by them; asit is clear from the effets which are produced, that the materials of roads cannot be rolled down flat, or left in a perfectly folid ftate, by wheels pro- ceeding in ftraight directions, except where they have a cylindrical form of rim, and do not convey very weighty loads. The wheels of waggons, and other heavy carriages, though they have been required to have a certain breadth of rim, anda flat bearing on the road, have not been conftruéted in fuch a form as is beft fuited to confolidate, roll down, and keep the furface of roads in repair. The foles or rims of them, inftead of being cylindrical, have moftly been the portion of a cone, the properties of which have lately, by various experiments, been thewn to be thofe:—of their having a natural tendency, in rolling, to revolve ina circular dire€tion round their conical centres; of their requiring a conftant power or force to keep them to a ftraight line or courfe; in their being cons. fined or compelled to move in fuch ftraight dire€tion, a rubbing and friction occurring at the rim; their augmenting fri€tion on the axis; their caufing a rubbing againft the fides of deep ruts or tracks; their throwing up dirt from the hind part of the wheel; their pulverizing and greatly reducing the beft forts of materials in dry feafons, thereby caufing much fludge in wet, and much duft in dry weather; their deranging and breaking the texture of the furface of the roads when in a foft or compreffible ftate, and leaving them in a broken condition, ready to imbibe moifture, which caufes all the bad effects of wet feafons and intenfe frofts; their promoting the deftruétion of paved roads, by forcing open the joints and letting in the water under the ftones, which by ultimately floating and difcharging the gravel, renders the ftones loofe and permits the pavement to fink into holes; their augmenting the labour of the cattle or team, and accelerating the wear of the tyres of the wheels by their conftant tendency to drag and grind on the roads*. The cylindrical form of rims is fhewn to be free from thefe inconveniences, having a conftant tendency to proceed ina ftraight dire€tion, without fri€tion * Cumming in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. IL. lerably, , es yS and ion fro m immenfe ife of the 3 Not the e form or arried by terials of rim, anda eft{uited The foles tion of a en thewn lve ina conftant eng CON. id. friction r caufing a ) dirt from ig the belt and much furface of A broken ts of wet roads, by which by loofe and ur of the s by thelr weniences vat fridtion Conftruction of Roads,-Effects of Wheels. 169 or rubbing at the circumference, or againft the fides of deep ruts; not throwing up dirt by the hind part of the wheel; not increafing friction on the axis, not having preflure againft the lynch-pin; the fole obftacle to their pro- ceeding in a ftraight line, arifing from the comprefling and levelling the mate- rials over which they pafs; have no difpofition to difplace or break up the texture, or prevent the confolidation of the parts of the roads on which they run; their frequent rolling on compreflible fubftances rendering them more level, compact, and impenetrable to water, leaving them in a condition more favourable for confolidation, and by contributing to keep the interior and fofter parts of the roads dry, they are more enabled to refift injury, and fupport the cruft that is the protection of them; have not the effeét of opening the joints in paved roads, but, on the contrary, taimprove them by operating as a rammer on the ftones over which they pafs, from the dead pref/ure arifing from the equal velocity of all the parts; and advancing in a firaight cour/é with the leait poflible refiftance, and with greater advantages than any other thape, ferve equally te improve roads, relieve cattle, and preferve the tires of wheels* f. being the different effects of the conical and cylindrical form of the rims of wheels on roads, it is obvious that the latter muft be much more beneficial in preferving them than the former, and that the advantage gained by the ufe of them, will be proportioned to the extent of thé furface over which they roll. Taking the difference in the effets between the conical and cylindrical form of the rims of wheels, at the rate of only one fhilling for every acre of road rolled with the latter inftead of the former; it is fuppofed by Mr. Cumming, that the probable amount of the advantage that may be thus obtained to the nation annually, by the wheels of‘* fuch waggons only as travel the turnpike roads,” would’be as follows: ‘© The number of waggons in England is,” he ftates,“‘ upwards of 96,600: and fuppofing that a tenth, only of that number be employed on the turnpike roads, and a fourth of that tenth, or a fortieth of the whole, have wheels twelve inches broad; and of the remaining three-fourths, that one half have wheels fix inches broad, and the other half, wheels only four inches; the ftatement of the whole will be this: Number of waggons employed on the roads=. 5% 9,669 Waggons with 12-inch wheels=>- 2415 Ditto with 6-inch wheels~=-- 36225 Ditto with 4-inch wheels°--- 3622} 9,666 «A wheel + Cumming in Communications te the Board of Agriculture, vol. IY. 170 Conjirucion of Roads.—Effecis of Wheels, The various fats, obfervations, and experiments, on which thefe very ufeful and interefting conclufions are founded, can only be well underftood by confult- ing the valuable paper alluded to above; but the refults ofthe different experiments are og in one point of view, and fo arranged in the following table, that thofe made under a fimiliarity of circumftances, both with the coni- cal and cylindrical heels may be eafily brought into a ftate of comparifon. Thus the her column, A, furnifhes the number of each experiment, in the order in which they were made, for the purpofe of referring to them when neceffary. A defcription of the particular circumftance under which each experiment was attempted follows. The column B explains the number of w eights which were required to draw the carriage under fuch a combination of circumftances, in fuch a manner as juft to begin its motion without being affifted. And the laf column, C, exhibits, on the fcale of acceleration, the number of fpaces that the carriage advances after the weights have ceafed to a@ upon it;—which it is ob- ferved,“ by eftimating each divifion on the fcale as e equal in value to one-tenth of the weights that draw the carriage, we afcertain how much the refiftance to the €¢ A wheel twelve inches broad, will, in rolling thirty miles, cover a{pace otf 158,400 feet; and the four wheels of a waggon rolling a double furface will, at the fame rate, in a day’s journey, roll a furface of 633,600 feet, which is equal to the whole furface of four miles of a road thirty feet wide, and fomething more than fourteen and a half acres; but rejeCting fraGtions, and taking fourteen and a half acres as the quantity, the refult in acres will be as follows: 2415 waggons, with 12-inch wheels, will, in a day’s journey of thirty miles, roll--.-=== 3$2012 3622 waggons, with 6-inch wheels, will roll=-= 26,259 3622 waggons, with 4-inch wheels-==: 17,506 The number of acres rolled in a day by all the waggons= 733777 “« And fuppofing all the waggons, at an average, to travel only ninety days in the year, they will roll a furface equal to 7,089,930 acres; which, at one fhilling per acre, will exceed three hundred and fifty th fand pounds per annum. << But, waving pecuniary eftimates, let it,” fays he,‘“ be remembered, that the quant ne of furface that 1s rolled once yearly by the waggons that travel the roads of England, is equal to the entire_/i rface of 1,948,880 miles of road thirty feet wide. It is furely then,” he thinks,“of importance to enquire, whether the wheels that roll this very extenfive furface, tend to improve or impair it? Itisto be obferved, that-no notice is here taken of the waggons that are fuppofed to be employed for the purpofes of agriculture, noi of the immenfe number of carts, coaehes,&c. that travel the public roads.” Confiruttion of Roads.—Effecs of Wheels. 171 progrefs of the carriage is-lefs than the power by which it is drawn vw cecimals rent of that power. ee TABLE OF EXPERIMENTS. Coni- rifon- ; a Pee| by... OTnear\- esarit VILL|= co to 2 0 ellary,|. S33]| eos std= 3-5| The circumftances under which the e>--—---—-—_—__—_——! wre| 7th.|The Conical Whe els ¢ dray vn on friétion bars, that remove the friétion at the rim 6 che ae to the| 8th.|The eucne al Whe Bae: at liberty, but the fri¢ction’bars do not move 6 I fe gth.(Th he Conical Wheels on the fri¢tion bars(fixed) bearing on== whole breadth 9 O ioth.|The Cylindrical Wh Plea. Te-----| 6 Oo 7. The following important dedu€tions drawn. from.a comparifon of the ; effets of each clafs of wheels under fimilar eae as fhewn in the table, - namely, that from“ the fir/i and fourth experim ent,’’ it feems evident, that the fame load that is drawn on conical wheels by a power of nine, is drawn on cylin- drical ones by a power of fix; and that after the power has done atting, the car- riage with the former kind of wheels proceeds only one half a fpace on the f{cale of acceleration; while that with the latter fort, though gage by a third lefs power, has fufficient motion left to advance it forward three fpaces and a half. That by the /econd and fifth, it is clear that when the c conical wheel is made to bear on a fourth part only of its breadth at the middle of the rim, it is drawn by a power of fix, and proceeds one fpace, after the acting power ceafes; but } that cylindrical wheels bearing on the fame breadth, and pe Veer 5 adv ance on the{cale le two ane d ad halj all fat WiS 3 whicn drawn by the /ame iews that.even the ae waar Seg| ae conical wheel, and that the difference in favour of the fo ae= aa ba+}] os=i ae i ea power by which the carriage is drawn. }=}? the moment the a€lion of the impelling “3 ff; Ty+3 1c th!+ c> a he ayYroOUu narrow cylindrical is drawn with more eafe than the narrow eleven weights are requifite to draw it; rmer iS. 1n this initance, equa! f0 25 of the > Ny©|= Ay|+ t>] nf eet the third experiment proves, that xT h.> fF Ps 3 r that ote this increafed power, it itops i? t weight ceafes: the un 1 refiftance toe t 172 Conftru@tion of Roads.—-Effects of Wheels, its progrefs being equal to the uniform aétion of the power, no refidue of mo- tion is left to force it forward. That the firth evinces, that with the cylindricat wheels, bearing in a fimilar manner on the extremities of their rims, the fame load is drawn by fiv weights only; and the motion fo accelerated as to carry the carriage two and a half fpaces forward, after the weights have ceafed to aét. upon it. That the‘fefult of all thefe experiments, on the whole, thew that the greater- refiftance which takes place with the broader conical wheels, does not depend on the breadth of the rim alone, but upon the breadth and the conical fhape conjointly. That, in conical wheels, the increa/e of refiftance depends upon the difference of the velocity of the greateft and of the{malleft parts of their cir- cumference, and that the exertion of the cattle mutt neceflarily increafe in the- fame proportion. That, the refiftance is increafed on the fame conical wheel, when the preffure of the load is confined to thofe parts of the rims that have the greateft difference of velocity. That, on the fame principle, the refiftance with the conical wheel ov a hard bottom, is diminifhed by narrowing its bearing; but that on yielding fubftances, the effeét is direétly the contrary. That, lance this friction and dragging of the conical rim is owing to the different velocities of the ieveral parts of the circumference, it follows, that every wheel which has not an equal velocity in every part of its circumference, muft have a dragging and unneaeeey refiftance, that is, a refiftance that may be avoided by giving to every part of the circumference, or rim, the fame degree of velocity. That, the enly means by which an equal degree of velocity can be obtained in every part of the circumference of a wheel, is, by making all the parts exaétly of the fame diameter; and every wheel that has all its parts of the fame diameter, muft neceflarily be cylindrical. And thus, that the conclufions from the refult of expe» riments, and from theory, concur in proving, that fo far as regards the labour of cattle, or the facility of the progrefs of carriages, the cylindrical fhape of a wheel. is preferable to any other poflible fhape: and that this fuperiority of the cylin- drical wheel, which has hitherto been illuftrated by confidering only the caufes from which the greater refiftance with conical broad wheels arifes, is further proved by the experiments that have been made with. the cylindrical wheels; in each af which, the fame number of weights. were required to. make the loaded carriage begin its. motion, under the fame variety of circumftances, which with the conical wheels occafioned the difference fhewn in the table, in the number of the weights required to draw the fame load; and the number of weights that were, capable of drawing the loaded carriage under each of thofe various cits oe-_s=lCOe; mo- rica fame carry to aft reater- pend thape n the it cir- in the Confirufion of Roads——Effects of Wheels» 178 cumftances on the cylindrical wheels, was only equal to the leaft that was re- quired with the conical; and when the conical wheels bear on the extremities of their rims, five more weights are required with them than with the cylindri- cal wheels. And that, although no difference appears by the number of weights required to begin the motion of the carriage with the cylindrical wheels, whe- ther they bear on the whole breadth of the rim, on a narrow part of its middle, or on the extremities of the felloes; it feems clear by the fpaces which’the care riage advances, on the fcale of acceleration, after the weights have done acting upon it, that when the cylindrical wheel bears on its whole breadth, it. ad- vanced on that{cale 33 fpaces, when bearing on one-third of its breadth only, it” advanced only 2! fpaces; and when bearing on a fourth of its breadth only, it° advanced no more than 2 fpaces: here then, it is obferved, is feen a moft impor-- tant difference between the cylindrical and the conical wheel; namely, that the broader. the bearing of the cylindrical wheel, the more eafily it proceeds, and that the broader the bearing of the conical wheel, the greater is the refiftance to its progreffion*.’ On thefe grounds and principles it is fuggefted, that the ufe of low broad cylin- drical wheels, with light carts, may be advantageous for many purpofes of the- farmer, fuch.as conveying manure on. tillage and meadow Jand, in all kinds. of feafons.. And the. ingenious writer concludes that, on the whole, cylindrical wheels- muft therefore.be beneficial to: the proprietors of waggons, by. their leffefing- the Jabour. of the.cattle on the fame road, as well.as keeping the roads in a more- improved. ftate of repair;-and to the truftees of roads, by-their improving them, and rendering lefs expence in repairs neceflary, independent. of the lefs injury done to the roads-ufed by the farmer.. In-refpeét to the form or fhape of roads, in fo far as the effects of wheels are concerned on them, it is: evident, that. as the effeét of every fhape of wheel, whether it be cylindrical, or of the conical and more rounded form of tire; muft~ be that of forcing the materials of which they are compofed dateraily, and this in proportion to the fupport which they have at the fides.- Roads thould: not have too. much. of the convex.or rounded form, having, under fuch circum- tances, the leaft fupport at the fides, to-which, on that accournt,..the-mate- rials are continually forced by the preflure of carriages in the middle,-where the great bulk of materials. is ufually. laid.. It. is in this.way.that.convéx roads foon become in a degree level. * Cumming in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. H. p. 408 : i i | 1 i | | ih el | i } i) I WT Tit) a I| Bn; r A hea! Hl\ | Dp With ii} Hid is By ui Hal {{| }| } i 1} 1 | ! H ei i | i} A Vic yl Al Ha Bt it Hi Bt) l We ii i‘tn i 5 til AWE a HANNO HANH i eB i} | Hy 1| | Wa) i bE bah) Hand t!} Shiu i 8 AW aan ' a al He fill HW UU eS| a | Hy) || He i i We hy Mi} fe FAW ||; HR aL ' WE if q | | i u By a ae f i fil! 1 Aiea| | BHI) 1 ay) i i ; af 1 i ee Wy tH i VF i} jj H Hi] i } || 7} i i Conflru@ion of Roads—Effeas of Hedges and Trees. 1) 4 Wheels that have the greateft elevation in the middle of their rims, or are yy } the moft rounded in their fhapes, will have the moft effet in this way, as well as in breaking up and de ftroying the cruft or furface of roads, and of courfe muft be the moft prejudi cial to them*: As the goodnefs of roads,-and the ee ae of keep ping them in répair, are alfo confiderably influenced by the nature of.the fences that are made on the fides of them, it may not be improper to take notice of a few-circumftances which refpect them. In cafes where the fituation of the ground on the fides of roads is:fuch as to 9 allow of funk fences aaa. ing made, they are unqueftionably the beft, as they con- the G tribute much t eeping of them dry. They may. be conftructed in the man- J ner of opet cai: or drains, and of fuitable depths, the deepefi parts being eee Fe ER a bipennate os en Di sian’ bee ape ot ae Se eee conftantly on the fide of the fields. But where they lie open to the roads, this can feldom be done with fafety. By having the fences and ditchés formed in this manner, the foundation of roads may be more eafily kept free from moif- 1 ture, and at the fame time more fpace be allowed for icles upon, than in cafes where the ditches are conftruéted on the fides of the roads. Where the fences are formed of ftone or fod, or even of quicks, they ought not to be higher than two.or three feet above the furface of the road; but if a pailing be made ufe of, it may with advantage be fet higher. By Geeaine the fences low, the“roads will be more expofed to the a@tion of the fun and wind, and confe- quently fooner rendered dry, and free from the ftagnation of moifture. Wherever high hedges or trees grow on the fides of roads, they keep them oa wet and dirty; the former fhould, therefore, be cut to the height of five or fix feet, and the latter be either pruned clofe to near the tops, or totally removed. Neither trees nor plantations of any fort fhould be planted fo near the fides of roads, as to prevent evaporation from rendering them quickly dry. Where trees are, however, to be planted in the neighbourhood of roads, the diftance fhould feldom be lefs than ten or fifteen feet from the fence, and forty or more from each other; in which cafes they muft: be protected while young from cattle by hurdles, or a pailing of fome other kind. * Cumming in Communications to the Board of Agric ulturdleel iT, OF are tildil , get CO PLATE xy. Confiruction of Roads. Try [To face Page 174,| j ke he ftratified nature of the earth in the fe&tion of a hill or elevated S| ground, as T, 2, 3, 4,&c. 1. The upper porous ffratum. 2. The retentive ftratum below, Bene Q t onl ws y ow esl 7, ts Zi he g cr which confines the water until difcharged at 4: if the fratum 2 be hollow at a, and proceeds towards f, it then lodges in that hollow, forming foft ground there; but if at. this hollow acom- munication is formed with the /?ratwm 3, which is porous at a, no water will ftand there, but penetrate through it to the impervious /ratum 4, on which it glides till it finds vent on the fide or bottom of the hill. It is evident in the figure, that if the upper#ratum 1 be reten- tive, water falling on i¢ will not only lodge in the large hollow a, but alfo in the{mall ones, cde,&c. Fig. 2. Shows the manner of forming a convex road, in which a and 4 exhibit the ditches or drains on the fides; c c footeways, or horfe-roads when fufficiently wide; dea convex line, ten or twelve inches lower at d and c than the foot-way. The fpace fhown by the dotted line isto be filled up-with hard materials.= Fig. 3. Exhibits another plan of forming convex roads, in which a is the hollow in which the hard materials are depofited, the bottom of which is flat inftead of being convex as in the former, and of greater depth, confequently requiring a larger proportion of materials. Fig. 4. Reprefents an improved mode of forming roads, in which the lines a 4 and 4c, inftead of being convex, are quite ftraight, meeting in an angle or ridge at 4, floping to each fide regularly about an inch in a foot: a and ¢, fmall drains for conveying off the water cole lected at thefe places.: Fig. 5. Exhibits a crofs. fe€tion of a concave road, in which the whole breadth a« of it is divided into three. equal portions, as a 4, bd, and de, the fides a band de being formed quite flat; but the part dd hasa gradual flight defcent each way to c, the middle of the road; it has alfo a flight defcent in a longitudinal direction for conveying off the water at proper outlets 5 4d the place in which the hardeft materials are laid. In this form of road there are three parts on which carriages can go,asa 4, d ¢, and 6 d, in which the horfe-truck is at ¢. CONSTRUCTION of ROADS. ooo gon” Fy moe Uy mp, Vf Yp py J or elevated tum helow, : Fig. 2. J 4 nd proceeds C : Vil; mre ll“mmr Uy TTI, inn a DTT DT; Tra Mp, slow acom- ftand there,‘ll inds vent on. 1 be reten- {mall ones, } or YW Tp i OO Yy Eg LE 3.| ei L=a 3 a OTT convex lint, ye dotted line {rs low in which» rex as in the INN tals. a b and bey; YTD? Y Kgs GY) ping to each 16 GVO), / y | y j Ap 95 MIVA » water cole RRS , Q N 1 ae of it 1$ ormed quite roads it has oper outletss re three past PLATE XXXVI. Conftruttion of Roads. [To face Page 174.] fig. t. Is the reprefentation of the plan of a road made in.a loofe fandy foil. After form- ing it to the full width for the hard materials, dig channels, a and 4, where neceflary at each fide, 18 inches in depth, with the fame width, filling them up with folid materials, as fhown at e and f, to prevent the others from fpreading out laterally, which is the chief difficulty of forming roads in fuch fituations. It is recommended by Mr. Beatfon. Fig. 2. Exhibits the form and method of making roads inclayey foils: abc the clay hollowed out for the porous materials, fo as to leave a ridge in the middle of it; the dotted lines, ¢ a and c d, drains to conduc away the water at fhort diftances into the main drains d and ¢. Fig. 3. Shows the form of reads made on the fides of hills: dc the part cut out of the folid, which in moft cafes will require no covering; d ¢ the part made up, which at firft fhould be higher than the other; 4 c the face of the bank: the water from above fhould be intercepted at 4 to prevent its being injured andthe drain c being choked up. In irregular faced banks it may fometimes be neceffary to let off the water by wooden fpouts funk upright in the banks at the hollows, as feen at a 4, fig. 5. fig. 4. Explains the manner of planting trees near roads: a the extent of the road; c d the planted trees, 4 il. After forms neceflary at each terials, as fhown hief difficulty ¢ he clay hollow dotted lines,¢s ains d and art cut out of te up, which at fit above fhould b up. In irregult ‘te uts funk uprigit of the road cb CAN STRUCLION af ROADS Piqua: Yr") a b) y C WW, s, Go Seay, 4 ddd th 7 y Y. Y Y %Y y) j 4, = y) _ GY, gp WU: Z) y % Vj Y Y Vy \ fig. 2. Y WTP Y WT). hy yy WO) Wy WO DTT’ WH Y p a y. OO rrp, Mm 4 Y Uy ll O77 9, é a C 4 a OTT) —p Vz ddd ddd y) Vi b, y UP Te i J F ll Vie x” Tu fu % b wo Vile G a. g eo 4 g : Y Z Z Z Y G c g Z y g @ a G ZO BZ 7 y YG V4 GC. Y G Y VA Vi W Vi VA # J Vj 4 Vi Y V Y Wi Yo G \ as FN rs f a b j A| Pp”, LY.5 ZZ i: g YU dddccdddceceetedda Lad VTE g Y g Y 8 iA y 3 LOA 5 g x Ff Z GZ {i | || iil | ll | Hi i Ih) HMI WAIN A LAMA| TA AN iM I lil Ha it Hi! ‘i i | i i " ih Hi i ii ii,> iil vn oat(UMUIAEL bias ATA isi ote Hi i il ll il| HW =. PLATE XXXVIL Implements for repairing Roads, [To face Page 174.] Fig. 1. Reprefents an iron roller with three divifions for the purpofe of rolling new formed roads; in which a and 4 fhow the two hind parts, and c the middle or front one to which the fhafts are attached, and which are fo conftruéted as to turn in the manner of the fore wheels of a waggon. dabox for containing flones to increafe the weight occafionally; two- thirds being placed over aand-6, and only one-third over ¢, im order to make the preffure equal. It has been recommended by Mr. Beatfon as very ufeful. GN = pee oO (2) pee) (o) rec "S © ~ 3 ? o. Fig. 2. The plan of the roller as ftanding on the furface of the road, a and ¢ the fore or middle part. Fig. 3. Is the reprefentation of an implement for the purpofe of ing the furface of roads, and is ufedin America, according to the Bifhop of Llandaff, for levelling ground. It is conftru€ted of. a ftrong plank, a, five or fix feet long, fhod with iron on the inf ferior part, which has a fharp-edge for fcraping the road as drawn upon it. A frame is fixed at the back of the board on which the driver ftands, directing the horfe by two rings or hooks 64. It is recommended in this intention by Mr. Beatfon. Fig. 4. Reprefents a harrow invented by Mr. Harriot of Great Stambridge, Effex. Its head is three feet in length from the outfides of the bars.‘The bars are four inches fquare and five feet in length. The mould boards extend eleven inches further to draw the ftones harrows ed up nearer the middle of the road; and are four feet two inches long, ten inches depth, and two inches thick, fhod with a bar of iron, and lined fix inches with iron plate. The teeth are one foot in length from the under fide of the bars, fteeled at the point, and an inch and quarter fquat, fixed in with nuts and{crews having collars both above and below the bars. he bars pafs in a longitudinal direétion to guard againft fplitting.[t is drawn by two horfes abreaft, the outfide horfe on the outer quarter, and the other in the path, a man fteadying the harrow by the handles. Thus an infide and outfide quarter are taken in going, and the others in returning. It is fuggefted as an effective implement by Mr. Beatfon. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ! PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. ar FR ae PART THE SECOND. She TriON Ve eK pe Bai Gig Sorns.—Manner in which they are formed—Reafon o of their Variation of Quality—Caufe of their different_Degrees of Fruitfuln fs—They are injured by fome Subftances—Kinds whic hb have this Effeé—Reafons why thofe which are apparently fimilar, turn out different on their being broken up —Caufes of the. contr adiGtory. Paéts ects in Agriculture—Caufes of Soils producing one Sort of Crop in preference to another—— esis and Quality of Subfot! s—The Caufe of Differences in—Caufes Appearances Nature of~ Plants pr oduced by— Ada vantages of each—Neceffary to have Recourse to Experience— Have been a elcriber l under a V. arlety 0) of ufele[s local Terms—M. ay be di iftinguifbed under a few Heads—Clayey Soils—Cau/fe 5 if the Dif Ve evences of Cire umftances to be attend ed 1 to 11 improv= ee AE 7 ung then—Applications moft ufeful for— Votbods of laying them on— Advantage of proper Modes of Tillage in—Neceffary to be pee as dry as poffible at all Seafons—Advantages of keeping ta dry in be ]: Pe alg ETN WW S gt differe ent Cafes—Circui 1) ses to be attended to in thew. L1itage—s Veans of alcertaining INa- of the Difficulty of afcertaining U-thods in which attempted—Chemical Analyfis—Natural 5 f j7 J 2“ tae Fey s aA} Fay hoe} A nay aA EST Z ture.-—LOAMY SOIL shinny of V artety—eSudfiances of, wirich compofed—Mannes in which (35 See en Pare pe EES py BT pie fr Pcaes beathak iscksi. 27.‘A af Bes they) Tec ed a: Clays UlKre umpta CCS O which tpeir Lightne/s and F; LaOLLIL adepena— Dn WILC/ their Colours depend—A Lnfit of Improvement more 1‘eadily than Clays—Applications proper in 7; Ds- ry"thn/ spa b peel Pry ee aed aay View Reafons for the ir bei? BE WIGTe CGpY oj zi illage— No lot fo difpo led to the Production of V1 ran la: Petia f Als SPA by TY 8A QE Pere Je 5 CHAL Kt S OT: ee§$ WWYIILCH. proauc L Fer é71ceS int the m—s ale OQ ..$s- ms. 7 i tz Matter incorporated with them mufi be attended Combination of other Sub, the calcaréous alter. Y ifs Effecis— le l Cpu BE form Di AinGions in—Applications fuital le for Divas Ria Yi ahy much 10 Draught 1S ret quired in—Great Attention tothe Tools employed on, always necefjary.—SAND? SOILS ——MVoee of* Formation o of—O In. what the Variation of depends by lefs be nefited than others, by Heat and Moift Vist yee OFF,‘cumfpiar s to be attend J to in HMA PVOVINE them—y Lp plice 110128)» dif- a je 192 i7o Soilse ferent Cafes—Reajfon why different Applications are ufeful in different Difiridts—Means of fup- plying them with vegetable Matter—Methods in which Manures may be applied to them== Lhin Soils eaftly cultivated— Caufes of the Difadvantages of.—GRAVELLY SOIL s—Materials of wubich compofed various—L ferent Arrangements of in.—Why fabjet to burn—Defetis of, hou vemoved—Applications proper for in different Cafes.—PEATY OR Mossr Sorrs—Met with ex- tenfively in fome Diftritis—Caufes of the Varieties of—Stratified Order of—Caujfe of great Differ- ences in—Highly retentive of Water—Injured by its Evaporation—Means of Improvement in— Applications neceffary for.—VEGETABLE EARTH OR Sorz—Nature of, in different Cafes—Tor- mation of, how effetted— Oxygenation fuppofed to retard the Deftruction of-—Means of promoting the Increafe of—Caufes: which vender it teo light for grain Crops. Tue particles of the various folid, as well as lefs compaét, bodies that are -met with in nature, and which have been rubbed down and reduced by the fuc- -ceflive operations of the atmofphere, and the agency of other natural caufes, “being mixed and blended together in different ways and proportions, conftitute “the earthy.compounds, which, from their being capable of abforbing, and in -fome meafure retaining, moifture, as well as giving ftability, afford the means of fupport to various produéts of the vegetable kind, and form the bafes of. foils in general; while the materials proceeding from the decompofition and decay of numerous organized animal and vegetable fubftances, uniting with fuch compounds, compofe the fuperficial layers of rich mould, from which plants chiefly draw or derive their nourifhment and fupport. Soils being formed in this manner, it is evident they muft vary much, both in -the qualities and proportions of the ingredients of which they are compofed. In one fituation or diftri€t one fort of material is abundant, and confequently enters largely into the foil; in others it is deficient, while thofe of other kinds are plentiful, and conftitute the principal parts of the foils where they are found, Some fituations too abound much more with animal and vegetable matters than others, which produce great diverfity in regard to the foils. The harder and more firm fubftances of nature, being, on account of their ftructure, reduced ‘more flowly, and with greater difficulty, into the ftate of earth, generally enter in much{maller proportions into the compofition of foils, than thofe which are ‘of a foft and pliable difpofition, and which approach nearer to the quality of earth. Thus argillaceous, loamy, and vegetable matters are found to predo- minate very much in foils in their primitive ftate, and, according to their parti- cular qualities and proportions, to conftitute very material differences in their properties. Calcareous and filiceous earthy matters are diftributed over fome ro| pramating 4 that are the fuc | caufes, onftitute and in e means afes of on and g with which both in fed. IV enters inds are e found, ors than der and reduced ly enter rich are ality of predo- if parti- in theif ex fome Soils, 1777 diftriéts in great abundance, while in others they enter into the compofition of the foils in much{maller proportions, and thus contribute to vary their textures and qualities. Soils likewife pieces much change and alteration from other matters of dif- ferent kinds, being either naturally or artificially blended and incor porated w ith them, and from the proportions in which fuch mixture takes place There are probably few, if any, fubftances in nature, which, after they have been fufficiently aéted upon, and reduced by the atmofphere and other emutes, but which are capable of affording fupport to fome fort of vegetable or other; though there is confiderable difference in. this refpeét among different earthy matters, fome being able to fuftain a great number of different plants in a vigo- rous{tate of growth, almoft immediately after they become mixed with the foil, while others require to be applied and united for a great length of time before they afford fuftenance to any kind of vegetable whatever, and eventhen only yield a fcanty fu ipply of nourifhment, and that for the fupport of a few particular forts of plants Where the former forts of materials are abundant, the foils are gene- rally fertile and produéiive; but where the latter prevail, they are moftly fterile and unfriendly to vegetation*. Soils are affected by other caufes: befides poffefling the proper earthy mat- ters, they muft be embued with other principles, fuch.as the aqueous and car- bonaceous, and have fuch a confiftence and texture, as will properly fupport the plants, as well as fuch proportions of the feveral materials as will admit of their being retained, and applied in fuch quantities as are fuitable for the purpofes of vegetation according to the differences of climate in refpe€t to moifture, and the varieties of fituation in regard to the lands, in order to be rich, fruitful, and. produétive. The fubftances, fo far as they are yet known, that have a tendency to leffen the fertility of foils, are the oxyds or calces of particular metals, fome coaly and pyriti« cal matters, acids, and certain heathy vegetable fubftances. But fome of thefe fub- ftances,thoughunfriendly to the growth of vegetables when in thefe circumiftances, on being blended and united with other materials that enter into the compofition of foils, operate upon them in fuch a manner as to render them more fertile than they would have been without them. Mixtures and impregnations of this nature are conftantly taking place in foils, which cannot be eafily comprehended or afcer- tained, but which produce great and important effects and changes in them. From this caufe, foils, which are apparently fimilar in every refpect, on being brought into * See Anderfon’s Recreations in Agriculture.&c, vol, I, A A 178 Soils. cultivation, frequently turn out to be effentially different. Hence, too, originate many of thofe faéts and conclufions that appear fo oppofite and contradiftory in the icnce of agriculture; itis on thefe principles, likewife, that foils are capa- ble of producing certain kinds of plants in great abundance and perfe€tion, while others cannot sae any means be raifed ne them. It is well known to moft perfons conver with pradiical agriculture, that foils in which calcareous matter is predomina nt, even when they are grown fo poor and exhautted as to be almoft incapable of pape anv of the other Pee commonly cultivated on them, will bear large and repea ere ops of one fort of vegetable, that of faint- foin; and that other foils which are-capable of affording the common crops in an abundant manner, cannot be made to produce this. In the fame way, fuch calcareous foils as have been cultivated for a great length of time, and are con- fequently much impregnated with manure, afford plentiful crops of barley; while oat crops, if attempted to be raifed upon them in fuch a fituation, are weak, puny, and r elatively extremely fmall. And, on the contrary, fome primitive foils, not originally containing any calcareous materials, and which, not having been cultivated, cannot be impregnated with manures on firft being broken up, often yield aftonifhing crops of oats, while barley can fcarcely be raifed at all upon them. There‘are many faéts of a fimilar nature fcattered through the writings on hufbandry, but thefe are fufficient to fhew the great influence that very flight impregnations of different matters have in varying the properties of foils, and in rendering them more fuitable for the produétion of one fort of crop than another, while no perceptible external differences are exhibited, by which the ableft agriculturitt can be led to decide with certainty refpeéting their qualities. In addition to thefe caufes of diverfity in foils, there are others that arife from their variations in refpecét to depth, and the quality of the fub-foils on which they are placed. It is a fa€t well known by prattical farmers, and which the experience of every day confirms, that even the foils that are con- ftituted of the moft fuitable fubftances for the purpofes of vegetation, when only a few inches in depth, and depofited upon beds of cold wet clay, rock, or chalk, are by no means fo fruitful and productive as thofe which are thicker, though of inferior quality, but refting on a bottom which is more dry and gravelly.‘The difference of weight and tenacity in the under ftrata of foils, likewife introduces great variety in regard to their powers and capabilities of rearing vegetable produ€tions. In a fubjett where there is fuch great diverfity, originating from fuch 7s as 7, luch re CON: arley 5 int) Jation, , fome nd+| which, being Oo ly be aa] tered and » Cons when rock, Soils.- 179 minute circumftances, and almoft imperceptible caufes, as is the cafe in refpe& to the nature of foils, it is extremely dificult to point out any rules or marks by which they may invariably be afcertained. Several methods have been propofed by agricultural writers for the accomplifhment of this highly neceffary and important point. The mode by chemical analyfis is zanqueftionably the moft certain and exact, but it requires, for the moft part, more knowledge and dexterity than is commonly poflefled by the mere pra€tical farmer, and in many cafes is tedious and expenfive. It can, therefore, be only well executed by thofe who are converfant with the feience of chemiftry, and to whom ex- pence is no material objet. The natural appearance of a foil may, in certain inftances, afford the means of afcertaining its quality; but as few perfons are fufficiently acquainted with the vatt varieties of foils which occur in nature, it is a method that mutt obvioufly be extremely uncertain and confined, and which on many accounts is open to great objection. - There is another means of deciding in refpe& to foils, which, in many cafes, when properly limited and exercifed, by a perfon of found judgment and duly experienced, is certainly not a bad one, though in fome refpects alfo defective: it is that of determining from the nature of the plants that are produced, and the degrees of their growth and luxuriance. Thus, where plants that are only accuftomed to grow in good or peculiar forts of foil, are met with in their natural and flourifhing ftates in other places, the foils may be concluded to be of this or that kind, according to the circumftances in which they are found. In this way the common nettle and the rufh may charaéterife different defcrip- tions of foil; the former being found to grow the moft luxuriantly on the dry loamy foils, while the latter delights in the wet cold clayey ones. The growth of certain forts of timber trees and hedges, may alfo, in various inftances, ferve to direét the judgment, and likewife the appearances or colours of the mould in particular inftances; thus, hazel brown denotes a good fort of loamy foil, and reddith fandy earth, a favourable one of the lighter kind. Too few obfer- vations have, however, yet been recorded by pra€tical writers, concerning the diftinGtions afforded by the growth of different plants on different foils, to render it a method of extenfive utility and application. Until farther attempts be made, therefore, in this or fome other way, and a more full and ample col- leGtion of faéts be brought forward, the fafeft and moft advantageous plan will, probably, be to reft upon the bafis of experience, by which, from the combination of various little circumftances, the agricultor may, in moft cafes, be led to a fafe decifion. 180 Clayey Soils. The foils of this country have been defcribed under nametons heads, and diftinguithed by an ufelefs variety of vague local terms. They feem, however, to be capable of being confidered and charatterifed, as far at leaft as is necef- fary for practical purpofes, under the diftinétions of Clayey, Chatky, Peaty or Mo Us and Loamy, Sandy, Gravelly, Vegetable Earthy foils. Each of thefe divifions muft of courfe comprehend feveral varieties, accord- ing to the nature and preponderancy of the different forts of materials of which they are-conflituted or compofed. CLAY EY-SOLLS. Sorts of this kind differ very materially, according to the nature and -guantity of the clay that enters into their compofitions, and the adulteration which has been produced in it by the intermixture of different earthy matters, as well as various mineral, vegetable, and animal fubftances. Forclaysare, in gene- ral, farfrom being pure in the ftates in which they are found in the earth. They are in many inftances united with large proportions of filiceous orfandy matter. On thefe accounts it is that the clayey foils of fome diftri€ts are fo abundantly fruit- ful and produ€tive, while thofe of others are infuperably fterile and refractory. Farmers, or thofe engaged in cultivating land, for the moft part being only ac- quainted or conv Sa with earth or mould, as it offers itfelf to their attention in the grofs or whole, have not been led to remark the aftonifhing diverfity that takes place in refpeéct to the properties of clays, and other bodies that are united with them, as primitive and conftituent parts of foils, in their original and native ftates; but having found that they all agreed in poffefling the pro- perty of imbibing and retaining moifture, and thereby becoming foft and duc- tile, have, probably too haftily, concluded them to have, in fome meafure, a fimilarity in their other qualities. In this way erroneous notions have fre- quently been engendered refpecting foils in which thefe fubftances abound. For it is well afcertained from the ufe of clays in ftates of greater purity, that there are very effential differences in their qualities. There are fome forts, as that which is denominated fullers-earth, and fevera! of the fofter boles, that have the cohelive property in but a very flight degree; while others, fuch as thofe which are termed tills, are fo extremely tenacious and vifcid, as to be capable of being drawn out into threads. And there are ftill others which, from their foftnefs and property of imbibing water readily, are capable of being cut with great facility by any fharp inftrument; while fome other forts are fo ¥ wand Clayey Soils. If firm, hard, and compaét, as fcarcely to admit of being foftened by méans of water. The clays which are employed for making the fineft porcelain, and thofe ufed in the compofition of the more coarfe wares, are only to be met with in particular fituations and diftritts*. Thefe facts not only fhew that there is a prodigious variety in refpe@ to the qualities of thefe fubftances, but that they muft afford equal variety to the foils into which they enter, and therefore require to be more clofely examined and more nicely afcertained than they appear yet to have been, before all the varie- ties of foil ufually claffed under the denomination of clayey can be well afcer- tained and underftood. But thefe fubftances do not differ only in their properties and qualities, but likewife in their colours, and the clofenefs with which their particles are united. They are found in their natural ftates of various colours, fuch as red, white, blue, and yellow, and of different degrees of denfity, fo as, in fome in- flances, to readily admit of being united with the different materials that are applied, in order to ameliorate their conditions; in others they can fcarcely be made to join with them by any means in the power of the agriculturift. In foils of the firft kind, the quantity of filiceous or fandy matter, in general, bears a much larger proportion to that of the argillaceous or clayey, than in thofe of the latter, and in many cafes too the mixture of other fubftances is proportion- ably larger. The nature of the clayey ftratum, in refpect to its thicknefs or thinnefs, as well as its contiguity or remotenefs from fprings of water under- neath it, is too commonly overlooked in confidering thefe forts of foils; but all thefe circumftances demand particular attention, and ought to have confiderable influence in dire€ting the means of cultivating and improving clayey foils. It is obvious, from what has been already advanced, that, notwithftanding the differences that take place from the accidental mixture of different mate- rials, in different degrees and proportions, all the defcriptions of this fort of foils mutt poflefs more or lefs of the heavy and adhefive ftiff qualities; and that ac- cording as thefe are more or lefs predominant, due refpett being at the fame time had to the various other circumftances that have been ftated, the bufinefs of cultivation and improvement muft be varied and applied. In general they will require greater ftrength, and more labour and exertion, to bring them to that ftate of pulverization and finenefs, which is the moft fuitable for the I @ = 5 Vy ous intentions of hufbandry, than may be requifite in many other kinds of foils, Befides this, as they are frequently defective inthe proper ingredients for the fup- * See Anderfon’s Recreations in Agriculture, vol. I. 182 Clayey Soils. port of vegetation, and faulty in their texture, as well as combined with principles which are neceflary to be corrected; the applications of ameliorat- ing et fhould conftantly be conduéied with thefe, as well as other views. Chemical analyfis has now fhewn, in the moft fully and fatisfactory manner, and me a6: has been confirmed by the general experience of practical farmers, that fubfances of the calcareous kind are the moft advantageous in mapnosing and bettering the condition of all clayey foils. Where the deficiency is in the texture, and the want of the calcareous ingredient, lime-ftone gravel and cal- careous marles are the moft ufeful and proper. If, however, thefe fubftances cannot be procured, a mixture of the coarfer kinds of fand with perfe¢tly effete or extinguifhed lime may be employed; and even chalk, fand, or lime-ftone, in the ftate of coarfe powder. Coal afhes, clay which has undergone the heat of the fire, and fmall pebbly gravel, are alfo fometimes ufeful. Lime alone may frequently be made ufe of with great and permanent benefit; though it is siti ms fome that it is lefs proper, from its tendency to cake, and its not opening and uniting fufficiently with the foils*. But where, as well as thefe, there is likewife a want of vegetable matter, mixtures of calcareous marle or lime, and farm-yard dung, and fuch compofts as are formed by combining lime or chalk with light fandy or gravelly earths; or lime and chalk incorporated with fea-weeds and fea-fand, where they can be fufficiently procured; would likewife be highly ufeful applications in thefe circumftances Peat afhes are, in fome places, ufed with fuccefs; and gypfum, when mixedin a {mall proportion with any of thefe vegetable produ€ts, would, probably, be found highly efficacious in this condition of clayey foils, where they are tolerably dry. This fubftance, as well as lime and chalk, may alfo be beneficially em- ployed on foils of this nature that abound with acidity, in order to neutralize, and thereby correét the injurious properties of fuch principles. Moft of thefe modes of improving clayey foils are practifed with fuccefs in one part or other of the kingdom. In Scotland, where lime is probably more° employed on clayey foils, efpecially thofe of the better cultivated forts, than in England, they commonly apply dung the fame feafon that the ground is limed, but not in combination with it; by this method the lime is fuppofed to operate more powerfully, and with much greater expedition, than when ufed in the way of compoft. Chemiftry has fufficiently-demonftrated, that lime in its a€tive ftate has great effect in promoting the folution of vegetable fubftances, and confe» * Kirwan’s Effay on Manures. SCL erably lly ems tralize, ce{s In y more han in limed, perale je Way e ftate confes en's! Clayey Soils. 183 quently of greatly augmenting the quantity of that kind of matter in foils. In this manner the quicknefs of its effects may be eafily accounted for where, in fuch cafes as that juft ftlated, a large mafs of vegetable materials is immedi- ately placed in conta€t with it. It appears, however, probable, that where thefe matters are employed in this way, the beneficial effects expected from them will not be fo permanent or durable. Thefe means of improving the condition of different forts of clayey foils may be greatly augmented, and aflifted by a judicious and well-conduéted fyftem of illage. The ploughings and harrowings on thefe foils, efpecially where they are very tenacious and ftubborn, fhould be more frequently repeated; and at fuch feafons of the year as they are not too dry and cloddy, or too wet and pouchy, in order that they may be well broken down, and fuficiently expofed to the operation of the atmofphere, and thus acquire a confiderable degree of finenefs, by which the growth of plants is much promoted. When the eed is put in, the harrowing fhould be performed in fuch a manner as to cover it very perfeétly. The depth of ploughing on fuch foils muft be regulated by the circumftances of the cafe, and the particular fituation of the ground. Where they are thin and have a gravelly fubfoil, and are liable to be injured by their proximity to fprings of water, it fhould not be fo deep as where they have a better ftaple, and are lefs in danger from water below them.| As moft of the foils of this clafs, from the nature of their conftituent princi- ples, muft be more-retentive of moifture than thofe of feveral other kinds, it is highly neceflary, efpecially in the winter feafon, that every method be taken to keep them as dry as poffible. This is not lefs requifite in refpeét to the Jands that are in the ftate of pafture, than thofe that are under an arable fyftem of huf- bandry, as the ftagnation of much water is equally injurious whether the crops be corn, roots, or grafs. Befides, where fuch foils are ina ftate of aration, by proper attention to fuch means, they may at a more early period in the{pring be in a better and more fit condition for the plough, and the reception of the feed, by which the danger of the crop, of whatever kind it may be, being in- convenienced by too much wet or dry weather, will, in a great degree, be avoided; as when this fort of foil has once been well broken down and re- duced by the different operations of hatrowing and rolling, and the feed put Ins it feldom fuftains any injury from the drynefs of the feafon afterwards*. In the tillage of foils of this defcription, from their ftiff nature, it will likewife * Donaidfon’s Modern Agriculture, vol.-I. p, 161. 18+ Loa my Soils. always be neceflaryto have the implements that are made ufe of, of more ftrength than in other cafes, and to have the animals that are employed in drawing them fo attached as that they may do as little injury as pollible by their treading. On this account, in ploughing fuch Jands it may be moft advifable to have recourfe to fuch kinds of ploughs as admit of the horfes drawing fingly, and following each other in the bottom of the furrows*. In the fallowing of clayey foils, it is alfo neceflary for the farmer to attend to the particular ftate of the feafon,and not break up or ftir them when they are very dry or very moift, as in either cafe he muft obvioufly perform the bufinefs to great difadvantage; but to choofe, as much as poflible, proper regard being had to the nature of the crop that is. to be put in, fuch times as that the ground is neither too dry and hard, fo as to be ftirred with great labour and dificuity, or too much impregnated with moifiure, fo as to render it very adhelive and poachy. In afcertaining the nature and goodnefs of clayey foils, much affiftance may frequently be derived from an attention to the afpedt of the different forts of trees, and the appearances of the various crops; as where particular kinds of trees, fuch as the oak and elm, and hedge plants of various kinds, are in a ftate of Juxuriant growth, and where the grain and other vegetable crops, as well as the grafs lands, are ina healthy, vigorous, and flourifhing condition, favourable conclufions may be made; but where the former have a ftunted, unhealthy ap- pearance, and do not grow with vigour, and the latter are thin and fhort, they may be decided to be poor and unfriendly fcr the purpofes of vegetationt. LOAMY SOILS. Sorts of this defcription, as charatterifed by agricultural writers, are, pro- bably, much too numerous; yet, from their being compounded of very differ- ent forts of materials, they, undoubtedly, admit of confiderable variety. The fubftances that are moft commonly found to contribute to the formation of loamy foils, are clay, fand, gravel, and chalk. Sometimes an oxyd or calx of iron is alfo found blended with them in a{mall proportion. In proportion as the argillaceous or clayey principle diminifhes, they recede from the nature of the clayey foils; confequently the nearer the quantity of that fubftance * The fwing-plough anfwers very well for this purpofe. } Bannifter’s Synopfis of Hufbandry, p. 2. nds Ook a itafe , pro- differ- The tion of r calx yortion nature tance Loamy Soils. 18.5 approaches to that of the others, the ftronger and more heavy will the loamy f eA foil be. The differences in the li: ghtnefs and friability of the foils of this Cae in a great meafure, depend on the relative proportions of the other ingredients 1U0« Where the calcareous ingredient greatly exceeds thofe of the fandy or gravelly kinds, they are neither fo light nor fo pulverizable as where they are nearly equal, or where the fandy or gravelly matters c . onfiderably predominate over it. In the latter cafe, indeed, fuch foils are formed as have been denominated by practical farmers light and hun gry, efpecia hy where the earthy bed or ftra- tum thus oats, 1s but of little depth, and refts on a gravelly or flinty bottom or fubfoil. 5 The variety in the colours of foils of the loamy kind, feems. in fome inftances, to be produced by the union or mixture of metallic fubftances in greater or lefs proportions, and in more clofe or more lax fiates of saint with them; in others, by the prevalence-of acid impr egnations.‘The colour in the firft cafe is for the moft part reddifh, approaching to brown; in the latter it is commonly blueifh, changing by heat to a flight red. But thefe are not the only caufes that influenee the colour of thefe foils; they are much altered in their ati’ ances, as well as other qualities, by the different proportions of vegetable animal matter which they contain, and the different ftates of d lecompofition ae decay to which they have been carried by length of time, cultivation, and other means. In fituations where this fort of foil has been but little difturbed, and confe- quently little changed by the artificial additions of either animal or vegetable fubftances, and thefe which it naturally contained not having advanced to the {tage of perfect folution and decay, it is generally found of a light brown or hazel colour; but where much culture has been employed for a length of time, and large applications of animal and vegetable matters frequently made, the natural and artificial materials of thefe kinds having proceeded more nearly to the ftate of perfeét refolution and deftruction, it has an appearance that approaches to that of black: From thefe various circumftances the properties of the foils are likewife confiderably altered and affeéted, as well as their colours Snepase his fort of foil being lefs clofe, compaét, and adhefive, than the clayey, ba ts much more readily of amelioration and improvement. The more ftiff and heavy kinds, in which the argillaceous and calcareous ie ples are the moft abundant, and where the carbonaceous or vegetable prin ciple is fre- quently deficient, the moft appropriate and-fuitable means of rendering them BB 186 Loumy Soils. fertile and produétive would feem to be the application of lime in the way of compoft or combination, with different vegetable and animal materials, fuch as farm-yard dung, blood, grot und bones, and fimilar matters, and fuch earthy fubftances as contain lar: e proportions of fand and gravel in different degrees of tenuity or finenefs. determined by the particular circumftances and the fituation or ftate of the r re ihe quantities in which they are to be applied muft be grounds. In general, however, thefe foils do not ftand in need of fo much of any fort of manure as thofe of the clayey kinds. Lime may fometimes be ufed alone, as where the land abounds with vegetable matters, and the calcareous. principle is in too fmall proportion, and where there is a prevalency of acidity or fournefs in the foil, which is not, unfrequently the cafe where it approaches the nature of clay. But in thofe foils of this nature, in which the calcareous and fandy or eravelly ingredients enter in fufficient proportions, good rotten dung, the vegetable matter produced from the decay of plants, and obtained by depofition from ftagnant water in ponds and other places, with feveral fimilar fubftances, may be ufed with the moft fuccefs; and where thofe bodies are too predominant, or in an over-proportion, fo as to render the foils over-light, a por- tion of clayey loam may be united with fuch fubftances with great advantage. The loamy foils which are met with in extenfive diftriéts on the banks or borders of the fea, and of large rivers communicating with it, are generally fo well conftituted and fo fertile, as to demand little improvement from ma- nures. The principles which moftly abound in them are a fine fort of fand, cal- careous matter in a high ftate of tenuity from the attrition or rubbing down of different kinds of fhells and other marine produétions, and a rich matter proceed~ ing from the diffolution of various luxuriant fea plants, and innumerable forts of animalexuvia. Thefe alluvial materials are all gradually depofited and incor- porated with the natural loamy earth of the regions or places in which they are found, and thus conftitute foils of the moft fertile and produétive kinds. From the foils of the loamy clafs being more friable and brittle, as well as more dry, than moft of the clayey ones, they are capable of being tilled with much greater eafe and facility, as well as much lefs ftrength of team, and at Amott: every on of the year. And, on account of their property of recely ing and tranfmitting moifture more freely, they are lefs apt to be indurated by too much dry, or chilled by too much wet weather. Befides, they are more influ- enced on expofure to the ageney of the atmofphere and other external caufes, and thereby more adapted for the promotion and fupport of vegetation. And hey are found in moft cafes to be lefs difpofed to the produétion of weeds, ae the go tll — yee ee nd, cal- Jown of roceed- forts of ] incor- hey are~ Chalky Soils. 187 \ particularly thofe of the more injurious kinds, they can of courfe be kept clean with much lefs labour, and without the expenfive fyftem of management which is requifite on many other kinds of foil.: CHALKY SOILS. Soixs of the chalky or calcareous kind occupy very extenfive tratts of land in different parts of the kingdom, and are marked v rith confiderable diverfity, as pro- ceeding from the nature, properties, and proportions of the caleareous matter as it exifts in them; the fubftances that are mixed and combined with it; the depth and qualities of the earthy ftratum which is placed upon it; and the dif- pofition of the fub-foil or bafis.on which this is formed and depofited. Calcareous matter is contained in many different ftony fubftances, befides that of chalk, as marble, lime-ftone, coral, and fhells of different kinds; and ‘n ftates of union with other materials, fuch as fand, the different fimple earthy bodies, in different proportions, and in fome inftances with iron and mag- nefia. Its capability or powers of imbibing and retaining moifture is confi- derable, though not fo great as that of clay. It burns to lime by proper degrees of heat, and abforbs carbonic acid gas or fixed air in different proportions from the atmofphere, and returns again to the ftate of chalk or effete calcareous matter. It is found of very different degrees of hardnefs and friability, as well as of different ftates of finenefs or pulverization, in different foils of the clafs to which it belongs. It varies alfo greatly in its effeCts in refpeét to vegetation; from the different matters that may happen to be com- bined with it in its primitive or original ftate. It has long been known to the pra€tical agriculturift, that fome forts of lime may be employe in large proportions; while others cannot be ufed, except in very fmall quantities, with- out doing very confiderable injury to the foil with which they are incorpo- rated. The long unexplored caufe of this diverfity of effeét in different limes, feems:lately to have been placed in a more clear and fatisfa€tory point of view, by the experimental attempts of an ingenious philofopher*. He has found by repeated experiments, that that fort of lime which is the moft friendly to ve- getation confifts entirely of calcareous earth, and quickly abforbs a large por- tion of carbonic acid gas cr fixed air from the atmofphere; while that w hicl * Tennant on the different forts of lime ufed in agriculture, in TranfaGtions of the Royal Society, 7799, Part IT. 188 Chalky Soils. injurious and unfriendly to the growth of plants contains only three parts of oa.: pure calcareous earth, the other two confifting of magnefia, and that it abforbs comparatively but an extremely{mall port tion of carbonic acid gas or-fixed air from the furrounding atmofphere. This kind or mixture of calcareous matter was alfo afcertained to be very flow in acquiring the power of f fupporting vege- tation, even after it had been converted into lime, and remained for a confi- derable length of time in the ftate of mortar. The lime-ftone in which there is a mixture of magnefia, is much harder, atid diffolves confiderably more lowly in acids than that which is purely calcareous. The fame author likewife fup- pofes that the cryftallized ftru@ure commonly obferved in the magnefian lime- ftone indicates that it has not been formed by the accidental con junction of the two earths, but conftituted by their chemical union. The difficult y with which it is diffolved by means of acids, may alfo, he thinks, in fome meafure, depenc on the attraction of its different component particles to each other. This fort of lime-ftone would feem to abound in different parts of the kin g- cin dom, It is obferved to extend for thirty or forty miles fron a little to the Gott weft.of Workfop, in the county of Nottingham, nearly to Ferry-bridge in Yorkfhire. In the account of the agriculture of the midland counties, Mr. Martfhall obferves that the lime ie at Bredon, in Derbyfhire, is hurtful to vegetation, when employed in large proportions; and our ex xperimenter has found that it contains magnefia nearly in the quantity ftated above; but that the {tone in this inftance is frequently cryftallized in a rhomboidal form, and petri- fied fhells, not calcareous, but fimilar to the compofition of the ftone itfelf, are occafionally, though feldom, found in it. The different combinations of calcare~ ous matters are fometimes found contiguous‘to each other. At Matlock, in Derbythire, it is ftated that the rocks on the fide of the river where the houfes built are magnefian, while thofe on the other r are calcareous; and that the magnefian rock appears to be incumbent on the calcareous{tratum, as in de- fcending a cave formed in this rock, a diftinét vein of common lime-ftone may be feen which contains no magnefia. The calcareous ftratum is very full of 1. yd fhells, and there nara al? e are alfo fome in the magnefian rock, but they are extremel; vare. The practical diftinGions of hot and mil a d limes, which have frequently been made by thofe engaged in the improvement of foils, and which h lave been particularly attended to by a late writer*, prove that the magnefian calcareous matter is met with in the more northern counties: that which is confidered as * Fenwick’s Effay on Calcareous Manures, fe n dC- may Chalky Soils. 189 hot being alfo found by him to be more difficult of folution in acids. Thefe important and interefling facts not only fhew that whatever famenefs there may be in the nature of calcareous matter oe on in its pure and unadulterated ftate, that as met with in foils, and different fubftances of the calcareous kinds, it has Sey Cree Baa le iV e y a id x th++ a ht y ei+{ra+f at hi We.> conuaerapdte da} erfity, and when in union with m dp Ne ifas LUC IS Ina ay ch degree Pe, ais]#= bd+} Ets V7 rea Ff| lac prejudicial to the growtn or vegetables. Calcareous mat ter, whether it be in the effete or ftate of carbonat; or in the ufticity, as iene mre ms ultimately to promote 8 LS re 7 dpe aie! table and animal fubft: more active one of ears and deftrt ion of vege Dowie vets if acts with much a alk violence on thefe materials, deftroy ing their ances; in the latter ftate, erganization, and diffipating their principles more quickly, as well as robbing them more completely of the carbonic acid gas or fixed air, which is fo effential; 1 while in the former it operates with great mildnefs, and only sage the refolution of thofe fubftances by gently promoting the procefs of putrefa€tion. The proportions of clayey, loamy, std gravelly ingredients, which are con- joined with the calcareous matters of thefe foils, are various in ee diftrits; where the argillaceous and loamy materials are comparatively in large quantities, foils of the heavier chalky kinds are formed, and where the fandy or gravelly are predominant, we have the lighter ones. There are alfo material yes, proceeding from the earthy matter with which the calcareous. ingredient is mixed in the ftate of foil.. Where the quantity of this is{mall, and not reduced into any very perfeét{tate of mould, the foil, as is evident, muft be poor and thin; but where the depth of this fu; perficial ftratum is confiderable, and the animal, vegetable, and other fubftances, of which it is compofed, is advanced to a more complete ftage of decompofition and decay, the foils are more rich and ufed a{te ULEC heavy. Some variety is likewife ca| by the ftate of the under-ftratum or fub- intermixed with filiceous or flinty matter, or foil. If it be compact and much lefs fe have a mortary hardnefs, it is ivourable than where it is of a more open, brittle, or powdery texture. From what has been ftated, the means of improving chalky or calcareous foils muft be evident. As the calcareous principle is here abundant, the prin- cipal intention is the alteration of their textures, and the fupplying of vegetable matter. This is effected in the heavier forts of chalky foils, by the application of clayey and fandy loams, according to the particular circumftances of the cafes; and in the thinner or more light lime-ftone foils, it may be accomplifhed by means 1 of clay, argillaceous marle, and the rich imperfectly decompofed vegetable matter 190 Sandu Soils. af arifing from the depofition and accumulation of fuch fubftances in low, clofe, and wet fituations. Farm-yard dung, and compofts of all kinds of dung, with good mould, will be advantageous. Soot and malt-duft have, likewife, in different inftances, been fuccefsfully employed. Where mifchief has been experienced from the too great abundance and pre- valence of magnefian lime, or calcareous matter, the plentiful ufe of afhes pro- duced from the combuttion of frefh vegetable fubftances, would feem to be the moft fuitable application as a remedy. Whatever appearances of lightnefs there may be in chalky foils, they re- quire confiderable ftrength in the team, where the ftaple or earthy ftratum of the lands will admit of their being wrought to a tolerable depth; but where there is a thinner furface of earthy materials, lefs force of draught will be requifite. In the latter cafes, the foil is, however, far more precarious and uncertain, as well as much lefs productive in refpect to the crops that are cultivated upon it, than in the former. As chalky foils are not fo liable to be injured by water as others, the bufinefs of tillage is much lefs impeded from that caufe; but a_ dry feafon fometimes renders them fo hard as to be totally incapable of being broken up, until they have been moiftened by the falling of a confiderable quantity of rain. From the great wear, by fri€tion and other caufes, that takes place in the ploughing and breaking up of moft foils of this clafs, the ftate of the irons of the ploughs, or fuch other inftruments as are employed, muft be more frequently and more particularly attended to, as from the negleét of this circumftance much inconvenience, as well as lofs, may arife to the farmer.© SA ND dag SO TL oe Sanps feem to have been gradually formed by the attrition and rubbing down of the various folid fubftances that are found in nature, efpecially fuch as are of the filiceous, calcareous, and fiony kinds, and are of different degrees of fine- nefs as they approach the fize of gravel. They are alfo met with of various co- lours and appearances in different regions or tracts of country, fuch as white, dufky brown, yellow, and red. Thefe differences, as well as thole which re{fpect their weight, tenacity, and otber properties, depend on the nature and proportions in which many other forts of materials enter into combination with them. ofe, and id, wil! 6s, been and pre. hes pro. 0 be the hey re- m of the water as but a fate of i down ys. are of of fine- jous cO- s white, which rure and ion with Sandy Soils, 191 Where the proportions of clayey, loamy, or other earthy fubftances with which they are mixed, approach nearly to that of the fand, the heavier iotts of fandy foils are formed; but where thefe enter only in very fmall. quantities, we have the light fandy foils; and where they are hardly met with at all, the foil is a loofe blowing fand, moft commonly‘of a white or brownifh appearance. The portions of vegetable matters that are intermixed with different foils of the fandy kind are not lefs various than thofe of the clayey and loamy, from which confiderable differences of quality are produced. Thefe differences in their textures and compofitions, alfo introduce eee which refpeét their powers of admitting and retaining heat and moifture. The opennefs and want of adher- ence in fuch foils, while they allow of the admiflion of heat and water more adily, permit them to be carried off with greater eafe and expedition, they are therefore lefs Lie benefited by their influence than many of the clofer and more adhefive foils From this view- of the conftituent principles of fandy foils, it is obvious that hey are chiefly deficient in the calcareous, argillaceous, bite and vegetable ingredients. The intention of the agriculturift fhould, therefore, for the moft part be dire€ted to the augmentation of their cohefive property, and the fupply of the calcareous and decayed animal and vegetable matters. With a view to the firft, argillaceous and loamy materials may be had recourfe to; and it has| been obferved by an able and intelligent writer™, that a lefs proportion of clay is required in the improvement of light fandy foils. than of fand in clayey ones; but whether this rule be generally slick or not, fome of the thinner and poorer forts of fandy foils certainly demand large proportions of the argillaceous ingre- dient. Where the calcareous principle is in fufficient abundance, argillaceous marle and clayey loams are the moft fuitable; but where it is deficient, calcare- ous marles and loams will be more advantageoufly employed. On thefe princi- ples it is, that in the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk, York, and fome diftricts of Scotland, experience has fhewn the former to be more beneficial;. while in other places, as the Ile of Wight, the diftriét of Caermarthen in Wales, in the coun- ties of Suffex, Chefter, and Stafford, in England, and the northern parts of Scotland, the latter has been found to produce the moft advantageous effects on fandy foils. The defect of vegetable matter in thefe foils may be remedied by the ufe o! farm-yard and other compofts, proceeding from animal and vegetable fubftances * Fordyce’s Elements of Agriculture, p. 2 = ee =- Bee ips Bee fl Beet Sn Yr Dante NS et Near|S ere AT rc 1 in a ftate of putrefaction. but gooa earth, or mouid, a nd the imperfeally ic t folved matter found in boggy fituations, may alfo in many inftances, where thefe cannot be eafily procured, fupply the deficiency in a very beneficial manner. The folding of fheep upon foils of this nature; likewifé, contributes greatly to their improvement, not only by the quantity of dung and urine that is de po- fited upon them, but the confolidation and firmnefs of texture that is produced by: their treading. All thefe different forts of materials may be applied either alone or combined with one another in the form or ftate of compofts. The marles and clayey fubftances are, however, for the moft part, Jaid on in the ftatés in whicl they are found; but the farm-yard dung, ai and peaty matter, often in aus URE with each other, or with fubftances of other kinds, fuch as thofe of an earthy na- ture: the peaty earth may alfo frequently be ufed alone, when applied to the furface of pafture lands. The light, open, and porous texture of fandy foils, renders them much more eafily cultivated and kept in order than thofe of the ftrong and clofe kinds; confequently the farms where they prevail are generally large; and when pro- perly prepared they are ssiieds adapted for.the growth of many forts of crops, fuch as thofe of the bulbous and tap rooted forts.. They have alfo another ad- vantage, which is chs of}apulhing forward the crops with more expedition. Whatever inconveniences attend them, are moftly fuch as proceed from the went of a fufficient degree of cohefion among their conftituent particles and folidity of texture. On thefe accounts they often counteraét the beft and moft judicious management. The roots of the crops are liable to become naked and expofed from ftorms and various other caufes; and if grain, to fall down and be lodged fo early in the feafon as to render them of little value. GRAVE LLY SOLIS. In the ftate of gravels which contribute to the formation of this clafs of foils, there is a variation of fize in the pieces or particles of which they are compofed 3 from that of a very fmail pea to the largeft cockle. Where they become of ftill larger dimenfions they are termed ftones or rocks, according as they fmall portions or large mafles; and the foils are then faid to be ftony or rocky, as the circumftances of the different cafes may happen to be. The beds of gravel, whether they be of the larger or fmaller kinds, are moftly mbined 5| Clayey which nixture thy na- to the sh more a kinds; become rain,[0 an TTP yf ithe f foils, pofed, yme of are in rocky, / molly ae Gravelly Soils.#03 either of the filiceous or flinty nature, or of the calcareous or chalky; but the {tones and rocks are of very different kinds. With thefe diffimilar fubftances, fome others in different ftates of redu€tion and pulverization are blended and united in various proportions, fo as to conftitute gravelly foils that differ confi- derably in their textures and other properties. The chief of thefe are loams, and the mould or earthy matter formed by the deftruétion and decay of nume- rous animal and vegetable fubftances. The gravelly mixture is fometimes alfo found to approach nearly to the fur- face, while at others it recedes confiderably from it*. In fome inftances fprings rife immediately underneath; in others they are at a great depth. The bottom, or fub-foil, is likewife various; in fome cafes it is ftony and rocky, in others it is clayey, or a rocky gravel, and fometimes fand,&c. The open porous nature of gravelly foils difpofes them to admit moifture very readily, as well as to part with it with equal facility; from the latter of which circumftances they are fubjeét to burn, as it is termed, in dry feafons, which ts not the cafe in the heavier or more retentive fort of foils. The defects in the conftitution of gravelly foils may be removed by the appli- cations of one or other forts of marle, where they can be procured, according to the circumftances of the cafe. Where the gravel is of the calcareous kind, clay, or clayey loam, may be moft properly made ufe of. And a mixture of the carbonate of lime, or lime in its effete ftate, and clay, would feem to admit of a pretty general application to thefe foils. Chalk, as being of the fame nature, may alfo be made ufe of in the fame way. Indeed for thefe kinds of gravel, which from their contiguity to fprings are apt to lie wet in the winter, there is no manure more properly adapted than chalk; which, although it does not abounds with vegetable matters in any large proportion, like yard dung, and fome other dreffings, is, however, an excellent preparative for them, and will, in fome mea- fure, fupply the place of fuch fubftances. From its abforbent nature, it is of good effect not only to countera& the fuperabundant moifure of fuch foils, but to leffen their heat; by which means the difpofition to burn in the fummer, fo inimical to the growth of various crops, and to which all gravels are in fome degree liable, is prevented; and in this laft view chalk, though particularly * It is obferved by Mr. Middleton, in his excellent Report of the Agriculture of the County of Mid- dlefex, that“ when the gravel is very near to the top, a full crop of yellow-bloffomed broom covers the ground, if in a ftate of grafs, and when ploughed an equally full crop of forrel.” This he remarked in the old inclofures, and on feveral places on Enfield-chafe, Cc Cc 194 Peaty or Moffy Soils. adapted to thofe of the wet and fpringy kind, may be applied with fuccefs on gravels of almoft every denomination*. The deficiency of the vegetable and animal earthy matters, where it exifts, may be properly fupplied by dung of the farm-yard kind in its more rotten ftate, and various animal excrements. Thefe are frequently applied to the gravelly foils, with the greateft effeGt and advantage, in the form of compofts, with good loamy mould, afhes, the mucilaginous and clayey depofitions of rivers and ponds, and other fubftances of a fimilar kind. Several of thefe materials, and fome others of the animal clafs, are, however, often ufed feparately to the furface of foils of this fort. Soils of this defcription may alfo be much improved by a judicious variation of the green vegetable and other crops that are cultivated upon them. Gravelly foils, from the lightnefs of their texture, and their not affording great refiftance, except where the ftones are large, or there are rocks, are not expenfive or difficult in the means of cultivation. All the neceffary bufinefs of this fort is capable of being carried forward with much eafe and expedition, and the lands are, in general, foon brought into the proper ftates for the recep- tion of crops. PEATY OR MOSSY SOILS. Turse foils are met with in pretty extenfive traéts in many parts of the kingdom. In fome places, in England, they are provincially denominated moory, peaty, and heathy foils; in Scotland, they‘are more cornmonly known by the title of mofly; and in Ireland, they receive the name of boggy foils. They differ, like all the other kinds of foils, from the nature of the ingredients. of which they are conftituted or compofed, and the proportions in which thefe are found to prevail in them. Where the vegetable or peaty material predomi- nates but little over the other fubftances with which it is mixed and incorporated, the lighter forts of peaty, moory, or heathy foils, are formed; but where the other matters bear only a flight proportion to it, the deep and heavy, peaty or mofly, foils prefent themfelves. In different diftri€ts the peaty matter is found of differ- ent depths, and of various degrees of denfity or clofenefs of texture, probably pro- ceeding from fome original differences in the vegetable fubftances from which it was formed, or the greater advances which it has made to the ftate of perfect dee * Bannifter’s Synopfis of Hufbandry, p. 13. fuccets t exifts, n fate, gravelly th good 1 ponds, id fome rface of ratiation ffording are not finefs of edition, = ts of the ominated y known «3 fails. rredients ch thefe redomi- porated, he other yr mofly, of differ- bly pro- which It arfett dee Peaty or Moffy Soils. 195 compofition or decay. The fub-foil in moft of the deep moffy diftri€ts is of the clayey kind, more or lefs tif and heavy, over which the peaty or mofly material is depofited, generally‘na fort of firatified order; the firft layer of which being commionly not more than ten or twelve inches in thicknefs, exhibits the appear- ance of a richifh brown earth, in all probability from the incorporation of the loamy or clayey matters, with the peat or vegetable earth, lying immediately upon them, and conftituting, originally, perhaps, the furface of the ground. The layer that fucceeds to this is moftly of a dark colour, and confiderable thicknefs, apparently formed of a great variety of vegetable or other materials in the more perfeét ftages of refolution and decay, united together by time and other circumftances with more or lefs compa€tnefs and folidity. The uppermoft ftra- tum, or that which is placed upon this denfe, peaty matter, is, in general, of a very pale colour, and very light fpongy texture, arifing poflibly from the graffes, leaves, and other vegetable fubftances, of which it is formed, not having attained that ftate of decay which conftitutes the darker forts of peaty earth. But in the more fuperficial peaty foils, little or nothing of this ftratified appear- ance is met with. A coat of peaty earth, differing greatly in thicknefs accord- ing to the peculiarity of the fituations, and other circumftances, is formed by a great length of time from the deftru€tion and decay of fucceflive crops of grafles, leaves, and fubftances of the heathy or other kinds, and depofited upon, and in- termixed with, the various harder materials of the foils which happened to be un- derneath them. By thefe means much variety is produced in the foils. Where the under-ftrata of earthy matter are tolerably good, and the crops of vegetables large and luxuriant, the better forts of light peaty foils feem to be predomi- nant; but where the quality of the under-ftrata are indifferent, and the vegeta- ble produéts fcanty, as well as feeble in their growth, and principally of the heathy tribe, the poor peaty and heathy, or moory foils, are met with. All peaty foils feem to be thus gradually formed by the depofition of vegetable matter, fupplied by the diffolution and decay of aquatic and other plants that grow in low moift fituations, as well.as fubftances of other kinds brought down by water, from the high grounds in their neighbourhood, in the ftates of folu- tion and diffufion, and gradually depofited from it on its becoming in a fiate of ftagnation, by means of obftruétions and floppages proceeding from different caufes. From the nature of the compofition of thefe foils, it is obvious that they muft be very retentive of water, efpecially where they are of any great depth; hence 196 Peaty er Moffy Soits. they feldom or ever become free from the exceflive quantities of moifture, with which they are loaded in the rainy feafons. An able author juftly obferves, that from the rays of the fun and drying wind being exerted during the fummer fea- fon in carrying off, by means of evaporation, the fuperabundant moifture in fuch cafes; and heat being known to be abftratted from bodies, and cold generated thereby, effets muft be produced highly injurious not only to climate but vegetation in general, and more particularly to fuch plants as ftand in need of a higher degree of heat, and more nourifhment, than fuch foils are capable of fupplying. And he thinks that there can be very little doubt but that thefe prejudicial effects on the growth of vegetables extend themfelves to the more dry lands ad- joining fuch fens or deep moffes*. The furface-ftratum of peaty foils, from its being more expofed to the influence and action of the pure air of the atmofphere, is, it is alfo obferved, much lefs foluble than the under-ftrata, confequently in its fimple or unmixed ftate lefs proper for the purpofes of agriculture. From the fame caufe too, it becomes lefs capable of{upporting flame, and is therefore improper for the purpofes of fuel. From what has been obferved refpefting the compofition, formation, and properties, of peaty foils, it is evident that they muft require diferent methods of management, in order to reclaim and render them fuitable for the growth of the various forts of vegetables that are objects of hufbandry. In the deep moffes, the firft thing to be attempted is to draw off, as much as. poflible, the fuperabundant moifture, by the cutting of proper drains, and’ fuch. other means as the nature of the fituation, and other circumftances, will adinit of, In places where water in fufficient quantity can be conveniently made to pafé through fuch moffes, and where the foil underneath is good, much may be effected by floating away the principal part of the moffy fubftance; but where the moffes are not deep, or the foils under them ofa good quality, after the making of proper drains, the beit way is, probably, to ridge them in fuch direétions and modes as are the moft effeétual in promoting the exit or pafiage of the ftagnant water which they contain. Different materials may then be applied with the intention of im«. proving their textures, and promoting the diffolution of the undecayed parts of the vegetable matters that are contained in them. The firft may be accom- plifhed by the application of yarious gravelly fubftances, fand, and coarfe earth; and the latter, efpecially where there is a large growth of heath and: other. * Dundonald’s Connedtion of Agriculture with Chemiftry, p. 33, cae ioe e) With es, that her fog. In fuck erated ate but 10 need able of udicial nds ade fluence folubla per for apable n, and ethods wth of nuch as nd fuch dinit of, to pals fected mofles proper as are which of ims arts of ccom- arth; - other Vegetable Earth or Soil, 197 . eoarfe plants, by the ufe of lime in its aftive or cauftic ftate: but where fuch plants do not fo much abound, alkaline fubftances, chalk, calcareous marle, the fhelly kinds of fea fand, and the carbonate of lime, may be more advan- tageoufly had recourfe to. Shell marle, chalky fubftances, rich clays, and lime-ftone gravels, being fre- quently met with under deep peat moffes, proper inveftigation fhould con- ftantly be made by means of boring them in various parts; as in cafe any of thefe materials can be difcovered at a fuitable depth, fuch grounds may be brought into cultivation much more cheaply and conveniently, from their being applied more readily to the foft fpongy furfaces of fuch foils, than where they are under the neceffity of being carted upon them from confiderable diftances. Paring and burning is ufeful in both the above views, where the quantity of vege- table matters on the furface is confiderable, and of the coarfe kind; but the method of applying good earthy matter is to be preferred, where it can be pro- cured in an eafy and not too expenfive manner. Something may likewife be effected in the way of promoting the fertility of —thefe foils by cropping with particular forts of vegetables. Thofe that have and which cover the furface of the ground very much, large branching ftems, on of the air in a great meafure upon it, are con- thereby excluding the ati ftantly to be employed as the moft advantageous and ufeful. VEGETABLE. EARTH OR SOIL. Tus kind of earthy material conftitutes the fuperficial bed or ftratum, in which plants, for the moft part, vegetate, in every fort of foil; and differs very much in different places, from the variations that take place in its depth, and the greater or lefs progrefs that has been made in the feveral fubftances of which it is compofed to the age of perfeét decompofition or decay. Some variety may, likewife, be caufed by its being more intimately or more loofely mixed and blended with the other bodies that are found in foils. It oo, that the earthy matter which is formed from the deftruction feems probable, t d for the purpofes of of fome forts of vegetable fubftances may be better fuite vegetation than that which proceeds from others. Vegetables, from their containing a confiderable portion of mucilaginous matter in a ftate of mixture with their other fubftances, become, in fome mea- fure, capable of folution in water, though the external furfaces of living plants, on account of the refinous and animalized materials. that enter into their com- 198 Vegctable Earth or Sot, pofition, are protected from its operation. From the former circumftance,_and that of earthy matters being contained in them, which had been taken up in the ftate of folution with their frefh juices while growing; it is evident that large quantities of vegetable mould muft be continually formed and depofited on lands by the natural decay of fuch fubftances. But the formation of vegetable mould or earth is farther effe€ted by means of the putrefaGtion or diffolution of fuch vegetables as are cut down, or other- wife deftroyed, on the furface of the ground, and the application of various kinds of dung and compofts. Where thefe have been in great abundance for a long time, there is moftly a deep rich furface foil of this earth; but where few vegetable produéts, and thofe of the lefs luxuriant kind, have been left to un- dergo the above procefs, or little affiftance given by means of manures, the cruft of furface mould is generally thin and poor. The refolution of vegetable mat- ters is greatly promoted by a proper degree of moifture and heat, as well asa fuitable ftate of the air. In the procefs of the putrefaction of thefe fubftances various chemical changes take place;—the water which they contain is decompofed; there is an abforption of the pure air of the atmofphere; heat is difengaged; and new com- binations of the gaffeous and faline kinds are formed. By thefe changes many fubftances are, therefore, converted to the ufe and fupport of vegetable life, that could not have been applied by any other means; befides, they are rendered much more extenfively applicable than they could otherwife have been, for that purpofe. The abforption of pure air from the furrounding atmofphere, or the procefs of oxygenation, is confidered, by a late writer, as the chief caufe of the reten- tion of vegetable matter on the furface of the earth, in deep peaty foils, and moft others, but efpecially thofe that have been long in a ftate of tillage. The vegetable matter by this means being rendered lefs deftruétible, fcarcely any of it is carried away in a diffolved ftate by rains, or the application of water in other ways, confequently accumulation muft take place, which, under other. circumftanices, could not have been the cafe*. The vegetable materials con- tained in foils, therefore, from their admitting different degrees of this procefs, *"Fhe Earl of Dundonald, in his treatife On the Connection of Agriculture with Chemiftry, obferves, that“ to this procefs of oxygenation, the continuance of vegetable matter on the furface of the earth is principally to be afcribed; as in the cafe of peat mofles, fens, and morafies, as well as in mott foils, but more efpecially in fuch as have long been under cultivation,‘The indeftru@ible fiate of vegetable eey.and ken up lent that lepolited XY Means or other. F various nce fora here few ft(0 un- the crutt ble mat vell asa chemical ere Is an ew cOlMm- res many ‘able life, rendered 4 hak N, ror that ly any of water In ler other jals cone on 5 procels, ry, obferves, of the carta in mort 104 ronie of vege? Vegetable Earth or Soil.. 199 ‘ and thereby becoming more or lefs infoluble, poflefs different powers in promot- ing the growth and neurifhment of plants. Where they have been expofed to the aétion of the oxygenous or pure part of the air, for a confiderable length of time, they are much more infoluble, than where this has been the cafe for only a fhort period. In order, therefore, to promote the formation of vegetable earth or mould, recourfe mutt not only be had to fuch fubftances as accelerate the putrefac- tive procefs, but alfo fuch as have a tendency to increafe the folubility of the vegetable mould or foil itfelf. The firft of thefe purpofes may be ac- complithed by the application of fuch materials as have been found ufeful in changing vegetable fubftances into the ftate of mucilage, fuch as the car- bonate of lime, or effete lime, marle, chalk, and calcareous matters in general, and alfo fome earthy faline fubftances, as the refufe of falt manufattories,&c. The latter is to be attempted by the ufe of different alkaline fubftances, fuch as the afhes produced by the burning of various green vegetable materials, the urine of animals, the liquor of dung-hills, night-foil, and other animalized matters. Vegetable mould may, likewife, be augmented by many other means 5 fuch as the growth of thofe kinds of crops that cover the ground much, and thereby produce a ftagnated ftate of the air; the confuming upon the ground or the turning down of rich, full, and fucculent forts of green crops, by which a large portion of vegetable matter is quickly brought into the{tate of decay; and the deftruétion and evacuation of various forts of infeéts that are prevalent in foils, by the application of fubftances of different kinds. “matters, under thefe circumftances, and their conftant accretion, may,” he thinks,“ be referred to the infoluble compounds, produced by the action of pure air on thefe inflammable fubftances. « Theinfolubility, to a certain degree, of this fyitem, adopted by nature, is undoubtedly,” fays he, «to be preferred to one more completely foluble; for it is evident, that if putrefaction, or ox genation, had poffeffed the power of rendering all the vegetable matter, by a fpeedy procefs, foluble in water, two pernicious confequences mutt have followed: The rains would have wafhed down fuch extracts, and foluble matters, as faft as formed, into the rivers and fprings, contaminating the waters, and rendering them unfit for the exiftence of fifhes, or for the ufe of terreftrial animals. The fea, in procefs of time, would thereby receive all the vegetable and animal produce of the dry land, and the earth would ulti- mately become barren, confifting alone of the fimple earths, without any admixture of vegetable mat- ter; confequently there could be no accumulation of this fubftance on the furface, as is the cafe, to an immenfe degree, at prefent. As fuch there cannot,” he conceives,‘‘ be a doubt, but that the prefent in- sanic bodies, has been eftablifhed by the great Creator of all things for wife and benevolent purpofes; efpecially when it{hall be underftood, that the apparent imperfections of this(to a certain decree) infoluble fyftena are, as they refpect agriculture and vegetation, to be remedied, when neceflary, by the ingenuity and indnftry of man. comptete procefs of putrefaction, oxygenation, or folution of or > 200_ Vegetable Earth or Soil. It is obferved by the able author juft mentioned, that a fuperabundance of vegetable matter in foils, efpecially where it is much expofed to be a€ted upon by the oxygen or vital air of the atmofphere, is apt to render the ground too loofe and open in its texture for the growth of moft forts of grain; winter corns in particular, from the fudden alternations of froft and thaw, being frequently thrown out of fuch foils and deftroyed. Where this is the cafe, great benefit may be derived from the ufe of various faline matters, and lime in its effete ftate, as by fuch means the vegetable parts of the foil will be reduced to their proper and moft produttive ftate*,. * Dundonald on the Conneétion of Agriculture with Chemiftry, p. 175. eo aS ae a a Na oe dance of ted Upon © gtound 1} Winter W, being the cafe, and lim il will be ie ;, Shot ON VET. MANURES. lergone in Subftances in the Formation o"Fluid, elaftic, and volatile x t IANURE Changes wnaerg Matters chiefly prepared in the Soil—Are in different Proportions according to Circumflances— The more grofs Matters applied to Lands chiefly terined Manures—Changes neceffary in thefe to fit them for the Support of Vegetation—Much Difference in, according as they abound with certain Sub- Jtances or Principles—This probably the Caufe why fome Matters are fo fuperior to others when ufed equally— Other Modes in which they contribute to the Growth of Crops—Difficulty of Arrangement of — May probably be ufefully divided into Animal, Vegetable, Foffil, Saline, and Compound Manures. —MANURES FROM THE DECOMPOSITION OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.—How they contri- - bute to the Support of Plants—Diferences in the conftituent Principles of, may produce Differences in the Lifes of—T heir Tendency to Putrefaction—How promoted—Circum/lances to be attended to in. —Hard animal Subftances.— Different Natures of—Bones, Horns, Hoofs—Circumftances to he attended to in their Preparation, Mixture, Combination, and Application.—Soft animal Subftances—V. arious Kinds of—Greaves, Sugar Scum, Refufe of Manufaltories— Fifh, Blood, &5°c.—Different Natures of—Circumftances to be regarded in the Preparation of—In the Com- bination and Mixture of, with other M. atters—In the Application and Uje of-—Animal Dungs— Nature and Goodne/s of—On qhat it depends in general—Kinds of employed—Effects of, how produced—Night-/otl—Of Birds—Of Horfes and Cows-——Of Sheep—Circumftances to be attended to in the collecting of—In the mixing of, with other Subfiances—In the Application or Ufe of, on Land.—MANURES FROM THE DECOMPOSITION OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES—Me- thods in which they are prepared for the Support of Plants—Different Matters fuitable for, formed afons aby they differ in their Effects on Land—Subftances that may during the Decompe ition of—Re be ufed, various—Manner in which they may be rendered ufeful—Refufe V egetable Subftances— Green Crops—Sea Weeds—Tanner’s Bark—Mud from various Places—Malt Du Oil-cakes,§S'c.—MANURES FROM THE AGENCY AND DECOMPOSITION OF FOSSIL SuBSTANCES—Caleareous Matter in general— Lime or calcined calcareous Matters---R eafon of the fa) Sy a eh i— Refufe of different Eijfects of, in different Cafes---W hy tt may vary, when prepa ed from different Subftatices--= Effects of in its active State, or that of Quick-lime--- In its effete State, or that of Carbonate of Lime--= From its Combinations with different Subfiances---From its containing Manner of preparing it for Ufe in this State — Different Effects of when thus applied—Soils on which mot ufoful.— Lime-ftone Gravel-—lanner of rendering it more generally ufeful.—Chalk—Nature of—Mode of ufing it u ith the greatef Chance of Succefs—LE fects of; on Various Kinds of Soil—Proportions 17 which applied on each Kind.—Marle bes ae Phofphorus.—Lime-flone— May be employed as a Manure without Calcination D D Kk ROM the changes that are conftantly taking place among bodies in natur and the new combinations w a are formed in confequence of them, a great variety of matters are unfold : 49‘AE alee tioliitio FPHE Ae baa| eae Sats 1@) ae ah ont Kinds of>; noticed—Manner af afcertaint 1g thet Aejcribéa—Aeree in foe£ mnhpule pe C LH Somme£7 OpleVv lie Sowa i- are 7° Fo)>“ 17, P5 Ry& 7. ve oul J 70 Ah/7 y 977 5 Po yp IFN OA Cae aAnrIIN-US 7397 anhIirk pS APP Po RAAT) be L¥LOHNET in WICH LL ey| /b“Lad be OD eh AIBA AENEAN G BELA EL EN EG|£1@POFLIONS Lil WHICH They Hay oe CU pLoy— 1 TI?) iy| eae Se tptt Ragen RITE OG Ties La Ee pte Od Maat Pod ok Pip BENS ent) ia Peete eis=, CA4——U fed on tiliage ANA grds Lands MEPCHINMLAHCES 10 Ve Ailenaded 10 i their. Application in each y fos der“ Ls 7° 7 i eg Pee’= ayy 4 pe 2 la QO fed’ 77, 7. z aps DT tangriaae Fh Ap 4 497) 2 9. veheAhiqga the Ahdlicating, ont——> a} Tx Tae fe= Cal—farticulars to be regarded In FEPCALIN Tt. Léppicarion OF. OED sana—Utihit, O] 5 as G4 : i risiy ae, i 7>. Val oe| WO, ee ate ey) 72 2 * Qa ,. 1> Eee t ad rT Athtlira y wr LP+t LAAHUVE—QOUS ON 4 e Wily tyL000 OF Be an Ree) E Bee PT gt a A COMA SS oy ve Pa f Manures from the Decompofition of Animal Sub/iances. ZOO and greaves, mixed with mould from the headlands, in the proportion of about fifty bufhels of lime to a ton of greaves. This compofition, he obferves, re- fembles fugarfcum, which confifis of lime and bullocks’ blood. From the large experience he has had of the benefits arifing from fugar fcum, he thinks this combination of lime and animal matter deferves further inveftigation. There can be little doubt but that by combining lime with animal fubftances, they may be rendered highly active as manures, efpecially when applied on {oils that have a fufficiency of thofe earthy fubftances on which they can exert their full influence. In this way they feem frequently to be rendered more active than when em- ployed ina fimple uncombined ftate; but experiments are perhaps wanting to fully afcertain the utility and beft means of employing fuch matters. Lime might thus be combined with bones or woollen rags, or with a compoft of earth and night-foil; and would certainly greatly facilitate their converfion into manure, as well as render them more aétive in producing their effects in the fupport of vegetable crops. And by fome of their properties being ab- forbed by the lime, during the time of their decompofition, and afterwards parted with more flowly in the foil, they may alfo by fuch means be, probably, rendered more durable and lafting, as manures. It is further obferved, by this experienced agriculturift, that the Arabians, who take great pains to improve their lands, are accuftomed to make large pits; they then put in animal fubftances, and cover them with calcareous or clayey earths, and afterwards thefe earths, which of themfelves are fterile, acquire the properties of the richeft manure. He fays, he once ordered a heifer which died in a field at a diftance from his houfe, to be buried in a compoft of lime and earth; he does not affert that this was its moft profitable application; he had, however, no reafon, he fays, to complain of his compotft. Mr. Wight, in his Survey of the Hufbandry of Scotland, he obferves; mentions a compott of two parts lime, and one part pigeons’ dung, to re- main mixed until a confiderable fermentation advances, which is known by the efluvia.. Six bolls of this compoft, he fays, is fufficient for an acre, and will mark itfelf for many years. There are many combinations of this nature that may be fuccefsfully made ufe of for the purpofes of agriculture, but which have not yet been fufficiently attended to, to afcertain their different effects._, E FE 210 Manures from the Decompofition of Animal Subftances. There are ftill more fubftances of the animal clafs, fuch as the refufe af gluc- mahers, the cuttings of felt-mongers, the clippings of tie) the fcrapings of oiled-leather, and the chips or wafie of Jhoe-makers, which may be made ufe of 41% as manures, when they can be colle@led in fufficient c quantities: Thefe animal materials, from ,their abounding in mucilage and oil, their great attraCtion for moifture, and their being readily foluble in water, contribute quickly to the fupport of vegetation, but are not probably fo durable in their effeéts upon land, as many other fubftances. Hence they fhould only be made ufe of with Zé a view to the immediate crop, which, we believe, is pretty much the cafe in Ves 11€ thofe places where they can be obtained in fuch quantities as to be employed for the purpofes of agriculture. Various animal fubftances of the fifh kind, as the blubber remaining after the preparation of oil from the whale, and other large fifhes, and different forts of{mall fith, both of the fhell and other kinds, may be employed as manures; and alfo the offals of fuch animals,.where they can be procured in a lar ge quan- tity, as in large towns, fea diftriéts, and where they are cured or prepared in great numbers for the market. Thefe fubftances may be readily reduced to that ftate which is proper for manure, by mixing with them a fmall portion of the carbonat of lime, and afterwards, according to circumftances, a quantity, two or three times more than the whole, of good vegetable mould. Shell-fifh, fuch as mufcles, are com- monly applied without being mixed with earthy matters; but this is certainly a wafteful pra€tice, as much of their valuable principles is diffipated and loft, as is evident from the highly difagreeable ftench that affails the neighbourhood o the ground on which they have been applied. By mixing good v eatiaple mould or peat earth with them, as has been mentioned above, the quantity of the manure would not only be greatly increafed, but the offenfivenefs attending the ufe of fuch manures, in a great meafure, correéted, and the effeQs of them in pro- moting the growth of vegetables probably rendered more advantageous. The refufe of flaughter-houfes and butchers’ fhops may, likewife, be yrepared and made ufe of in a fimilar manner to that of fith. For as the manures that are formed from thefe animal materials are capable of affording much elaftic volatile matters during their decompofition, they of courfe require to be well mixed and blended with fuch earthy fubftances as they can combine with, and render foluble, and in proportions fuited to their powers, in order to produce the moft beneficial effeéts on vegetation. ~*® ent forts lanures; § more are COM: rtainly I loft, as 1] Pe| ro ave f rood Ji epared hat are volatile mixed render ne moft Meanures from the Decompofition of Animal Subftances. Gil It is probable that woollen-rags, hair, feathers, and fuch-like fubftances, from their having a lefs portion of oily or mucilaginous matter in their com- pofition, are inferior as manures, The firft muft be cut or chopped into{mall pieces before it can be ad vantageoully applied to the ground. From the experiments that have been made with fuch animal fubftances as have been mentioned as manures, it maybe inferred that their effects continue longer than thofe of many fubftances of other kinds. Dr. Hunter found from the application of reduced bones to a poor calcareous foil, with a grain crop, in the proportion of fixty bufhels to the acre, that the'crop was much fuperior, when this was ufed, to that which had not been dreffed in the fame way, and the grafs crops afterwards for fome length of time, on the fame place, difplayed a fuperiority, and appeared more early.’ He alfo found the fame fuperiority in turnip crops in different fields, when dreffed in the fame way. Mr. Young likewife found the effets of bone manures to be very great; but they did not correfpond to the quantities employed, as with twenty- five cart loads the crop was better than with fifty*. This curious faét is, how- ever, explained, by his obferving that the foil was an extremely poor one, as in fuch a cafe there could only be a fmall proportion of earthy matter for the ammonia and other fubftances afforded by the decompofition of the bones to aét upon, and reduce to that ftate of folubility the moft adapted to the fupport of vegetation. Hence the immediate benefit that was derived from the manure, probably, depended folely on the oily and mucilaginous materials. Where bony fubftances are not broken down into very fmall particles, we fu- fpect, from fome few trials that we have been enabled to make, that the effects of fach fubftances will be equally, if not more, apparent the fecond than the firft year, whether they be ufed on grafs land, or that which is under the plough. The trials which Dr. Hunter made with ground and unground bones feem, likewife, to fupport this opinion, as he found that, for the immediate crop, the unground bones were of little or no fervice, but the ground ones of much benefit. What effeét the unground ones had the fecond year is not exattly mentioned; however, from his concluding that thefe fubftances are, in general, upon grafs land, more effectual the fecond than the firft year, it may be eafily fuppofed to haye been the cafe. Animal dungs.—The anitnalized fubftances that are, however, moit generally * Annals of Agriculture, ves. Ill. p. 69. 912 Manures from the Decompeption of Animal Subftances, made ufe of as manures, are the excrements of various kinds of animals, which are found in very different conditions, or ftates of preparation and richnefs, pro+ ceeding, in fome meafure, from the kind of food on which the animal has been fed, the matters with which they are incorporated, and the texture of the fub- fances themfelves. It is ftated by a very corre&t practical obferver, that the dung of fat animals is unqueftionably more rich, and confequently poffefles greater powers of fertiliza- tion, than the dung of lean ones; and that the quality of the dung of every fort of animal will, in a great meafure, be proportioned to the goodnefs or po- verty of its food. Thus, when the animal is fed on oily feeds, fuch as lint, rape, and others of a fimilar nature, it will be the moft rich; when kept on oil- cake, or thofe feeds which have been deprived of part of their oily matter, the next fo; on turnips, carrots, and fuch-like vegetable roots, the next; on the beft hay, next; on ordinary hay, next; and on ftraw, perhaps, the pooreft of all. The dung of lean hard-working cattle, feeding on ftraw, muft, he conceives, be poor indeed*. Some manures of this kind, fuch as the foil of privies, is fometimes met with in a itate fit to be applied to the ground, when not much mixed with fluid matters, fuch as urine. It moft frequently happens, however, that it is in fuch a liquid ftate as to require other more folid fubftances to be blended with it, before it can be conveniently applied to the foil. In doing this, too little regard feems to have in common been paid to the choice of the moft proper materials: but it is obvious, that fuch as can be the moft fully a&ted upon, and the moft readily converted into the ftates fuitable for affording the nutrition of vegetables, by the principles of-the matters thus emploved as manures, muft be the moft adapted for the purpofe, as well as the moft beneficial. When, therefore, the manure made ufe of in this way is either wholly or principally conftituted of fuch animalized matters as, from their fluidity, are in an improper ftate or condition to be fet on land without having other fubftances previoufly mixed with them, fuch peaty, boggy, or black vege- table earths fhould be chofen as contain large proportions of matter, which the ammonia or volatile alkali fo abundantly provided by the decompofition of fuch fubftances may exert itfelf upon, and reduce into that fiate of folubility which is fuitable for promoting the growth of plants. By duly attending to this prace tice, which has been fo{cientifically handled by the Earl of Dundonaldt, much * See Middleton's View of the Agriculture of Middlefex, p. 30. + See Treatife on the Connection of Agriculture with Chemifry. ad 5 W h ich XIS, prds ' ne lid) Deen Vil ‘fertiliza. of every fs or po- N as lint, pt.onoil- iter, the ONceIves, with ina matters, uid ftate it can be o have in s obvious, rerted into ples of the urpole, as his way Is ‘om their t having ck veger hich the 2 of fuck ry whica Manures from the Decompofition of Animal Subftances. 213 advantage may be gained, not only in the quantity, but likewife in the quality ef the manure. The refults of experiments attentively made in this way, indeed, clearly de- monftrate that an inconceivable lofs is incurred by the inconfiderate pra€tice of exficcating human excrement, as well as the negligent cuftom of permitting the liquor or fluid parts of dung heaps torun away.‘The trials which we have been enabled to make alfo lead us to fufpect, that it is a much more wafteful prac- tice to apply thefe liquors to ground in their uncombined ftate, than in conjunc- tion with fuch earthy materials as have been mentioned above. Befides, much of them muft be imperceptibly carried off by the procefs of evaporation, even when they are carried out in the moft favourable feafons of the year; and they cannot in this way always be made ufe of on thofe foils that contain a fufficient quantity of thofe earthy materials, or principles, with which they can readily form com- binations, and exert their moft beneficial and fulleft effects. Moft of the later praétical writers on agriculture are decidedly of opinion,. that the foil of privies is a manure of the moft enriching kind, but that its effects are not fo lafting as thofe of many other fubftances. In the trials which have heen lately made with it, by a very ingenious and experienced agriculturift™, it is faid to have produced fuch aftonifhing fertility as to induce him to conclude that it exceeds all other forts of manure that can be put in competition with it for the firf? year after its application. The fecond year he thinks it of fome fervice, but in the third its effets nearly, if not quite, difappear.“The circum- ftances which render this fort of manure fo immediately attive in promoting vege- tation, and fo quickly deprived of its beneficial influence, would feem to be from. the great quantity of elaftic principles which it contains, in a laofe ftate of.combi-- nation,-and the fmall quantity of earthy matter which it is capable of fupplying- to the foil, by the laft ftages of decompofition or decay. This alfo further fhews the advantage of mixing and incorporating with it fuch kinds of earthy. fubftances as it may be capable of a€ting upon, and uniting with. From the caufes juft noticed, its moft aGtive and nutritious properties are almoft immediately fet at liberty, and either direétly contribute to the growth of plants, or form fuch new combinations as readily become ufeful for the purpofe, while but very little of the earthy.material is left behind for further decompofition, and the durable aid of vegetable increafe. The author mentioned above alfo further remarks, that this matter is not only prepared in the moft fuitable manner for the purpofe of: * Middleton in Txanfagtions for the Eacowragement of Arts,&¢. vol. XVIT. p. 236. 214 Manures from the Decompofition of Animal Subftances. perfect vegetation, but that the herbage produced by it is capable of fattening the largefi cattle in /e/s time than any other. And we know from repeated expe- riment, that the fineft garden vegetables may. be produced by it, when properly employed, without the leaft injury to their tafte, even in the moft delicate of them, fach as cauliflowers, white brocoli,&c. Inftead of a bad tafte being communi- cated to herbage by the ufe of this manure, it would feem, probably, that it confiderably improves its flavour, as it has been obferved that the patches of fuch paftures as had been manured with this fubftance were conftantly eaten quite clofe by horfes, cows, and young cattle, while in other places there was much longer grafs*.| From thefe fats, the importance of this fubftance, as a manure, is evidently fuch, that every poffible means fhould be contrived to prevent its lofs, which 1s fhamefully permitted, at prefent, to take place in many large towns, to the afto- nifhing extent of more than two thirds of the whole, and fome method made ufe of to render its conveyance and application more general and convenient, which cannot be a matter of much difficulty, if once the attention of praétical agricul- turifts be properly excited upon the fubjeét, as we fhall have occafion further to remark when we come to confider the means of augmenting and preferving ma- nures. The dungs of thofe animals which feed on fuch forts of food as conftitute either wholly, or in a great part, the food of man, as has been noticed above, are found, from the experience of praétical farmers, to be more effettual in pro- moting vegetation, when applied as manures to ground, than thofe of fuch ani- mals as are fuftained by fuch kinds of matters as are feldom or ever made ufe of in that way; hence it is obvious that the dungs of carnivorous birds, dogs, fwine, horfes highly fed, poultry, pigeons, and fuch-like animals, muft be more pow- erful in their effets as manures, than thofe of horfes when fed only with hay or grafs, neat cattle, fheep, and other animals that live in the fame manner. On the fame principle too, it feems not improbable, but that the excrements of infe&ts may be lefs efficacious as manures than their bodies, as it is well known that by their deftru€ion and decompofition the fertility of land is contiderably increafed in particular inftances. It is probable, likewife, that the dungs of fome animals may, from the flate of their ftomachs and other caufes, as well as the nature of their food, be more completely reduced and animalized in its paflage through their bodies * See Annals of Agriculture, vol. I. p. 655. allenineg 0] ed eXpe- NhrAnay! Vroperiyv cal \f them WE RAINALD, Mmuni- vy thot ib ¥y at iL ut, which Pee agricul urther to ying ma- onttitute ed above, yal in pro- f{uch al ade ufe of gs, fwine, ore pow- th hay or ier. On ments of }] known iderably from the food, be ir bodies Manures from the Decompoftion of Animal Subflances. O15 that this is the cafe, at leaft, in granivorous birds, in which the food is fubjected to confiderable trituration in the courfe of its digeftion, there can be little doubt, and thereby they perhaps become, in fome meafure, in a condition more {uitable to form new combinations, or afford the fupport of vegetation. This view of the nature of the manures afforded by different animals, fhould lead the prattical agriculturift to be more attentive to the fubje€t, in order that he may render them more abundant, and be capable of employing them under the moft favourable circumftances, which cannot be the cafe while they are, as at prefent, indifcriminately mixed and blended in the common dung-heap.‘That they fhould not be ufed in this way is clear from the contradictory accounts of them that have been prefented to us by various writers and experimenters, which would feem to have been caufed by employing them in ftates of mixture vith other fubftances. By fome it is aflerted that one load of fwines’ dung is nearly equal to two of moft other forts, and that it is the richeft of all animal manures; in this, however, they would feem to be miftaken; as from trials made by others, it has been fhewn that night-/iil is certainly to be ranked much before it. In fome of the ingenious experimental attempts of Mr. Young, it is alfo fhewn that the dungs of rabbits and poultry are fuperior to that of pigeons, and greatly more durable*. But poultry dung, in the comparative experiments of Mr. Arbuthnot, was found to be more effectual than that of rabbits, and that of the latter greatly fuperior to wood afhes. Pigeons’ dung has, notwithftanding, been proved by much experience to be a powerful and efficacious manure, and probably, from its abounding with volatile alkaline principles, been concluded to be of a hot or ftimulating quality. It is, however, from the larger animals that the farmer derives the principal part of the dung that is made ufe of as manure, in the cultivation and improve- ment of land. The dung of fuch horfes as are highly fed being found, as has been already feen, to be much more valuable for the general purpofes of agri- culture, and fome ufes in horticulture, than that which is made by horfes when fed with hay or grafs only. Where the animals are kept in the latter way, it is, probably, not fo good as that of well-fed cows and neat cattle in general, as in. thefe it may, perhaps, become more animalized from the cir- cumftance of their food being more intimately blended with the faliva, or other juices, during the ruminant ftate of feeding in fuch animals. The dune of * See Annals of Agriculture, vol. II. p./26. 216 Manures jrem the Decomposition of Vegetable Subjiances. “1 common, much more difpofed to take on the procefs ot horfes is, however, at, than that of cows and other neat cattle, and putrefaGtion, and caufe more he f diftinguifhing circumftances between them as ma- nures. The dung of neat cattle may alfo, on account of its lefs difpofition to run into the ftate of putrefaction, contribute more of the earthy material to Hence, probably, its fuperior utility on the foil. The dung and urine of animals indeed thefe are the chie the land on which it is applied. leaner and poorer or thinner forts of when newly voided are not, except W {cent condition, the length of time in W too fhort for its fully taking place; but fome degree of, or tendency to, putridity is conftantly neceflary to their difcharge*, and the means which are further fuited tc promote‘tin thefe fubftances, have been fully defcribed and explained above, in fpeaking of the nature of animal fubftances in general. From the few experiments that have been made with the dung of fheep, it 1s y valuable with that of many other animals that feed in e not yet turned their attention fufficiently to the means of colle&ting and preferving it, fo that it may be ufed alone as a manure. The method by which it is at prefent applied to land is by folding the animals upon it, under which method of management, on many foils, a great part of the advantage muft be derived from the operation or a¢tion of the am- monia of their urine upon the vegetable matters contained in them, as well as from the confolidation produced by their treading. hen the animals are morbid, in a putre- hich they remain in their bodies being evident that it is equall the fame way, but agriculturifts hav MANURES FROM THE DECOMPOSITION oF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. VEGETABLE, as well as animal, fubftances, when deprived of their vital prin- ciple or life, are foon rendered fit, by the feparation, reduétion, and ultimate decompofition, of their conftituent principles, for the nourifhment and fupport which we have already feen to be greatly pro- of new plants. In this procefs, moted in all kinds of fubftances by the materials being expofed to the free influence or agency of atmofpheric air, moifture, and a middling degree of heat, fet at liberty, by which different new combinations take degrees, and upon: The ftages of this various matters are place, that are capable of pro which their utility as manures, perhaps, chiefly depends. moting vegetation in different See Dundonald on the Conneétion of Agriculture with Chemiftry, p. 10° Drocefs of vattle, and M a3 ma- Polition to Naterial to lity on the of animals a putre: dies being putridity is ther{uited } ned above, fheep, it i hat feed in fufficiently alone as a folding the ils, a great 1 of the am }, as well a TABLE vital prin: nd ultimate and fuppot creatly pro to the free rree of heat; ) gations take S, and up ss octe(O ae tages Manures from the Decompofition of Vegetable Subflances. ayy decompofition have generally been fuppofed to regularly fucceed one another, from that which is produétive of fweetnefs, through the vinous and acetous, to that which is the ultimate refult of putrefaction. But a late philofophical writer* ingenioufly faggefts, that it is more probable that different forts and parts of organifed matters, when dead, may undergo many different forts of chemical changes, and that thefe may be different according to the differences in the degrees of heat, the quantity of water, and of air, to which they are expofed. He appears to have been led to this fuppofition from the faccharine procefs, pre- ceding the vinous fermentation, which takes place in certain ftates of animal ftomachs; and from what happens in the germination, or fprouting, of grain, by which the mealy matter is converted into fugar. From remarking that the acerb juices of fome kinds of fruit are rendered fweet by baking, he conceives, that the faccharine procefs may take place in a degree of heat which is about that of boiling water, and that by it the procefs of fermentation may be alto- gether prevented from occurring. By deftroying or injuring the life of fruits, it is alfo fuppofed, that the faccharine procefs of their juices may be promoted, as is found in many inftances; fuch as the ripening of fruits after being plucked from the trees; their being fooner ripened after being injured by infects, or other means; and after partially cutting, or otherwife injuring, the branches of the trees on which they grow: and this, which is termed the faccharine procefs, it is conjectured, may take place either beneath or upon the earth, in the incipient ftate of vegetable decompofition, before the vinous fermentation, and thus afford avery nourifhing matter to plants. In the vinous, or procefs which commences after the faccharine, carbon becomes united with pure air in a large proportion’; and it is fuppofed, by the author we have juft mentioned, that probably at the moment of their combina- tion, while they are in the form of a liquid, and before they affume the gafle- ous ftate, they may be taken up by the roots of vegetables.| And, as in the procefs of putrefaction, carbon is not only changed into car- bonic acid, but water decompofed, as is evinced by the{mell of hydrogen, it is fufpeéted that that inflammable fubftance may combine with carbon, as in the cafe of hydrocarbonate gas, and by this means render them both foluble in water, and thereby capable of being taken up as food by the roots of plants, without their paffing into the acid or gafleous fates. The union of azote with * See Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 229¢ FF Manures from the Decompofition of Vegetable Substances. pure air, towards the clofe of the putrefaétive procefs, by which nitrous acid is produced, it is likewife conceived may poflibly tend to. promote vegetation. This, however, may be promoted, from the circumftance of the pure air,or oxygen, adhering more loofely to its bafe, the azote, in the formation of this than other acids, and on that account yielding it more readily to the abforbent roots of vegetables. But, befides thefe means of fupplying the nutrition of plants, as in the decompofition of vegetable fubftances by the procefs of putrefation, the conftituent principles of the water which they contain are, as has been jutt obferved, in fome meafure fet at liberty, and the hydrogen, one of them, uniting with the azote which is afforded by the diffolution of vegetable matters, though not in fuch large proportions as by animal fubftances, forms ammonia, which, from its ready union with fats and oily matters, and thus rendering them capa- ble of being taken up by the abforbent roots of vegetables, may contribute to the fupport of vegetation. And, in fome inftances, where faline infoluble earthy matters, or metallic falts, are contained in the foils to which manures of this kind are applied, or in which ammonia may be formed, it may decompofe them, and by that means contribute to the formation of other new and lefs noxious compounds, or fuch as may be more capable of contributing to the growth of vegetables. There is another fubftance which generally prevails in vegetables, and which is fuppofed, by the writer we have noticed above, to be a fimple material, ob- tained in great abundance from the recrements not only of putrefying vegetable, but animal fubftances, and calcareous earth, the latter of which he fuppofes to. have been of animal origin in the early periods of the world. This matter, it is thought, when met with in the ftate of folution, may be taken up entire by the abforbent roots of vegetables, as well as occafionally formed and elaborated by them. It feems probable from thefe ftatements, that different matters, fitted to the. nutrition and fupport of plants, or crops, are formed and evolved during the different proceffes and ftages of decompofition of vegetable, as well as animal, fubftances. In vegetable produétions the changes are, however, lefs rapid than in thofe of the animal kind, and probably much more varied, according to the various ftates and textures of the particular fubftances; for it is obvious, from. nume- rous fatts and circumfiances, that the more luxuriant and juicy vegetables are much more readily decompofed than fuch as are dry, and have a ligneous ftruce OUS acid Fetation, TOXy gen, han other -T00ts of Plants, as ction, the been jut |, Uniting 5 though |, Which, em capas ribute to le earthy 2s of this compote and lefs g to the d which rial, ob- egetable, ppofes to matter, 1t entire by laborated d to the ring the animal, thofe of » various 1 nume: ables are ous ftruce Manures from the Decompofition of Vegetable Subflancese 919g AE ture. Hence it is, that frefh vegetable matters are much more quickly converted to that ftate of decay which is fuitable for the fupplying of vegetable nourihh- ment, than fuch as ftraw, hay, wood, and other dry materials of the fame nature. PH It feems likewife probable, that fome vegetable matters may yield fome of the fubftances that are taken up by the abforbent roots of vegetables in much larger proportions than others; as it has been found that different forts of grain vary confiderably in the proportions of mucilaginous, and what is. termed vegeto-animal matter, which they contain; and that grain, potatoes, carrots, and many other roots of the fame kind, on being confumed in the open air, afford much larger quantities of alkaline falts than hay, ftraw, or wood: it is undoubtedly from thefe and fimilar caufes, that fome forts of vegetable matters, when reduced by means of putrefaétion, are found to be fo much more effe€tual as manures than others, when applied under the fame circumftances, and to{oils in every refpeét fimilar. There is alfo another cireumflance which feems neceffary to be attended to in fubftances of this clafs, which is, that in general, when refolved by the ultimate procefs of putrefaction, they yield larger proportions of earthy materials to the foils on which they are depofited, than moft fubftances of the animal kind, and confequently add more effectually to the ftaple of the land. And as this vegetable mould, or earth, from various caufes, is conftantly becoming more extenfively, and more intimately, blended with the other materials of the foils, and, of courfe, forming new combinations, by which fome of thofe matters which ferve for the nutrition of plants are fet at liberty, and brought into the ftate moft proper for being abforbed by the roots of vegetables; we fee why thofe manures, which are principally compofed of vegetable fubftances, are more durable in their effe€ts than fuch as are prepared from many animal materials. The fubftances of the vegetable kind that may be advantageoufly converted into manure, are fo extremely numerous that it is impoffible to defcribe the whole of them. All kinds of green vegetable produ€tions may be employed in this way; fuch as the luxuriant weeds of rivers, lakes, ponds, and ditches; fern; and the refufe of different kinds of garden vegetables. Where green materials of this nature are made ufe of, they fhould always be cut down while in their juicy ftate, juft before their flowers begin to appear, in order that they may be in the moft fuitable condition for becoming quickly putrid, and to prevent the injury that might otherwife be fuftained from the vegetation of their feeds. They are afterwards to be colle€ted into heaps of a moderate fize, and their putrefaction promoted 220 AManures from the Decompofition of Vegetable Subjtances, by their being thrown together as lightly as poffible, and the occafiona? fprin- kling of. them with water, if the feafon be hot and dry: and as lime is found,| when applied to vegetables in their green moift fate, to difengage from them both hydrogen and azote, by the combination of which volatile alkali is produced*, it may be advantageous to blend a portion of lime at firft with the heaps, and afterwards add a fuitable quantity of peat earth, or good vegetable mould, for the alkali thus formed to att upon. Bythis method, the quantity of manure from fuch fubftances may be greatly augmented, and rendered more valuable. But when dry materials, fuch as hay, ftraw of different kinds, fern, and rufhes, fuch additions cannot be had recourfe to with equal fuccefs, unlefs where much of the dung and urine of animals have been incorporated with them; but their refolution and decay may be greatly promoted by their being kept in a ftate of moifture, without the water being fuffered to ftagnate upon them, and by their not being permitted to be trodden down too much by cattle, or other means, in the farm vards. Another beneficial means of vegetable manure, which is yet far from being fufficiently practifed, is that of providing full crops of fucculent green ve- getables, fuch as clover, buck-wheat, tares, vetches, fpurry, peafe, beans, turnips, and many other‘fimilar plants, to be turned down by the plough, in order that they may undergo the putrefa€tive procefs under the ground, and by that means be converted into manure, and fupply the nutrition of plants. In this praétice it is probable that great advantages might be obtained, on the principles which we have juft ftated, by the fpreading of a fmall por- tion of lime and peat, or rich vegetable earth, over fuch crops, and then rolling them down that they may be completely turned in and buried by the plough; an, operation which fhould be performed as quickly as poflible afterwards, and where the crops will admit of it, in the fummer or the early part of autumn, while the fun has the power of promoting the decay of fuch vegetable matters. By this means, it feems probable, that the putrefaétion of fuch. crops would not only be much expedited, but the principles thereby fet at liberty be capable of exerting their influence much more extenfively than where the plants them- felves are only employed, and little additional expence be incurred by the farmer. Where crops of green plants canbe turned down, when the feafon is fuffis ciently hot to enfure their fpeedily running into the putrid ftate, there cannot be any doubt but that it isa better and more advantageous practice, efpecially *, See Dundonald on the ConneAion of Agriculture with Chemiftry, p. 42. t fprin: ‘found, em both luced* aps, and ould, for ure from le. But es, fuch hof the {olution noitture, ot being the farm m being reen vee beans, plough, ground, ition of obtained, mall por en rolling capable ts them: . farmer: is fufti« . cannot (pecially Manures from the Decompofition of Vegetable Subftances. gat where manures of other kinds are fcarce, than that of procuring it by the con- fuming otf fuch crops by the feeding or foiling of cattle, Sea-weed* is another vegetable produétion which is capable of being em- ployed as a manure with great advantage, and fhould never be neglected where it is within the reach of the farmer. In fome places it is the pra€tice to fpread it upon the lands as foon as poflible after being cut from the verges of the rocks on the: different fea coalts, or colle&ed after being Jeft by the tides, and to plough it in: where this method is adopted, as little time as poflible fhould be fuffered to elapfe after the cutting, or colle&ting, of the weed, before it is ploughed down; for as the plant in its green or fucculent{tate readily decays and becomes putrid, if there be any confiderable delay in the performance of the bufinefs, efpecially when the weather is hot, much of its valuable properties as a manure is diflipated, and carried away by means of evaporation, as is fufhi- ciently evinced by the pungent and difagreeable fmell that iflues from it, on its being thrown upon the land while undergoing the procefs of putrefaction: and, befides, when it is fuffered to become dry and hard before it is turned into the ground, the parts of it that remain are confiderably longer before they become decompofed and reduced into the ftate fuitable for affording the nou- rifhment and fupport of vegetable crops. It is moft probably on thefe accounts, as well as that of the weed affording but little earthy matter in proportion to its bulk, on its decompofition, that it is found, in general, to be lefs permanent in its effe€ts, as a manure, than fome other vegetable matters. Something may likewife depend on the goodnefs and luxuriance of the weed itfelf, and the ftate which it is in when gathered from the fhores, or cut from the fides of the rocks.. This; like moft other plants, will undoubtedly be in the moft proper condition for the purpofes of being converted into manure, when cut or collected in the moft fucculent ftate ofits growth fF. Another praétice, which prevails in fome diftrif's where this weed is employed for the purpofe of manure, is that of colle@ting it into large heaps, and letting it remain expofed in that ftate to the influence of the weather until it be com- pletely rotten, and in a condition to be put upon the land; but as the plant contains in its compofition a large proportion of faline matters, which during the ftate of its. decompofition, or decay, are brought into aétivity, it is obvious that by fuch a method of proceeding much lofs mutt be fuftained, not only from ~* Quircus Marina.. + See Sir John Sinclair's View of the State of Agriculture in the Northern Counties of Scotland, p, 24. 222 Manures from the Decompojfition of Vegetable Subfiances, the diffipation of the volatile and more fluid parts by the action of the fun and wind, but by the rains diffolving and carrying away the faline materials that may have been formed. When this weed is, therefore, not to be immediately applied as a manure, it would feem to be the moft economical and. advantageous plan, efpecially where the weed is frefh, to firft blend a portion of quick lime with the heaps, and then have a fuflicient quantity of frefh good earth, mould, or other fimilar matters, placed beneath them, as well as mixed with and covered over them, in order that the fubftances afforded by the diffolution of the weed may not only have fomething to mix with and a& upon, but likewife be pre- vented from being wafhed away by rains. By this means the quantity of manure may be very much increafed, and its effe¢ts rendered confiderably more permanent. In the iflands of Jerfey and Guernfey, where this weed is extenfively employed as a manure, it is cut in the early part of the fpring, and about the month of July; the firft cutting is, in moft cafes, immediately made ufe of, as a manure for barley and pafture lands, but the latter, principally converted to the pur- pofe of fuel, the afhes only being employed as manure. By this practice of confuming the plant in its dry ftate, however neceflary it may be in thefe iflands, from the great fcarcity of fuel, the lofs in refpe€t to manure is extremely great, as the quantity of afhes that are thus produced, bear but a very{mall propor- tion to that of the weed which is confumed. The weed which is colle@ed after having been thrown upon the fhore by the tides, is found to be much inferior as a manure to that which is cut from the rocks and made ufe of in its juicy ftate, which fully confirms the opinion which has been advanced above. Bark, which has been made ufe of for the purpofe of tanning leather, may likewife be employed as a manure: when ufed in this way it fhould be col- Jefted into moderate fized heaps, before it has become dry by too much ex-: pofure to the heat of the fun and wind; and then by having a quantity of lime mingled with it, and being kept flightly moiftened with water, its putrefaction and decay may be greatly promoted. When intended to be applied to grafs Jands, it fhould be confiderably more reduced towards the ftate of vegetable mould than when made ufe of for the purpofe of fupporting arable crops. As during the decompofition of this fubftance much heat is produced, and many elaftic matters fet at liberty, it would feem that as a manure. it is more adapted to the{ftiff, cold, and heavy foils, than thofe of the lighter kinds; a faét which has, we believe, been confirmed by the experience of moft agri- q“2 cuiturilts. idwind, ay have plied as US plan, me with ould, or covered he weed be pre- tity of ly more nployed onth of manure iflands, ' great, propor. ed after inferior its julcy er, may he col: ich eX-° of lime fa€tion o grafs retable IS. d, and is more inds; 4 ft agri iifanures from the Decompofition of Veeetable Subjiances. 293 o i The mud taken from the bottom of rivers, ponds, and other places, where water has ftagnated for fome length of time, frefh or maiden earth, and the fcourings of old ditches, are fubftances that may frequently be employed with advantage as manures, being principally compofed of the recrements of de- cayed vegetable matters. They fhould not, however, be put upon grounds, efpecially thofe under grafs, until they have been reduced into a confiderable: egree of finenefs, by means of frequent turning over, and the mixing of a por- tion of lime, rotten dung, or other materials of the fame kind, with them, in order to promote and render the decay of the more folid parts more full and complete. In ufing manures prepared from fubftances of this fort as top dreflings for grafs land, they fhould not be fpread on too thickly, or in too large propor- tions at one application, as where that is the cafe great injury is often done to the fucceeding crop, the grafs not being able to fpread itfelf completely over the furface.: The duft which is fereened from malt, mixed with the tails, ufually denomi- nated coombs, where they can be procured in large quantity, asin the malting diftritts, may be converted to the purpofe of manure. It is obferved, in a paper by Mr. Farey, in the Annals of Agriculture, that the black malt dutt, fuch as falls through the kiln-plate in the operation of drying, is greatly prefer- able to the white, on account of the feeds of charlock, with which it abounds, being deftroyed by the heat: but, befides this, the heat thus applied may, by deftroying the vegetative principle of fuch feeds where they exift, render them and the duft more readily difpofed to take on the procefs of decay and become putrid, and thereby afford the nutrition of vegetables more quickly, as well as more abundantly. This, as well as faw-duft, where they can be had at a cheap rate, may be confiderably improved as manures by incorporating them, in pretty large quantities, with the dung and urine of animals, as by ftrewing them in the bottoms of poultry and pigeon houfes, dung heaps, and neceffaries; and alfo in the bottoms of refervoirs into which the urine of cattle, and the foapfuds after wafhing, are emptied: from the ation of thefe matters upon them, they are found to: become more: quickly in a ftate to be ufed with advantage as manures. Manure of this fort has been found very beneficial when applied in the proportion of four quarters to the acre, fown with the crop for which it is employed*. The hufks,. or cakes, which are left after different oily feeds, fuch as thofe of rape, cole,&c. have been fubjected to preffure in mills in order to obtain their * See Letters and Papers of the Bath Agricultural Society, vol, III.-. ooh° JManures from the Agency and Decompofition of Foffit Subfances. oil, may alfo be ufed as manures.‘Thefe fubftances are generally prepared for ap- plication by being reduced into the ftate of a coarfe powder, by mills or other {uitable means, and then fown by the hand, and harrowed in with the feed of the crop for which they are ufed. Some agricultors, however, recommend their being mixed, when thus reduced, thinly, with the materials of fuch dung-hills as are deficient in point of richnefs, as where they have been made by lean ftock with a large proportion of litter. On turning over heaps of this kind, about a ton of oil cake fhould be well and evenly mixed with every twenty or thirty tons of the dunghill compoft: by this prattice a rich and good manure is faid to be formed. The fuccefs of thefe fubftances, when made ufe of alone as ma- nures, has been found to depend, in a great meafure, upon the falling of rain {oon after they have been put upon the land, as in dry feafons little benefit has been derived from their application. The reafon of this feems to be, that as the cake when ufed is moftly in an extremely hard and dry ftate, it does not undergo that decompofition which is neceflary, until it has been moiftened by the rain, by which it is rendered capable of running quickly into the ftate of putrefac- tion, and confequently of affording fuch matters as are fuitable for the fupport of plants. When applied without being incorporated with other fubftances, it is moftly laid on to the amount of four or five quarters to the acre, accord- ing to the condition of the land. The refufe or pulp of pears and apples, which have been ground, and the liquor fqueezed from them, may likewife be converted to the purpofe of a ma- nure in the cyder diftri€ts. When employed in this way, however, fome heavy fubftance, fuch as good earth with a little dung, fhould probably be mixed with it before it is put upon the foil, as by being blended with fuch materials it may be more conveniently and more extenfively applied. MANURES From tHe AGENCY anv DECOMPOSITION oF FOSSIL SUBSTANCES. SurstanceEs of the calcareous kind, which are to be confidered under this head, produce effeéts more or lefs powerful in promoting the growth of vegeta- ble crops, in fome meafure, according to the ftate and quantity in which they are applied, the nature of the foils on which they are employed, and the properties of the matters with which they are combined, For though calcareous materials have been made ufe of as manures for a very great length of time, and been applied in various ways, difficulties{till remain concerning the manner of their it d for ap. OF Other ed of the rei being Ils as are ean ftock nd, ebout or thirty re is faid e as Ma- ig of rain onefit has vat as the t undergo ‘the rain, putrefac- = fupport bitances, accord- -and the > of a ma yme heavy be mixed vaterials it nder this f vegeta they are roperties materials and beet ot of thet! Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Poffil Subjiances. 295 operation, in many cafes, which feem principally, however, to proceed from the want of proper difcrimination in refpeét to the ftate of the different calcareous fubftances at the time of their application, and their being made. ufe of to dif- ferent foils, without a fufficient diftinGtion of the properties of the materials of which they are conftituted or compofed. There is likewife another circum-= ftance, which the ingenious experimental enquiries of a late author* have fhewn to be neceffary to attend to, which is, the fubftances the calcareous material is combined with; ashe has found that where magnefia is in union with the calcareous matter, it is not by any means fo beneficial for the purpofes of mae nure and promoting vegetation, as where no fuch mixture or combination is prefent, efpecially when ufed in the fame proportions. From fand entering largely into the compcfition of lime-ftone or other calcareous matter, in fome cafes, as it is a fubftance of much greater fpecific gravity than pure cauflic lime, confiderable differences in its effe¢is as a manure may likewife be pro- duced f. On all thefe accounts, therefore, though lime may be produced from chalk, marble, different lime-ftones, coral, and fhells, by fubje€ting them to fuch degrees of heat as is neceflary to expel or difengage the carbonic acid or fixed air that they contain, which is apparently of the fame quality, it may vary in its effects when employed in agriculture. Lime, when newly burned, or before it becomes loaded or faturated with the moifture and carbonic acid, or fixed air, contained in the atmofphere, which, from their ftrong tendencies to combine or unite with it, generally foon takes place, is, in its moft a€tive flate, and from the power which it poffeffes of break- ing down and deftroying the texture and organifation of fuch animal and vege~ table fubftances as come in contaét with it, is termed cau/fic or quick lime. When applied, under thefe circumftances, to grounds which abound either with frefh vegetable matters, or fuch as have undergone fome degree of change by being buried in the foil, as in moory and heathy mountain land, peaty or bogg earth, and all fuch foils as have long remained in their original uncultivated ftate, covered with a variety of coarfe plants, it is found to produce beneficial effeéts; in the firft cafe probably by its ready action on the different materials of the green plants, by which it difengages from them hydrogen and azote, from the fubfequent combination of which, ammonia or volatile alkali is produced, a * Tenant, in Philofophical TranfaGions,+ See Anderfon’s Effays, vol. I. p. gir. 296 Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Fofil Subfiancese fubftance which has great power in promoting vegetation, as is evinced in cafes where fubftances that contain this matter in large quantities are ufed as ma- nures; and, in the fecond place, by its combination with the carbonaceous matter of fuch foils, or with that of the various animal and vegetable mat- ters which are contained in them, in fome of the ftages of their putrefaétion. or decay, and by this means rendering it foluble in water, and thereby capable of being taken up as food by the abforbent roots of vegetables*; and, though lime in its pure or cauttic ftate retards, in fome degree, the procefs of putrefaétion, efpecially when ufed in any large quantity, it is probable, that by its power of corroding and diffolving the hard and fibrous parts of vegetable and other mat- ters, as is fhewn by its quickly reducing the ligneous particles of bark, which has been employed in the procefs of tanning, to the ftate of mould, it may bring the abundant vegetable and other materials contained in fuch forts. of land quickly into that earthy condition in which they afford the nourifhment and fup- port of crops, which by the proceffes of putrefa€tion, and infeé digeftion, could only have been performed ina very flow and gradual manner. Pure lime too, from its well-known property of deftroying different kinds of infects, fuch as worms, fnails, flugs, grubs,&c. which are moftly abundant in rich frefh foils, may furnifh much nutritious matter for the purpofe of vege- tation.: And from its having a greater tendency to combine with mucilaginous oily matters than with fixed alkalies+, akind of calcareous foap may in fome cafes be formed, that may contribute, in its liquid ftate, to the nourifhment of plants. When pure lime is mixed with clayey foils which do not poffefs too great a degree of humidity, it is likewife capable of rendering them lefs ftiff and tenacious, confequently more fuitable for admitting the fmall fibrous roots of vegetables, not| only by the evolution of heat and other elaftic matters, during the period of its becoming faturated with the moifture and fixed air, or carbonic acid, which they may contain, but alfo by being thereby moft intimately and minutely mixed with them, from the fine impalpable powdery ftate to which it is neceflarily re» duced. Where, in fuch foils, the fulphuric acid abounds, it may likewife produce good effeéts, by forming with it a kind of gypfeous compound, and where other acids are prefent that are prejudicial to vegetation, by the power which it poffeffes of neutralifing them. * Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 203.+ Nicholfon’s Philofophical Journal, vol. I. p. 270. re~~ ’ @ d in cafes ed aS Ma. Donacedys able mat. itrefattion DY capable J, though refaCtion, power of ther mat- k, which nay bring s of land tand fup- on, could kinds of ndant in of vege- mous oily ie cafes be “plants. 00 great a ‘enacious, ables, not od of its ich they y mixed farily re likewife ind, and e power y 870 Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Fofil Subjiances. o°F And where the lime has been burnt from the magnefian lime-ftone, it may pro- bably be ferviceable when applied to clayey or other foils that contain the ful- phuric acid, which are ufually denominated four lands by farmers, by forming a fort of Epfom falt in the ground, a fubftance which the experiments of Dr. Home have long fince fhewn to be highly favourable to vegetation when ufed in fmall quantities. Lime, on expofure to the atmofphere for fome time, undergoes a confidera- ble change, being rendered mild by the abforption of carbonic acid or fixed air from it. In this ftate of combination it is termed, by modern chemitts, carbonat of lime, or effete lime}; its power or capability of a€ting upon, and deftroying ‘or breaking down, the texture of organifed bodies, being greatly diminifhed. S? fo) ro] y It ftill, however, promotes their diffolution and decay, by aiding and forwarding the natural procefs of putrefa€tion, as is fufficiently proved by thofe compoft dung-heaps with which it has been mixed becoming much more quickly in the {tate to be applied to land than where no fuch ingredient had been employed; by this means it therefore contributes greatly to the fupport of vegetation: and it has been lately obferved, that where incorporated or blended with fuch com- pofts of foil and manure, as are in the ftate of generating nitrous acid, it arrefts the acid as it forms, by which means a calcareous nitre is produced, and thus the exhalation and ready efcape of a nutritious material is guarded againft and prevented'*. The combination of lime with carbonic acid, by rendering it foluble in water in its fuid ftate, without being expanded into gas or vapour, may likewife fup- ply much carbonaceous matter for the fupport of vegetation, as has been inge- nioufly conceived by the fame author. The property poffeffed by lime, of fuper- faturatine or overloading itfelf with moifture, attracting or drawing it away from the air in contact with the furface of the ground and the earth underneath, and after depriving them of it and the carbonic acid which they contained, permitting them to efcape again, as has long been obferved in the cafe of new- plaftered walls, may alfo be of confiderable utility when it is applied to the more dry and fandy forts of foil, by affording moifture and fuch aérial matter to the roots of the vegetable crops; which it is capable of fupplying in a very equal and extenfive manner, from the extreme ftate of pulverifation to which it is frequently reduced when flaked by the dampnefs of the atmofphere, or very gentle rains. Befides thefe modes of promoting the growth of vegetable crops, it has been * See Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 213. 298 Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Foffil SubRances. fuppofed that calcareous earth, by containing phofphorus, may alfo be ufeful, as by its union with it, a kind of hepar may be produced, and the phofphorus thereby rendered foluble in water, without becoming an acid by means of its combinae tion with oxygen or vital air*. Phofphorus he conceives to be probably as ne- ceffary an ingredient in vegetable as in animal bodies, as is evident, he thinks, from the phofphoric light feen on rotten wood, in fome of the ftages of putre- faGtion; in which, he imagines, the phofphorus is fet at liberty from the cal- careous earth, or from the fixed alkali, or the carbon of the decompofing wood, and acquires oxygen from the atmofphere, both warmth and light being omitted during their union. And it may, he further obferves, perhaps more frequently exift in the form of phofphoric acid in vegetables, and be thus readily combined with their calcareous earth, and may be feparated from its acid by the carbon of the vegetable during the time of calcination, and alfo in the procefs of pu- trefa€tion. This view of the nature and properties of lime thew that it may be employed, in one or other of its forms, more generally to foils than has been fuppofed by agri- cultural writers, It fhould, however, never be made ufe of without duly attending to the nature and conftitution of the foil on which it is to be applied, as upon this circumftance its fuccefs will, in a great meafure, depend; and it is, perhaps, only by it that the proportion, the ftate, and the manner of its application, can be advantageoufly direfted. It is evident, from the various trials that have been made, by pra€tical farmers, that the more intimately and the more minutely lime is blended and incorporated with the foils on which it is applied, the more full and complete are the effe€ts which it has in fupporting the growth of differ- ent forts of crops. Thus it has been remarked by a very intelligent writer, that“ if a heap of lime of a confiderable thicknefs fhall have been ever fo long on one fpot, and be afterwards carried clean away from it, fo that none of the particles of the lime remain to be mixed with the foil, that fpot will not be richer, or carry more Juxuriant crops, than the places around it; which, every one knows, is not the cafe with regard to dung.” And again; that“if lime be fpread upon the furface of the foil, and allowed to remain there without being ploughed in, its effe€ts will fcarcely be perceived for feveral years, till it has had time gradually to fink through the fward, and mix with the foil; after which its effe€ts begin to be perceived, although much lefs fenfibly than if the fame quantity of lime had been intimately mixed with the foil by means of the * See Darwin's Phytologia, p. 215. Comping viiige ee Nr wn DIY a8 nes he thinks, . Bit putre- m the cal. ing wood, ¢ omitted tequently combined he carton efs of pu- employed, ed by agti- attending as upon , perhaps, ation, can ny practical is blended re full and h of difet- ent writer, ver fo long one of the ill not be hich, every ¢ af lime ‘ yf re without pars, till ee foils atte the than il C aha neans of H z. Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Foffil Subfiances. 829 © plough and harrow.” He obferves, that he is not a ftranger to the improve- ments that have been made in Derbytfhire by means of lime, without the plough; but this is no exception, he thinks, to what he has faid. The effe€ts are flow, though certain. Thofe who inhabit countries that admit of the plough, are often, he fays, advifed to lay lime upon the erafs, and are made to b their pafture will be inftantly mended by it, nearly in the fame perceptible manner as if it had been dunged. This he has tried, and has feen it tried by I benefited by it; nor was it fo much improved in fucceeding years, as if t quantity of lime had been applied, and intimately mixed with the foil. mode of applying lime, it is long, he thinks, before it yields a proper return; and is not to be recommended to a poor man, unlefs where neceflity obliges him to prattife it*. On thefe grounds it is likewife conceived, that lime may be employed much more advantageoufly when made ufe of, even in fmall proportions, than fuch calcareous fubftances as have been reduced into the ftate of powder without calcination. It is well remarked, however, by the fame author, that much mutt depend on the mode in which the lime is applied.“ If,” fays he,“ it is fpread as foon as it-is flaked, while yet in a powdery ftate, a very fmall quantity may be made to cover the whole furface of the ground, and to touch an exceedingly great number of particles of earth; but if it is fuffered to lie for fome time after flaking, and to get fo much moifture as to make it run into clods, or cake into large Jumps, it can never be again divided into fuch fmall parts; and therefore a much greater quantity is neceflary to produce the fame effect, than if it had been applied in its powdery ftate. But if the foil is afterwards to be continued long in tillage(as thefe clods are annually broken fmaller by the ac- tion of the plough and harrows), the lime mutt continue to exert its influence anew upon the foil for a great courfe of years; it will produce an effect nearly fimilar to that which would be experienced by annually ftrewing a{mall quan- tity of powdered lime over the whole furface of the foil: but as the price of the lime muft, in the firft cafe, be paid by the farmer altogether at the beginning, which only comes to be fucceflively demanded in the other cafe, this deferves to be attended to, as it may become a confideration of fome importance where lime is dear, and money not very plentiful.” There is another circumftance that requires to be confidered in refpect to the * Anderfon’s Effays, vol. I. p. 523. = =:=—— —-. — a ee ———— ae i AF= .; nani} iP) ne r ay fk y. t £50 Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Fofil Subflances. application of lime, which is, the quantity that may be neceflary to be ent- ployed. The opinions of praétical writers are much at variance in regard to this point, fome contending that a fmall quantity can only be applied with fafety and advantage, while others maintain that fcarcely too great a proportion can be made ufe of. It is obvious, however, from the differences that take place in foils, that no particular proportion can be fuitable in every cafe, but that it muft be varied very confiderably according to the circumftances that have been already ftated, as well as from the fituation or condition of the land on which it is laid, and the proportion of sa calcareous matter that may be contained in the lime that is to be applied. As it has been fhewn that lime, when in its moft active ftate, foon becomes reduced fo as to be perfeétly mild by its property of abforbing moifture, and the carbonic acid from the air, there can be little danger of injury from its cauftic quality, though it may, on its firft application, have a tendency to unite with and deftroy fuch green or other vegetable produ€tions as may be prefent. It is remarked, however, by a late practical writer, that“* moft kinds of /tone- lime fhould be applied with a fparing hand, and with a confiderable degree of caution, as the cauw/iic quality is many times greater in this than in lime made from chalk.” He has had many opportunities, he afferts, of feeing total barrennefs induced by a@ too liberal ufe of it; very generally at the feveral places where the carts were ftopped for the men to fpread it; at the bottoms of every heap; and once an entire clofe*. it has been employed in different propertions, from one to fix or feven hundred bufhels on the acre, on various forts of foil, by fome very accurate agricultors, under fimilar circumftances, with benefits in proportion to the quantities applied in augmenting the fertility of the foil. And accidental expe- riments have demonftrated that it may be ufed in ftill larger proportions with advantageous effe€ts+. In fhort, it is concluded by this writer, that,“on foils which do not naturally abound with chalk, or other calcareous matter, there is lefs danger in giving too much lime, than in applying too little, except in thofe cafes where an over-luxuriance is dreaded.” It has been afferted, that lime never contributes to increafe the fertility of foils, but that it has detereorated them greatly by promoting their over-ex- * Middleton’s View of the Agriculture of Middlefex, p. 308. } See Anderfon’s Effays, vol. I. p. 529. Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Fofil Subfiances. 231 be ens ane hauftion*. This feems, however, difficult to explain, when the nature of its th fey properties are fully confidered; and it is more probable that fuch an effe€t may MN can be have proceeded from injudicious cropping, and improper cultivation, than the place in operation of the manure, efpecially as it has been employed in many well-cul- t that it tived diftri€ts very extenfively, and for a great length of time, without any dif- saliaie Beenie of fuch a nature having been experienced f. fsaut whichit The duration of the beneficial confequences of the nt of lime i promoting vse the growth of vegetable crops muft be different, according to the differences of d In the circumftances in the land to which it is applied; the proportion of it that is ‘its moit employed, the kind of crop that is cultivated, and a variety of other caufes of PENNY a the fame nature. But it is evident from the fafts that have been ftated by e danger pra€tical writers, in refpeét to its continued powers of predifpofing lands on which mn, have it has been laid to the growth of particular forts of crops in preference to iductions others; of rendering the operation of other kinds of manure, and other methods ; of culture, more effeétual than where it has never been ufed; that it muft produce of /tone- very ufeful permanent changes in the foils to which it is applied{. An additional egree of proof of this is likewife met with in the well-known circumftance of the qua- de from lity of the grain from fuch lands as have been limed being much improved, rrennefs having a thinner fkin, and yielding much more flour than from ground where it s where has never been made ufe of; which is ingenioufly fuppofed, by an able author, 3 ry heap; to proceed from its containing more ftarch and lefs mucilage, on account of the tendency of the lime to promote the converfion of the latter fubftance into the on feven former, by haftening the ripening of the feed§.: cient This alfo fhews the importance of this fort of manure in thofe kinds of land vito, the that are late in bringing their grain crops to perfection, whether from their par- nboxge penis nature, or the ituations in which they are placed. ins with Lime has been fometimes objeéted to as a manure for tillage lands by agricul- ee tors, on account of its fuppofed tendency to fink down in the foil below the reach pie of the plough, and thereby becoming of no utility. This can probably, however, dani only be the cafe where the lime has not been fufficiently burnt, or afterwards, on except its application, properly reduced into the powdery ftate, and fpread out equally over the land; as where thefe points have been well attended to, from its having tility of confiderably lefs fpecific gravity than moft foils, no fuch confequence can take over*tX~ * Middleton’s View of the Agriculture of Middlefex, p. 309. + Anderfon’s Effays, vol. I. p. 532, q t Ibid, p. 534. § Darwin's Phytologia, p. 220. 232 Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Foffil Subftances. place; the fine particles of the lime, from their being fo very minutely inter- mixed and blended with the earthy materials, not having any difpofition to fink down through the fuperficial ftratum of mould: but when applied in a coarfer and lefs reduced ftate, from its dry quality, and that of its not intimately com- bining with the particles of the foil in the way of animal or vegetable manures, it may occafionally fall down, when colle€ted on the furface, during the time of reiterated ploughing, or otherwife ftirring the ground, and reft upon the more (iff and firm fubfoil below the track of the plough. On thefe accounts it may, therefore, be neceffary, in the application of lime, to pay greater attention= sifaali not only to the preparation, but like wife the reduétion of it into the moft perfe&i powdery ftate, as well as the fpreading it out over the land with the greateft equality when dry and free from lumpinefs. It may alfo be of fe nee where it has been laid on the furface of land, efpecially the grafs kind, to plough the firft time after fuch application with but a light furrow, as by this means the portion that may fall down in the way mentioned above, will not merely be prevented from getting to fuch a depth as may render it ufelefs, but be more intimately incorporated with the foil by fubfequent ploughings*. It is probable that the diffe fiiff adhefive foils, may have ees the great diverfity in its effe€ts which have been fo frequently noticed by praétical writers. As we have feen that there are confiderable differences in refpe€& to the purity or goodnefs of lime-ftone, or other calcareous matters, it is obvious that there muft be much variety in regard to the lime that is produced from them. Where it has been-prepared from the purer kinds, when brought into the ftate of pow- der by being faturated with water, it is perfe&ily foft, imooth,‘and impalpable; while in other cafes it feels coarfe and gritty, according to the different degrees of impurity. In general, fo far as the purpofes of agriculture are concerned, that lime oe has the ereateft levity, is the fofteft and{mootheft to the touch, and has the whiteft colour, is the moft advantageous f. ncés in the modes cf applying this fubftance to * See Anderfon’s 228 Vol; 1.*p637- - The following criteria and analyfis have been offered by Doctor Anderfon, in his Effays,vol.i. p. 534, in oiler to judge of the goodnefs of lime:“If,” fays he,‘the lime-ftone lofes much of its weight in cal- cination, and the lime-fhells are extremely light; if the thells require a very large proportion of water to flake them fully; if it is long before they begin to fall; if the lime-ftone is not apt to run(or be vitri- fied) in the operation of burning; if it falls entirely when it gets a fufficient quantity of water, after it bas been properly calcined; if it fwells very much in flaking; and if the lime is light, fine to the ely inter. MN to fink 1 a Coarfer ately com. > Manures, g the time 1 the more in of lime, kewile the ding it out pinefs. It , efpecially but a light mentioned nay rendet ubfequent bftance to hich have o the purity ; that there om. Where ate of pow npalpable; nt degrees srned, that ouch, and -yol.1. P»$34 .. iF weight 19 a on of water t0 n(or be wile fw watery after 0 the 4 ne td HH, mi, fine © Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Fofil Subjiances.— 253 ee In the carriage of lime for the ufes of the farmer, it may fometimes be necef- fary, where the diftance is confiderable, to pay attention to the nature or ftate of it, as without that much expence may be incurred to no purpofe. When the lime is pure, it will be the moft economical method to convey it in the ftate of fhell, as by that means nothing will be carried but what is ufeful; whereas, if it was carted in a flaked condition, a large proportion of water, and other matters, muft be conveyed with it. But where lime is impure, and adulterated with other fubftances, or imperfeétly prepared, it may be a more faving method touch, and of a pure white, the farmer may be fatisfied that it is extremely good, and may ufe it in pre- ference to any other lime that 1s inferior to it in any of thefe refpects. Thefe rules are, he thinks, per- fectly fuflicient to decide as to the comparative value of any two kinds of lime that may be oppofed to one another, and may be relied upon as fufficiently accurate for the ordinary purpofes of the farmer. But that fuch as may difcover a new quarry of lime-ftone, and who with to afcertain with certainty its real value, before they put themfelves to any expenee about it, will do well to employ the following more accurate, and, in that cafe, more eafy analyfis. As all calcareous matters are capable of being diflolved in acids, and as no other earthy matter can be diflolved in them, it follows, that if a fufficient quantity of acid is poured upon any body that contains calcareous matter, this matter will be quickly diffolved, while the others are left behind; and the proportions of each may be accurately afcertained.‘To try the exaét value of any kind of lime-ftone, or other calcareous matter, take a quantity of aqua fortis, or nitrous acid, or fpirit of falt, or muriatic acid. It may be obferved, that all the mineral acids effervefce and unite with calcareous earths. But as the fulphuric or vitriolic acid(fpirit or oil of vitriol) does not diffolve the calcareous matter, but forms a new concrete that ftill retains its folid ftate, it is not fit for this experiment. And as it fometimes happens that a little vi itriolic acid is mixed with either the nitrous or muriatic acids, it becomes neceflary to be certain that this is not the cafe before they are employed in this experiment. The eafieft way of trying if thefe acids are free from the vitriolic, is to put a little chalk into them before you employ them. If the acid is pure, the chalk will diffolve very readily; but if not, fome part of the chalk will fall to the bottom, in the form of a pure white fediment. When this is the cafe, add fmall bits of chalk, by little and little, till no more of that white fediment appears; after which, the acid may be kept for ufe, as fufficiently pure. If the nitrous acid is fo ftrong as to have a flight brown or reddifh appearance, it ought to be diluted with water till it aflumes a gree snifh look. As it is bought in the fhops, for the ufe of dyers,&c. it is ufually weak enough. Ifthe muriatic acid is fo ftrong as to have a bright yellow colour, or emits fumes when the bottle is opened, it ought to be diluted by adding water, till it affumes almoft a colourlefs tranfparency, with a very faint tinge of yellow. When they are thus prepared(either of thefe acids may be ufed ind lifcriminately for this experiment, as they are equally tee 3 a them into a Ba or Pn vette ee add to that, by little and Ae a known After each addition,‘affer the violent ena: or A saiics i at wil he enfue, to abate before more 1s added. When the whole of the powder is put to the acid, and the effervefcence entirely fubfided, ftir it about feveral times with a piece of tobacco-pipe, and allow it to remain for fome time, that the acid may aét upon every particle of the matter, and thoroughly diflolve it: and to be certain that there has not beer too little acid, put a few drops of frefh acid to the{ol Be which will excite a frefh effervefcence if the H H " 234 Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Foffil Subftances, to carry it in the ftate of powder; otherwife much matter may be conveyed that will never flake or fall down into lime*. Lime may be employed in many different kinds of foil with advantage, when p ee —_-=— proper attention is paid in its naire pu in its more aétive ftates it has been att fhewn, by experience, to be the moft ufeful on thofe moory, peaty, heathy, and! other foils which contain a large portion of coarfe vegetable matter. 4: | From what has been obferved, it feems probable that lime, befides exerting its influence, when united with foils, in reducing the materials which they contain into the ftate or condition fuitable for affording the nourifhment of P plants, and rendering them more proper for their reception, by altering their whole is not fully diffolved. When no change is produced by this addition, it is a certain proof that the whole of the calcareous matter is already diffolved. Take then a piece of filtering-paper, thoroughly dry, the weight of which is alfo known; fold it properly, and put it in a elafs funnel; pour the whole of the folution, with the matter that may have fubfided, into the funnel, and allow it to filtre through the ))’ g paper flowly. When the fluid part has thus drained off, fill up the filtre again with pure water, to wath off the whole of the faline parts from the refiduum, or matter that remains undiflolved. Add water in this manner till it comes off without any faline tafte,—fuffer it then to drop off entirely,—dry it thoroughly,—and weigh the paper with its contents. The difference between which, and what the powder and paper were at the beginning, is the whole w eight of the calcareous matter, fo that its pro- portion to the whole mafs is perfectly afcertained.” In this manner, he fays,'he has examined a great many different kinds of lime-ftone, and has found them vary in all degrees of purity from fuch as were entirely foluble in acids, as fugar or falt is m water, to others that contained only one-twelfth of their weight of foluble matter, and eleven-twelfths of fand.‘The ordinary kinds of lime-ftone contain from one-third to two-thirds of their weight of fand, Hard chalk is ufually a pure calcareous earth, foluble in acids; and fome forts of lime-ftone may be met with that are equally pure, but thefe are- rare. Were all the ftones in the fame quarry equally pure, the above would, fays he, be a perfec&t and unexceptionable method of afcertaining the purity j I} of any lime-ftone; but it often happens, that in a quarry of the very worft qua lity, there are fome pieces found that confift of pure fpar, that are entirely free of any mixture of fand; and in other quarries of a better fort, there are often{mall veins of an impure fort of ftone, mixed throus gh the rock; fo that if either of thefe fhould chance to be picked out as a{pecimen for trial, the refult would not bejuft. To eS ee avoid falling into this miftake, any one who withes to make an accurate analyfis of any newly-difcovered lime-ftone will do well, he fays, to take eight or ten ftones from different parts of the quarry, that are fomewhat different in appearance from one another; and, having taken a chip from each, pound HW the whole together, to afford a proper fubje€t for the experiment.‘The fame experiment might be tried with dime; but it is evident the proportions would be different in the fame ftone, from what they | would be if tried before calcination, as lime wants its fixed air,&c. which it had when in the ftate of lime-ftone. But as the lime is more liable to be varied by accidental circumftances, it is beft to try the } experiment with lime-ftone, a P-$99: See Anderfon’s Effays, vol. J. Mii ad BLL saa UI Ei Conveyed fst{ want that th roor that ie Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Foffil Subfiances.—&35 textures, or removing fuch qualities as are noxious, is capable of fupplying fuch matters as contribute to their growth and fupport. On this account it probably is, that it has been found by experience to be equally, if not more . beneficial, on poor than on rich foils; and its requiring to be mixed and incor- porated with but a fmall portion of earth or mould, to render it highly pro- du€tive. Lime-ftone, and other hard calcareous fubftances, without being fubjetted to the procefs of calcination by heat, may, in many cafes, as where fuel cannot be procured to burn it into lime, be beneficially employed for the amelioration of land, as has been fhewn by the experiments of Monf. Du Hamel, and others. When thus ufed it fhould be well pulverifed, by fuch mechanical means as can be cheaply performed; much of the advantage to be derived from it probably depending upon its being reduced into a confiderable ftate of finenefs, by which it may be more minutely blended with the foils on which it is applied, and thereby act upon and afford nutritious principles more extenfively for the fupport of crops; and at the fame time render the heavy and more cohelfive foils hghter,; by being more uniformly incorporated with their clayey and earthy materials*. But as cal- careous fubftances can never be reduced, by any fort of machinery, to the fine powdery ftate which they are capable of being carried by means of calcination, * It is obferved by Dr. Anderfon, in his Effays, vol.’ I. p. 503, that*he has feen the model of a mill that had been invented for this purnofe, which was conftructed on the fame principles with an ordinary gunpowder-mill. It had feveral large mafly ftampers, compofed of huge blocks of catfi- iron, that were fucceffively lifted up and let fall by a wheel that catched their handles, and, after a proper time, flipped them again as it revolved round its axis. Thefe ftampers fell with great force. upon the lime-ftone that had been previoufly broken into pieces of a moderate fize, and placed in a {trong trough formed for that purpofe. Through this trough a fmall ftream of water was conveyed, which wafhed away with it the fimall pieces of lime-ftone, as they were fucceflively reduced to powder by the ftampers. This ftream of water was received into a large refervoir, in which it was allowed to ftagnate, and depofit as a fediment the lime-ftone powder it brought along with it; the pure wate: flowing gently over a part of the brim, which was made lower for that purpofe. When the refervoir was nearly full of this fine powder, the work was ftopped; the water was drawn off from the refer- voir, by taking out fome plugs left for that purpofe, at different heights, till all that was clear had run off: the powdered ftone was afterwards thrown out to the bank, and allowed to dry fufficiently for ufe. He has, he fays, alfo heard that a mill, upon thefe principles, was erected by. the Honourable the Trufiees for managing the forfeited eftates in Scotland, aad that a good deal of lime-ftone was pounded with it; but as it was erected in the Highlands of Scotland, where roads were bad, and where there was but little{pirit for improvements in agriculture, as there was no pubhc demand for the manure, after the experiment was fufficiently tried to fhew that it might be practifed with advan- tage in other places, the mill was fuffered to lie unemployed. 236 Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Foffil Subfiances. it is probable that, when employed upon land, they will be lefs beneficial in lim many cafes, than when ufed in the ftate of Tt is on the above PRP Se ‘too, moft probably, that the fcrapings of Pe made with calcareous and other fubftances, are found fo beneficial in different inftances, a ler e portion GQ of them being in the ftate of an extremely fine powder, from the attrition of the wheels of carriages, and other cauf eS. The experiments of Mr. Tennant, which have been already noticed, fug that even where magnefian lime-ftone 1s made ufe of in this ftate of redt neat without being conve ne,*it may not be fo friendly to vegetation as g Do m4 Be iq?) Pas é: = ~) % — =) that which is fee ly calcareous, efpecially when employed in the fame pro- portions; a circumftance which may, in'fome degree, account for the difference which has been obferved in the utility of fuch fubftances as manures. Such lime-ftones as contain the largeft proportions of argillaceous earth in their com- pofitions, when employed in this reduced ftate, will be the moft proper for the thin light foils; as by that means the ftaple of them may be increafed to the great advantage of the crops. In the application of this fort of material to land, the farmer fhould conftantly be attentive to the ftate or condition to which it is reduced, as well as the nature of the foil, and put it on in fuch proportions as may be mroft eee to the Lime-ftone grave Meibae which has been fuccefsfully laid upon land in Jreland, and hich: is a kind of{tony marle, might moft probably be equally or more beneficial, in ssifiae rably lefs quantities, if the ftony lumps which it contains were firft more perfectly reduced; for it has been remarked, that where the pieces are large, a much greater proportion is required, and the effe&is are flower than where they are{mall. Chalk is another material of the calcareous kind, which is capable of producing good effe&tson land,when applied in a fuitable manner In its uncalcined ftate. From its having a portion of argillaceous or clayey matter united with it in fome cafes, it partakes of the nature of marle. Where it is made ufe of to the more ftiff, clayey, loamy, and heavy forts of foil, it fhould, in moft cafes, be as much pulverized and reduced as poffible before it is laid on, in order that it may be fpread with greater exa€tnefs, and be more regularly mixed and blended with the ftiff and compaét materials of fuch lands; from which they may be rendered more capable of admitting the fibrous roots of vegetable crops to fpread themfelves in them, and thereby take in more perfectly the nutritious matters which are prefented to them. That this pra€tice is of much utility and advantage, is” evident from the circumftance of farmers, in moft of the diftri€ts where chalk is Sg gi ce ee eS, Such their com- per for the afed to the ial to land, . which it portions as yon land in be equally ps which it rarked, that ed, and the f producing fate. From fome cafes, tiff, clayey, pulverized pread we se ftiff ane jered more themfelves s which a qvantage” alk 8 pere chal ho) Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Fofil Subftances. 37 employed as a manure, finding that it is confiderably more beneficial when made vufe of in the fpring, after having been dug up in the autumn, and expofed to the froft and moifture through the following winter, and by that means much pulverifed and broken down, as well as by their carefully breaking and reducing the larger pieces. It would probably, however, be a ftill more advantageous pra€tice to break it down, and apply it as quickly as poffible, after digging it out of the pit; as by leaving it expofed to the atmofphere for fome length of time, it not only becomes hard, but likewife lefs foluble, and therefore lefs proper for the purpofes of manure. Hence it probably is, that farmers, where the chalk hufbandry is praétifed, find the dreflings more efficacious when the chalk is dug from a confiderable depth, than where it lies near the furface of the ground. In the dry and light foils too it may, probably, be more ferviceable in this reduced and powdery ftate, from the circumftance of its poffefling more moifture, on account of a more extended furface being expofed to the air, and the particles of the foil, from which it may abforb and attraét it, and afterwards part with or afford it in a more regular and uniform manner to the abforbent roots of the growing vegetable crops. The obfervations of practical farmers, however, invariably fhew, that on fuch foils it is much more beneficial when made ufe of in the form of compoft, either with rich peat or vegetable earth and good dung; as by this means a great defeét in fuch kinds of land, the want of well reduced vegetable matter, is remedied, and a greater mould, or with proportion of nutritious materials afforded for the fupport of crops. When this manure is employed upon the more wet and poachy kinds of ground, there is probably not the fame neceflity for its being reduced to a great degree of finenefs, as it may be apt, under fuch circumftances, to diffolve, and fink down too much by being fo greatly diluted with water, while in the rounder ftate it may be retained nearer the furface, and thereby be capable of abforbing and taking away the fuperabundant furface moifture more effeftually. But even in fuch foils, where the principal intention is the deftruction of mofs, rufhes, and other coarfe plants, the growth of which depends upon a great degree of fuperficial wetnefs, it may be employed moft advantageoufly in a ftate of con- fiderable reduction, as from its greater readinefs to fink down, it may the more quickly take away from their roots the exceflive moifture that fupports them. It may, perhaps, neutralife acids too, when they exift under certain com- binations in thefe foils, more readily when applied in its comminuted or pulve- rifed ftate than in the lumpy one in which it is commonly ufed. The proportion in which this fubftance is to be applied to the ground muft depend, in a great meafure, upon the ftate of the foil, the nature of the crop, 238 from the Agency and Decompofition of Foffil Subftances. and the purpofe for which it is employed. In many of the fouthern counties it is laid on the ftiff clayey foils in large quantities, as from twelve to fourteen or fifteen waggon loads, of from fifteen to twenty hundred weight each, to the acre; and on the fandy foils in fome parts of Kent, at the rate of one hun- dred and fixty bufhels to the acre. On the deep and ftronger kinds of foil, the practice is commonly either to lay it on the clover leys while feeding off, or upon the fummer fallows. And in the form of compoft it is frequently ufed on the light foils, both to the fallows for wheat, and the grafs lands. As chalk cannot, by any means, be reduced to that ftate of powdery finenefs that is the cafe with lime, and confequently cannot be fo equally fpread out, or fo minutely blended with the foil, it is evident that much larger proportions of it muft be employed to produce the fame effeéts on the foil; perhaps feldom Jefs than three or four times the quantity will be required. Where chalk muft be carried from a great diftance in its wet, heavy ftate, it will generally be the moft economical pra€tice to have it firft converted into lime. Marle is a calcareous fubftance, found under very different forms, and in different places, and made ufe of as a manure with much advantage, both on the thin light foils, and fuch as are more heavy and compa. It is diftinguithed, from its particular appearances, into /hell, clay, and frone marle. The firft is evidently of animal origin, from its being compofed of teftaceous or fhelly matters, in greater or lefs degrees of attenuation, from the gradual decompofition which they have undergone during the fucceflion of ages, with a fmall portion of earthy fubftances mixed and blended with them. It is conftantly found in fuch fituations as have been covered with water, from which, as the fediments or depolitions of mud or other earthy materials, in fuch cafes, muft have been different from various caufes, fuch marles muft be more or lefs pure, or contain greater or lefs proportions of calcareous matter, according to fuch circum- fiances; in general, however, they contain a larger proportion than the ordi- nary forts of lime. In the fecond kind there is much clay ufually combined with the calcareous matter, from which circumftance it abforbs and retains moifture more firongly than moft of the other kinds. The clayey forts of marle vary greatly in refpeét to their colours, being > has different proportions of fand united with the calcareous matter and the clay, upon which depends the differences in regard to its hardnefs. Where this fort of marle has a thin laminated ftru€ture and flakey appearance, it is frequently denominated /late marle, From the portion of ng met with both of a brown, blue, red, and yellow tinge; } and the ftone mark fallows inenefs ad out, ortions feldom ftate, it 0 lime. and in oth on uifhed, » firft is wr fhelly ortion of | in fuch nents oF e been contain ircum- e ordi- careous trongly refpett tinge; careous qd to its d flake prion Manures ee the Agency ne Decompofi tion of Foffit Subftances.%39 clay that is contained in thefe marles, they become capable of being gradually foftened by the aétion of water, and ultimately fall down into the powdery ftate. All marles contain fome portion or other of clay, in combination with the calcareous matter, as has been long fince fhewn*, while in lime it is motily fand which is united with that sce se But notwithflanding thefe differences in the appearance and conftitution of marles, they all agree in being reduced into a pulverulent or powdery ftate, by expofure far fome length of time to the influence of the atmofphere, by which means they are rendered ultimately capable of being intimately blended with the different materials of the foils upon which they are applied: but as this general property of falling down into{mall particles, in. confequence of the abforption of moifture and carbonic acid, or fixed air, from the furrounding atmofphere, is much greater in fome kinds of marle than others, it may caufe fome dif- ference in their utility as manures. Where fubftances of this kind are laid upon land, for the purpofe of fupporting an immediate crop of either corn or grafs, there can be little doubt but that the moft crumbly, or thofe the moft readily reducible into a powdery ftate, are the moft proper; but where they are Jaid on with the intention only of affifting future crops, or of producing more lafting effe€ts, thofe that are more hard, and lefs difpofed to fall into pieces, may be more advantageoufly employed.‘The former feems to be fhewn to be the cafe, by the common obfervation of practical hufbandmen in marling diftri€éts, that marle does not exert its full effects on the foil, until it has been well mixed and incorporated with it by frequent aration, and by the practice of letting it remain fome time on the furface of*the ground, before it is turned down, from which. it becomes much pulverifed and reduced; and * Ainflie in Phyfical and Literary Effays, Edinburgh, vol, III. + It is ufefully remarked by DoStor Wilkinfon, on the authority of the late able Chemiftry at Edinburgh, in the twenty-firft volume of the Annals of Agriculture, that as all marles’effers vefce, or raife up frothy bubbles, when acids are applied’ to them, and as water alone frequently pro- duces the fame effe&ts when poured on dry clay, it may be neceflary, in order to guard again{t miftake in Profeffor of making trials upon fubftances fufpeéted to be marles, to let them remain a little time inmixture with water previous to their being fubjeéted to the teft of acids. The beft or richeft marles being{uch as contain the largeft proportion of calcareous earth, it frequently becomes-a matter of importance to 1 farmers to be able to afcertain the quantities,{ome being found fo poor in this material as to have only a twentieth or thirtieth of their weight, in order to decide on their advantage in preference to lime, chalk, or other fubfi s to be brought from a diftance. A fimple and eafy method, a ed on the knowledge that this earth commonly contains about forty per centum of its weight of fixed air or carbonic acid, is +] propofed by the fame profeffor. It is merely by faturating the marle with the anal or fome otl 7~ Anan and Decompofition of Fofil Subfances 246—Manures from the Agency and Decompofttion of Iofil Subjiances. °£ eS Abate le- a é hie ade fe; the latter, by the circumftance of the harder forts o e remaining a great \1 leneth of time upon, or within the ground, before they are fully decompofed ace or broken down. et le. moe Serre. ee 5 as: mies 2 a This kind of manure produces beneficial effe&ts on moft forts of foil in its dif- ferent forms; the fhell, ftone, and thofe kinds of marle which abound moft with ai calcareous earth, or which have fand in their compofition, are the moft adapted =e to the firong, ftiff, clayey foils, as by the infinuation of fuch matters they are not only rendéred more light and friable, but a, great part of the injurious moifture which they contain is removed. But thofe in which clay is confider- ably predominant are found more advantageous in the light, dry, fandy, gravelly, and loamy foils, as by{uch fubftances the defects of lightnefs are re- medied, and the neceffary moifture in fome meafure preferved. On the ftronger forts of loamy foil, clayey marle will moftly be improper, as it has much tendency to render fuch forts of land more wet and adhefive, by which they may be greatly injured. Thefe have been found to be the effects refulting from the application of it even upon a temperate loam, in fome parts of Suffex. And befides it is fometimes apt to bring up coltsfoot, a weed which is difficult to be eradicated*. In-the quantity or proportion of thefe fubftances that is applied, there is confi- derable difference in different diftri€ts, a circumftance which, in fome degree, de- pends upon the nature of the foils; the heavy clayey or loamy requiring, in general, a much larger proportion than the light fandy or eravelly. The general quantity employed may probably be eftimated at from about two to four or five cubic roods of fixty-four yards to the ftatute acre, according to the ftate of the marle, and particular nature and condition of the grounds on which it is laid. It may, however, in many cafes, be the moft advifable pra€tice not to apply too thick a covering at one time, but to have recourfe to light dreflings more frequently, as by fuch a method the fertility of the land may be better preferved and kept up, and the crops be rendered more abundant- acid, and marking corre@lly the lofs of weight which it fuftains by the extrication of the fixed air. Thus, if two bundred grains of marle be introduced into a veffel with a little water, and muriatic acid poured upon them until the bubbles ceafe to rife, the lofs of weight being then found to amount to forty grains, the marle contains one hundred grains of calcareous earth. The proportion of calcareous earth contained in different marles may alfo be determined by diffolving it by means of the muriatic acid, diluting the liquor with water, pafling it through a filtering paper, and then precipitating the calcareous earth from the clear liquid by a folution of fome fixed alkaline falt. * See Middleton’s Survey of the Agriculture ef Middlefex, p. 312. 4+. See Holt’s Survey of the Agriculture of the County of Lancafter. Seas. ~ad ey i n a oreat mi Cd 0 re nite Ate US Cif vith ed rintt aViL VV] Iflant aUap{ _. they are njurious onfider- , fandy, are r¢ iS a TPe io GIVI On the as it has by which refulting of Suffex. dificult . is confi- eater, de- n general ‘| quantity five cubic the marle, It may, too thick equently, and kept ne fixed air. od muriatic | to amount oportion of yy means% 4 and thes line fat Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Fofil Subftances. 94% This manure is employed both on lands ina courfe of tillage, and grafs {= lands, frora different feed crops. On the former it is generally made ufe of as pou s 2s9n a preparation for barley, turnips, and other fimilar crops, or applied u clover or other new leys, previous to their being ploughed up for wheat which modes of making ufe of it, the common praétice is to leave it fpread out upon the furface for fome length of time before it is turned in, in order that it may be well reduced into a powdery form; for the more perfecily the marle is broken down and fpread out, the more effectual it is found in promoting the growth of the crops. In its application in the latter cafe, it is frequently laid on in too large quantities, or left too long in its lumpy ftate; from both which circumftances difadvaniages are produced to the growth of the grafs, when either to.be cut for hay or fed off by cattle: as by the former, where the marle con- tains much of the argillaceous material, a kind of cruft is formed that prevents its fpringing, as happens where the ftiff mud of ponds, and fuch-liké manures, are too thickly laid on lands; and from the latter, the grafs is not only injured by the fmall clods, as is experienced where imperfeétly is applied, but the effects of the manure are prevented from being fully exerted, on account of its not being well broken, and carried down to the abforbent roots of the grafles, by the frequent rains that may take place after its application. Some farther attention feems likewife requifite in the ufe of this manure, as well as to the mode of cropping with it. When employed in large proportions, whether upon the heavier or lighter forts of and, a confiderable fpace of time reduced clayey earth appears, from experience, to be required to elapfe, before it can with advan- tage be had recourfe to again; for if this circumftance be not properly attended to, or too many white crops be fucceflively taken, a very great degree of exhauftion is foon produced, as has been experienced in many of the marling counties of England, and in Forfarfhire in Scotland. Thefe injurious confe- quences are, however, found to. be eafily prevented, by adopting the alter- nating fyftem of corn and grafs, or other green crops. And it is probable that by taking corn and grafs crops in fucceflion, or, after having one or two grain crops, letting the land be Jaid down for two or three years with artificial graffes, the application of marle in{mall quantities might be more frequently renewed, to the great advantage of the farmer, and the improvement of the Jand. In fome of the places where this kind of manure is made ufe of, as in Lancafhire, fomething of this pra@lice is adopted with much benefit. And I] 4 242 from the Agency and Decompofition of Foffl Substances. when mixed with dung and other fubftances, in the form of compoft, it is ge- nerally found capable of being repeated, at fhort intervals, with the moft benefi- cial effe@ts. From thefe faéts it would therefore feem probable that fuch injuries are rather to be afcribed to the mode of cropping, than to the nature of the nanure. Something may alfo, perhaps, depend on the manner in which itis applied, as it has been found to be more efficacious when well mixed and incorporated with the foil, than where this has not been the cafe; and as it has been found highly advantageous in promoting and bettering the condition of the grafs lands in fome diftri¢ts, while in others it has been objected to as injuring them, it is ftill farther probable that much depends on the{tate and manner of its being put in or upon lands, and that it is only where it is laid on in a moderate fuitable proportion, and after it has been well broken down and reduced into a fine powdery form, fo as that it may be very minutely and intimately blended with the foil, that its beft effe&ts can be exerted. The circumftance of this fubftance having been ufed with great fuccefs in fmall proportions, as eight or ten bufhels to the ftatute acre, after being burned in proper kilns, ovens, or other places, and well reduced into a fine powdery ftate, fo as to be fown with the hand over the crops, as a top drefling, appears alfo to favour the fame conclufion*. And the general prattice of digging it up in the fummer months, and fpreading it over the ground in a lumpy ftate, in order that it may be aéted upon and reduced by the heat of the fun and the frofts during the fucceeding winter, is likewife in proof of the fame thing. This kind of manure is frequently procured by loofening and undermining large maffes, and letting them fall down by forcing piles in above them; but great care fhould be taken in performing the bufinefs, as there is often much danger by the lumps giving way fuddenly. In fixing upon places for opening pits, attention fhould be had to the injuring of as little land as poflible, to having them as convenient as poffible for carriage, to their having the leaft difficulty of draught, and to the water that may ftagnate in them early in the{pring producing the leaft poffible mifchief afterwards. Such pits fhould, indeed, only be made as can be eafily laid dry f. The expence attending the ufe of this fubftance as a manure, muft vary confiderably, according to the proportions in which it is applied, the facility with which it is dug from the pit, and the diftance which it is carried. In #$ce Holt’s Report of the Agriculture of Lancathire,+ Ibid. ie. <—— ic oneal 5 Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Fofit Subjiances. 248 t 18 gee ber af ae-°: ae this way it may vary from two to fix or feven, and in fome cafes twelve or Injuries i S Junes fifteen pounds the ftatute acre™. OF the ich its* The differences in the expence from the circumftances of conveying it from different diftances, NA 18©.. z a is thus fhewn by Mr. Holt, in his Survey of the County of Lancafter. ced an hy OS and Suppofe the Lot 1 be thirty rods fquare, and the pit rignt in the centre, fo as it hag Lot 12< that its greateft diftance from the pit be fifteen rods every way. The cartage n of the i| will be 78s. per rod; and, to fave fraétions, call the field fix acres; then the wenn Pit.| account will ftand as under: injuring~~ Gennes er tad ee ; artage, per rod 10S. a ta er ol its pies me! sas No. ofacres-- 6 oderate e ry ee ‘§ 10§$ ed into Lot 452,; E: Fi wen eles No. of rods laid per every acre 6 1 4 8 blended ue 8 t 648 i 6——E 4 t> tanale 4h Sy hie war ese)£.32. 8s. Totat amount of expence Of‘het-1. 17*® S-=: Rae Bs 2 se AP Now, if Lot 2 be marled out of the pit in Lot 1, the additional expence will ; burned Ue Reed be 128. per rod, or 541. being forty-five rods from the pit. yowdery oe And, if Lot 3 be to be marled ftill from the fame pit, the additional expence appears a aeleae will be 26s. per rod, or 44s. the whole; the diftance from the pit being NS.{eventy-five rods, and the expence 79]. 4s. GF Ae Sipe 0)=;—e R Again, Lot 4 being as large as the other three, and the pit in the centre, the reading] Lot 4. extreme diftance will be forty-five rods each way, and the cartage will be 21s. pon and per rod, of fixty-four cubical feet, and which will amount to 113]. 8s. “inter, 1s~ The comparative eftimate ftands thus: Lot 1, 321. 8s.—Lot 2, 541.—Lot 3, a vgl. 4s. Total amount of which is 165]. 128.— Three times 321. 8s. is 97]. 4s.— ae 2 Balance faved by having a pit in each field would, he fays, be therefore 68]. 8s.— jermining a3. The expence of Lot 4 is 113]. 8s.; and from which fubtra& g7l. 4s. and the m: but et as balance is 161. 4s. The above will, he thinks, evidently prove the advantage of 1e0]|+ 3? Pp fe) en much bla mer aces| proximity to the marle: but a pit in the nmddle of a field is not only an eye-fore, ;(a~___._._| buta nuifance; therefore, if poffible, fhould be avoided. Nor is the advantage opening| ee:;=.::: I SEnesrea lee rey| fo great in the middle as may be thought; fince, in coming out of the pit, there 0 having 22| being only one pace, fome part of the ground mutt of neceflity be gone twice \ifficulty 2 over; whereas, if on one fide of the field, and central, all the land lies imme- ‘{pring diately before the pace of the pit. me= He ftates the expence of marling upon Bootle Marfh, about the year 1750, naee: in?{ to be as follows: i 5. Ue Getting and filling, per rod of 64 cubic yards-. o 10 0 uft vary Spreading---= 5= Oe 2a , facility Carting; the average diftance from the middle of the pit to the is| middle of the land, 60 rods:=: Loo ried. 30 2—¢h 2 {n this calculation, he obferves, there are fix carts, five in motion, each goes the diftance of twelve rods, whilft one ftands in the pit to be filled. The fize of each cart is 20,730 inches(cubical), 7 z ad arf DV onnen naAhianor MLL lL Cy ny wa O44 Manures from the Agency ONG Decompojition Of L Offi Subflances. ig }=, 1+« ¢ qa ime car ITC ra> arn In fituations where both this manure and lime can be procured, the choice hould.be regulated by the facility and cheapnefs of obtaining one in preference to the other, the ftates of purity in which they prefent themfelves, and the nature of the foils to which they are to be appli¢éd. Marle, where it contains nuch clay, may be pr eferable for a light fort of foil; while lime, as containing a Jarger portion of calcareous matter, may be more advantageous in fome clayey ftiff foils. The quantity or proportion of calcareous matter contained in different marles, may be afcertained by the methods that have been already given for lime-ftone. The fhelly fand. brought up and depofited in beds, in the crevices, and level parts of the fea coafts, is another fubftance capable of being employed with great benefit as a manure, not only on account of its containing calcareous matter in a fine attenuated ftate, from the rubbing down of thells and other fubftances of the fame kind, but from the mixture of different animal and vegetable recrements with it, and a fmall portion of muriat of foda or fea- falt being retained. The laft, from-its: known property of promoting the ufually drawn by three horfes; the weight of the load about 15 cwt. and two cubical yards of marle make about three loads."The number of workmen are fix fillers and getters; ufually two right-handed men at one wheel, and two left-handed at the other, with one filler behind: one getter is generally fufiicient, Gs is. de Getting, filling, and{preading, to the acre of 64 yards to the rod, on Bootle Marth, was BAIQ: I Cartage.---“----- gq 3s. a Digging for the marle, clearing the head, expences at finifhing,&c. per acre~- PO G Iga) 8 There were, he fays, about 62 rods laid upon the acre on this occafion. The men got 2s. 6d. and the carts 7s. 6d. per day. Getting and filling marle, it is remarked, is very laborious work, and requires the utmoft exertion to obtain thefe wages; and that this work, after all, can only be effected by, young men in their prime, cheered by the company of fellow-labourers, and frequent refrefhments, Five working days, he fays, are reckoned equal to fix at other work, for they ufually begin at half paft four in the morning, and reft one hour at breakfaft, from eight to nine; reft again from twelve till two, and then work till fix; and generally get out nine rods per week. The prefent price(1795) is— hee Se a For ge:ting and filling, per rod--“-- O12 9 Spreading°-===== Oo. 2 6 Carting=:_== a== 3\1g. 22249)--G6 In the Middlefex Report it is ftated to be this—‘¢ Four men digging and filling eighty cart-loads, at 4s. a fcore, fpreading included, is 16s. Ome man and four horfes, two days, at 12s.~-1]. 4s, Votal expence per acre, 21.” ses Sa SE choice ference tained already s, and ployed careous d other nal. and or fea- ng the of marle 15 14 f 5, 6d. and york, and fected by {hments, n at half n twelve Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Foffil Subjiancess 245 putrefa€tion and decay of animal and vegetable matters when in{uch quantities, as well as that of deftroying different kinds of living infects, may contribute greatly to the good effe€ts produced by it. This, indeed, appears ftill more pro- bable, from that which is taken from underneath the water, or from fuch banks and places as are daily covered by the tides, being the moft efficacious. The proportion of calcareous matter contained in fuch fubftances muft vary very much according to the particular circumftances of the cafes, which can only be fully afcertained by fuch proceffes as thofe which have been propofed for lime. Where the quantity of calcareous matter is large, and in a very reduced or attenuated ftate, it is by much the moft valuable; as when there is much fand amongtt it a much larger quantity will be required, and the expence of application be of courfe much increafed. This fubftance feems more proper for the clayey or loamy foils than thofe of the lighter kinds, efpecially where the proportion of caleareous ingredient 1s large. When equally fpread, and well incorporated with fuch lands, it is ge- nerally found to produce goods effets for a great length of time. It has been obferved that a confiderably lefs quantity of calcareous matter, when in this fine ftate,, will bave. a more fenfible effeét, than when it is in that of any kind of earthy marle, as it admits of being fpread over the ground with greater equality, and of being more minutely and intimately blended with the foil*. The quantity employed muft obvioufly be different according to the circum- ftances and nature of the foil, as well as the fand; but twenty tons to the acre is, for the moft part, confidered as a proper drefling. It is frequently applied on the fummer fallows for wheat, and fometimes.as a preparation for barley; it may likewife be laid on the clover, or other leys, before they are turned down for grain crops, but in thefe cafes fo large a quantity is not necefflary. When put upon egrafs land, in not too large a proportion, 1t commonly produces great and fudden effeéts, the crops quickly becoming very luxuriant. It is alfo ob- ferved, that fuch lands as have been treated in this way, when again brought into tillage, moftly produce abundant grain crops. The effeéts of this fort of manure on the weft coafts of the northern parts of- the ifland, have been very extraordinary, efpecially upon the heathy or mofly foils; and it is fuppofed that fuch kinds of fand are more common on the eaft coafts than has been generally fuppofed f. * See Anderfon’s Effays, vol. I. p. 562.+ Ibid, p. 563. 246 from the Agency and Decompofition of Saline Subfiances. A fhelly kind of fand, which in digging up appears with blue veins; has lately| to been ufed in fome parts of Lancafhire as a fabttitute for marle with confiderable 4 ble fuccefs*. et fl It feems not improbable but that oyfter as well as other kinds of fhiells, if i fp they were fufficiently reduced by fuitable machinery, might be of great ufe as+ a calcareous rnanure for the heavier forts of land. When met with in large 1‘ mafies, or extenfive beds, it might probably, in fome cafes, be economical to' calcine them, and apply them as lime, either in the fimple ftate or that of com- bination with earthy materials. Common fand can fearcely be cenfidered as a manure, but it is frequently found ferviceable in the ftiff, clayey, and loamy foils, in leffening their tenacity, and rendering them more friable and mellow. It has been laid upon rough pafture and meadow land, in large quantities, with excellent effects, rendering the furface more equal, and bringing up a clofe thick crop of grafs with much white clover. The quantity muft be proportioned to the ftiffnefs of the foils; it is, however, probably better not to apply too much at one drefling. ce ce a MANURES From tHe AGENCY anv DECOMPOSITION oF SALINE SUBSTANCES. Supsrances that contain much faline matter in combination with their earthy and other ingredients, are found, in many inftances, when properly employed as manures, to contribute greatly to the fupport of vegetation.‘The materials principally made ufe of in this way are the refufe of different manufactures, fuch as bleaching and foap-boiling, where they can be procured in fufficient quanti: ties, as in the vicinity of large towns, and where fuch manufaétories are carried on in an extenfive manner; the afhes remaining after the combuttion or burning of various green vegetable matters, wood, pit-coal, peat,&c.; and fome other fubftances, fuch as foot and fea-falt. It is moft probably to the different alkaline principles contained in thefe fub- ftances, from the great facility and power which they poffeds of acting upon and diflolving the parts of animal and vegetable matters, efpecially fuch of the latter kind as have been rendered infoluble by the abforption of the oxygen,| or pure air of the atmofphere, from long or frequent expofure to it, and even foffil coal under fimilar circumftances, and by this means forming new faline * JTalt’s Survey, p. 126. mic M1Cal{0 of con: quently enacity, 1 rough ndering th much he foils; ’ OF ir earthy lo | it quant “4 7 en ef africa burning ne other oxygens ew{aline 1 Pee 2 fos Uy Pee> yy, 194 o mee ee ay? t Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Saline Subfiancess 247 compounds which are foluble, that their beneficial effects as manures are c niefly to be afcribed*. The fame author alfo remarks, that as fuch inert or infolu- ble vegetable or peaty matters, when decompofed or reduced into a ftate of folubility by alkaline fubftances, afume a brownith-red colour, and become in- fipid; the alkalies, in fuch cafes, muft enter into combination, and be neutralifed by the acid or acids contained in them, which will be found to be the phof- phoric and the oxalic, or acid of forrel; from which will be formed, according to the nature of the alkali contained in the fubftance made ufe of, phofphats and oxalts of pot-afh, foda, or ammoniac, which are matters capable of pro- moting the growth of plants. But thefe fubftiances, befides their forming in the foils, or the earthy materials with which they are mixed, fuch compounds as are beneficial in promoting the growth of vegetables, may be ufeful in many cafes when properly applied, and ufed in fufficient quantity, in correéting acidity, in altering the ftate or condition of the lands, as by the taking away of moifture from the furface where it prevails in an over-proportion in meadows and paftures, and thereby fupports crops of coarfe vegetables, and by rendering the texture of fuch grounds as are under the plough more open and friable, confequently more fuitable for the recep- tion of the roots of corn corps. The refufe of bleachers contains vegetable and mineral alkali, in fuch pro- portions as render it incapable of being employed without being previoufly mixed with other materials; for which purpofe, frefh mould or peat earth fhould be procured; and after having been well mixed and blended with it, in the quantity of about eight or ten parts of the earth to one of the refufe, a propor- tion of rotten dung fuitable to the purpofe for which the manure is intended, may be added, by which means a good manure will be formed. The wafte of foapers is another fubftance that may be made ufe of in the fame way; but in this there is a confiderable portion of lime, mixed with the alkaline matter. The lees, or liquors, which are drawn off after the making of foap, as containing much alkaline faline matters, may likewife, where they can be procured in fufficient quantities, and at a reafonable rate, be made ufe of in the fame manner. All thefe fubftances, when combined with rich vegetable mould, or peaty matters, and made ufe of as manure, are found to be the moft advantageous and ufeful upon the ftiff clayey and loamy foils; as in fuch forts of land they pro- pably not only contribute to the increafe of the crops by furnithing fuch folubls * Dundonald on the Conneétion of Agriculture with Chemiftry. 248 Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Saline Subjiances. matters as can be readily taken up by their abforbent roots, but, by leffening their ftiffme(s and tenacity, render them more proper for their reception. The auantity of thefe manures which is neceffary, mutt, as in moft other cafes, be various, according to the particular circumftances of the land upon which they are applied, and the views of the farmer., They are laid upon lands in the ftate of tillage, as well as thofe under grafs 5 in the firft cafe they are moftly either put on in the ftate of compott, at the rate of about ten loads to the acre, juft before the feed furrow is given, or fown upon the furface, and harrowed in with the erain; but im whichever way they may be applied, it will be requifite to have them fpread as equally as poflible, in order that they may produce their effeéts in the moft extenfive and perfect manner; and in the latter, though they may in fome inftances be ufed alone, it 1s pro- bably a much better praétice to have them mixed with fuch earthy fubftances as have been defcribed, before they are applied to the fwards, as by fuch a prattice their effects as a manure may be rendered more complete and lafting. To grafs lands they are frequently ufed to the amount of from one hundred to one hundred and fifty bufhels. And moft grafs lands are improved by the ap- plication of fuch manures, but efpecially fuch as are wet and difpofed to the produétion of coarfe four vegetables, fuch as ruihes, wild forrel,&c. The afhes, or earthy faline matters, which remain after the combuftion of different frefh vegetable produtts, are all of them beneficial when judicioufly employed as manures; but as this means of producing manure is much too wafteful and uneconomical a pra€tice to be adopted, except in particular in- ftances, as where wood and other vegetable produ€tions are very abundant, and ufed commonly as fuel, or where they cannot be readily cleared away by other more advantageous methods, as ten or fifteen parts, and in fome cafes confider- ably more, of fuch materials are diflipated and loft during the procefs, they can but feldom be made ufe of in the way of dreflings for land. Where they can be procured in fufficient quantities for thefe purpofes, they may, probably, be em- ployed to the greateft advantage by being mixed with a good portion of rich vegetable mould, or peat earth, and a quantity of well-fermented dung; as, in fuch a compound ftate, they are capable of being applied more extentfively, and at the fame time in the moft favourable condition for the fupport of vege- tation. When made ufe of on the heavy foils, the quantity of afhes in the compoft fhould be much greater than on thofe of the lighter kinds; they are, in general, the moft effe€tual when applied as a top dreffing to grafs lands, efpecially fuch as are commonly termed four, or have much tendency to the production of mofs. N which mals in e Tate of Wn Upon - may be in order nanner; t 1S pro- by other confider- they can y can be be em- _ of rich ung 5 rentively, of yege- s in the they are a{s jands, cy{0 the Manures from the Agency and Decompofition pf Saline Subftances.#49 Peat-earth is a fubftance met with in many diftri€ts, and which after being cut and exficcated by the heat of the fummer, is made ufe of as fuel in fuch places. By the confumption of peat in this way, a very confiderable lofs, fo far as manure is concerned, is however fuftained; as, in many cafes, nineteen parts out of twenty of the material is diflipated and carried away in the procefs of combuftion, which, as it has been fhewn, that the inert vegetable or peaty matter, produced by the a€tion of oxygen, or the pure air of the atmofphere, for a great length of time, is capable of being rendered foluble, by mixing lime in certain conditions with it, and ftill more effectually by alkaline faline oe. might have been preferved and rendered ufeful as manure*. In fome places however, asin Berkthire, it is the common practice to dig up peat-earth, merely for the purpofe of burning it into afhes, in order that it may be ufed as a manure. As freth or green vegetable produétions are only capable of yielding alkaline faline fubftances when burned, none being afforded by the combuttion of dead or decayed vegetable matters, it feems probable that the afhes of peat-earth feldom contain much faline matters. It is however obferved by fome writers, that all peat-earths afford alkaline faline matters in a greater or lefs proportion when burned, and that in fome it is from a twenty-fecond to a thirty-fecond part of their weight t. The afhes produced from the burning of peat about Reading in Berkfhire, which long experience has fhewn to poffefs great ferti- lizing powers, are afferted to contain no alkaline falts, nor, from the hafty analyfis of them which was made by the writer, any faline matter, except a{mall propor- tion of fulphat of magnefia or Epfom falt{. But it is added, that if the analyfis had been more carefully made, and when the afhes were newly burnt, they would moft probably have been found to contain a hepar of lime, which is a faline fubftance foluble in water, while gypfum, the fub{tance to which it returns on being expofed to the air, is infoluble.‘The fertilizing effects of thefe afhes may, therefore, probably materially depend upon this heparof lime.‘This is rendered ftill more probable from the obfervation, that** the hills on each fide of the mea- dows which produce the Newbury peat-a/hes, confift of chalk, eafily diflolvable by heavy rain, which wathes it off the ridges down the furrows, ditches, and ftreamlets, to the low grounds, where mixing with the floods, it is floated over # Dundonald on the Conneétion of Agriculture with Chemiftry, p. 108. + Millar’s Dictionary, art. Manure. t Dundonald on the Conneétion of Agriculture with Chemiftry, p. 100. K K »& APAA TS PAY tal BN sgt BAe 250 Manures from the Agency and Decompojitton of Saline Sub flance the meadows, and depofited in the peat. Confequently that the peat of this diftri& differs from that of moft oth fe pi the quantity of chalk which it contains; and, when dug, dried and 1 burnt, the fire reduces the chalk to lime, and the reft to afhes. Hence Newbury afhes are a mixture of lime and vegetable afhes; and that it is very probable that any common Bap abe or the afhes of rough grafs land, of turf, heath, furze, ling, wood,&c. produced by the operation-of paring and burning, being mixed with chalk lime in due proportion, would be as equally _*» fertilizing as thefe noted athes There is another circumftance that may canfe a difference in the faline and other. fubftances contained in the afkes of different peaty earths, which 1s the prefence of mineral{prings. When, by this means, an over-large portion of fulphat offiron, or green vitriol, happens to be prefent im the peat, the afhes produced from its combuftion muft, in confequence, become injurious, or at leaft much lefs beneficial to the growth of vegetables, than in cafes where it does not exift. The prejudicial effeCls of this fubftance may, according to the obfervations of Lord Dundonald, be correéted by the ufe of either lime, magnefia, alkaline falts, or dung; but that preference is to be given to magnefia and alkaline faline ainda as they not only decompofe the vitriolic falt, but form Epfom and Glauber falts, or vitriolated tartar, fubftances which have been found to promote the growth of vegetables. When dung is made ufe of, the vitriolated iron is brought into its metallic condition, and the fulphuric acid, thus fet at liberty, combines with the ammo- nia or volatile alkali produced from the dung, and forms fulphat of ammonia; or it may, by uniting with the calcareous matter, and by the additional affiftance of the inflammable or putrefcent matter of the dung, be converted into a hepar that may be ferviceable in vegetation. Peateafhes may be ufed as a manure, either by being harrowed in with the grain, or fown as a top dreffing after the crops have come up; in the former cafe they fhould be employed in a fomewhat larger proportion than the latter. In the latter method of ufing them the beft practice is to fow them over the crops before they are grown too high; and if the weather be rather inclined to wetne(s. it will be the more favourable: the quantities commonly employed in thefe cafes are from fifteen to twenty bufhels the acre, according to the ftate or * Middleton’s View of the Agriculture of Middlefex, p. 298. ‘ Ine 9 qd Ms all equally ine and joes not rvations alkaline kaline Epfom yund to nonia; Of affiftance ) a hepar with the » formet e Jatters nver the Jined to oved In ,{tate or Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Saline Subfiances. 251 condition of the land. When laid on grafs lands, whether thofe of the artificial or natural pafture kinds, thefe afhes frequently effe& great improvements, ren- dering the grafles both thicker and finer. Peat, in the reduced ftate of duff, is fometimes alfo made ufe of with confider- able benefit; but it would feem that this fort of earth may ge tee be employed to moft advantage by being well mixed and incorporated wit 1 fuch fubftances as contain alkaline falts, or with alkaline: hepars, or by a ee of fulphat of foda, or Glauber falts, with lime in its a€tive ftate*. The ae or dutty matter of pit-coal might, likewife, probably be ufed with the fame advantage if prepared in a fimilar manner, as it is capable of being re a foluble by fuch means. {t is afferted by the fame ingenious author, as the refult of experimental trials, that the effeéts of peat-earth, mixed and incorporated with alkaline faline fub- 1 ftances, are equal, if not fuperior, to thofe from dung, the weight of each bes ing the famef. If this faét be well founded, phe jad anlage of employing peat~ earth in this way, inftead of converting it into afhe s, is ftill greater than has been fuppofed above. 3 The athes of pit-coal, where they can be procured in fufficient quantities, as in large towns where it is principally employed.as fuel, are, when applied as manures, found to be ufeful in many refpeéts; but as thefe can contain faline matter only, in proportion to the quantity of frefh vege stable produéis that may have been confumed along with them, little of€ the effect which is produced by them can des; pend upon it; much more, probably, arifes from the portion of calcareous earth which they contain. Something too, in many cafes, probably depends on the animal fubftances that may have been occafionally burnt, or afterwards mixed with them, before they are made ufé of asa manure. They may alfo be fervices able on the ftiffer forts of foil, by rendering them more open and difpo ofed to ad-, mit the roots of growing vegetables. That they may be beneficial in thefe ways feems to be fhewn by their utility in the ftiff clayey grounds from which bricks earth has been dug, and on what are generally termed four lands. On the, more tenacious loamy foils they may operate by giving friability, and at the ¢ ig’) fame time the calcareous principle, in a{mall degre, when. it is deficient., This is a conclufion which is further fupported by their having been found from experience to be much lefs ufeful in the poorer me of| By the application of thefe afhes, in he vicinity of Lo é ey | peice idon, to the fliff foul * Dundonald on the Comiestion of Agriculture'w ith Chemifiry, p.£95 + Ibid, p. 183 259 Manures fromthe Agency and Decompofition of Saline Subftances. froin which the brick-earth has been taken, they render it fufficiently friable to afford a good crop of beans, a vegetable which, though it grows well on the heavy foils, could not otherwife be produced on Jands fo very ftiff as the bottoms of prick grounds generally are found to be. After this crop has been taken, it is generally found that fuch grounds are in a condition to admit of grafs feeds being fown with the fucceeding crops. But, except in fuch cafes as the above, this manure is probably the beft adapted to grafs lands as a top drefling; it may, however, occafionally be ufed in this way to the young grain crops. The pro- portion which is neceffary muft be different according to the intention of the farmer, the nature of the crop, and the ftate of the land. Soot is another fubftance that experience has fhewn to be of confiderable utility, where it can be collected in fufficient quantities and applied to land as amanure. The beneficial confequences refulting from the ufe of this fubftance depend, probably, in a great degree, on the quantity of alkaline faline matter which it contains; which, by its aétion on the rich vegetable mould of the foil or earth with which it is mixed, may render it more capable of fupplying the nutrition of plants; and it may bring the thick oleaginous matter of the foot into fuch a ftate as to be capable of folution or diffufion in water, and thereby in a condition to be taken up by the abforbent roots of vegetables. The earthy matter of this fubftance, as well as that of different kinds of afhes, may probably be rendered more fuitable for the purpofe of promoting vegetation, by their having been expofed to the aétion of fire,-as is well known to be the cafe with clay. The great ftate of tenuity or finenefs in which foot is found may, like- wife, be ferviceable, as by that means it becomes capable of being more regu- larly and more extenfively mixed with the foils on which it is applied. Indeed the good effeéts of moft fubftances employed as top dreffings depend, in fome meafure, upon this circumftance. Soot, as it contains alkaline falt in a confiderable proportion, might probably be ufed with greater advantage by being well mixed or blended with rich mould, or peat-earth, and by fuch a method the quantity of manure would be greatly increafed. This fhould not, however, be attempted where the deftruction of infects forms any part of the defign of the farmer. This manure is chiefly made ufe of as a top drefling to grain crops and grafs lands. On the former it has been found extremely ufeful in deftroying the wire-worm and other deftruftive infeéts. This is probably efteéted by the bitter oleaginous liquid formed from the union of the alkali and the oil of the foot, impregnating thefe parts of the plants on which they feed, and He to n the toms en, it feeds above, tmay, e pro- of the stable ind as tance natter he foil ng the e{oot ereby arthy bably y their e with y, like- e regu Indeed 1 fome ybably sould, reatly ion of | grafs roying ed by the oll 4, and Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Saline SulPances.%53 thereby caufing them to be rejeéted by fuch infeéts. It may alfo produce fome advantage in this refpeét by promoting a rapid vegetation, and thereby render- ing the texture of the plants, very quickly, too firm to be preyed upon by them*. ‘That foot is very powerful in promoting the vigorous growth of vegetable crops, is evinced by the change which takes place after fowing it over fuch young wheat crops as have a yellowith fickly appearance, as they frequently put on, in avery fhort time afterwards, the healthy green afpect. On meadow and pafture lands experience has likewife fhewn it to be highly ufeful, not only by encou- raging the growth of afiner fort of grafs, but by deftroying or correcting the fre- quent difpofition of fuch grounds to produce mofs, and fome other coarfe forts of vegetable productions. The proportion of this, like that of all other ma- nures, muft vary according td& the circumftances of the cafe. The common quantity is generally from about forty to fifty bufhels on the acre. Where afhes, foot, or any other material that contains faline matters, are to be employed as manures, they fhould always be preferved in fheds, or other convenient places, from rains, or the accidental application of water to them, as where this practice is negleéted the faline fubftances are foon diffolved and carried away in a liquid form. It is chiefly from this caufe that fubftances of this kind which have been long expofed without being covered, are often found fo inferior in their effe€ts to thofe which are frefh or newly made. On this ac- count alfo, if fuch fubftances are laid on land at too early a period of the feafon, they will be lable to have much of their valuable properties carried away by the rains that may take place.: Muriat of foda, or fea-falt, is a fubftance, the utility of which, forthe pur- pofes of manure, feems not yet well afcertained, as by fome writers it is confi- dered as poffeffing confiderable powers of promoting vegetation, while others have experienced little or no advantage from its application; but as the experi- ments of Pringle and Macbride fhew, that though it may prevent putrefaction when employed in large proportions by its antifeptic property, yet that when ufed in fmall quantities, it has evidently a tendency to promote the procefs. On this account it may therefore be ferviceable when incorporated with farm- yard dung, and other animal or vegetable matters, in{mall portions. It is alfo thought probable by an ingenious writer, that from calcined clay, as it is met with in the more loofe and foft kinds of bricks, having a power of decompofing fea-falt—as is fufpeéted from the circumftance of his having re- * Dwndonald’s Conneétion of Agriculture with Chemiftry, p. 138. 054 Manures from the Agency and Decompofition of Vegetable Subfiances. marked in a cellar where falted meat had been kept for a great length of time ina falting-tub, which was attached to one fide of the wall, that on the other there was a great effiorefcence, which he conceived to be natron or foflil alkali— it may, when more tardily combined with oxygen, by expofure to the air, from the different proceffes of cultivation, poffefs the fame property; and that the great diverfity and contradiction that has been obferved in the effects of fea-falt may have depended on this circumftance, as it might thus be highly ufeful on clayey foils, though it was of little or no advantage to others*. It is alfo further fuppofed, by the fame author, that as common falt is a ftimu- lus which affords little or no fupport in the way of nourifhment, but which may excite the abforbent veflels of vegetables to exert themfelves more powerfully, it may, ina certain proportion, augment their growth by inducing them to take up a greater quantity of nutrient matter in a limited time, and to perform their cir- glation and fecretions more vigoroufly. But that in a large quantity its ftimulant powers may be fo great, as to deftroy them by exhaufting the irritability of their veffels, as has been found by Mr. Van Uilar, in watering plants with oxygenated muriatic acid. Thefe circumftances probably further explain the reafon why fea-falt, when made ufe of in large proportions, is frequently injurious to land, and the growth of crops; while employed in{mall quantities it produces highly beneficial effects. This fubftance may likewife be ufeful in other ways, as, from its known power of deftroying various kinds of infe€ts, fuch as wornis, flugs, grubs, fnails,&c. a power which an able writer fuppofes to depend on the.exciting of greater evacuations from their bodies than they are capable of withftanding, much nutrient matter may, in different cafes, be provided for the fupport of vege- tation f.’: As every-where in the vicinity of the fea a ready means of obtaining this faline material in unlimited quantities offers itfelf, it may deferve more particu- Jarly the notice of the agriculturift; and more efpecially as many other fub- ftances that are known to contain.or be impregnated with. it, fuch as the weed thrown up by the tides, and the fand over which they flow, can be eafily pro- cured.— The bittern, wafte, or refufe, of falt-works, which generally contains muriat of magnefia in large proportions, is found to pofiefs very great{ceptic qualities, and * Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 226. + Dundonald on the Conne@tion of Agriculture with Chemiftry, p. 138. of time Ie Other ll, rg aiK@|[meme It, from a ftimu- ich may ertully, it j take up their cit- {timulant y of their . muriat 01 alities, and Manures from the Combination of different Subftances. 255 may therefore be highly ufeful when mixed with dung, or earthy matte ap experiments that have been made with this fubftance likewife thew i to be ca- pable of promoting vegetation in a confiderable degree. But in whatever way fubftances of the faline kind may produce their effects in promoting vegetation, when employed as manures, it is evident, from their containing in themfelves little or nothing of fuch matters as are capable of af- fording nourifhment to plants, that they may, in moft cafes, be made ufe of to the greateft advantage by being mixed and incorporated with fuch fubftances as they are capable of aéting upon and reducing to a ftate proper for the fupport of vegetable crops; Sih as rich earthy materials, imperfeCtly reduced dung, and other matters of a fimilar kind. Where fubftances that contain the murtat of foda, or fea-falt, are employed, if the opinions which have been ftated above be correét, they might probably be applied to much advantage by being mined vith imperfe€tly burnt clay, when reduced to the ftate of powder. And if, upon trial, they fhould be found effe€tual in this form, they might be very conveniently made ufe of in the way of top dreflings to grafs or grain crops in the fpring, MANURES vxom tui COMBINATION or DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES. Ir is evident, from what has been already obferved on the nature of the dif- ferent fubftances that are capable of being made ufe of as manures, that they may frequently be mixed and blended with each other, or with ie ftances of other kinds, and by fuch means be not only confiderably increafed in quantity, but in many cafes rendered more effe€tual and more fuitable for application than in'their fimple ftates; but at the fame time, that fome‘Gf them may be mixed and incorporated in this way with much more advantage than others: for, though the general experience of farmers has fully fhewn the great im- portance and utility of employing compound manures, or compofts, little at- tention has, till lately, been paid to the compounding or mixing together of fuch fubftances as are, from the pri inciples which they originally contain, or which are formed from them in the ¢ hanges which they undergo in the different ftages of their decompofition, adapted to a& in the moft fuitable manner for producing fuch combinations or alterations in the materials, as are sete of being bene- ficial in the promotion of vegetation when they are employed as manures. Farm-yard manure, which is the’ moft general application of any, from its 256 Manures from the Combination of different Suhftances. being formed by the decay of various kinds of vegetable matters, fuch as hay, ftraw, fern, and many other materials of a fimilar nature, with which the dung and urine of animals is incorporated and combined, muft be confidered as a compound fubftance. And from the large proportion in which fuch vege- table produétions enter into its compofition, and the quantity of earthy mate- rials that is in moft cafes, efpecially where the management is upon a judicious plan, added by the laying of fuitable bottoms, it is not fo frequently neceflary to.be blended with other fubftances that are ufually employed in forming com- pofts. But from moft of the vegetable materials that conftitute the chief part of this fort of manure, being made ufe of in a dry and hard ftate, they do not fo quickly ferment or run into the(tate of decay, notwithftanding the proportion of animalized matters that may be mixed with them; it therefore becomes an ufeful praétice to turn them over, by which their complete putrefaétion may not only be promoted, but the different materials be more minutely blended together, on both which accounts they may become more ufeful when applied as manure upon land. In the forming of this manure, care{hould alfo be con- flantly taken that the heaps be fo fituated as that they may not become too dry, or too much foaked in water, as in either cafe they muft be greatly injured. Whenever it may be: requifite to incorporate any earthy material with this fort of manure, the agricultor fhould always, carefully attend to the ftate or richnefs in which it may exift in the yard, and proportion fuch additions accordingly. It will, however, never demand nearly fo large a proportion, as fuch manures as confit almoft wholly of animal matters. Where animal matters are collefted and thrown together in any quantity, there can be little doubt but that a great increafe of good manure may be provided by mixing with them, as has been already obferved, rich furface-mould, peat-earth, or the fcrapings of old ditches and roads; as by fuch a practice the ammonia formed during the decompofition of the animal fubftances is prevented from efcaping, as would otherwife be the cafe, which, by combining with and acting upon the ‘earthy materials, quickly renders them proper for the purpofes of manure. As fubftances of the animal kind have been fhewn to run very rapidly into the ftate of putrefaétion, they may frequently be incorporated with fuch vegetable mate- rials as’are little difpofed, or with difficulty made, to rot or become putrid, and by fuch means ufeful compofts be more expeditioufly formed. In making ufe of fuch earthy fubftances as have been mentioned, it may be of much advantage to have them expofed to the influence of the.atmofphere for-a confiderable length of time, frequently turning them over, before they are mixed with the as hay, he dun red as a ch vege- hy mate. judicious neceflary ing com bief part lo not fo ‘oportion somes an tion may blended -n applied fo be con: e too dry, y injured. \ this fort r richnefs cordingly. manures ntity, there provided by at-earth, ot nia formed able male putrid, and naking ufe , aavanteg® sonfiderabl eg) with tt Manures from the Combination of different Sub tances. 257 manures, as by fuch means they become in a more pulverized ftate, and are Ca- pable of being more intimately blended with fuch materials, and afterwards fpread over the land with much greater equality, a circumftance upon which their effe€ts very much depend. If, in performing this bufinefs, the earthy fubftances be formed into a fort of ridge, about five or fix feet in height, and nearly the fame breadth in the bottom, they will be in the moft proper fituation for being united with dung, or other matters that may be employed. From the experiments of a late praftical writer it would feem, that fuch earthy materials 2s have been mentioned may be made ufe of to a very confiderable extent, efpecially where the manure to be mixed with them is of the animal kind*. Lime is a fubftance that has often been too indifcriminately made ufe of in the formation of compofts, but which, by attending to the following circumftances, may admit of being employed extenfively and with more beneficial effects. Where the deftruétion or decay of green or frefh vegetable matters, efpecially thofe of the more coarfe and hard kinds, is intended, it fhould be ufed in its cauftic ftate in fmall quantities; as in this condition, thus fparingly employed, it reduces more expeditioufly the ligneous and more hard parts of fuch matters to an earthy ftate; and as, during its a€tion in this way on thefe fubftances, fuch elaftic matters are fet at liberty, as by their fubfequent combination afford am- monia or volatile alkali, it may frequently be a beneficial pra€tice to blend fuch earthy fubftances as have been juft mentioned with them, and thereby prevent the elaftic matters from being diflipated and loft. If a portion of rich tarm-yard dung be afterwards incorporated with thefe materials, a valuable compoft will be formed. Quick-lime is likewife found ufeful fometimes in bringing the hard parts of dead vegetable matters, as tanners’ bark, fern, ftraw, cabbage-ftalks, leaves,&c. quickly into the ftate of earth or mould; but whenever it is made ufe of in this way, tt fhould be had recourfe to only in a very fcanty proportion to thofe of the mat- ters with which it is mixed, as when it is employed in large proportions it 1s liable, from the heat that is extricated or difengaged by its combining with the moifture of fuch fubftance, being fo augmented during its flaking, as to convert them. into a coaly fubftance that is infoluble, and at the fame time to force off, in the form of gas, their elaftie principles, except fuch a quantity of car- bonic acid as may combine with the lime during the procefs. * Experienced Farmer, vol. I. po 55. LL ;> a fio re Ta f Be BS RS oe!“1am 958 Manures from the Combination of different Subfiances. By the common praétice of blending- quick or cauftic lime with farm-yard dung, much lofs is frequently fuftained; as by its violent operation upon fuch {ubftances, fome of the elaftic matters are not only fet at liberty and quickly con- veyed into the atmofphere, but, with what remains, infoluble faline compounds are formed which cannot afift vegetation™*. The complete putrefaGtion of fuch manures, when neceffary, is probably the beft promoted by the ule of lime in its mild ftate, and the various means which have been already defcribed. When lime is to be blended with peat or earth, the moft advantageous method is to ufe fuch lime as has been newly‘made and well flaked, in the proportion of about one part of the lime to five or fix parts of the peat or mould, which fhould not Le too much exficcated, or dried, before it be made ufe of. By this means the heat which is generated will not be fufficient to produce any injurious con- fequences, either by forming a coaly matter, or forcing off the elaftic principles in the ftate of gas. And the volatile alkali which is compofed in fuch Cafes;*byY being allowed to enter into combination, as it is formed, with that part of the peat or mould which has not been acted upon by the lime, in confequence of its being employed in fo{mall a proportion, and in its effete ftate, will form a folu- ble faline fubftance, capable of promoting vegetation t. There are other fubftances that may be ftill more beneficially employed in form- ing compofts with peat earths, when they can be procured in fuch quantities and at fuch cheap rates as render them capable of being made ufe of inthis way. Thefe are alkaline faline matters, or fuch fubftances as contain them in any quantity; as by mixing thefe with the peaty materials in the way mentioned above, they are made perfe€tly foluble, while by the ufe of lime only fuch a proportion of them is rendered foluble as can be aéted upon by the quantity of ammonia or volatile alkali formed during the time it is mixed with them. And, farther, im- foluble compounds, fuch as have been juft noticed, are formed in the latter cafe. Itis common, in many diftrifls, to make compofls with lime and mould on the head-lands, or other parts of the fields on which they are to be applied. This cannot however be done to any great advantage, except where the furface mould is rich in vegetable matter; but wherever fuch compofts are to be formed, the grounds * Dundonald on the Conneétion of Agriculture with Chemiftry, p. 120 + Ibid, p--111. m-yard n fuch ly cons pounds . whirl > Which method yportion h thould 5 means Us Con ciples in “afes, by t of the ce of its 1 a folu- | in form: cies andat ray. Thefe quantity; hove, they portion of monia or ether, m- he latter his cannot Id 38 rich Alanures from the Combination of different Subfiances. 259 fhould be ploughed or dug up to a confiderable depth, and reduced into as perfe&t a ftate of pulverization as poffible; freth lime may then be placed, in{mall heaps, all along the middle of the ridge or head-land, and the earth in this fine ftate be thrown over them, in the proportion of four parts of earth to one of lime, and kept clofe by being beaten down with the fpade: from the gradual flaking of the lime, in this fituation, by the moifture of the earth, elaftic matters are, fet at liberty, which combining with the mould or earth, render it ftill fur- ther reduced, and by being afterwards very intimately blended by means of the fpade with the very fine particles of the lime cauled by the flaking, a va- luable compoft is made for the ftiffer forts of foil, efpecially if a{mall quan- tity of good rotten dung be incorporated with them.| The animalized and other matters contained in farm-yard dung, or compoft, from their being, in that ftate, for the moft part mixed and blended with large quantities of earthy materials, produced by the decaying or rotting of vegeta- ble and other fubftances, and the depofiting of foil or mould underneath them, as has been obferved above, are feldom capable of admitting any further additions with advantage. But wherever there is much liquid matters oozing from fuch compofts, or ftagnating about the bottoms of them, fome of the earthy matters which have been mentioned fhould be laid round them in order to abforb or take them up, and prevent the great wafte that muft otherwife take place, as may be often obferved where dung compofts are made in fields, the fides of roads, or on other wafte grounds. This fhould be more particularly attended to where fuch compofts are laid in fituations that have not been properly formed as dung-fteads; and, in fuch cafes, it may frequently be an ufeful practice to place a confiderable thicknefs of fuch materials in the bottoms, before the farm-yard compoft is carted out, and laid upon them, as by that means the manure heap may be greatly in- creafed, at the fame time that a proper fubftance for the volatile alkali contained in fuch liquors to aét upon, is fupplied. The utility and advantages of this me- thod of proceeding are fully confirmed by its becoming the prevailing praftice wherever there is any attention paid to economy in the forming of compoft ma- nures. There are many circumftances, fuch as the nature and ftate or condition of the land, the goodnefs of the manures, the diftance they are to be carried, and the expence of procuring them, which render a difference in the quantity of {uch compound manures neceflary, and which can only be properly judged of by the perfons who have the application of them: on the heavier kinds of land, {uch as thofe of a clayey or deep loamy nature, fuch compofts as are conftituted of the lighter forts of earthy materials, fhould always be employed; while on the 260 Manures from the Combination of different Subftances. thinner and more light forts of foil, thofe which are formed of clayey, loamy, orthe more tenacious earthy matters, will be found the moft fuitable. In general, the allowance of fuch manures fhould be from fixteen to twenty loads to the ftatute acre, each containing feventeen or eighteen hundred weight. On many occafions, however, a much larger proportion may be required, and in others a lefs may anfwer the intentions of the farmers The mixture of dung, litter, and other materials, which is gradually col- leGted and formed into heaps in the farm-yard, is, in general, when employed without having any other fubf#ances incorporated with it, laid on fuch lands as are under preparation for wheat, turnip, or barley crops. It is likewife in fome fome places laid on for a pea crop, where wheat is intended to be the fucceeding crop*. The compofts, or manures, colle€ted from the ftreets of large towns, are commonly formed of a great variety of fubftances, as the recrements of decayed’ vegetables, putrid animal matters, and afhes; but from their abounding, for the moft part, with fubftances of the latter kinds, they may, on the principles we have fo often ftated, be in many inftances greatly increafed by having rich fur- face mould, or peat earth, blended with them; and by fuch a pragtice, where the manure heaps are in a condition to admit of it, the rifk of wafte, by the efcape or diffipation of their more fluid contents in the aérial or gaffeous flate, may be effe€tually guarded againft.. Such additions can, however, be only advantageoufly made, where the propor- tion of animalized materials in the manure is confiderable; in other cafes it will be better to employ them in the ftate in which they are formed and col- le€ted. This fort of manure is capable of being made ufe of with great benefit on moft foils, and in preparation for different forts of grain crops, as well as thofe of grafs. When applied in the proportion of fifteen or twenty tons to the acre, it generally produces great fertility; it fhould, however, like all other manures, be Jaid on according to the particular circumftances of the foils, and the nature of the crops for which it is employed.. The trials of pra€tical agricultors fully fhew, that the moft advantageous compofts are thofe which are formed by the combination of earthy materials with animal matters. In this way ground bones and whale-blubber have been found highly ufeful; but the effets of the former are afferted to be the moft powerful when applied on the moifter forts of foil f. * Modern Agriculture, vol, II. p. 249.+ Experienced Farmer, vol.IL.p. 47: loamy, reneral, $ to the 0 Many others.a ally co} nployed lands as in fome ceeding wns, are decayed x, for the iples we rich{ur- >, where », by the ous ftate; ye propor er cafes it 4 and col- benefit on 5 well as yns tO the all other foils, and , eous antageou materials have been > the mot! Means of augmenting and preserving Manures. 261 From the whole of what has been advanced above, it 1s therefore probable, that by proper attention to the mixing together of fuch fubftances as are adapted to aét upon each other, and fuired to the ftate of the foil, manures may be increafed and rendered much more ferviceable in promoting the growth of crops, and augmenting the fertility of land, than they have hitherto generally been. Try MEANS or AUGMENTING anv PRESERVING MANURES, On due attention being paid to the increafe of manures and the modes of preferving and managing them, in a great meafure depends the general fertility of farms, and the luxuriance or goodnefs of the crops that are grown upon them. It is therefore a matter of great intereft and importance for the farmer to fee that nothing is wafted or thrown away that can poflibly be converted. to fuch a purpofe. That there are many fubftances that may be rendered ufeful in this way, which have hitherto been little regarded by the cultivators of land, there can be little doubt, when the daily wafte of animal, vegetable, and other matters, that takes place in every country, from their being carried away by rivers, or confumed by fires, is fully confidered. Another great caufe of lofs in the production of manures is from the want of adopting or putting in praétice fuch modes of management, in refpeft to different{ubftances, as are capable of rendering them fit for the purpofe of ap- plication, in the moft quick and expeditious manner; for it is obvious, that if by properly attending to fuch means the fame quantity of manure can be pre- pared in a fhort fpace of time, which under other circumftances muft have required a long one, much increafe of manure may be effected, and confequently great advantages be gained by the cultivators of the ground. What is neceflary to be done in order to facilitate and haften the decompofition and reduction of different materials into the proper ftates for being applied to the foil, we have already feen to be, in fome meafure, the free admiflion of atmofpheric air, a quantity of moifture fuited to the condition of the matters made ufe of, and a due degree of heat. And alfo by the proper blending of animal with vegetable fubftances, in the incipient ftages, and the addition of lime, according to cir- cumftances, and in proportions fuited to the ftate and nature ofthe Ingredients. As the principal refource, on moft farms, for the production of manure, is the farm yard, it fhould be conftrutted in fuch a manner as that every thing may with eafe and facility be conyerted to the purpofe. In general one dung- 262 Means of augmenting and preferving Manures. fiead may be fufficient; but where the fize of the farmt is large, two or more may be neéceflary, as the putrefaftion of fuch heaps proceeds with greater re- gularity and expedition, from the accefs of air and moifture being more free, when they are not made too large; and, befides, they can be more conveniently turned over or removed.‘The parts of the yard on which they are fituated fhould, while they are convenient for depofiting the dung, and other matters from the fheds and other offices, upon, be neither too much elevated, fo as to caufe the dung to become dry, or fo greatly depreffed as to favour the flagnation of water upon it, and thereby deprive it of the properties moft effential to the promotion of vegetation. Before each of the dung-fteads a refervoir, or bafin, ought to be made, into which not only the drainings from all the different fheds and places where animals are fed or kept, may empty themfelves, but likewife the urine from the neceflaries, the fuds from the wathhoufes, and the wafhings of the various utenfils employed in the family. Without thefe advan- tages in the conftru€tion of farm-yards, much lofs of manure muft daily occur from the liquid matters of fuch places continually running away, and being other- ways waited, as well as from their not being made ufe of to forward the con- verfion of other fubftances into the condition of manures. ' Where thefe and fuch other fuitable accommodations as have been al- ready defcribed are provided, the farmer will have little more to do than be careful in faving or providing fuch mattérs as are fuitable for the purpofe, and caufe them to: be properly placed and removed, in order to have them fpeedily reduced‘into‘the ftate of manure, and the quantity of his dung heaps thereby greatly increafed*. In this view various vegetable matters, fuch as hay, ftraw, fern, leaves, rufhes, eoarfe graffes, flags, and many other aquatic plants, fhould be preferved and col- le€ted in as large quantities as poffible; by allowing nothing of the kind to be fold or carried from farms, except in fome particular inftances, as where they are fituated near Jarge cities, or towns, where fuch articles can be advan- tageoufly cifpofed of for the purpofe of feeding and littering horfes, or other animals, and at the fame time an equivalent in good manure be brought back to the farm; by mowing and raking together the wheat or other ftubbles, the fern from the commons, and leaves where they can be obtained, as in the vicinity of parks and other woodlands, and by cutting the coarfe graffes and aquatic vege- tables at fuch periods as they are in the moit juicy and fucculent ftates. The * See the Se€tion on Farm Buildings and Offices, OT More “ater re. Ore free, veniently - fitvated ters from to caufe nation of | to the or bafin, different lves, but and the fe advan: ccur from ig other- the con been al- y than be pofe, and n{peedily ps thereby es, rufhes, d and col- ind to be here they e advan- or other t back to , the fern jcinity Of atic Vege tes, The Means of augmenting and preferong Manuresy 205 ad whole, after being fufficiently dried, fhould be carried to the farm yards, and ftacked up in convenient fituations, either in or near them, for the purpofe of being made ufe of as litter. Befides thefe means, there are others that equally demand attention; every leifure opportunity fhould be taken, before the commencement of the foddering feafon, to bring into the farm-yards fuch quantities of peat or boggy earth, rich furface mould, marle, dry mud from ponds or ditches, ferapings of roads, loam, and other fubftances of the fame kind, as can be conveniently obtained. Such materials as-are neceffary being by thefe methods procured, the beft mode of proceeding feems to be‘that of covering the whole of the yards, where the cattle ftand and tread, and even the pig-fiies, in fome cafes, with layers of thefe earthy matters, eight, ten, or more, inches thick, according to the number of cattle, and other circumftances; and alfo to depofit in the refervoirs before the dung-fteads, proper quantities of the fame fubftances, for the liquid matters which come into them to a€t upon. Upon thefe earthy bottoms, at the time the cattle are confined, pretty thick litterings of one or more of the materials that have been colleted and ftacked up, may be placed, and the ftables, cow and ox ftalls, pig-fties,&c. cleaned out upon them. Where it is the practice to tie up and confine the cattle in the night-time, the ftraw, or other fubftances, after having been broken down and reduced by littering them, may be ufed for covering the bottoms of the yards, by which means their decay may probably be rendered more quick and convenient. It appears alfo probable, that where ftubble, fern, rufhes, leaves, or other vegetable matters, the textures of which are hard and igneous, are employed, their decay, or reduction into the ftate of manure, may be greatly expedited by means of a flight portion of lime, in its- active ftate, being fpread over the earthy bottoms before they are applied, as has been found to be the cafe with tanners’ bark. Where the matters made ufe of in the way of manures are liable to be ren- dered too dry by the weather, their putrefaftion and decay may be much pro- moted, as we have already feen, by having them{prinkled over occafionally with water, which may be conveniently and readily performed by having a pump, with troughs, fixed properly for the purpofe; or, where thefe are wanting, from a pond in the yard. To render the plan the moft effectual it 1s capable of, the whole of the cattle fhould be ftriétly confined to the fold or foddering yards, during the winter, and not turned out, as is frequently the cafe, into the paftures, by which the making of much manure is prevented, great injury, in many fituations, done to the 264. Means of augmenting and preferving Manures. grafs lands, and the ftock, from being much expofed to cold and other caufes,: benefited in afar Jefs degree than is commonly.imagined. By purfuing this method, from the great confu imption of ftraw and the coarfer forts of food, by the young lean cattle, and of hay and luxuriant vegetable roots or plants by the others, fuch quantities of animalized matters are voided, as by mixing with the bottoms of the yards haftens their putrefaction, and affords not only an immenfe increafe of manure, but of fuch as is of a very valuable kind. If there be not a fufficient proportion of animal dung and urine incorporated with the other matters, which can feldom be the cafe where the catile are not regularly confined to the fold-yards, the manure, though it may be nearly as large in quantity, is found by experience to be very inferior in its effeéts when applied to land. Where the number of cattle confined in the fold-yards is great, it may be ne- ceflary, occafionally, to remove the bottoms, and the matters littered upon them, to the dung-fteads, after they have become.in fome degree manures, by being: well faturated and blended with the urine and other animalized matters. Thefe muft be immediately replaced by others in the way we have juft noticed. The earthy fubftances from the refervoirs muft alfo be occafionally emptied out upon the dung heaps, and replaced by quantities of frefh materials of the fame kinds, and the ftems of different grofs vegetable products from gardens or other places when it can be done. At the clofe of the feafon, when the cattle are turned out of the yards, the heaps of manure which have been thus colleéted and thrown together, are to be turned over, in order that the animalized matters may thereby not only be {till more intimately incorporated with the earthy fubftances, but, likewife, that more of the pure air of the atmofphere may be retained among the clods, from their being rendered much fmaller by fuch means, and the put trefactive procefs be thereby more perfeétly produced. After this bufinefs has been well performed, as little delay as poffible fhould be fuffered to take place before the manure is applied to the foil; as from the combination of oxygen or pure air with the car- bonaceous material of the dung, and of azote with hydrogen, under thefe cir- cumftances, fuch fluid matters are formed as conftitute its moft beneficial pro- perties, but which are afterwards continually wafting fo long as it remains un- ‘applied to the ground. On thefe accounts, as well as thofe which have been already mentioned, manure heaps fhould not be made too large, but of fuch fizes only as that they can be expeditioufly turned over and put upon the Jand. And another advantage { y with nly ony an yy being Thefe mptied ; of the rdens or er, are 10 t only be vife, that ds, from » procels rformed, sanure Is the Cal hefe cit cial pro: gins UN 4 entioness t they o ‘ -employing Means of augmenting and preferving. Manures. 265 which attends the having different heaps and their not being large, is, that one salt can be prepared and carted away at a time, without the other’s being in the lea injured by any delay that may happen from unforefeen caufes, By the mixing of lime with manures compofed of earth; and dug, in the more advanced ftages of their preparation, fome increafe of quantity may likewife be produced; and at the fame time, as we have already feen, by its uniting with the nitrous acid during its formation, may prevent its being thrown off into. the at- mofphere in a gaffeous form, or readily wafhed down from the compotis by rains; and thereby preferve a fubftance that has long been found ufeful in pro- moting vegetation. As a great wafte of manure is continually taking place from the evaporation of the more liquid parts of fuch heaps, where they are much expofed.to the aGion of the fun or winds, and the wafhings of‘the rains, it would no doubt tend greatly to the faving of fuch matters, and at the fame time confiderably pro- mote their complete putrefaction and decay, to have them placed in fituations that are much fhaded by trees or other means. In the farm’ yards, it is proba- ble that moveable coverings of fome light kind of material might be highly advantageous for the fame purpofes. By thefe means the manure heaps, in fuch places, may be effectually fereened from the aGion of the funn the fummer, and prevented from being injured by the heavy rains.or fnows that fall in the winter feafon. The manures which have been preferved from the effects of the .ve alo been found, by practical agricultors, to be far weather in this way ha more efficacious in promoting the growth of crops, than under other circum- flances, confequently capable of going much further*. Different modes have been purfued, in different places, in order to procure manure from the articles of food and other matters produced on the farm; by fome it has been ftrenuoufly contended, that the moft advantageous plan is to have the whole of the hay and ftraw confumed by the different animals, without any of them in the way of litter, floors or ftandings fer-them being conftru€ted in fuch a-manner, as that they can be tied up and'kept clean an eI dry merely by fweeping, without being littered with ftraw or other fimilar, ma- ; while others affure us, on the ground of actual experience, that the SS ee | terials 1 fs: eo):= 1A dtrau method of eating the hay by the ftock, and employing the whole-of the:{iraw, ic bhyv.muc as well as other matters, in'the way of litter, as we have feen above,.is by- * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXII. p. 593% M M 266 Means of augmenting and prejerving Manures. the moft effeftual in promoting the increafe of manure. But though each of thefe methods may be prattifed, with moré or lefs advantage, according to the nature of the farms:—as where there is much grafs and little tillage land, the former may be preferable; but where the quantity of grafs is fmall, and that of arable ground large, the latter;—it 1s probable, that a judicious combination of both may be the moft beneficial, efpecially where, in addition to th> common articles, coarfe vegetable and rich earthy matters are provided and made ufe of in the way which has been mentioned, as by fucha combination the full effet can only be produced. In the former method, the lofs by means of digeftion and animalization is probably much greater than has been generally fuppofed by thofe who have maintained the fuperior utility of the praétice. The foiling of horfes, and different kinds of cattle, with rich green food, as clover, fummer-tares, and other artificial graffes, cut freth every day during the fummer feafon, and placed in cribs in the fheds or foddering yards, the bottoms or floorings of which have been prepared and ftrewed with earthy ma- terials and litter, in the manner we have already feen, is a practice by which great additions may be made to the dung-hills, as the evacuations of cattle fed in this way are very confiderable. It is remarked by the earl of Dundonald, that experience only can teach, or warrrant the belief of how few acres of ground, under the culture of artificial graffes, when cut green, and daily given to working horfes and other cattle, will fuffice for their maintenance. The arti- ficial graffes, or plants, beft adapted to this purpofe, are, he fays, red clover, tares, and faint-foin. None of thofe fucculent' plants with large ftems and leaves anfwer, he obferves, fo well to be depaftured as to be mown; not only on account of the injury they receive in being bruifed by the treading of cattle, but by being conftantly cropped and kept fhort, they are deprived of the nourifhment which they principally receive by their ftems and leaves. Saint-foin is, he thinks, beft fuited to chalky or dry foils, and to the fouthern parts of Britain. It has often been tried without fuccefs in the northern parts of England, and in Scotland. Winter tares have alfo been fown, but have not been found to anfwer any valuable purpofe. Clover and fummer tares, therefore, fhould, he thinks, be the only plants of which the cultivation on a large fcale fhould in thefe parts be attempted; and every pru- dent farmer will take care to have a full fupply of them, as in the event of a faperabundant quantity for green food, thefe crops are equally proper for hay. Tares fhould always, he fays, accompany the culture of clover, to fupply the deficiency of herbage between the firft and fecond cuttings of the clover. ich of to the q, the d that Nation MMon ule of | effedt zeftion »pofed | food, during ds, the hy ma- * which F cattle jonald, cres of y given ‘he arti: d clover, nd leaves account by being at which ks, beft en been Winter purpole. if which ery pru: nt of a for hay: pply the er. Means of augmenting and preferving Manures. 267 The quantity of manure that may be formed in this way is, probably, much greater than can be fuppofed by thofe who have not aétually made a trial of the method: by fome French writers it is ftated, that from three or four hundred fheep, kept in this mode, manure fuflicient for nearly an acre of land may be daily procured*; and the manures thus obtained are likewife afferted to be preferable to dung procured in the common method f. Befides, the great wafte that unavoidably muft take place in feeding off fuch crops is prevented, and the whole of them immediately brought into ufe; and the manure thus produced becomes of a fuperior quality, from the vaft quantities of worms and other infetts that are generated during the hot fummer months. By means of covered fheep-folds, a great increafe might alfo be made annu- ally to the flock of manure. If this neglected, but highly beneficial, pra€tice was regularly employed here, as is the cafe in many other countries, by having proper fheds and inclofures for the purpofe conftruéted, of any flight materials, near to the fold-yards, or other more convenient places of the farm, fo that the fheep might have frefh air and fufficient liberty to run about, and at the fame time have the means of being fheltered from rain, fnow, and the coldnefs of the winter feafon, the advantages to the flock would likewife be confiderable, befides the great fupply of manure that muft be provided: In order'to promote the latter advantage, the bottoms or floorings of fuch fheds and inclofures fhould be covered with fuch earthy materials as have been recommended for the cattle yards, and alfo littered upon in the fame manner; all of which ought to be removed and cleared away toa heap, or the common dung-tteads of the farm-yards, as often as they become perfeétly faturated and blended. with the dung and urine of the fheep, and frefh materials of the fame kinds fupplied. In bad weather it will be advantageous to keep them conftantly in thefe co- vered folds, and feed them with hay in ftanding racks; but when it is fine they may be fuffered to go into the paftures in the day-time, and only be put into the folds during the night. The praftice of keeping fheep in covered folds is made ufe of in Flanders for the purpofe of raifing manures with great fuccefs; and very dry fand is fome- times employed for the bottoms of the folds inftead of litter. Where the houfe-lamb fyftem is carried on to any extent, the preparing and * Laillevault. Recherches fur la Honille d’Engrais, tom. II. p. 69. + Teffier Obf. fur plufieures Maladies des Befliaux, p. go. £68 Means of augmenting and prefercing Afanures. littering of the fhed d vards, into which the ewes are occafionally put stCLCT iid O 1€ neds:an ya a5, i 2 a 1 Li) pu and the lambs kept and fuckled, might be praftifed with great advantage in refpeét to the production of manure, as animals under fuch kinds of manage- ment are conitantly found to void urine and dung in much larger quantities than in the ordinary. courfes of feeding. The ploughing down of rich green crops in their moft. fucculent ftates, in the way that has been already defcribed, is alfo a means of increafing manure that may occafionally be adopted with advantage. 3 By feeding off different green crops on the land by fheep, bullocks, or other animals, much fertility may occafionally likewife be given to the foil, at a cheap rate, as the expence of carriage is prevented, anda confiderable faving of manure thereby effe&ted. Mr. Middleton feems of opinion, that by this mode f ma- nagement the great lofs of urine and dung that unavoidably occurs in the other methods may be the moft effeCtually prevented;“ For,” fays he,“in the. ftables, cow-houfes, fheds, fold-yards, and dung-hills, even under the beft management, there is a great wafte, perhaps of half, including dung and urine; under or- dinary management three parts of this manure is loft; but in the foiling of tares, turnips, cole, clover,&c. in the fields, there is”o lofs; the whole is immediately applied, without the coft of carriage, to the enriching of the-foil.’’ It is evident, however, that in this way there muft be much more wafte than is here fuppofed: by evaporation, from the a€tion of the fun and wind over fo extenfive a furface, much of the valuable matters of manure, in fuch fituations, mutt be daily carried away; and the more fibrous or ligneous parts of the materials, which are rejefted as food by the cattle, from their being thinly fcat- tered over a large fpace, becoming dry ane hard, muft be longer before they decay, or are rendered fit for the purpofes of manure, than where they are colle€&ted together in larger quantities and in more confined fituations. Another means of increafing manures to a very great extent, is by adopting fuch methods as may effe€tually prevent the foil and urine of privies, and the various animal and vegetable materials that are continually thrown into them, in cities and large towns, from being ufelefsly retained in deep pits, or places conftructed for the purpofe, or inconfiderately wafhed away and watted, by being conveyed into rivers or ponds by fewers and drains. 7 It is tated, that, from want of fuitable modes of preferving fuch fubftances, the annual lofs, in this country, is probably not lefs than five millions of cart loads, / which, if turned to the ufes of agriculture, would be worth to the cultivators ily sling of vho le is ne ifoil.” fte than ind over ituations, rts oF the adopting and the yw into D pits, of d walted, FI ances, the art loads; cyltivators Means of augmenting and preferving Manures. 269 of the foil two millions and an half, and to the community five millions of pounds fterling*! Befides this, the eagernefs which is manifefted in many‘other countries to preferve and promote ae increafe of fuch manure, as in the Netherlands, Sweden, China, and Japan, according to the accounts of different travellers, fhews that it is a fubftance of great utility, and that a vaft fource of fertility is neglected. The moft eafy and convenient methods of preferving fubftances of this kind in the country would be, probably, by having pits formed for the reception of them, as near as poflible to the dung-fteads in farm-yards or other places, and prepared with floors of clay, or fome other material through which the liquid matters could not readily pafs; thefe might be connected with the privies by proper drains, and have covers fitted to them, in order that a quantity of mould, peat earth, faw-dutt, lime, ftems of_coarfe garden plants, or other fubftances of the fame fort, might be occafionally placed in them, and removed to be blended with the common dung heaps, as often as they became fully reduced by putrefaCtion, and well faturated and impregnated. But in large towns or cities, where fuch manures are produced in great quantities, refervoirs or bafons of large fizes fhould be conftruéted, with floors of the above kind, and be conneéted with the privies of different parts, by means of fewers or drains. Such refervoirs ought to be fo fituated as to be capable of being emptied with eafe and facility, as often as neceffary, by perfons appointed for the purpofe, and their contents carried away in the night-time,~ Where there is the convenience of rivers, however, as in London, and many other Lt -afes, be readily emptied from bafons of this fort, formed on their banks for the purpofe, or perhaps from the extremities of the common fewers themfelves, by means of proper fluices, into covered boats or barges, and thus cheaply carried to a diftance, for the advantage of agriculture; a method, in fome refpe€ts, pra€tifed with fuccefs in Sweden f. As this kind of manure is extremely lal populous cities and towns, a large proportion of fuch manures might, in moft , from the agitation of the carriage in which it is moved, to become fo sie as to be conveyed with great difficulty, it is probable, that by having fuch earthy or other fubftar have been mentioned above, or as could be conveniently procured in fuc at S$ aS arge * Middleton in Tranfactions of the Society of Arts,&c. vol. XVII. + Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I. p. 247- ba) CB 270 Means of augmenting and preferving Manures. cities or towns, fuch as the long littery dung from livery ftables, lime rubbith from the pulling down of old houfes, and the frefh earth dug up in preparing the foundations for new ones, mixed and blended with it in the pits or refervoirs, for fome time before they are cleaned out, the difficulties attending the carriage of it might not only, in a great meafure, be obviated, but the difagreeable fmell iffuing from it. be much correéted, and the quantity of ma- nure greatly augmented. By fome method of this nature, under the management and dire€tion of proper perfons, vaft ftores of fertility might be provided in fuch places for the neighbouring diftri€ts, which inattention or popular prejudice at prefent withhold from the ufes of agriculture. In the vicinity of the fea, where fhell and ether fmall fithes can frequently be procured in large quantities, by having them well mixed and incorporated with good furface-emould, peat-earth, or other fimilar matters, a vaft increafe of good manure may alfo be produced. In fuch fituations too, the weeds cut from the fides of the rocks, or which are thrown up by the tides, when colleéted into heaps, andmixed with{mall proportions of lime and fuitable quantities of mould or earth, may contribute greatly to the increafe of the compoft heaps on the farms. It is obferved by an intelligent writer, in{peaking of calcareous fubftances, that the recent fhells obtained from fifhing towns, operate much more power- fully as an animal manure than as a calcareous matter, when firftapplied; and that it is not impoffible but that man may, in time, fall upon fome contrivance for obtaining this animal calcareous manure in much greater abundance and perfection than it has hitherto been obtained.‘ There is,” fays he,“a{mall {pecies of frefh-water wilk, which increafes fo faft, as in a furprifingly fhort time to filla confiderable fpace with folid wilks, if a few of them have been placed in a proper receptacle for that purpofe, and water duly adminiftered to them. If then ponds were prepared for this purpofe, and properly ftocked with this animal, and if they were allowed to increafe till a bed of them, of confider- able thicknefs, was accumulated, might they not then,” fays he,“ be taken out in abundance to be employed as a manure? Thefe, if bruifed under a ftone like a tanner’s wheel, to reduce the fhell to{mall fragments, would certainly,” he fays,** form as rich and efficacious a manure as could poflibly be devifed; nor could there be any difficulty in difpofing the ponds in fuch a manner as to afford a conftant annual fupply*.” * Anderfon’s Effays, vol. I. p. 569. ca arr i es" tweet ma of Clon ot ices for prefent quently rporated reafe of cut from ted into »f mould e farms. ftances, , power- ed; and ntrivance ance and «4{mall gly{hort ave been ftered to ed with onfider- e taken -a ftone rtainly,” devifed; yer as 10 7 r Means of augmenting and preferving Muanurcs. 271 (=) The vegetable mould or other materials contained in the bottoms of ditches, and in boggy, hollow places, where water frequently ftagnates, and large crops of aquatic or other plants alternately vegetate and decay, may likewife be dug up and applied with benefit to foils for which they are proper, either in the ffate in which they are found, or after they have been formed into compofts with dung, lime, or fome other fubftance of a fimilar kind. Clay may alfo be employed with great advantage on fandy foils, and fave other more valuable manures; it feems, however, to be the moft ferviceable for this purpofe after it has been imperfe€tly burnt in clamps or kilns, probably from the proportion of oxygen or pure air that is thus combined with it, or with the metallic matters which it contains. In fhort, it is neceffary, in order to in- creafe the ftock of manures on farms to the greateft pofble extent, to be careful that none of fuch animal or vegetable fubftances as are capable of being converted into manure, be thrown away or confumed by fire, but that they be all conveyed to the dung-fteads in the farm-yards or other places, or laid in heaps of themfelves, and fuffered to pafs into fermentation, by which they may be fpeedily reduced to manure. Where the matter thus made ufe of chiefly confifts of weeds and the ftems or roots of coarfe plants, fuch as peas, beans, cabbages, docks, nettles,&c. their decay may be greatly promoted. by a little quick-lime being blended with them. Such heaps fhould alfo be covered over pretty well with fome of thofe earthy matters that have been fo frequently mentioned. As we have feen that the different materials which are made ufe of for the purpofe of.manure, pafs through different ftages of decompofition and decay, in each of which fuch matters of the folid or fluid kinds are formed, as are capable of contributing to the nutrition and fupport of vegetable crops, but which are liable to be diffipated or carried away by the agency of various caufes, it may be neceffary to guard againft fuch wafte by keeping the dung-heaps covered, in every fituation, as much as poffible, with earth or foil, both in the early periods in which heat is evolved, and at the later ones, when ammonia or volatile alkali is formed; as by fuch management the proceffes of decompofition, when too rapid, may be reftrained, and the elaftic matters that are gradually fet at liberty be abforbed by thefe coverings, while the more fluid ones are detained by the earthy bottoms on which they had been placed, and thus the whole of the valuable properties of the manure be preferved. GENERAL APPLICATION or MANURES. re to land, feveral circumftances are neceflary to be confidered, fuch as the ftate or condition of the fubftances which are to be made ufe of, the nature of the foils.on which they are to be laid, the kind of crop that is to be promoted by them, and the feafon in which they are put into or upon the ground. As we have already moment the materials of the dung-heap are which they are reduced into a black carbonic earth of the different ftages through which they pafs in this procefs of decompolition, fuch fubftances are formed as are capable of contributing to the nutrition and fupport of vegetable crops; it feems probable, that in cafes where manures are to be turned into the ground, and fuch crops cultivated as require a fupply of nourifhment for a confiderable length of time, they fhould be employed in their long or more imperfe€tly reduced ftates, as by the heat which is evolved in the commencement of their diffolution, the procefs of early vegetation may be r gradual decompofition and decay afterwards, under urable and regular fupply of nutrient materials, and thereby contribute more effeGually to the growth of the crops; but that where they are to be buried in, or applied to, the furface of the foil, and intended iefit and fupport of fuch crops as are of fhort duration, or In the application of manu feen that changes are continually taking place from the thrown together, to the period in y matter; and that in moft creatly promoted, and thei ad the ground, afford a more d merely for the be1 quickly arrive at their full growth, they may be more advantageoufly made ufe {h.¢ of after they have been more fally and completely reduced, as in this{tate the manure is, in the cafe of grafs lands, not only capable of being fpread out ina 1 more regular and uniform manner, by which it becomes more evenly as well as more generally carried down to the roots‘of the plants by rains,‘but it is in'the moft fuitable condition for allowing the young plants the means of fpringing up with facility, and at the fame time, whether ufed under or upon the foil, of abundant fupply of nourifhment which is neceflary to affording the crops that and by thefe means to contribute the their fpeedy crowth and great luxuriance, moft perfe€ily to the promotion of their increafe. Befides the above advantages of long, or imperfe€tly, decay he foil into which they are turned, and the nature Vhere they are employed ed manures, they have others that depend ont of the crops that are fown or planted with them.\ period in at in mott m pohition, trition and yanures are | fupply of ed in theit lved in the mn may be ards, undet ) aterials, ald t that where +] nd intencce sad out 1n 4 CaU hey qnures, uy Py. 1 the nally \4 o , , , employe ate Men Application of Manures. Q73 in fuch ftiff, clayey, or loamy grounds, as have a great tendency to become dry and hard, and thereby incapable of admitting the tender fibrous roots of grains or other plants to fpread or extend themfelves, and draw in more abundant fup- plies of nourifhment, they may be ufeful by keeping the earth around them in a more open and porous ftate, from the flowneis of their decompofition, and the gradual and continued manner in which the different elaftic matters are fet loofe and united with the foil. Hence, when barley, or fuch kinds of grain as require a rather light and open ftate of foil, and thofe bulbous or knobby rooted plants, fuch as potatoes, that require much room to fhoot and extend themfelves, are cultivated on fuch ftiff foils, they are generally found to be the moft pro- du&tive where fuch long or imperfeily reduced manures have been made ufe of in the preparation of the land. Andas in the flow and gradual decompofition of the materials which are made ufe of for manures, when flightly depofited beneath the foil, there 1s much lefs watte of heat and thofe elaftic matters which contribute fo greatly to the fup- port of vegetation, than where they are made to undergo the various proceffes of diffolution in large maffes, as in dung heaps, they may probably fometimes on that account be moft advantageoufly employed in this ftate. On this principle too the ploughing down of frefh vegetable crops, in many cafes, in their moft fucculent ftates, may be a more economical as well as more bene- ficial pra€tice; efpecially in fuch light and dry kinds of foil as will more readily admit of their gradual putrefation and decay, than to cut and take them off for the purpofe of being by other means converted into manure. It feems likewife probable, on the fame grounds, that for the produétion of crops of bulbous-rooted vegetables on the more{tiff and tenacious foils,the matters made ufe of as manures may be employed with the greateft advantage, when put into the earth before they have undergone any great degree of decay by means of putrefattion, as in this way there is no wafte, the whole being ultimately converted and applied, though more flowly, to the fupport of the crops. As to the feafon in which manures may be put into the foil, or fpread out upon its furface, with the greateft benefit and advantage, though in practice it muft, in fome meafure, depend on the fate of the land and the convenience of the farmer, it fhould, in cafes where they are buried in the ground, be as nearly as poffizle to the periods in which the feeds or the roots, which they are de- figned to fupport, are fown or placed in the earth; and in the latter cafe, or where they are to be laid upon the furface of the land, it ought probably to N WN 274 Application of Manures. be juft before the crops of grafs, or other vegetables, begin naturally to fpring or fhoot forth.: By the practice of depofiting and blending the manure with the foil, nearly at the time the crops are put in, there is fcarcely any waite of the fertilizing properties of fuch fubitances, which, as they gradually proceed in their de- compoiition and decay under the ground, muft otherwife be the cafe, the roots of the plants not being in the moft proper flates for taking them up and con- verting them to their fupport. Befides, in the ftiff, loamy, or clayey forls,. they have a tendency, as has been remarked above, to produce a degree of light- nefs and friability that is fuited to the early proces of vegetation. And it is obferved by an able writer, that“ the atmofpheric air, which is buried along with the manure in the interftices of the earth, and which for many weeks, or even months, renders the foil loofe and eafily impreffed by the foot on walking on it, gradually evolves, by its union with carbon, a genial heat, very friendly to vegetation in this climate, as well as the immediate produétion of much fluid carbonic acid, and probably of a fluid mixture of nitrogen with hydrogen, which are believed to fupply much nutriment to plants aoe And by the application of fuch manures as are employed in the way of top- dreflings in the beginning of the fpring, they are laid on in the moft favourable period for affording their nutritious principles, and for their being drank up by the: roots of plants, confequently become ufeful at the time they are moft wanted for the promotion of the crops, and the great wafte which muft other- wife be caufed, either by the exceffive falls of rains and floods in the winter feafon, wafhing down much of the valuable properties into the adjoining rivers and ditches, or the evaporation of their more volatile or elaftie matters by means of the fummer heats, is moft effeGtually guarded againft and prevented. The pra€tice common in fome places of applying manure to grafs lands in the latter end of fummer or beginning of autumn, after the firft crop of hay has been taken from the ground and the after-grafs has begun to make fhoots, is not by any means fo favourable as that of early fpring, as in the latter cafe the gene- ration of thofe materials that contribute to the fupport of vegetation is greatly promoted by the conftantly increafing heat of the vernal and fummer months; while in the former it is conftantly checked and retarded by the increafing cold- nefs of the autumn and winter feafons. Befides, the manure, by being fpread gut upon the furface of the land, under fach circumftances, muft be the caufe ® Darwin's Phytologia, p. 25r. MilZi 2eks, or walking endly to ch fluid drogen, of top- ourable k up by sre moft aft other- he winter ing rivers rie by means d. ids in the hay has ts, is not ne gene- tl s grea y months; ing cold ig(pread 1g the cau Application of Manures. 275 of great lofs, by contaminating the after-grafs, and rendering it incapable of being eaten off by cattle or other kinds of live ftock. Where, however, a fecond crop of hay is to be taken, it may fometimes be put on at fuch times with advantage to fuch crop, efpecially if the weather be not too hot, and the manure in a perfeCtly fine and reduced ftate. Do&tor Fenwick, in his very ingenious refleCtions on manures, has very well obferved, that it is{carcely poffible to fuggeft a worfe mode of, ufing manures on grafs lands, than that which is almoft univerfally practifed in the neighbour- hood in which he refides; and it is the fame in many other parts of the country, as is evident from the reports that have been lately publifhed under the au- thority of the Board of Agriculture:“ Whena fevere froft has bound up the land in a ftate of impenetrable cohefion, the farmers,” fays he,‘‘ wheel on their dung, perhaps even when fnow has covered it. While the froft lafts the land can de- rive no advantage from the manure, and when a thaw fupervenes it is evident that the wath from the melting fnow, or from the rains which generally fall in fuch weather, muft deprive the mafs of every part that 1s foluble.. The ground, in the mean time, retains the froft for many days, and is therefore incapable of abforbing the wet which falls upon its furface; and even when the influence of the milder air has reached it, it can imbibe but little, being in general pre- vioufly filled with water, and the quantity which flows over it being too great for foil under any circumftances to drink up*.” In favour of this deftru€tive and wafteful praftice, however much it may have been defended on the ground of the farmer’s leifure or convenience, and the little injury done to the turf or fward of the land, the fame writer thinks there can be only one reafon alleged, which is, that manure, when fpread early in the winter, may proteét the roots of graffes from the feverity of frofts. This too is probably a miftaken notion, as it is known to every one, that the common graffes are feldom injured by the fevereft frofts; and other kinds of graffes may probably not fuffer lefs injury from the application of manure at fuch a feafon, than from the feverity of frofts. On all thefe accounts, therefore, farmers fhould contrive as much as poffible to apply the manures, intended as top-dreflings to grafs lands, as early in the{pring as it can be conveniently done, which may be eatily managed on thofe that are dry, and on fuch as are inclined to be wet and poachy, it may probably be areatly facilitated by having fmall light carts conftruéted for the purpofe, and placed on broad cylinders as wheels. We are fully convinced, from the trials * Fenwick’s Reflections on Manures, p. 23.—Newcaftle. Application of Manures. which we have made in applying’ manures to grafs lands at fuch periods, that the trouble of the farmer will not only be rewarded by much larger crops of hay, i but alfo by a confiderable increafe in the quantity of the after-grafs; and, be- fides; his crops in both inftances will be more forward than in the ordinary ime- thods of putting them on, either in‘the autumn or the winter months, which in 11 TE many cafes is. a circumftance of great importance./ C In the application of manures to lands under tillage, as well as thofe ia the:' P}‘oye; ftate of grafs, there are a few other circumftances that require the attention of cultivators; fuch as the depth they may be depofited in the foil, the modes of put- | } i ti ti || ij i HW| P 5 al| He ting them upon the ground, and the moft economical methods obemploying them. table matters, whether above or beneath the ground, is greatly promoted by the | i il free admiffion of air and a fuitable degree of moifture to them, it is evident that Hah| they fhould not be buried fo deep in the earth, as that they may be‘prevented i from readily receiving the aid of fuch caufes in forwarding their decompofition; if nor, as the procefs is known to be much retarded by the fubftances being ren- dered too dry, fhould they be placed fo near the furface, or be fo thinly covered, as to permit the a€tion of the fun and winds, before the crops have rifen to fuch i heights as to prevent it, from diffipating and carrying away their nutritious pro- ie perties. The introdution of the manure to a middling depth, as three or four | Hi ii As we have already feen that the putrefa‘tion and decay of animal and vege-| | inches, would, therefore, on thefe accounts, as well as from its contributing more HH expeditioufly and more fully to the vegetation of the crops that may be put in i with it, feem, in general, to be the moft advantageous practice; but on the lighter 5)> 5> and more friable foils, it may be advifable to plough it into a greater depth iba in fuch as are heavy and tenacious. In every cafe, however, whether the manure made ufe of be in a long or a more reduced ftate, it fhould be perfeéily covered ay or ploughed into the a The pra€tice of burying manures deep in the foil, i)| has been defended by fome on the ground of its being the nature of elaftic. Wi natters to rife or force themfelves towards the furface; but when they are an placed toa confiderable depth in the earth, as the procefs of decompofition is vt thereby flopped, or fuffered to proceed in but a very flow and feeble manner, little or nothing efcapes for the fupport of vegetation, or it is furnifhed in fo very flow and fparing a way, as to be of fcarcely any fervice to the immediate crops. Thus in the culttvation of fuch crops as are placed in rows or drills, Wt where the manure is put into a great depth and covered pretty thickly with. , i earth, on digging them up at the end of miany months it may frequently be ob- AW ferved nearly in the fame ftate it was when firft put into the ground. And the fame thing is often noticed by gardeners, where imperfe€tly reduced or long hat the of bag, nd, be- ary Me. hich in fe 4a the ntion of of put. ¢ them. d vege- | by the ent that evented yofition; ing Ten- ered, as to fuch us pro- or four ng more be putin ne lighter h than in 2 manure covered the foil, f elaftic manner, .4 in fo mediate or drills, Application of Manures. 277 dung is placed in-deep trenches and covered to a confiderable thicknefs with mould. In order that manures may produce their effets in the moft perfect manner, they fhould be fpread over the furfaces of the grounds as evenly as. poffible, whe- ther they be intended to be turned into the foil or left upon its furface as top- drefiings. This may be greatly facilitated by placing the manures out at firft in very fmall heaps, as by fuch a practice it may be fpread over the ground with -much greater eafe and exaCinefs; and on grafs lands much lefs injury will be done by the bottoms of the heaps. On titlage lands, manures fhould always be turned in, or otherwife covered, as'foon as poflible after they are fpread out; for if this be negleGted, much lofs may be fuftained, efpecially in hot feafons, by the quick evaporation that takes place in fuch cafes. The beft practice is therefore not to carry more out from the dunghill at a time than can be conveniently fpread upon and ploughed into the earth in a fhort time afterwards. In fpreading manures employed as top-dreffings on grafs]ands, much advantage will be gained by breaking and reducing the clods or lumps into as fine a ftate as poffible, as by fuch means they are not only applied more perfeGily, but wafhed by the rains much more readily to the roots of the graffes. The fpringing of the young graffes is alfo lefs retarded where the manures are rendered fine and powdery, than where they are left in a cloddy‘tate. Inthe ufe of manures, it feems not improbable but that fome degree of faving may occafionally be made, as has been already recommended, by applying them on lands under tillage, as well as others, nearly at the time the feeds and roots are put into the ground, or when the grafies begin to fhoot; as from the whole of‘the manure being in this way made to contribute direétly to the fapport of the crops, a lefs quantity maybe fufficient for the purpofe: how far they may be fafely diminithed on this principle, can only be fhewn by aétual experiments and accurate deductions made from them; but there are fufficient grounds, from what has‘been‘obferved, ifor‘fuppofing that it may be confiderably more than can be eafily apprehended iby‘thofe who have not adverted much to this circumftance. Another economical mode of employing manure is, by placing it in the drills or hollows formed for the reception of different crops which are cultivated in ‘yOWS, as peas,‘beans, cabbages, potatoes,&c.: by this method, that part of the ground which is intended to bear the crop is only manured, the intervals or fpaces between the rows not receiving any, froin which, where the bufinefs 273 Application of Manures. sure into the drills is properly performed, a great faving muft of courfe be made. According to the conclufions of a later writer, the faving of manure in this way is fo great as to conftitute one of the chief advantages of the drill fyftem of cultivation. His calculation is, that by“ drills being made two feet afunder, and each drill fix inches wide at the bottom, there will be juft one fourth part of the ground covered with manure; for as fix inches, multiplied by four, gives two feet, which will be the diftance from drill to drill, and as four multiplied by four makes fixteen, it follows, that if the whole of the Jand had been covered with manure, fixteen loads would have been re- quired for what is as fully and beneficially performed by four, that is by one quarter of the quantity ufed by the old inethod of dreffing, fuppofing it of the fame thicknefs and quality*.” Belides, from the manure being in this method kept clofely together, and the feeds or plants placed immediately upon it, they he fufpeéts, receive the advantage of the drefling in a more full and com- of putting the mat muit, plete manner. As it appears probable that in the decay of different materials in the foil, all the nutritious matters as they are formed immediately become ufeful for the purpofe of vegetation, without any wafte being fuftained, as muft always be more or lefs the cafe where they are depofited together in heaps, it may be an economical. practice, as has been already obferved, in cafes where the crops to be benefited by them require a regular and lafting but not large fupply of nou- rifhment, or where the ground is required to be kept in an open and rather light ftate, for a confiderable length of time, to employ fuch manures in their Jefs decompofed ftates, as by the ploughing down of green fucculent vegetable crops, and the turning in of long ftrawy fubftances. By adopting fuch means, the more perfectly formed manures of the farm may be referved for fuch crops of luxuriant vegetables as demand more fpeedy 2 and abundant fupplies of nutrient matters. In refpeét to the advantage of ufing one fort of manure in preference to an- other, it may be obferved, that as animal matters are found in general to un- dergo more fpeedily the procefs of putrefaclion or decompofition, than thofe of the vegetable kind, and as in moft inftances they afford thofe mucilaginous and elaftic principles that contribute fo largely to the fupport of vegetable life in greater proportions 5 fuch manures as are either wholly or in a great meafure compofed of them, muft be the moit beneficially employed, where quick and * Experienced Farmer, vo!. Il. ng mut Q faving Tages of Ng made Will be C inches, 1 to dril, whole of been re- s by one it of the 5 method n it, they and com: e foil, all | for the lways be ay be an s crops to ly of now: and rather es in ther ble t yegetad f the farm ore fpeedy sce to alle ral to un- in thofe of ojnous and D sy ble life it} at meafure quick and Application of Manures. 279 abundant fupplies of nourifhment are required, as in the growth of all the more erofs and luxuriant crops, whether of grain, plants, or grafles; and that as thofe vegetable fubftances which contain faccharine, farinaceous, oily, faline, or mucilaginous principles in the largeft quantities are afcertained from expe- rience to proceed the moft readily into the ftate of diffolution or decay, and confequently to afford more fully and more expeditioufly the nutrient food of new plants, where manures are principally formed from them, they fhould be preferred to fuch as have been made from the harder and more Iigneous vege- table fubftances, that contain fuch properties in fcarcely any, or much fmaller degrees, for all the purpofes of agriculture. And laftly, fuch fubftances as are found to contain thofe elementary materials, of which vegetables are principally conftituted in their more foluble or loofely combined ftates, as carbonaceous matter in the black earths or moulds, and oxygen, azote, and hydrogen, in burnt clay, raddle*, manganefe, and calamy, fubftanees which have hitherto been little employed, as well as in water and air, fhould be made ufe of in preference to thofe which poffefs them in flight proportions or fcarcely at all. The moft convenient and advantageous modes of applying particular kinds of manures have been fo fully confidered, in the preceding parts of the fection, that nothing further feems neceflary to be added here in refpect to them. * Raddle, according to the information of Dr. Darwin’, has lately been ufed with advantage on fome lands in the north of Staffordthire. Phytologia, p. 223. € 280 SECTION ) Vill. Draining of Land. rr* y, Y y rey Sco SE a oa See et pe Mu CEE: W ATER nece/) Wy 09 THe healthy Growth of Plants— H 1g bly tip ut Z0uS LO, ween Yélalneda ti or C ¥ 5 J; p fe 5; J; them; nt‘i‘i and ants alley, 4) of hills of - materials into te h as were ] fe elevate Draining of Land,, 983 But in whatever way or from whatever caufes it may have happened, that thofe firata which are placed at confiderable depths at the bottoms of hills , and other more elevated regions, prefent themfelves and become fuperficial upon their fummits, itis evident that they frequently prove the means of rendering the erounds below wet and fwampy: for, from the night dews, and the general moifture of the atmofphere, being condenfed in much greater quantities in fuch elevated fituations; from their greater coldnefs, or other caufes, than in thofe level furfaces which are below*; the water thus formed, as well as that which falls in rain and finks through the fuperficial porous materials, readily infinuate themfelves, and thus paffes along between the firft and fecond, or ftill more inferior, ftrata which compofe the fides of fuch elevations, until their defcent is retarded or totally obftructed, as has been juft fhewn, by fome impenetrable fubftance, fuch as clay;‘it there becomes dammed up, and ultimately forced to filtrate flowly over it, or to rife to-fome part of the furface, and conftitute, according to the particular circumftances of the cafe, different watery-ap- pearances in the grounds below; fuch as oozing{prings, bogs, fwamps or moraffes, weeping rocks from the water flowly iffuing in various places, or a large fpring or rivulet from the union of fmall currents beneath the eround. This is obvious from the fudden difappearance of moifture on fome parts of lands, while it ftagnates, or remains till removed by the effects of evaporation, on others; as well as from the force of fprings being ftronger in wet than dry weather, breaking out frequently after the land has been impregnated with much moifture in higher fituations, and as the feafon be- comes drier ceafing to flow, except at the loweft outlets. The force of fprings, or proportion of water which they fend forth, depends likewife, in a great meafure, on the extent of the high ground on which the moifture is re- ceived and detained, furnifhing extenfive refervoirs or colleGiions of water, by which they become more amply and regularly fupplied. On this account, what afe termed bog-fprings, or fuch as rife in valleys and low grounds, are confider- # Tt is obferved by Dr. Darwin, in the firftt volume of his Botanic Garden, p. 485, additional note xxvi. that the lowett ftrata of the earth appear on the higheft hills; that{prings are formed from dews fliding between them; that mountains are colder than plains; 1. from their being infulated in the air; 2. from their enlarged furface; 3. from the rarity of the air it becomes a better conductor of heat; 4. by the air on mountains being mechanically rarefied as it afcends; 5. gravitation of the matter of heat; 6. the dafhing of clouds againft hills; of fogs againft trees; fprings ftronger in hot days with cold nights; ftreams iflue from fubterranean Caverns; from beneath the{now on the Alps. 284 Draining of Land. ably ftronger and more regular in their difcharge, than fuch as burft forth on the more elevated fituations or the fides of eminences*. The waters condenfed in the manner defcribed above on the tops of elevated regions, are fometimes found to defcend, for a very confiderable diftance, among the porous fubftances between the different condufting layers of clayey or other materials, before they break out or fhew themfelves in the grounds below; but it is more frequently the cafe to find them proceeding from the contiguous elevations into the low grounds that immediately furround them. The nature and regularity of the ftratum of materials, on which the water proceeding from the fummits of hills has to filtrate and flide upon, muft confiderably influence its courfe, as well as the effects which it may pro- duce on fuch lands as lie below and into which it muft pafs: as where it is of the clayey, ftiff marly, or impervious rocky kinds, and not interrupted or broken by any other kind of materials of a more porous quality, it may pafs on to a much greater diftance, than where the ftratum has been frequently broken and filled up with loofe porous materials, in which it will be detained, and of courfe rife up to the furface. It is for the moft part on the clayey, ftiffclofe marly, and unfra€tured ftony ftrata, that water is condu@ted from the hills and more elevated grounds into the plains and valleys which are below them. Thefe forts of ftrata extend to very different depths in different fituations and diftri€ts, as has been frequently noticed in the digging of pits, and the finking of deep wells, and other fubterraneous cavities. The clayey ftrata are, however, in general found to be more fuperficial than thofe of the compat, tenacious, marley kinds, or even thofe of a firm, uninterrupted, rocky nature, and feldom of fuch a great thicknefs; they have, neverthelefs, been obferved to vary greatly in this refpe&t, being met with in fome places of a confiderable thicknefs, while in others they fearcely exceed a few inches. The intervening porous fubftances or ftrata where clay prevails are found, for the moft part, to be of either a gravelly or loofe rocky nature. Stiff marly ftrata, which approach much to the quality of clay, though in fome inftances they may prefent themfelves near the furface, in general lie concealed at confi- derable depths under the true clayey, and other layers of earthy or other mate- rials: they have been difcovered of various thickneffes, from eight or ten feet + See Johnfton’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 15 1 on the clevated diftance, f Clayey orOUnds rom the them. le Water on, mutt nay. pro- here it is upted ot y pafs on y broken 1, and of ad ftony nds into ations and {inking of owever, 12 tenacious, nd feldom ry greatly 2fs, while e found, iff marly . inftances {at conlie her mate yr ten feet Draining of Land. 283 to confiderably more than a hundred*. The intervening materials, where ftrata of this nature are predominant, are moft commonly of the more fandy kinds, peffefling various degrees of induration, fo as in fome cafes to become perfe€lly hard and rocky, but with frequent breaks or fiffures paffing through them. The loofe, friable, marly ftrata are capable of abforbing water, and of admitting it to filtrate and pafs through them. It may be concluded from this view of the nature and arrangement of the vari- ous ftratified materials that conftitute the earth, and the manner in which water is formed on the more elevated and hilly fituations, and brought down from them, that the valleys and more level grounds below muft conftantly be liable to be overcharged with moifture, and, as has been already fhewn, to become in confe- quence of it fpouty, boggy, or of the nature of a morafs, accordingly as they may be circumftanced in refpe&t to their fituation, the nature of their foils, or the materials by which the water is obftructed and detained in or upon them. Where lands have a fuflicient degree of elevation to admit of any over-pro- portion of moifture readily pafling away, and where the foils of them are of fuch an uniform fandy or gravelly and uninterrupted texture, as to allow wa- ter to percolate and pafs through them with facility, they can be little inconve- nienced by water coming upon or into them, as it muft of neceflity be quickly conveyed away into the adjacent rivers or fmall runlets in their vicinity. But where grounds are in a great meafure, flat, and without fuch degrees of elevation as may be fufficient to permit thofe over-proportions of moifture that may have come upon them from the higher and more elevated grounds, either in the way that has been fhewn above, or from the overflowing of rivers and. {maller ftreams of water that may pafs through or near them, and from the falling of heavy rains, to readily pafs away and be carried off; and where the foils of the lands are compofed or conftituted of fuch materials as are liable to admit and retain the excefles of moifture that may in any of thefe ways come upon them; they muft be expofed to much injury and inconvenience from the retention and ftagnation of fuch quantities of water, and confequently require artificial means to drain and render them capable of affording good crops, whe- ther of grain or grafs: and, laftly, lands of valley$ and other low places, as well as, in fome cafes, the level tracts on the fides or borders of large rivers and of the fea, from the peculiarity of their fituations, and their being compofed in a great meafure of porous or fpongy materials, formed by the diffolution and de- * See Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 259. Draining of Land. cay of various coarfe vege etable and other matters, which are produced on them, Me or which have been gradually, for a vaft length of time, wafhed down and, Wl brought into them from the hills and rifing grounds by rains and other| ot caufes, or depofited by means of floods, fo as to form different degrees of accumus& lation, according to the difference of fituation or other circumftances, muft alfo b t frequently be fubje& to great injury and inconv enience from their imbibing and retaining the water that may be thus forced to flow up into or upon them, either SS the different condu€ting ftrata from the hills and mountainous elevations the neighbourhood, or the porous materials of the foils; as in thefe ways they may, as we have already feen, be rendered{wampy, and have bogs or moraffes Tealiead: in them in proportion to the predominancy of the materials by which the water isabforbed and dammed up, and the peculiarity of the fituation of the lands in refpect to the means of conveying it away. On ee grounds, efides a knowledge of the nature and inclination of the Go 7arious ae hat compofe the interior parts of the earth, it is clear that, in order to properly perform the bufinefs of draining, attention fhould not only be paid to the pte ion of the differences in regard to the fituation of the lands, or what is commonly denominated drainage level, but alfo to the nature, diftribution, and depth of the materials that conftitute the foils or more fuperficial parts of them, as upon each of thefe fome variety in refpeét to the effects arifing from water retained in them may. depend. But though there may be confiderable diverfity in the effects wl hich water produces in or upon lands from thefe different caufes, wetnefs of land, fo far as it refpeéts agriculture, and is an object of draining, may genera lly depend onthe two following caufes: firft, on the water iia is formed and collected on or in the hills or higher grounds, in the manner which has been explained, fil- trating and fliding down among fome of the different beds of porous materials that lie immediately upon the impervious ftrata, forming fprings below and flowing over the furface, or ftagnating underneath it; fecondly, on rain or othe water becoming ftagnant on the furface, from the retentive nature of the foil or| furface materials, and the particular nature of the fit. tion of the ground. The; particular wetnefs which fhews itfelf in different fituations, in the forms of bogs, f{wamps, and morafles, for the moft part procee-ds from the firft of thefe caufes but that fuperficial wetnefs which: takes place in the ftiff, tenacious, clayey foils, with little inclination of furface, generally originates from the latter. Oo n 1 From the ideas which have been fae fted refpetting the nature and form- f the different ftrata that com a the earth, and of the manner in which tL on them, WN and id other ACCU. by which yn of the on of the , in order ye paid to _or what tion, and of them, om waler hich water and,{0 fat lly depend 1 colledted lained, fil- materials Draining of Land. 257 water flides, filtrates, or paffes down among or between them, and forms‘prin’s, which, according to circumftances, render the grounds below bogey, iw or too wet for the purpofes of agriculture, it is evident that the beft«1 certain, as well as the moft expeditious, method of draining, in fuch cafes, muit be that of intercepting the defcent of the water or fpring, and thereby totally ) removing the caufe of wetnefs. This may be done where the depth of the fuperficial ftrata, and confequently of the{pring, is not great, which may be pre- vioufly known by the ufe of a draining auger, by making horizontal drains of confiderable length acrofs the declivities of the hills, about where the low grounds of the valleys begin to form, and conneéting thefe with others made for the purpofe of conveying the water thus colleéted into the brooks or runlets that may be near. And as the ftrata between which the water paffes down to produce fuch f{prings have, for the moft part, nearly a fimilarity of inclination with that of the furface of the hill or rifing ground, the auger holes of the drains fhould not, as is the general practice, be made dire@ly downwards, but perpendicularly to the furface of the elevation, as in this way the ftratum on which the water pafles down may be more readily dug to and the water drawn off*; or where the fpring has naturally formed itfelf an outlet, it may frequently only be neceflary to ren- der it larger, and of more depth, which by affording the water a more free and open paflage may evacuate and bring it off more quickly, or fink it to a level fo greatly below that of the furface of the foil, as to prevent it from flowing into or over If. But where the fprings, from the great thicknefs of the upper ftratum, are confined at fuch a depth beneath the furface as that they injure it, by render- ing it conftantly moift, or by imperceptibly oozing through it, but afford no marks of any particular outlets; and where a drain cannot be cut fo deep as to come to them, either on account of the great difficulty of doing it or the expence that muft attend it, or where the level of the outlet will not allow of its being cut to that depth; it will be neceflary, after cutting ditches in the way that has been jutt explained, to perforate the foil beneath by means of a boring inftrument con- fiderably deeper, fo as to reach the fpring, and thus give free vent to the water colleéted below;—a method of pra€tice which feems long ago to have been in~ genioufly fuggefted by Dr. Anderfon, and fince more fully and: more particu- larly applied by Mr. Elkington. Where this can be effe&tually accomplifhed, fuch a number of perforations * See Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 262. tii: 238 Draining of Land. My | cst c | i|| fhould be made as will allow the confined water to pafs readily into the drains, and be conveyed by the conneéling ditches to the adjoining fireams of the neigh- | bourhood: in thefe cafes the water coming freely into the.drains feveral feet it below the moift furface of the land, and being then condufted away, will not nt be forced up through the fuperincumbent materials of the feil to the furface | which is fo much higher®. ||\. Ret alle°-.°;...‘ a ae PRA IRs a || As in cafes of this kind; where, after boring in this manner, the water breaks forth with confiderable violence, it may fometimes be apt to bring up with it F a‘ e 1 | fuch quantities of fand, or other fubftances, as may block up the holes and pre- | vent the free exit of the water, it may be neceflary to apply the auger frequently \ f i in order to remove it. A ftriking mftance of this kind is related in the Philofo- | phical TranfaCtions, where, on the finking of a well four feet wide, and 236 feet deep, and then boring fome feet deeper with a five-inch borer, fo much fand was forced up by the impetuofity of the water that broke forth as to fill the | I well, and which on being cleared away by buckets in its liquid ftate, fuffered HH the water to flow over the furface in the quantity of forty-fix gallons in a i| mubute. There may be{till other fituations of lands, as where the uppermoft ftratum | | is fo extremely thick as not to be eafily penetrated, or where the fprings, i| formed by the water pafling from the higher grounds, may be confined beneath the third or fourth ftrata of the materials that form the declivities of hills or elevated grounds, on account of fo many of them becoming deficient on their tops, or more elevated parts, and by this means lie too deep to be penetrated to by the cutting of a ditch, or even by boring; and ftill, from the water being obftru€ted by the different materials forming the plains below, may be forced up to the furface, and produce different kinds of injurious wetnefs f. In fuch cafes, the common mode of cutting a great number of drains to the depth of five, fix, or more feet, acrofs the wet morafly grounds, and afterwards covering them in fuch a manner as that the water may fuffer no interruption in i pafling away through them, may be pra€tifed with advantage, as much of the | prejudicial excefs of moifture may by this means be collected and carried away, aa though not fo completely as by fully cutting off the{pring f. i: As water is fometimes found to be conveyed from the hills and high grounds i at no great depth beneath the furface of the land upon thin layers of clay, * See Johnfton’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 17. AAW+ See Darwin's Phytologia, p. 263. } Ibid. Draining of Land. 289 drains ee si: which have underneath them fand, ftone, or other porous or fiffured ftrata, to ‘neigh. indi oi a a confiderable depth; by perforating thefe thin layers of clay in different places, sci the water which flows along them may- frequently be let down into the open, porous materials that lie below them, and the furface land be thus completely > furface drained*. r aieakp* The Author of Phytologia, after fhewing that from the variety in the direction of the ftrata of the earth with it fprings in fome eminences of ground are only to be met with on one fide of the mountain, while in id pre- others they may be on all fides of it, remarks, that in fearching for them attention fhould be given: to auently the inclination of the ftrata of that part of the country, which peay De pte ee aa ee a i or in hollow lanes. But they may, he thinks, in general, be found above any moift or morafly plain I AO or valley, the moifture of which fhews that fprings exift in the ftrata on that fide of the mountain; and 036 fee that a fecond obfervation for the fame purpofe may be made on mifty evenings, as thofe parts of the ich fand grounds where the mift commences are moifter than thofe in their vicinity on the fame level, and in ) fill the confequence may, generally, if they are not hollow bafons, ee pe moifter parts of the ground, having evaporated more during the day, are become colder on their furfaces fuffered than the drier ground in their vicinity; and in mifty evenings, which are at the fame time calm, the ns In a ftationary air over thefe moift parts ef the ground is alfo more loaded with the evaporated moifture; and on both thefe accounts thefe moifter fituations are liable to thew a condenfation of aérial vapour fooner fratum than other places on the fame level. And as mountains are colder in proportion to their height, already explained, the evening mift fometimes commences fooner on them than in the valleys; but is feen earlier in thefe fituations over the moifter places, if they are om the fame level with the drier ones, exaétly as on the plains or valleys; and may therefore indicate the exiftence of fprings, unlefs thefe f hills or moifter places confift of hollow bafons containing water, which if not attended to may, in all fituations, deceive the obferver. And that another obfervation for detecting fprings may be made in rimy morn- ings; for as moift earth is a better conduétor of heat than dry earth, the rime will fooner melt on thofe {prings, t beneath it on theif penetrated parts of the foil which are kept moift by{prings under it than on other parts; as the common heat of ater being the earth, which is 48 in this country, will fooner be conducted upwards in moift places to diffolve the * forced rime on the furface. On this account, the rime is frequently feen on frofty mornings, when the heat of the air is not much above 32, to lie an hour longer on dry cakes of cow-dung, or on bridges, or planks of wood, than on the common moitt ground; as the latter much better conducts the common heat of ns to the the earth to the incumbent rime, which is in conta& with it. But as the heat of the common{prings frerwards in this country is 48, where they exift, the rime is fooner diflolved, than on the ftagnant moifture aption in of bogs or moraffes. And as the fprings about Buxton and Matlock, and at Bath and Briftol, are fo sh of the raueh warmer than common fprings, it is highly probable, he fays, that where thefe waters approach the furface of the foil, they muft much fooner diffolve the rime on frofty mornings; which may probably be obferved in fituations much higher than their prefent apparent fources; as they flide down between the interior ftrata of thofe hills, beneath the fummit of which they are condenfed, from the fteam of nds water boiling at great depths in the earth, which rifes up through thofe perpendicular clefts of the rocks ) gon which were formed at their original elevation. He likewife further remarks, that in the winter months the rife of{prings may be detected in moift ditches by the prefence of aquatic plants, as of watcr-crefs, water-parfnip, brook-linve; as in thofe Pe ed aways , of clay, 290 Draining of Land. In thofe fituations of Jand where moraffes and other kinds of wetnefies are formed in fuch low places and hollows as are confiderably below the beds of ers, they may, probably, in many inftances, be effectually as it pafles down into them from the high rains cut into the fides of fuch hills and rifing the neighbouring riv drained by arrefting the water erounds, by means of deep d grounds, and after colleéting it into them conveying it away by pipes, or other contrivances, at fuch high levels above the wet lands as may be neceffary: or the mifchief can by means of drains, cut in the where the water that produces wet ground itfelf, be fo collected as to be capable of being raifed by means of machinery, it may in that way be removed from the land. The drainage of thofe extenfive traéts of land that in many diftridts lie fo greatly below the level of the fea, can only be effeéted by the public, and by means of locks ereéted for the purpofe of preventing the entrance of the tides, and by windmills and other expenfive kinds of machinery conftruted for the purpofe of raifing the ftagnant water,+ It is well obferved by a philofophical author, that it might be a noble work, worthy of the attention of a government that wifhed to increafe the quantity of nutriment and confequent population and happinefs of the country, to employ proper engineers, with labourers, in fuch numbers as to environ with ditches every morafly diftrict, of whatever extent, as lies below the level of the tides, as the fens of Lincolnfhire and Cambridgefhire. Such ditches, he further remarks, fhould be cut at the feet of the adjacent rifing grounds, or of emi- nences furrounded with fens, like iflands in a lake; fo as to intercept the wall- fprings and land-floods, and convey the water thus colle&ted above the level of the morafs into the ocean. The fuperficial wetnefs of lands, which arifes from the ftiff retentive nature of the materials, that conftitute the foils and the particular circumftances of their fituations, is to be removed, in moft cafes by means of hollow fuperficial drains, judicioufly formed, either by the fpade or plough, and filled up with {uitable materials where the lands are under the exafs fyftem, and by thefe means and the proper conftru€tion of ridges and furrows where they are in a ftate of arable cultivation. Having thus explained the manner in which foils are rendered too wet for ditches which become dry im the fummer thefe plants do not exift: and when thofe ditches with it may be difeovered which way the current has formerly defcended by fprings in them are nearly dry, vel; an obfervation the dire€tion of the points of the leaves of the aquatic plants as certainly as by ale hich he learnt from Mr. Brindley, the great canal-condutor of Staffordthire. a ee neans ol 0 greatly meanis of , and by 2 purpofe a noble reafe the country, iron with vel of the he further or of em it the wall the level 0! tive nature nftances of fuperficial up with 1 by thele ay are ina oo wet for - aitehes wit y defcended by an opfervat” By ule Skat nad“4 Draining of Land. gi) 1 the purpofes of agriculture, and fhewn the principles on w hich the ever-propor- tions of moifture may, under different circumftances, be the moft effectually removed, we thall proceed to the pra€tical methods which are to be made ufe of in accomplifhing the bufinefs in each cafe. » Methods of draining boggy land—tin the drainage of wet or boggy grounds, arifing from fprings of water beneath them, a great variety of circumftances are neceflary to be kept in view. Lands of this defcription, or fuch as are of a marfhy and boggy nature, from the detention of water beneath the{pongy furface materials of which they are compofed, and its being abforbed and forced up into them, are conftantly kept m fuch ftates of wetnefs as are highly im- proper for the purpofe of producing advantageous crops of any kind. They are, therefore, on this account, as well as thofe of their occupying very ex- tenfive tra€ts in many diftri€ts, and being, when properly reclaimed, of confider- able value, obje€ts of great intereft and importance to the attentive agricultor. Wet grounds of thefe kinds, from the nature of their fituations, and the modes of draining them, are arranged by a Jate prattical writer under three diftinét heads: firft, fuch as may be readily known by the fprings rifing out of the ad- jacent more elevated ground, in an exact or regular line along the higher fide of the wet furface; fecond, thofe in which the numerous fprings that fhew them- {elves are not kept to any exaé or regular line of direftion along the higher or more elevated parts of the land, but break forth promifcuoufly throughout the whole furface, and particularly towards the inferior parts, conftituting fhaking quags in every direGtion that have an elaftic feel under the feet, on which the lighteft animals can fcarcely tread without danger, and which, for the moft part, ftiew themfelves by the luxuriance and verdure of the grafs about them; third, that fort of wet land, from the oozing of fprings, which is neither of fuch great extent, nor in the nature of the foil fo peaty as the other two, and to which the term fog cannot be ftri@ily applied, but which in refpeét to the modes of draining is the fame*.,) *Tn order to dire the proper mode of cutting the drains or trenches in drain- ing lands of this fort, it will be necellary for the operator to make himfelf per- fe€tly, acquainted with the nature and difpofition of the ftrata compofing the higher grounds, and the conneétion which they have with that which is to be rendered dry.‘This may in general be accomplifhed by means of levelling and. carefully attending to what has been already obferved re{fpecting the formation of hills and elevated grounds, and by infpeéting the beds of rivers, the edges * See Jotinftone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 19. 202 Draining of Land. of banks that have been wrought through, and fuch pits and quarries as may have been dug near to the land*. Rufhes, alder-bufhes, and other coarfe aquatic * Jt is remarked by Mr, Johnftone, in his interefting practical account of Mr. Elkington’s mode’ of draining land, that after the principal{pring, or that from which the others are formed, has been fully determined, it is one of the fir and moft important parts of the bufinefs, to afcertain a line on the fame level on one or both fides of it.‘This is to be done by means of levelling, in which the inftrument called the /pirit-level may be thus employed. The implement being properly adjufted, and a ftaff of about ten feet in length, with a moveable vane or fight fixed upon the top of it, is to be fet up in a fitua- tion between he objet from whence the level is to be taken, and that to which it is to be directed, provided the diftance from the inftrument to each of them is not too great.‘The fituation of it fhould alfo be no higher than the length of the ftaff will anfwer, and fo as it may be feen from it both ways: then direét the man with the ftaff to hold it at the main fpring, or place from whence you mean to carry the drain; and after direCting the telefcope to the ftaff, and adjufting it to a level, make a fign to him to move the fight up or down, till it be exa€tly oppofite the crofs hair in the telefcope.‘This done, with- out fhifting the inftrument from its firft pofition, and cautioning the man to ffx the fight to the ftaff at the point directed, he may proceed forty or fifty yards further; and after having again adjufted the level, make a fign to him to move to Aigher or lower ground, till the fight on the ftaff coincide exa@ly with the crofs hair in the telefcope. He may then leave a peg at the place where he held the ftaff, and proceed, in like manner, to other ftations, till the whole line is finifhed, leaving pegs, or making pits, at the placcs where the ftaff was held. If the length of the line te be levelled requires the inftru- ment to be fhifted from its firft pofition, the level muft again be taken from the laft ftation where the ftaff was held, and the fight on it fixed in the proper place, as before dire&ted, proceeding in the fame manner at every forty or fifty yards in length, till the whole is accomplifhed, After the line is thus levelled, and afcertained by marks left at every{tation where the ftaff was fixed, it may again be examined, and other pegs put in between the firft, the better to direét the workmen in cutting the drain, giving the line fuch turnings and even{mall deviations from the courfe of the level, as may fhorten or ftraighten it, and humour the fituation of the ground. For the fake of accuracy, where the work requires it, efpecially if the water is to be conveyed any confiderable dittance, or wanted to fup- ply a houfe, or for the purpofe of irrigation, the levels, it is obferved, may be proved by reverfing the former line of direétion. The fpirit-level is alfo, it is remarked, neceffary for afcertaining how fuch fall can be obtained from the drain to the neareft outlet where the water can be difeharged, the fhorter that diftance being the better, provided fall enough can be had. It is further ftated, that it is often neceflary to level a much longer diftance than the length of the drain may require to be cut; but when the level of the whole line is known, and the nature of the ground carefully examined, fhort drains can be cut on that line with openings(places not dug out) between, which will anfwer the purpofe equally as well as one the whole length; and the expence will be confiderably lefs, provided the length of the conduétors for the water from each be lefs than that of the epenings or places not cut: but if the whole line, with only one condu¢tor, be fhorter than thefe, it is better to have all the water difcharged at one orifice. The level has frequently to be taken from a. fpring or well, at a confiderable diftance from the ground to be drained. There is, likewife, another kind of level, which, from its having been made ufe of. in. America, and: gefcribed by Dr. Edwards, is frequently known by the title of the American level, that is extremely ufe~ ful in determining the levels of drains and water-courfes; the conftruGtion and mode.of applying which g 3 pplying as may aquatic mode of been fully de On th Aftrument F of about 12 fituae directed, it thould ih ways: 1 to carry mn to him ne, with- the ftaff yafted the de exaftly the flaff, r making ne inftru- mn where ng in the the line is ay again be cutting the vel, as may ,, where the ated to fup- everfing the _ how fuch the fhorter th of the he grOUng ) between, ice will be pat of the hefe, it is cen from 4 meric?, andi ufer tremely plying which Draining of Land. 293 plants, may alfo, in fome inftances, ferve as guides in this bufinefs, but they fhould not be too implicitly depended on, as they may be caufed by the ftagnation of rain-water upon the furface, without any fpring being prefent. Where the impervious firatum, that lies immediately beneath the porous, has a flanting dire€tion through a hill or rifing bank, the furface of the land below that level will, in general, be fpongy, wet, and covered with rufhes on every fide; while the higher fide of it will be found to deviate very flightly from a level in any part round it. In this cafe, which is not unfrequent, a ditch or drain, pro- perly cut on one fide of the hill or rifing ground, may remove the wetnefs from both, as fhewn in the plan*. But where the impervious ftratum dips or declines more to one fide of the is thus ftated by the author firft mentioned:‘It is,” fays he,‘formed of two pieces of thin wood, of equal length, joined together at top, and connected below by a crofs bar. From the angle at top, a lead plummet is fufpended by a{mall cord, which, when the‘inftrument ftands level on both legs, &rikes upon a mark in the centre of the connecting bar;"’ which may be better underftood by confulting the annexed plate. The manner of ufing it is, he obferves, fimply this:‘ at the place, from whence the level is to. be taken, drive a wooden peg into the ground, clofe in to the top, upon which one of the legs of the frame may reft; then bringing round the other leg till it touch the ground, there drive in a fecond peg, and the fpace betwixt them will be level.. In proceeding forward, reft the leg of the frame upon the top of the fecond peg, turning round the other leg as before; and where it touches the ground again drive in another peg, and fo on along the whole line to be levelled. Thus,” he fays,“ with very little trouble, and with as much accuracy as with the fineft fpirit-level, will the courfe of the drain be eafily afcertained. But as it is neceflary that the drain fhould have as muclr declivity as to allow the water to run: freely, it will be requifite, in taking the level, to regulate the direction of the line accordingly: half an inch fall in the length of the frame willbe fufficient.” For this purpofe,. it is obferved, it will ‘be expedient to have, befides a number of wooden pegs, one irom pin with inches and halves marked regularly upon the fides of it, from the top downwards. After having drove in the firft wooden peg at the point from whence you mean to-conduét the drain, and having refted the one leg of. the frame upon it, turn round: the other till it be level with the firft peg; there put in the iron pin, fo. that this leg of the frame may reft on the top of it when level;. then drive in a wooden peg{o far, as that the top of it may be one half-inch lower than that of the iron pin. Place the leg of the frame again upon this fecond peg, turn it round toa level, putting in the iron pin till the top of it be equal with the foot of the frame; then drive in another wooden peg clofe by the fide of it, till the top of the wooden one be half an inch lower than that of the iron pin. Proceed in this manner fo far as you mean to carry the drain, which will have the fame degree of declivity all the way along. A line thus fet off is marked from A to D in the reprefentation. Itis remarked, that when made on a fmaller feale, it is ufeful in afcertaining the proper defcent along the bottom of the drain, while the workmen are laying it, but that when made for this purpofe, the crofs-bar muft be fixed to the bottom of the legs, as marked with dotted lines in the reprefentation. * See Johnftone op Draining Land, p. 85. . pos a Fa| 7749¢ if eit OO4 BITQALILIE Sy LG) 9 4 f de ow hill or elevation than the other, the water will be direfted to the. more: de- pretied fide of that ftratum; the effect of which will be, that one fide of fuct ground will be wet and fpongy, while the other 1s quite free from In the practical management of draining land, it will be neceflary after this to determine which of the places at which water iffues forth on the furface, if there be more than one, is the real or principal fpring, and that from which the other outlets are fed, as upon this muft depend the dire¢tion of the: ditch or. drain, as by removing that the others muft of courfe be rendered dry. When on the declivity or flanting furface of the elevated ground from which the fprings break forth, they are obferved to burft out at different levels according to the difference of the wetnefs of the feafon, and where thofe that are the loweft down continue to run, while the higher ones are dry, it is, in general, a certain indication that the whole are conneéted, and proceed from the fame fource; and confequently that the line of the drain fhould be made along the level of ry. sr 1 the lowermof one, which, if properly executed, muft keep all the others d But if, as has been the too frequent practice, the drain was made along.the line of the higheft of the outlets or places where the water breaks forth, without be- ing fufficiently deep to reach the level of thofe below, the overflowings of the {pring would merely be carried away, and the wetnefs proceeding from that caufe be removed; while the main fpring, till continuing torun, would render the land below the level of the bottom of the drain fiill prejudicioufly wet, from its difcharging itfelf lower down over the furface of the ground. Thus, fays the author mentioned above, it was the cuftom, until Mr. Elkington fhewed the abfurdity of the prattice, for drainers to begin to cut their trenches where- ever the higheft{prings fhewed themfelves between the wet and the dry ground, which not being of a depth fufficient to arrett and take away the whole of the water, others of a fimilar kind were under the neceflity of being formed, at dif- ferent diftances, to the very bottom of the declivity, which being afterwards in a great meafure filled with loofe ftones, merely conveyed away portions of fur- face water, without touching the fpring, the great or principal caufe of the wetnefs. The effects of drains formed in this manner he afferts to be, that of rendering the furface of the land in fome degree drier, fo long as they continue to run with freedom; but as they are liable foon to be obftrutted and filled up, by fand or * Sec Johnftone’s Account of Draining Land, p. 23. tn smth sn eam L oo et this to vif there the other or drain, n on the »{rings ig to the ne lowett a certain e fource; e level af uid render ioully wel nd. Thus ton fhewed hole of the ed, at dif wards 10 ns of fur- yfe of the 0 run with by fand of Draining of Land. 205 Ce other materials, the water is often forced out in different places and dire€tions, and thus renders the land equally wet, if not more fo, than it was before. In addition to this, it is likewife obferved, in the work we have already quoted, that it isa more difficult tafk to drain the ground a fecond time ina proper method, from the natural appearance of the ground being fo much changed, and the burfts of the old drains, as well as the greater difficulty of afcertaining the real fituation of the fprings. It may fometimes happen, however, as where the higheft are the ftrongett outlets, that they may be the main or leading f{prings; thofe which fhew thems felves lower down in the land being merely formed by the water of the main fpring overflowing, and finding itfelf a paflage from an opening, or the porous nature of the materials of the foil near to the furface, and from being obftructed fomewhat further down in the ground by fome impervious ftratum. This circumftance muft therefore, it is obferved, be fully afcertained before the lines for the ditches or drains are marked out. In cafes where the bank or rifing ground is formed in an irregular manner, and from the ereét nature of the fituation or the force of the water underneath has been pufhed down, the ditches made for the purpofe of draining fuch lands fhould, it is remarked, always be carried up to a much higher level in the fide of the eleyated ground than that in which the water or wetnefs appears, as to the firm unchanged land; by which means the water of the{pring may be cut off, and the ground completely drained; which would not be the cafe if the trench or drain were formed on the line of the loofe materials lower down where the water oozes out, which is liable to miflead the operator in forming the conducting trench, or that which is to convey the water from the crofs-drain on the level of the{pring to the outlet or opening by which it is difcharged. But where the main or principal fpring comes out of a perpendicular or very fteep bank, at a great height above the level of the outlet into which it may difcharge itfelf by means of a drain, it will neither be neceffary nor of any utility to form a deep trench, or make a covered drain, all the way from fuch out- let up to it, as from the fteepnefs of the defcent the water would be liable, when the drain was thus cut, from the thin ftrata of fand, and other loofe materials, always found in fuch cafes, to infinuate itfelf under the bricks, ftones, or other {ubftances of which the drain was formed, to undermine and force them up by the ftrength of the current, or, probably, in fome inftances, block the drain up by the loofe fand, or other matters, which may be forced away and carried down by it; in fituations of this kind, Mr. Johnftone obferves, it is always the beft way 296 Draining of Land. to begin juft fo far down the bank or declivity as, by cutting ¢ Jevel, the drain may be fix or feven feet below the level of the{pring, or fuch a depth as may be requifite to bring down the water to fuch a level as will be fuitable to con- vey it away without its rifing to the furface, and injuring the lands around it. The reft of the drain, whether it be made in a ftraight or oblique dire€tion, need ngt be deep, and may, in many inftances, be left quite open; it fhould, how- ever, be carefully fecured from the treading of cattle, and, where the land is under an arable fyftem of cultivation, alfo from the plough. Where it is covered, the depth of about two feet may be fufficient. There will not, in fuch drains, be any neceffity for the ufe of the auger in any part of them. Where there is a difficulty in afcertaining the line of the fpring, and confe- quently that of the crofs-drain, either from its not fhewing itfelf on the furface, or from there not being any apparent outlet, it may, generally, be met with in carrying up the conduéting drain for conveying away the water, which as feon as the operator difcovers, he need not proceed any further, but form the crofs-drain, on the level thus difcovered, to fuch a diftance on each fide of the. tail, or terminating part of the ftrata, of whatever fort, that contains the water, as the nature of the land, in regard to fituation or other circumftances, may demand. Where, in forming a crofs-drain, the line indicated by the fpirit or other level is found to be in fome places below that of the fpring, and where, in boring in this direction, water is not found to follow, it will be neceffary to make fhort drains or cuts of the fame depth with the crofs-drain from it quite up to the fource ef the{pring; for if the drain be cut below the line of the fpring, the poffibility of reaching it by means of an auger is loft, as where the under ftratum is clay, and there is no under water, the ufe of the auger cannot be effectual; and if it be made above the line of the fpring, it will be requifite to cut and bore much deeper, in order to reach it, the ground being, in general, higher in that part; befides the portion of porous ftratum, below the drain, may contain a fufficient quantity of water to render the Jand wet, and that may readily get down underneath the trench, between the holes formed by boring, and break out lower down. Thefe circum{tances are rendered more clear in the plan*. In fituations where the extent of bog in the valley between two barks or eminences is fo narrow, and limited, as that the ftratum of rock, fand, or other materials that contains the water, may unite below the clay at fuch a depth as to be readily reached by the auger, it will feldom be neceffary to have * See Johnftene’s Account of Draining Land, p, 27. | Ee! a Sa eae AS Live ¢ draty a§ may 10 Con: Ound it, On, need ld, how. é land jy ere it{s » in fuch id confe- e furface, t within h as foon form the ide of the he water, ces, may >{pirit of rd where, eceffary to ym it quite line of the ; where the ger cannot be requilte in general, drain, may that may by boring, re cleat 1 y hawks 0 k, fand, 0 rat fuch@ fary to have Draining of Land. 26 & > more than’one trench up the middle, well perforated with holes by means of the auger; crofs or branching drains being unneceffary in fuch cafes. For not- withftanding the fprings, that render the land injurioufly wet in thefe cal fes, burft out of the banks or eminences on every fide, for the moft part nearly o the fame level, the refervoir from which they proceed may be difcovered in ea middle of the valley, by penetrating with the auger’through the layer of clay, that confines and forces the water to rife up and ooze out round the fuperio edge of it, where it forms an union with the high porous ground. From the drain being made e in the holloweft part of the land, and the porous ftratum con- taining the water being then bored into, it is obvious that the ditch or drain thus formed being fo much lower than the ordinary outlet of the fprings, the preffure of water above that level, which is the bottom of the drain, muft be fach as to force that which is under the drain or trench through the holes made by the auger, and in many inftances, until a confiderable Sige of the water ‘ is evacuated, make it rife toa greater height than the level of its natural outlet. The effet of which mutt be, that the water forming the fpring having found by thefe means a frefh and more eafy paflage, will quickly relinquifh sis former openings, and thus be prevented from running over and injuring the ground, that previoufly laid lower down than it*.—This will be better underftood by the plate. But in fwamps or bogs that are extenfive and very wet, other drains or. cuts than fuch as convey off the fprings muft be made; as notwithftanding the higher {prings which chiefly caufe the wetnefs may be intercepted, there may be lower veins of fand, gravel, or other porous materials, from which the water mutt likewife be drawn off. In cafes of this nature where the land is to be divided into enclofures, the ditches may be formed in fuch dire€tions as to pafs through and carry off colle€tions of water of this kind, as well as thofe that may be re- tained in the hollows and depreffions on the furface of the landt. It is alfo further remarked in the pra¢tical work juft mentioned, that there are in many places very extenfive traéts of ground that are rendered wet, and become-full of rufhes and other coarfe plants, from caufes of fuch a nature as cannot*be ob- viated, by the making of either open or covered drains, however numerous they may be. Lands in this fituation are frequently termed holms, and moftly lie on the fides of fuch rivers and brooks as, from the Wages of their changing and altering their courfes between their Cu et banks, leave depofitions of fand, cravel, and other porous materials, by w hich land is formed, that readilyadmuits * See Johnftene’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 25, t Ibid. 29. Q Q a 298 Draining of Land. the water to filtrate and pafs through it to the level of the laft-formed channels, and which preferves it conftantly in fuch a ftate of moifture and wetnefs, as to render it produ€tive of nothing but rufhes and other aquatic plants; and if a pit or ditch be made in ands under thefe circumftances, it quickly fills with water to the fame level as that in the water-courfe. This effet is, however, more liable to be produced, as well as more complete, where the current of the water is flow, and its fur- face nearly equal with that of the land, than where its defcent is rapid. Un- der fuch circumftances, while the river or brook remains at the ordinary height, no advantage can be gained, whatever number of drains be formed, or in what- ever dire€tion they may be made. The chief or only means of removing the wetnefs of land proceeding from this caufe is, that of enlarging and finking the bed of the ftream, where it can be effected at a reafonable expence: where there is only one ftream, and it is very winding, or ferpentine in its courfe, much may however be effected by cutting through the different points of land, and render- ing the courfe more ftraight, and thereby lefs liable to obftruét the paffage of the water. But in cafes where there are more than one, that fhould always be made the channel of conveyance for draining the neighbouring land, which is the loweft in refpeG to fituation, and the moft open and ftraight in its courfe. It may like- wife, in particular inftances, be advantageous to ftop up and divert the waters of the others into fuch main channels, as by fuch means alone they may often be rendered deeper, and more free from obftru@tion*: the materials removed from them may ferve to embank and raife up the fides to a greater height, as while the water can rife higher than the outlets of the drains, and flow backwards into them, it muft render the land as wet as it was before they were formed, and the expence of cutting them be thrown away. In addition to the injury done by the water from the rivers in fome fituations, fprings, it is obferved, break out from the bottom of the more elevated banks, and are abforbed fo as to filtrate through the materials of the foil above their levels. The wetnefs proceeding from thefe, may be readily intercepted, or reduced to the level of the ftream, by means of a drain. There are inftances too, it is faid, in which the wetnefs arifes entirely from fprings; as where the foil of the flat land between them and the river is not formed of loofe fand, or gravel, but of loam, ora mixture of clayand loam. In fuch inftances as thefe, the water proceeding from the fprings is interrupted, and. prevented from filtrating through the materials of the: foil in its paflage to the river, and thus forced up to. the furface, over * See Annals of Agriculture, yol. XXXVI. p. 88: sang der it tch be e level duced, its fur. » Un height, what: ig the ing the e there ch may render- e of the ye made Jowett iy like waters ften be ed from as while ards into and the tuations, d banks, ir levels. d to the faid, 10 dat land yam, ora ing from naterials \Cey over ae Draining of Land.- 295 which it runs. In order to drain land in this fituation, it is recommended that a trench fhould be commenced at the lower end of it, and brought from the river on the bottom of the bank whence the fpring breaks forth. It ought likewife to be cut below the line of the fprings, where it can be accomplifhed with greater facility, and kept open, in order to take the river water in time of floods, which would blow or break it up if it were covered, and likewife fuch runs of water from the more elevated grounds as may be produced by rains. Short covered drains mutt alfo be formed from this trench, a little diftance into the bank, the bottoms of which fhould be higher than the level of that of the open one, in order to prevent any of the water contained in it from running back into them. Where the depth of this level does not reach the ftratum that contains the water, in fuch cafes the auger may alfo be employed to tap or let off the water of the fprings. Crofs-drains, between the open cut and the river, will not here be neceflary, as the whole of the intercepted water will be conveyed along the bottom of the bank, and be difcharged at a lower level into the river, except when the land is fo extenfive as to admit of being divided by crofs-ditches into diftinét inclofures. In thefe cafes the open drain, on the up- per fide, may ferve as a divifion between the meadow and the high grounds*. After being drained, land of this defcription is particularly well fituated for watering, and the foil capable of being greatly improved by it, when proper modes are adopted. Some attention is required, in the drainage of fuch lands, to the method of forming the drains, and the neceflity of their being open or covered. Where the land is to be inclofed at the fame time that it is drained, as the line of the trench may, in moft cafes, ferve as a fuitable divifion of it, there can be no doubt but that an open drain will be the moft proper; but where there is not a ne- ceffity for inclofing the land, a covered one may be preferable.‘Thefe points fhould in the firft place be determined upon, and the depth, width, and other circumftances of the drain be regulated by them. When the outlet, by which the water accumulated in the drain may be con- veyed away, has been fixed upon, which fhould generally be the neareft and moft convenient, a trench is directed to be brought up from it to the crofs-drain that is to be formed all along on the line of the fpring; an inclination of a few inches in every eight or ten yards being given for the purpofe of permitting the water to pafs away. When in cutting the drain that is to take off the{pring, * See Johnftone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 39 ic 800 Draining of Land. after getting through the clay, there happens to be a layer of firm gravel between *t and the porous fand or other material that contains the water, the drain fhould ‘be Jaid upon it, as being more folids and to perforate the gravel with a punch, or dio fmall pits in it by the fpade, in order that the water may rife up and pafs oe off with eafe and fafety, in preference to that of the fand below; by laying it upon which, the depth and difficulty of conftru&ting it would not only be greatly increafed, but in different inftances be incapable of being performed, from the level of the orifice not permitting its being cut to fuch adepth. In cutting the drain or trench on the tail of a rock likewife, where fuch kind of ftratum exifis, if the level of the orifice will not allow of its being made fo deep as to reach‘the rock, the clay or other impervious ftratum that may lie immediately above muft be bored through, that the water may flow up through the fiffures: or cracks in the ftone, and likewife the auger holes, into the drain or paffage; but where the level will permit of it, it is obferved, to be always more advifable to cut the drain through the clay, and fo far into the rock below as may be fufficient for fupplying the neceffary quantity of ftones for conftru€ting the drain or fough, as by means of the ftone being thus broken, the water will have a more free and eafy exit. The expence of cutting the drain may by this be fomewhat increal- ed; but probably, from its rendering the quarrying of ftones in other places, and’ the carriage of them, unneceffary, will, in moft inflances, more than compenfate fuch additions of expence*.“5 _ Though, in the land ta be drained, there may be an old ditch or water-courfe in which it may be poffible to tap or let off the fpring by means of the auger, it may, it is remarked, notwithftanding, in moft cafes, be preferable to make a new trench or drain, in which the water of the fpring only may be conveyed; and in fituations where it is under the neceffity of crofling fuch old ditches or channels for water, it muft be well fecured by means of puddling with clay, fo as not to admit any furface water, which, from its fudden augmentation in cafe of floods, might quickly blow up, or break and deftroy, the fough or drain ft. As the water procured by tapping the fprings in this way, may frequently be made to ferve different ufeful purpofes, fuch as the irrigation of land, the turn- ing of{mall mills, the fupplying of houfes, the filling of canals and ponds, in paftures for the ufe of cattle,&c. the practice fhould be adopted with great care, in order to guard againft the lofs of water in one part of the drain by the fame means that it may have been found in another, or by attempting to produce ai * See Johnftone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 32.+ Ibid. | nd pals y| ti only be ed, from cutting ftratum p as to ediately > fiflures age; but le to cut icient for ough, as free and increal- ces, and npentate ter-courle e auger,tt to make@ conveyed; jitches 0 clay, fo a8 n cafe of the turns ponds, in reat care, y the{ame produce a Draining of Land; 30] farcer fupply. As by fuch means it may, in many cafes, be let down from the wet retentive ftratum on which it refts into the dry porous one below, and thus be completely loft. When the drain is made through a foft boggy foil, and where it may have other water than that which rifes from be! ow paffing into it, it wall, it is faid, be more proper to be open than clofed, as the ftones ufed in fuch drains are, from the foftnefs of the foundation, foon found to give way and fink down, and the fough or drain liable to be filled up and deftroyed. When the drain is covered, +t js recommended to be made from three to four feet in width at the top, and from one and a half to two feet at the bottom, leaving in this way fix or nine ‘nches for each fide ftone, the fame for the height, and fix inches between for the conveyance of the water, conftituting a fquare paflage or fough*. The level of the fituation where the drain is to difcharge itfelf, and the nature of the land through which it is to be made, muft regulate the depth.‘The turf is then to be pared off thin 4nd laid on one fide, in order to be made ufe of afterwards; and the whole of the mould that may be dug up; thrown out on the other. The moft difficult part of the bufinefs confitts in laying the fough when in run- ning fandst, it being frequently requifite under{uch circumftances to have the fides of the trench fupported, and the loofe fand prevented from falling down among the ftones employed in conftru€ting the drain, by means of flat boards and props, removed forwards as the work proceeds. When the fough or paf- fage Is laid with brick,{mall apertures fhould be left betwixt each, to allow the water to pafs away from the fides of the drain, and the thin turfs are then re- commended to be placed over im nediately upon the tones, without the inter- vention of any fmall, loofe ftones, the erafs fide downwards to keep the mould from efcaping through the crevices. This is neceffary, as the water principally proceeds from the bottom of the drain, but very little from the fides, and not the leaft from the top j. Turfs are alfo advifed to be placed in the foundation of the drain underneath the trough in fuch quick loofe fands, to prevent them from flowing up, and to-render the bricks more fecure in cafe of their giving way. In fands of this Lind it is likewife a good way to dig juft into the fides of the trench, from the line of the fough, where the auger is to be employed, and when this has been done to cover the places in the fame way as the fough; as by this means the fand thrown up by the fpring may be readily removed, till fuch times as the % See Johnftone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 33:+ Quick-fands. } Ibid. 6 Wi i Bi| FOS Dyaining of Land. force of the fpring abates, and it is free from the main current paffing in the middle of the drain. The portion of fough above the holes, made by the auger, is recommended to be left open, till fuch times as the fand is brought up, and the openings are become perfe&tly free; but until this happens the fand fhould be conftantly re- moved. Afterwards the fough may be covered up with the greateft fafety. An opening, or kind of funnel, is likewife advifed to be conftru€ted above fome of the holes formed by the auger, or at fome other convenient part of the drain, up to the furface, for the purpofe of occafionally infpecting it and feeing that it ts open and clear, and whether the run of water increafes or is diminifhed. When the holes made by boring are not fufficient for difcharging or letting off the full quantity of water that the fpring can emit, and when the ftratum con- taining the water is near to the bottom of the trench, and there is a bed of hard gravel between, which cannot be eafily penetrated by the boring inftrument, holes or openings are recommended to be dug down to the fpring by the fpade, and afterwards filled up with fmall, loofe ftones, a round ftake or piece of wood being previoufly put down in the middle and withdrawn when the ftones have been filled in, in order that a good opening for the water to flow up may be provided*. If no other water but what comes from the drain be admitted, there will, it is obferved, be no danger in fuch cafes of the holes formed by the boring inftrument being filled up, whether it be in an open or covered ftate, as fuch is moftly the force of the water iffuing through them that it can eafily remove thofe portions of earth or mud that may have been accidentally wafhed into it; the drains can therefore, of courfe, only be damaged by the flowing in of much furface or flood water upon a fudden f. In refpe& to the materials employed for the conftruétion of drains of this kind, ftones are certainly the beft where they can be procured at a fufficiently reafonable rate. Bricks may likewife be made ufe of where ftones cannot be had, of which there are feveral different kinds invented for the purpofe, befides thofe of the or- dinary fort:—as may be feen inthe plate. Where{mall drains are only wanted, as in condu€ting water for domeftic ufes, a brick excavated in fuch a manner as to forma kind of fmall arch, may probably be made ufe of with moft advantage. But in cafes where larger drains become neceffary, a more folid kind which are formed for the purpofe in different fhapes, may be employed with greater fuecets. A fort has lately been formed in Warwickfhire, that has been much employed in the conftru€tion of fuch drains. In making ufe of bricks of this defcription, they * See Johnftone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 35.+ Ibid. it, a cia ti a in the ended IBS are atly te. fafety, ve fome > drain, that it nifhed, ting off /m Con of hard rument, 2{pade, f wood 25 have may be mitted, | by the late, as y remove J into it; of much his kind, afonable f which F the or- wanted, nner as vantage hich are :(uccels: sloyed i jon, they Draining of Land'$63 AA& 3) Nee are laid fingly, without having a reverfed one underneath; as when that js the cafe, it has been found, that the water pafling on the under one, is apt to producea fort of earthy incruftation, which in the corufe of a few years becomes fo great as, in fome meafure, to block up the paflage of the water, and thus render the drain ufelefs. Where the foundation is ofa clayey nature, they may always be fafely laid without having any thing underneath them; but where it is of a foft fandy kind, a common brick may be placed under each fide to retard their finking down, and fo placed as to form a regular arch that may refift the preffure from above. They are capable of being conftru€ted of the fame fhape to any fize, according to the dimenfions of the drain, or the quantity of water it may convey*,. Though the earth that has been dug out of the drain in thefe cafes, whem filled into it again, may at firft appear confiderably higher than the common furface of the land on the fides, it fhould be let remain in that{tate, as ina little while it generally finks to the proper Jevel; but when made exacily level at firft; from the earth’s gradually finking down, hollows are formed that afford lodg- ments for water, which by finking through may injure the drains. In very wet peat grounds, during the time the drain is forming, the water from the furface, or that which may trickle from-the fides, before reaching the- main body of water, fhould be ftopped occafionally; and when let. off into the fough, a turf muft be placed fo as to prevent any foft earthy matter that may be forced down with it. from paffing through, as injury. may be done by it. If fuch trees as have fpreading roots happen to be in the line of the drain, they ought to be completely grubbed up; as, if this.be not done, the fibres of the roots, by ex; tending themfelves through the joints and crevices of the ftones, are apt to get into the drain, and quickly put a ftop to the paflage of the water in it t. In cafes where the water iffuing from drains is tinged of a red ochry. colour, it is a fign-that there is.a ftagnation proceeding from fome caufe or other, as that which has been juft. mentioned, when the drain has been laid amongft trees, or from the breaking in of fome part of the fough, which fhould always be at- tended to, and removed or-repaired as{peedily as poffible, that the ground may not become again injured by wetnefs. In order to complete the bufinefs in all thefe cafes, the opening or: mouth of the drain fhould be carefully. guarded by fome means or other, fuch as. a railing, from being poached, or. force in, and choked up by the treading of cattle in their attempts to drink. at. it; a... injuries have occurred in this way, they fhould always be fpeedily removed.. The circumftances which firft afford evidence of tie efficacy of. the drain, and which. % See Johnftone’s Account of Elkington's Mode of Draining Land, p. a7.+ Thid.: may have been dammed up,|! Draining of Land. fpeedily become obvious when the{pring or refervoir of water has been properly li fach farface drains as may have been formerly ditches, and other hollow places to which the water and afterwards continue in that drawn off, are, that a made. hata the neighbouring pits, become fuddenly dry, ftate*. There are large tratts of boggy watte land, in different diftricts of‘the king- oO | Lc suneston:£ eee cultivation, from a wetneis waica » beneath the furface, or the over- s, but from the colleGted rain or 95 er O ois et) Cc dom, that cannot be brought into a ftat does not originate from fprings immediate flowings of any in the neighbouring hich ground oO P}>» Oo o o Cc water becoming ftagnant on a retentive body of clay, or fome other impervious and being likewife encircled material, through which the water cannot he water of the fame impervious fubftances, t ids become foft and And as fuch bogs with higher eround com pofed of ‘tfelf can have no outlet of the natural kind; when fuch lat fpongy, they frequently form bogs are often fituated very greatly below the ground that of a main drain, or conductor, to convey off the water co would be attended, in many inftances, with an expenc compenfated by the land after it bad been drained.‘The thicknefs of the im- pervious ftratum that retains and keeps up the water in fuch cafes, is often fo great, that though the ftratum below be of a porous and open nature, fuch as 1e water cannot of itfelf penetrate or finda paflage from the one into the other, confequently, by its continued ftagnation above, all the different coarfe vegetable productions that have for a great length of time been and probably the upper part of the foil itfelf, are formed equally foft and lefs productive than that of Gned below, and which ts only capable of ye wind and fun have of a very confinec kind. urrounds them, the opening ileQed by fmaller drains, e greater than could be fand, rock, or gravel, th produced on its furface, into a mafs or body of peat earth, any bog originating from water con fuftaining the weight of cattle in very dry feafons, when tl exhaled and dried up a great part of its furface moifture, but even then it is in- capable of admitting the plough upon Ht Ts As the eaufe of thefe kinds of bogs is materia drainage mu lly different from that of thofe which Have been already noticed, their& of courfe be accomplifhed The following method of proceeding is recommended as per- habs the, leat ex penfive. In the middle, or moft depending part, of tl f i.# iy ba> the fir ain may be cut, into which all#he others thould be‘made to lead: eoulated by the extent of the bs| ley A O94) AS ae Lae Lag hictl 1) Bred oye the number and airection Oo} which muft~be regt inva different way. 1e ground, bog. They fhould be cut through the peat, or moift fpongy upper foil, to the * Segé Johnftone’s» Acconnt of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 38.+ Ibid. p.§1« Bo SSS Ls. SO pervious encircled water Ol are formee at of thofe com plifhed ded as po ™ ground, ¢) , di 1. to lea rent o! yi foil, 10" Draining of Land. 305 furface of the clay, or other retentive ftratum of materials, which muft then be perforated or bored through in order to let the water down into the pervious ftratum below, by which it may be abforbed and takenup. The fame effe&t might be produced by forming one large well, or pit, in the middle or loweft part of the bog, by digging through into the porous ftratum below, and conneCting the other drains with it, as by fuch a method the trouble and expence of boring along the drains would be faved. {n thefe cafes, when drains are made, they fhould always be cut as narrow as it is poflible to make them, and after the holes have been formed in them by boring, filled up with loofe ftones to within about a foot and a half of the furface, which fpace may be made up by a portion of the earth that had been taken out, putting a turf the green fide to the ftones before the earth is thrown in, By this means the water and prejudicial moifture of the peat, or upper foil, may be taken away by the drains, and pafs off through the holes that have been formed in their bottoms. But where pits are employed, thefe fhould only: be filled with{mall ftones to the level of the bottom of the drain, the filling being performed as foon as poflible after they are formed*: where there is a chalky ftratum below, after taking it out, the flints contained in it may be made ufe of in this way, with much advantage; and where the drains can be carried: into quarries, where the ftone is much fiffured, nothing more will be neceflary f. Where land of this fort is afterwards to be ploughed, great attention fhould be given to the forming of the ridges, and giving them a regular defcent towards. the main drain, which will contribute greatly to the affliftance of the others, in. conveying off heavy falls of rain water when they occur. But previous to any attempt to drain lands of this kind in the way that has been defcribed, it is recommended as proper to afcertain whether the porous ftratum under the clay be dry, and capable of receiving the water when let down into it;; or already fo loaded with moifture itfelf, as, inftead of receiving more from above, it may force up a large quantity to the furface, and thus increafe the evil it was intended to remove. This.may be the cafe in many inftanees; and.the fubftratum, contain water which affords no appearances of wetnefs on. the furface, at the place, on account of the compact body of clay that is placed.over it, but. which, from its being conne€ted with fome fpring that is higher, may flow up, when an. opening or paflage is given it either by means of a pit or the auger. In this way a. Ao * See Anderfon’s Treatife on Draining, p. 88.+ See Hertfordfhire Agricultural Report. RR TAT AN* ea eM van} 306 Draining of Land. Prd greater quantity of water might be brought to the furfaces, which, from its being Cr) confined by the furrounding banks, would render the ground much more wet ‘than before, and in particular fituations produce very great degrees of wetnefs. When the furrounding high ground declines lower than the bog, though it may be at a confiderable diftance, by the aid of the level, and the appearance of the furface, the nature of the ftratum underneath may, it is obferved, mn fome degree, be afcertained; and, notwithftanding it may Be eady contain water, a drain may be formed into it to carry off that water, and what may likewife be let down into it from the retentive ftratum that lies above it;—as is feen by the plate Methods of draining hilly lands.—TVhe draining of hills, s, and elevated pafture lands, have hitherto been but little attended to, though the herbage which produced by the wetnefs of them from fuch inattention is, probably, the princi- pal caufe of a difeafe extremely fatal to fome of the animals which they fup ee Draining, in fituations of this kind, is not, in general, attended with great ex pence, as the drains need feldom be covered or filled up, only in fack= aoe as may be fufficient for paflages for the animals to crofs by. And though, where the depth of the trench does not come to the water confined belaw, it may be neceffary to perforate lower, there need not be any fear that the holes will fill up, even where the drain is left open, as the impetuofity of the water itfelf, as has been feen, will remove any fand er mud that may fall into them, where much flood or furface water does not get in: fmall openings may, however, be made along the upper fide of the trench, in order the more ef- feGtually to fecure them againft any-obftruétions; and in thefe the perforations may be made, leaving the mouth of the holes abeut fix inches higher than the bottom of the drain, which will be without the reach of the water that may be collected during the time of heavy rains. This may, however, be better un- derftood by the reprefentation in the plate* The fides or declivities of many hills, ee the irregularity of the difpofition of the firata that compofe them, are often covered with alternate portions or patches of wet and dry ground. By the general appearance of the furface, and the vegetable products that are grown upon it, the nature and direction of the inter- nal ftrata may, as has been already obferved, frequently be afcertained with fo much certainty, as to determine the line or direétion of a drain, without the / neceflity of examining below the furface of the land, as the eafe or difficulty of draining fuch grounds depends folely on the pofition of the different ftrata of which the hill or elevation may be formed, and upon the ereét or flanting direc- * See Johnftone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land. te Draining of Land,| 307 being| tion of the rock, or other retentive body in which the water is contained; re Wet where the rock has a flanting or horizontal inclination, the whole of the different etnef: fprings or outlets, that fhew themfelves on the furface, may originate from or be K ata: connecied with the fame colleCtion or body of water, and may be all drained snicef| and dried up by cutting off, or letting out, the main body of water, by which +e they are fupplied, at the inferior part of the refervoir, or that part where the” ie water would of its own accord readily run off, if it were not confined beneath i an impervious covering of clay, or fome other material. e be let 3 ieee= But in cafes where the rock lies in an ere& or perpendicular form,. and con-- en tains only partial collections of water, in fome of the more open cracks or fif- aang fures of the:ftone, that difcharge themfelves at various openings, or outlets, that hieh 2 have not the leaft conne€tion with each other; it: would be an idle and fruitlefs ts endeavour to attempt the cutting of them off, by means of one drain, or by upport, boring into any one of them in particular, without cutting a drain into each,. real€X- as is fhewn in the plate. In this cafe it is more advifable to. make the main 1 places drain wholly in the clay, with{mall cuts made up to each outlet,.than along: though,: the place where the fprings. burft out; as in that line or direction it would be below, too greatly in the rock, and confequently be extremely difficult to cut, on ac- ar that count of the nature and difpofition of the fone: when the water pafting out etuofity on the line of the fprings canbe found by the auger in the main drain, at mav fall the:point where it joins it, it will, itis obferved,.be the more completely cut off; openings but where this is not pra¢ticable, the depth of the{mall cuts may reduce it to more ef fuch a level as will prevent its flowing over, and injuring the furface of the forations, land below it*: sher than In fuch hills as are conftituted of alternate ftrata of rock, fand, and clay, the “that maj furface of the latter may frequently be wet and fwampy, while that of the fore: oe i mer is dry, and capable of producing good crops of grafs; in all fuch cafes, in order to drain the land completely, as many cuts will be neceflary as there may ariel happen divifions of wet and dry foil: the fummit, or moft elevated part of ad fuch hills, being moftly formed of loofe porous materials, through which therain pel and other water defcends, till its paflage becomes obftructed by fome impervi- . and the ous bed or ftratum, fuch as clay, when it is forced up'to the furface, and runs the inter- or oozes over the obftruéting ftratum; and after having overflowed, the upper d' with 10 clay furface is immediately abforbed and taken up by the fucceeding porous out the one, and{inking into it in the fame way as before paffes out again at the lower ficulty of fide of it, and renders the furface of the next clayey bed prejudicially wet as it. trata o! so direc’*- See Johnftone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p, 453:. ing” 308 Draining of Land. had done in the firft. In this way the fame fpring may affeét all the other flrata of the fame kind, of which the hill confifts, from. the higheft part down the whole of the declivity, and produce in the bafon, or hollow at the bottom, a lake or bog, fhould there not happen to be a paflage or opening to take away the water. In order effectually to drain hills of this kind, it is remarked, that “+ will be the moft advifable to begin by forming a trench along the upper fide of the uppermoft rufhy foil, by which means the higheft fpring may be cut off; but as the rain and other water that may come upon the next portion of porous foil may fink down through it, to the loweft part, and produce another{pring, a fecond cut muft be made in that part to prevent the water from affecting the farface of the fucceeding clayey bed. And fimilar cuts muft be formed fo far down the declivity as the fame fprings continue in the fame way to injure the Jand, and in fome cafes a fufficiency of water may probably be obtained to irri- gate the land below, or for fome other ufeful purpofe. It fometimes happens, however, that the ftrata of which hills are compofed are difpofed with fuch regularity, as has been already fhewn, that the water con- tained in them may be capable of being taken away from either fide on the fame level, a-circumftance which might be in fome cafes advantageoufly applied in draining one fide, and watering the other, as there is frequently on one fide wet fwampy ground, while on the other it is much too dry for the purpofes of healthy vegetation.‘This often arifes from the retentive body of clay that keeps up the water not being difpofed in a horizontal or flanting direCtion, but having a dip or depreffion more to one fide than the other, and from the dry fide being overlapped by a{tratum, or covering of clay, on which account the water is under the neceflity of iffuing at the open fide; but when a pafiage is afforded it on the dry fide, by a drain or trench lower than that by which it paffes off on the wet fide, the courfe of the water below may be changed without much difh- culty*. From the oppofite fide being porous and fandy, it becomes a refervoir for the reception of the rain water, which afterwards difcharges itfelf through the opening formed in the clay; a circumftance which may be of much utility in furnifhing water for domeftic ufes, in cafes where the fituation, in refpe€t to the hill, will admit of it, and thus render the additional expence of conveying it by other means unneceflary. Where a refervoir of water is confined in a low fituation contiguous to higher land, it may often be raifed fo as to fupply houfes, ex be otherwife ufeful, notwithftanding it 1s much below that level, by confining * See Johnftone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 47+ ha ono ee ft{tate wn the tom, a ¢ away ed, that per ide cutol: f porous "{pring, ting the sd fo far jure the d to ir: pofed are ater con- Je on the y applied one fide rpofes of hat keeps put having fide being ter is undet yrded it 0 “of onthe much difh- 3 refervoit if through ach utility reipect to onveying i od ina low yply houtes Ny confining Draining of Land. 309 it ina pipe or narrow brick opening. For the refervoir or collection of water whence the{pring or outlet of water is furnifhed being pent up, and confined between two impervious ftrata, and the higher part of it extending probably in many cafes to a great height and diftance in the elevated ground, it is plain that if a hole, or perforation, be made through the fuperincumbant ftratum, into the loweft part of the porous bed containing the water, it may be raifed by be- ing confined nearly as high as the level of the head of the refervoir, or colle€tion of water. In conduéting drains for fuch purpofes as thefe it will, however, al- ways be neceflary to be cautious not to cut or bore in them fo deep as to reach a porous ftratum, as by that means the water that had been found in one fitua- tion might be thus let down and loft in another*.‘Thefe different cafes of draining may be better underftood by the plate. The poflibility of raifing water in particular fituations by different methods of this nature, has been fully fhewn in various inftances, in digging wells and pits to great depths. Methods of draining mived foils.—W here the foil is of a mixed and varied na- ture, but the moft prevailing parts of the clayey kind, the bufinefs of draining is confiderably more tedious and difficult, than where the fuperficial and inter- nal parts have greater regularity. In fuch, forts of lands, as all the different colleétions of water are perfeétly diftin@ from each other, by means of the beds of clay that feparate them, each collection becomes fo much increafed, or accu- mulated, in the time of heavy rains, that they are filled quite to the level of the furface of the clay, by which they are furrounded, when the water getting a free paffage, as it would over the edges of a bowl or difh, overflows and faturates the furface of that bed of clay, in fuch a manner as to render it fo perfectly wet and four, that its produce becomes not only annually more and more {canty, but the foil itfelf more fterile and unproduttive. From the fand beds in fuch cafes having no communication with each other, it muft evidently require as many drains as there are beds of this kind, in order fully to draw off the water from each of them. A drain or trench is therefore recommended to be cut from the neareft and loweft part of the field intended to be drained, up to the higheft and moft diftant fand bank, in fuch a line of direGtion as, if poffible, to pafs through fome of the intermediate fand beds, and prevent the labour and expence of making longer cuts on the fides, which would otherwife be requifite; but where many awkward turnings in the main trench would be the confequence of this, and would lengthen it, and where, by * See Johnftone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 4%. 810 Draining of Land. paffing acrofs the beds in parts higher than the furface of the clay which fur. rounds them, it would greatly increafe its depth, and be worked with difficulty, efpecially when rock or running fand, drains, made fomewhat in the fhape obs Y, fhould branch off to the different beds, in order to take off the water they may contain, and convey it into the principal one, as fhewn in the plate*. But notwith{tanding the fand beds let the water they contain out on every fide, in fuch a way as to injure the clay furface quite round, them, it is further obferved, that a drain made on one fide, may be fufficient to completely draw of the water from the whole, and hinder it from burfting out at either fide, if the place where it is cut be the loweft, or moft depending. But unlefs the drain be fo cut, it cannot poflibly have this effect, while the water can meet with a paflage on the contrary fide of the bank, lower than the bottom of the drain, This circumftance muft, therefore, in the firft place be attended to; and by a careful examination of the ground, and the application of the level, the moft proper fide and fituation for the drain may be readily afcertained. And when the water breaking out round the bank has been feen in dry feafons to.run at one part, and not at the others, it is a fign that that is the loweft point, and’ that by cutting the drain on the line of that level, the water may afterwards be pre- vented from rifing fo high as the upper outlets, or above the level of the bottom of the drain,even in the moft wet times of the year f. But, befides the lands. conftituted in this way, there are others that have much fimilarity, only the different beds are of lefs extent, and lie together with greater regularity, in confequence of which they can be drained in a more eafy manner with lefs cutting, and of courfe at lefs expence. Below the layers or beds of fand and clay that lie, in this manner, alternately together, and nearly parallel to each other, is, generally, it is remarked, a body of impervious clay, which keeps up the water that is contained in the fand, and which being conftantly full, renders the adjacent clay moift, and in wet feafons runs or trickles over it. As in thefe cafes the principal under ftratum of clay is rarely above four or five feet below the furface, a drain is advifed to be cut to that depth through the middle of the field, if it have a defcent from both fides; but if it declines al| to one fide,. the drain, muft, be. made in that place, as the water will more readily difcharge itfelf into it; and, unlefs the field be of great extent, and have more de- preffions or hollows in it than one, one drain may be quite fufficient for the pur-. # See Johnftone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 65, T Ibid, 66,. every further raw of If the un be vith a drain, d by a e mot manner beds of parallel _ which nitantly over it. e four rough nes all readily ore de- he.pute Draining of Land. 311 pofe, as by croffing the different beds that retain the water it muft take it off from each of them;—as may be feen in the plate*. A principal difficulty in draining ground of this nature, and which renders it impra€ticable by one drain, is when the direétion of the alternate lavers, or beds, of clay and fand, lie acrofs the declivity of the land, fo that one drain can be of no other fervice than that of conveying away the water after it has palied over the different ftrata, and would naturally ftagnate in the lowett part of the field, if there was no other paflage for it. Where the land lies in this way, which is frequently the cafe, it will therefore, it is remar a oe neceffary, be- fides the drain, in the loweft part, to have others cut up from it in a flanting di- reCtion, acrofs the declivity, which, by croffing all the different veins, or narrow ftrata of fand, may be capable of drawing the water from each of them;—as {hewn in the plate+. We have already explained the method to be purfued in draining, where fuch alternate ftrata are more extenfive, and the wetnefs produced by larger fprings fo as to form fwamps, at very different heights or levels, on the fides of fuck hills, or elevated grounds. In the draining"op aNES foils of this kind, it will always be firft neceffary to afcertain, with accuracy, the inclination of the alternating ftrata, or the pofition of them, in refpeét to the field to be drained, as this muft in a great’ meafure guide the direction of the drains. This may be effected in moft cafes from the appearances of the furface of the ground, the nature of the herbage, and other circumftances, as has been already fhewn. In drains under thefe circumftances there is rarely any neceflity for perforat- ing the bed below, as the required depth of the trench is fully fufficient, and as there is either no refervoir of water, which from the want of conneétion with higher land can rife up through the perforations, or it is at fuch a depth, and under fuch a body of clay, that it cannot be injurious to the fur- face ground f. In thefe aE it is recommended that the drains, after being formed at the bottom, in the manner of a fough, or fet in the way ofatriangle, be filled fome way up by{mall ftones, tough fods being applied green fide downwards upon them before the mold is filled in. But where ftones cannot be readily pro- cured, faggots may be employed in their place, where they are plentiful: the under part of the drain being laid, or coupled with ftones, fo as to form a chan- nel or paflage for the conveyance of the water that may fink through the faggots, ee Johnftone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 67.+ Ibid, p.68,+ Ibid. 69. _ fhould always be p 312. Draining of Land. and for the purpofe of rendering them more durable; as where the water cannot get freely off, which is generally the cafe where there is not an open paflage nade of fome folid material, it muft, by its ftagnation, foon deftroy the faggots, and choke up the Guat In fully accom plifhing the drainage of fuch kinds of foils as thefe, attention aid, where the land is much on the defcent, to mark out the branching drains in a fufficiently horizontal direftion, fo that the fall may not be too rapid, by which the bottom of the trench may be rendered uneven, and the paflage of the water be thus impeded, which might foon force them up and make them ufelefs; but the fall fhould, however, be fo much as that the water may fully clear its way. The circumftance that renders fewer drains neceflary in Cuch lands as have a horizontal pofition, is, that the water 1s brought equally from the fides of them, while thofe or. a floping dire€tion only draw from the upper fide of the drains, confequently require them to be more numerous and clofer to each other. Indeed, in all fituations where furface draining is to be had recourfe to, this is the cafe; but it 1s more particularly fo in fuch forts of grounds as have a retentive fubftratum, on which the porous furface materials are depofited. Soils conftituted of beds of clay and fand, {cribed, are fometimes charaéterifed and known in places where they are very prevalent, as fome parts of Lancafhire, by fuch terms as have a relation to the circumftance of their holding water, in the way that fome kinds of veffels do Tf. Sometimes, too, the water is found to be retained in{mall beds of folid rock,. that are croffed and intercepted by beds of clay{. Methods of draining retentive foils——The praétical mode of drainage in fuch: {oils as are compofed of porous materials above, and fuch as are retentive below,. or the contrary, is materially different from that which has been defcribed above. Many traéts of level land are injured by the ftagnation of a fuperabundant quan- tity of water in the upper parts of the furface materials, which does not rife up ‘nto them, from any refervoirs or fprings below. The removal of the wetnefs in thefe cafes may, for the moft part, be effe€ted without any very heavy expence.. From the upper or furface foil in fuch cafes being conftituted of a loofe porous ftratum of materials, to the depth of from two to four or five feet, which has a iff retentive body of clay underneath it, any water that may come upon the furface from heavy rains, or other caufes, readily filtrates and finks down through ‘nthe manner that has been juft de- ® See Johnitone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 69.+ Sand-pots, or gut. 7 Ibid 702 na may not ven, and n up and he water ceffary in t equally from the srous and + 1S to be b forts of materials n juft de- rare very ion to the fels dot: folid rock, ge 10 fuct tive below, ‘hed above: Jant quan: ot rife up etnets ia y expence- yofe porous hich bas 4 s upon the vn throug [bid/ y pis t mae Draining of Land. 313 it, until it reaches the obftru€ting body of clay, which prevents it from proceed- ing; the confequence of which is, that the porous open foil above is fo filled and eaviieete with water, as to be of little utility for the purpofe of producing crops of cither:grain or grafs. Land fituated in this way is frequently faid to be wet bottomed by farmers: in order to remove this kind of wetnefs, it feldom requires more than a few drains, made according to the fituation and extent of the field, of fuch a depth as to pafs a few inches into the clay, between which and the under furface of the porous earth above, there will obvioufly be the greateft{tagnation, and confequently colleftion of water, efpecially where it does not become much vifible on the furface. In thefe cafes there is not any neceflity for having recourfe to the ufe of the boring inftrument, as there is no water to be difcharged from below.| When the field to be drained has only a flight declination, or flope, from. the fides towards the middle, one drain cut through the porous fuperficial materials into the clay, in the loweft part of the ground, may be fufficient to bring off the whole of the water detained in the porous foil. This effect may likewife be greatly promoted by laying out and forming the ridges fo as to accord with the direCtion of the land, and by the ufe of the plough or fpade in removing ob- firuCtions, and deepening the furrows, but which may be better underftood by the plate*. In fuch fituations, where the drain has been formed in this manner, the water will flow into it through the porous furface materials, it is obferved, as well as if a number of fmall trenches were cut from it to each fide, as is the practice in Effex, and fome other parts of the country; but which is evidently an ufelefs and unneceffary labour and expence, and befides the field” is greatly injured by fo much cutting. The drain made in the hollow may fre-° quently ferve as a divifion of the field, in which cafe it may open; but in other circumftances it may be more proper to have it covered f. ~ Where a field of this defcription has more than one hollow in its furface, it is remarked, that it will obvioufly be requifite to have more than one main drain; but when it is nearly level, or onlyinclines flightly to one fide, a trench or drain along the loweft part, and thé ridges and furrows formed accordingly, may be fufficient for effeCting its drainage:—as may be feen in the plate.” There may, however, be cafes, as where a field js large and very flat, in which fome fide cuts from the principal drain may be neceflary, which muft be made a little into * See Johnftone’s Account$f Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. ¥r. t Ibid; p. 7a. es) ive) 314 Draining of Land. wie aan acca at S the clay, and as narrow as they can be wrought, and then filled up with ftones} oo.} or other fuitable materials, in the; manner that will be prefently defcribed. F|| Thefe points may be better underftood by the plate.; a a But though this is the plan that is to be purfued in draining foils where the/ porous body is upon the furface, there are other more extenfive cafes of ground 4" which are alfo much injured from wetnefs, but in which the foil is formed in a q| direGily oppofite manner, the clay fubftance conftituting the furface, and the porous body being underneath. We have already pointed out the methods of 4 proceeding in cafes of this kind, where the, wetnefs of the land is fuch as to do great injury, and where the retentive bed or ftratum that keeps up the water is of fuch a depth as to be under the neceflity of being perforated, or bored through by means of inftruments. But, from the depth of the drain itfelf being. f in thefe cafes fufficient to penetrate to the porous ftratum below, the mode of i draining them is to be noticed in this place. f In general, lands of this nature lie extremely flat, and without the leaft de-_| clivity, by which the injurious flagnant water on the clay furface can poflibly j get off, without the afliftance of drains being formed for the purpofe; but in foils of the fame fort where the fituation is more of a declivity, there is rarely any bad effets from the fame caufe. Soils of this nature are however drained. with greater difficulty, and require a much greater number of trenches.or cuts, than! thofe of any other kind, as they muft be marked out and difpofed in fuch a way: as to colle&t and convey the water every-where from the furface; as it can only| force itfelf off into them from above, being prevented from finking in through the clay, as in thofe foils of a contrary kind. Where there happens to be hol- lows or irregularities in the furface of the land, water may often be obferved i to continue ftanding in them, at the diftance of but a few feet from the drain. In draining fuch lands, it will, it is obferved, always be neceflary, in the firft place, to make a large or condudting drain at the loweft part, or the end of the field, for the purpofe of receiving and conveying away the water collected by the lefs collateral cuts, which it may be neceffary to make on each fide of it. Where it fuits for the purpofe of dividing the land, this principal drain may be better to remain open than be covered, as by that means the mouths or outlets of the different{mall drains that come into it may be conveniently examined, and cleared out when neceffary*. In fuch foils too, when they are under tillage, the conftruétion of the ridges, * See Johnftone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 74. ftones Tibed, ‘i tethe Pound ed in a and the hods of aS to do ie water or bored It being mode of leaft de- poflibly t in foils rely any ed. with its, than ch a way can only n through to be hol , obferved the draid. } the firft ad of the ected by je of it n may be or outlets xamined, ba he ridges Draining of Land. S15 fo as that they may accord with the declivity, is a matter that muft be care= fully kept in view.‘They fhould in all fuch eafes have alfo that degree of elevation or roundnefs in the middle that may be fufficient to afford the water ready fall into the furrows, which fhould likewife have fuch a depth and falF as may take it quickly into the drains. The ridges, befides being well laid up, fhould have fmall open drains formed in a flanting dire€tion acrofs them, in fuch a manner as to form communications with one another, and with the furrows; by which means they are made to perform the office of drains, the water coming upon the ridges being thus readily conveyed into the furrows, where it proceeds till impeded in its courfe by the rifing of the ground or other caufes, it then paffes through the open crofs-drains into others, where the defcent is greater, and is ultimately conveyed off into the ditch, or other paffage, at the bottom of the in- clofure. The elevation of the ridges fhould probably too be made greater for the winter than the fummer crops, as there muft be much more injurious moifture at the former than the Jatter feafon. This may be eafily accomplifhed at the time of ploughing the land. By thefe means, therefore, a large portion of the rain water might be conveyed off as it falls, and the number of fmall cuts that would otherwife be required, be much diminifhed. The drains, when neceffary, fhould alfo be cut as narrow as poffible, and be filled up with{mall{tones in the way that has been noticed; and the bottom or fough of the principal or conduCcting drain, where it is not an open one, fhould be formed with a{mall channel or conduit at the bottom, in the way that has been mentioned, in order to facilitate the paflage of the water. It is the beft method too to form the fmall drains by what is termed coupling: that is, placing the ffones in the bottom, in an inclining dire€tion on one another, fo as to form a fort of triangular opening of from four to fix inches underneath. From the water being wholly brought.in from the top of the drains, it is requi- fite that they be filled with{mall ftones up to fuch a diftance from the furface, as will juft admit the plough or harrow to pafs over without difturbing them, which fpace fhould be covered in with loofe gravel. Where fuch gravel can readily be procured it is always to be preferred, to the tenacious clayey earth that came out of the trench, from its more readily admitting the water to filtrate and pafs through it into the ftones.. A thin coat or layer of ftraw or rufhes, or what is{till better, where the land is in a ftate of pafture, the furface turf pared thinly off, muft be applied over the ftones, in order to guard againft the fmaller parts of the gravel from infinuating themfelves, and filling up the openings be- Drain ine of J fe Th 1d. oO tween them. This is not, however, fo neceflary to be done when gravel is ufed, as Ww eee moldsisthe material made ufe of*. This method of removing water from land 1s, 1t ts obferved, fuited to every enacious clay foil, whether it be porous or not below; but in many cafes Ct ad 7 deepening the furrows. with very few drains might prove fufficient for remedying “a ne i the ARIES where the retentive upper foil is only of the depth of a foot or two, with an open or porous material beneath it, through which the water could: readily fink downwards, and be difcharged again at fete lower part of the field. i The drains and furrows ought confequently to be deepened quite through the i elay into the porous foil, in order to fully expedite the defcent and difcharge‘ of the water. Hence it is obvious, that a great deal depends on the judicious i ploughing of fuch land, as by it the labour of cutting might be much abridged,,‘ Mauch may likewife be effe€ted in many cafes of clay ey foils, bath: of the deep and thin kinds, by breaking and opening them well up; to fuch depths. as. or perhaps nearly prevented.) : may allow the water to fink down to fucha diftance as will render it not pres judicial to. the crops that may be cultivated upon them; and by the incorpo- 14 rating of dung and calcareous manures with them im large proportions, as.may; be feen by the effeéts of deep trenching in the bufinefs of gardening. This( fhould be performed by fuch implements as operate deeply, without turning; 4 the mellow furface mo!ld down underneath f-.‘: 4 When hollow drains are neceflary, in digging of themrthere is: confiderable art,,: i as they fhould be formed with as much tiuth and exa€tnefs as poffible, which can:: i only be done by fuch perfons as are converfant with the nature of the bufinefs.| Such labourersas are not dexterous in-ufing their tools feldom,make them well. i The moft general method of performing this fort of work is by admeafurement,. at fo mucha rod, or a feore rods, which-neceffarily induces the workmen to do as: muchas they poflibly can; they fhould therefore be frequently infpeéted, to fee that they keep to the proper and required depth, and. that the earth taken out be laid: in fuch a manner, as not to fall down again into the drains in time of filling: them, and that the furface mold be kept on one fide free from the clayey or, other material of the inferior ftratum J. 7 Thofe who have been in the habit of. draining land,, now it general begin to ' * See Johnftone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land;. p. 74. + See Anderfon’s Practical Treatife on Draining, p. 99. t-Jbid, p. 1496 fed, ey er ¥ Y cates -cie§ edy\ye ‘he or(Wo, * could WMI C 1 a ha C held, >} dicious ridged, ne deep: ths: as iot pres corpo as. may ~ This taming, pA able art, hich can bufinels. em well, to. do ase fee that. be laid f filling Jayey Of : yegin tO Draining of Land. 317 fee the great advantages of makingtheir drains, in thefe cafes, when there is any declivity in the ground, in a flanting direction acrofs it, inftead of the old method of condufting them according tothe nature or inclination of the flope. By at- tending to the former mode of cutting the drains, the wetnefs is not only more effectually removed, but, by allowing the water to pafs away in an eafy current, they.are rendered lefs liable to be choked, or as it is frequently termed blown up, by which artificial oozings of water are fometimes formed in fuch places. But where grounds are either quite or nearly level, as is the cafe‘in many of the weftern diftriéts, it has longebeen a general practice, and where the wetnefs to be removed arifes, entirely from furface water, by no means to be difregarded, to cut the drains at the different diftances of about fixteen, twenty-four, and thirty-two feet from each other, acrofs the fields from the different ditches, ac- cording to the circumftances of the lands; or, indeed, wherethe drains, either from fome flight unevennefs of the furface, or other caufés, ean only be made to flow at one end,+to avoid cutting them further on one fide; than where the ditch is capable of taking away the wetnefs. In cafes where the declivities of a piece ef ground are various, and have different inclinations, the drainer: fhould con- ftantly attend to: them, and direét the lines. of his drains in fuch a manner, as that they may crofs the higher fides of the different declivities in.a flanting di- reclion. The depth of all fuch drains muft depend upon the nature of the foils, the pofitions of the land, anda great variety of other more trifling circumftances.. It was formerly the cuftom to make them. three or four feet in depth, but by modern drainers they are rarely made:to exceed. thirty, or perhaps a few inches more,, the moft general depth being from twenty-four to. twenty-fix inches. As the main drains have more water to convey away, and are generally of greater length; than the lateral ones, they fhould always be cut fomewhat deeper; and where the materials-of the foils are porous, the greater depth they are cut, the more extenfively they aét in lowering the wetnefs of the land, to fuch a de- gree, as that it can be little injurious to the crops, whether of grain or grafs, that may be produced upon it’: when, however, the operator reaches any. impervious material in the foil, through which the moifture cannot pafs, it will be quite ufelefs to dig the trench toa greater depth.. Ifit be clay, by going a few inches into it, a more fafe paflage for the moifture may. however be fecured. It mutt notwithftanding-be invariably attended to, that the depth be fuch.as that the “treading of heavy cattle may not difplace, or in any way injure, the materials em. ployed in eonftructing or filling them. It may be noticed too, that where the @ 318 Draining of Lana. horfes in ploughing tread in the bottom of the furrow, at the depth of four or more inches below the furface, that, if eight or'ten more be allowed for the ma- terials with which they are filled, when the depth of‘the trenches are not more than twenty-four inches, there will only be nine or ten inches of earth for the {upport of the horfes in the exertions of ploughing. Where the earth has been {lirred, fuch a depth muft undoubtedly be too little, and in fome meafure proves ‘that drains of fuch a depth are not fufficient. By cutting them down to the depth of two‘feet-and a‘half in the ftiffer foils, they will feldom be penetrated to, or have too great a depth; and in the pervious ones a ftill greater depth is highly ufeful, and conftantly to be praGtifed*. The pra€tice of cutting the drains as narrow as pofiible, which has lately been much attended to in moft of the eaftern diftrifis, is of much importance, as it caufes a confiderable faving of the matters employed in filling them up, whether they be wood or ftraw; but in cafes where bricks or ftones are employed, this cannot'be‘fo much attended to; however, there is feldom, Mr. Johnftone obferves, a neceflity'for'a greater width than about a foot, provided the ftones be coupled at the bottom, or thrown in in a mixed way, nor more than fixteen inches where laid in the manner of a fough or channél. But of whatever depth the materials may be, the earth or mold by which they are covered up fhould not be lefs in depth than a foot, in arable lands it fhould indeed be more. The dimenfions reprefented in the plate are praper for-fuch lands as are wet from furface water, or the ftagnation of it in the upper foil. se In lands in the ftate of pafture, efpecially where the foils are ftiff and tena- cious, gravel, when it can be procured, is always to be preferred for filling with, and the earth thrown out may ferve for filling hollows in the fields. It is an advantageous practice in fome cafes, as where the'land to be drained «sin fuch a ftate as to admit of it, to make ufe of the plough in opening the upper parts of the drains. The method of performing the bufinefs as defcribed by a celebrated drainer is this: when the drains are fet out in the field, which is commonly done at the diftance of about a rod from each other, two furrows are drawn with a foot-plough, a baud of about fifteen inches in width being left between them, which baulk is then fplit, by means of a ftrong double breaft- plough conftruéted for the purpofe, and a clean furrow fourteen or fifteen inches an depth left. In fome cafes, where the foil is fo deep as to require it, as it 1s ad- vantageous to touch the furface of the clay, by a fecond ufe of the plough, the furrow is funk to the depth of eighteen or twenty inches; itis then ina ftate of * See Johnftone on Draining, p. 147- ia ae ee Sane ae oe seaman 3 JS eae= ae-—_—_co a, four oy the ma. at more for the hasbeen 1 proves in to the netrated depth is as lately ince, ast whether oyed, this -obferves, coupled at es where materials be lefs in Yimention face wate f and ten filling with be drained penin g the ; defcribed eld, which wo furrows h being left uble breatt een inches “as it 15 ae Joust, ina fate — oot Draining of Land. 81g preparation forthe land-ditching fpade, by the ufe of which the drain may be dug to the depth of fifteen inches more, as narrow as it is capable of being made*. When ploughs for the purpofe cannot be readily procured, the bufinefs may- be performed by means of a common plough, and a ftrong team, fo as to ftir the ground to the depth of five or more inches, making a double furrow by throwing the earth on each fide, and letting a baulk remain in the middle. This baulk is, Mr. Johnftone fays, to be raifed in a fimilar manner, by a fecond bout of the plough, ‘and then as much depth as poffible is to be got by going twice in the open furrow with an ordinary double breaft-plough. The loofe mold and irregularities are next fhoveled out to the breadth of a foot, by which a clear open furrow is pro- duced of different depths, according to the nature of the foil and the ploughs employed, but moftly about eight or nine inches. One fpit is afterwards dug out tothe depth of fifteen or fixteen inches, with the draining fpade, producing ultimately a depth of two feet or more. Where this depth is not fufficient, which is often the cafe, one or:two fpits more are thrown out, by which a depth of three or more feet is frequently formed. As where a large quantity of water is made to flow in one drain, as from the junétion of many collateral branches with it, though it be made. larger and of greater depth in confequence of that circumftance, it may be liable to fail in taking away the water, the effect of which muft be very extenfive, from the ' courfe of fo many others becoming impeded in confequence of it: itis a good rule, therefore, not to conne& a number of drains with the fame outlet, or dif- charging one; but to form them, efpecially where there is much declivity in the Jand, as much as poflible in a diftin@t and feparate manner. The fpades employed in forming the drains were formerly made of different fizes, fo as to follow each other, narrowing in breadth in a regular manner to the bottom. Lately, however, the plough has been madeto fupply, in the way that has been juft fhewn, the. places of all of them except the lowermoft, or the two lowermoft ones where the drains are required. to be deep. Scoops. are likewife ufeful tools in this bufinefs, as by drawing them along the bottom of the drains all the loofe and detached particles of earth may be cleared away, and they be prepared for the materials with which they are to be filled. Im- * See Annals of Agriculture, vol. VIII. p. 144. + The expence of making drains, it is obferved by the writer of Mr. Elkington’s Mode of Draining, mutt neceffarily vary, according to the particular circumftances of the cafe. In the county of Suffolk, as ftated in the Agricultural Report of the county, the expence of digging out and filling two{pit drains is from three fhillings and four pence to three. fhillings and fix pence a{core rods, without any allowance of beer. But. 320 Draining of Land. plements of this fort of various dimehfions fhould be had, in order to fuit the different fizes of the drains;-reprefentations of which may be feen by confult- ing the annexed plate. Various implements of other kinds, in fomewhat the forms of ploughs, have been invented at different periods for the purpofe-of forming hollow drains at once in land, but‘hitherto we believe without that general fuccefs which might be withed for in fuch inftruments. That which was not long ago invented by Mr. But in Effex, according to Mr. James Young, they pay for digging out the land drains one fhilling and eight pence, and for filling them with ftubble four pence per{eore rods without beer; and an ex- pert workman, where the land is not ftony, is capable of digging twenty-three or twenty-four rods in a day, or within working hours. He eftimates the expence, or the money that the farmer pays out of his pocket, for draining an acre of land in this way: For cutting and raking together an acre of wheat ftubble;, moftly fufficient for an ae acre of drains---.=== 0% 89 Digging eight fcore rods of drains~-=== O13 4 Filling them up with ftubble~--==“ 0..2 38 Extra work with the common fpade, averaging a day’s work for aman= Og ce 3 919 4 It is obferved by Lord Petre, that the value of the work is different according to the method purfued. His mode is that of ploughing with a common plough, and pair of horfes, two furrows dif- ferent ways, leaving a baulk in the middle, which he afterwards ploughs out with a large plough, and three horfes abreaft, which regularly turns a furrow about two inches deeper than the land is commonly ploughed. The expence, without allowing any thing for the perfon who attends, and marks out the ditches, is, he fays, about one fhilling and fix pence per acre, the drains being a rod apart. This is the mode for fallows. The labour of digging is two-pence farthing or two-pence halfpenny the rod, and the expence for the acre ef the whole work is, as near as he can guefs, on a fallow, where two fpits are dug, four pounds three fhillings and fix pence per acre; with the plough, and one fpit, about three pounds; with the plough, about one pound fifteen fhillings; without the plough, and the fpits, on clay fet, about two pounds feven fhillings per acre, According to Mr. Majendie’s information, his expence is: sds shod. Digging the drains with the fmall or iaft{pit fpade per{core yards I>;-8.-gt0e 2...© Two fpits in main drains----- 305 Ge tor 3-0 In this manner the under-draining one acre{the drains at one rod apart), including wood, ftraw, and all other incidental charges, amounts to an expence of from two pounds to two pounds five fhillings. It is tated by Mr. Kent, in fpeaking of the conftruétion of drains with the fpade and the ploughs, that it is rather difficult to make an exact eftimate of the expence, as the price varies, in the county of Effex itfelf, from one penny to three pence per pole, in the workmanfhip only; and fome land re- Draining of Land.$07 {uit the confi Adam Scot, termed a mole-plough, and which has fince, perhaps, been in Oniult-:. fg: 5 some degree improved by Mr. Watt, of Bingley, may anfwer in fome particulat aa| kinds of foil, at certain feafons of the year; but from the great ftrength which MS have. fk:: ere;:: * is required to draw it, it is obvious that it can only be employed under pecu- 1S at once:: é veer iohtb Har circumftances of foil, feafon, and ftrength of team. However defirable it Night be a: oak; *\ may therefore be, to have an effective implement of this kind, that may be G Dy Mr. generally made ufe of, and which performs its work ata cheap and eafy rate, it would feem that at prefent the farmer is not in pofleflion of one that can be na{hilline: ne thilling-confidered as fully adequate to the purpofe. and an ex- 4“- Se ee re There is another fort of inftrument, invented for the purpofe of draining, and Ir TOds ih@.: se: tte which has been made ufe of in Effex: itis a heavy wheel, with a fharp cutting ye edge. In the furvey of that county it is remarked, that the wheel is con- ftructed of caft-iron, weighs about four hundred weight, and is four feet in dia- sd. meter; that the cutting edge, or extreme circumference, is half an inch in , 0 quires the drains to be nearer together than others; but fuppofing them to be a pole in width from each 13 4 3 other, which is.the common diftance, the following calculation, upon an average, will be pretty exatt 2 8 for an acre: 1%: Gasme d: — Sinking the ditch to obtain an outfall-_-:- Que, 6 19, Drawing the furrows--=-=-= Oe 0 ‘‘One hundred and fixty poles of digging and filling up, at two pence- 27 OSS the methot Wood, eftimated at a faggot of twelve feet long to a pole,-carriage included, at ) Turtows al: four pence per faggot------ 2S 4 plough, and‘Half-a load of ftraw, and carriage-> oe~= Cs fee Fae js commonly Extra-digging, in the ends, where the plough will not reach,== O08 giscO/ narks out the See Ee This is the: ey:: 4 te. ig! sm y Mr. Middleton, in his Report of the Agriculture of Middlefex, ftates the expence of draining on En-- p£00, oe field Chafe to have been, for {pits are Gug, Ss. ad, nree pounds} Common drains, twenty poles eighteen inches deep each--- xO on clay 1€t Prmcipal ditto, two feet deep of the fame length°°°= 5 0 Beer to each{core-----°-= 0% The labourer to find tools, and keep them in repair. F The ufual diftance, a fhort pole from each other. $‘ In the‘Report of the County of Kent, the expence of this mode of draining is afferted to be from 0 6 fifteen to thirty fhillings the acre, according to the number of drains that may be required. A: And in the.Agricultural Survey of the County of Somerfet, it is ftated, that main drains two feet and 4, frraw, and a half deep and two feet wide, in a heavy ftrong clay foil, may be dug for one fhilling and fix pence per eve fhillings rope, of twenty feet, viz. nine pence per rope digging the drain and placing the ftones, three pence per ' the ploughs eart-load quarring the ftones, and three pence per load halling. Each rope requiring one cart-load ye county and half of ftones.. yn(ie; 5;- 5::: ; fe- Small drains, leading to the main drain, may be executed fer ten pence per rope of twenty feete + fore Land fe 3» May I I y oT 528)<& Draining of Land, thicknefs, which increafes towards the nave or centre. At the depth of fifteen inches it will{core or cut out a drain half an inch wide at the bottom, and four inches at the furface. It is placed in a frame in fuch a manner as that it may be loaded according to circumftances, and be made to cut a greater or lefs depth in proportion to the refiftance afforded by the land. After the ground has been{cored out in this way in the winter, the drains thus conftrutted are. then either filled by means of ftraw ropes, and flightly covered with earth, or. left to be rendered wider and of greater depth by the cracks produced from. their being expofed to the influence of the fummer’s fun: the openings being: afterwards filled by twifted ftraw or brufh-wood, and lightly covered over with mold or earth, of the moft porous fort that can be readily procured. In this, way hollow drains are made on grafs or ley grounds at a trifling expence, which from experience have been found to anfwer well. It is likewife afferted by Mr. Young in the Annals of Agriculture, that twelve acres have been drained in a day by this wheel; and that it is found to execute the work in the moft effeGual manner when the land is foft from moifture. This mode of draining would feem to be the moft adapted to fuch paftures and pleafure-grounds as have confiderable{moothnefs of furface, without being trodden by heavy cattle, and which, from‘the retentive nature of their foils, detain the water that falls in raine A fort of plough, termed a JZimer, and various kinds of common draining- ploughs, have been conftruéted for the purpofe of opening up tillage-lands to a confiderable depth, fo as to allow the water to pafs away upon the impervious. clayey material below the common furface foil. Thefe are reprefented in the: annexed plate. The beft or moft proper feafon for performing the bufinefs of hollow-draining,, does not feem to be yet fully determined by thofe who have been moft engaged in the practice; fome contending that winter is the moft advantageous time for the purpofe, while others think that fummer fhould always be preferred. It would, however, appear, from the confideration of the different circumftances of the Jands at thefe periods, that neither of them are the moft favourable feafons for this kind of work; but that the more early{pring months, when labourers can be procured, and it does not interfere with the other operations.of the farmer, are by much the beft; as, in thefe, the difficulties arifing from the hardnefs. of the foil, and the fearcity of labourers, in the fummer feafon,, and the kneading and plaftering, as well as the cutting of the land by the cartage of materials in the winter, are equally avoided. Befides, in thefe months the land is not only in the sway is teen and at it r lel round d are th, ot from being with 1 this. ence, Terted rained > mot aining ds as attle, t falls aining- ds to@ ervious in the aining, rgaged me for would, of the for this can be Draining of Land. 323 moft fuitable condition for the workmen, but the danger“6f the new drains being deftroyed in fome fituations by the floods caufed by the autumnal rains, is guarded againft. Where, however, the farmer has a great deal of work of this kind to per- form, it will be impoflible to do it all in thefe early months: he muft proceed with the bufinefs at other feafons when froft is not prefent. It 1s the moft common praétice of farmers to drain ftubbles in the‘winter, and fallows in the fummer months. Some expert drainers, however, think this fort of work much better per- formed when the land to be rendered dry is under a layer, or fown down with feeds of the grafs kind. And it has been remarked that the plough employed for firft opening the furrows performs better on land in this ftate* As the limits between the wet and dry parts of and can be the moft readily diftinguifhed when it is in fummer fallow, and the little inequali- ties of furface be moft eafily levelled down, that period is by moft farmers confidered as unqueftionably the moft proper time for forming fuch drains as are merely to convey away the furface wetnefs. Different forts of materials may be employed for the purpofe of filling drains, to which the drainer will be directed by the eafe and facility with which they may be capable of being procured. Thofe in moft general ufe, are ftones, wood, ftraw, heath, and bricks conftru€ted for the purpofe., Where quarried{tones are employed, and the drain conftruéted at bottom in the manner of a conduit, the trench fhould be made fufficiently wide to admit two fide ftones, about fix inches apart, and of equal height, a flat ftone being placed over by way of cap; and thus a fecure drain formed. Another mode of conftru€ting ftone drains, and which has been found confiderably cheaper and more fecure, is that of ufing three ftones of a thin, flat form, placing one again{t each fide of the drain, fo as to join at the bottom, and capping or covering them with the third; thus forming a fort of triangular paflage for the water. When made in this way, it is faid that they are neither .* It is ftated by the author of Mr. Elkington’s Mode of Draining, that«¢ Lord Petre prefers a lay, if laid down level, as he has a plough conftruéted for the purpofe on very fimple principles,} which with fix horfes he can plough from ten to twelve inches, and lay the furrows as regular as if they had been done by a fpade; fo that after the drain is digged and filled, the furrow can be returned to its place again, and rendered quite level by a heavy roller. He only digs one fpit fourteen inches deep with the bottom jand-ditching fpade. The expence is 2s. 8d. for twenty rods; the digger returning the furrow to its place, He:employs the fame plough on fallows; but it does not anfwer fo well in that cafe, as the mold falls «down into the furrews, The expence of digging in this café is 1s. 2d, for every rod.” 324 Draining of Land. {ubje& to be filled up, nor to obftru€t the current of water that may pafs along them. They do not, like thofe formed in the ufual way, caufe obftru€tion by finking unequally into the ground; but by fubfiding in a regular manner all together, keep the courfe for the water free. Befides, in this mode, a lefs quantity of ftones is generally required; which is a circumftance of great im- portance in many fituations. The firfi method is, however, only applicable. i cafes of fprings; but this, as well as the mode juft mentioned, is obviouily much more expenfive than that of throwing in fmall ftones in a loofe manner, In particular diftri€is, as Efex, and fome other eaftern counties, where drains are filled with ftones, they employ the{mall flints from the chalk or ftones from gravel-pits, or fuch as are. picked from the land. But it is only in drains of very little extent, and where little water paffes, that fuch very fmall{tones can be ufed with fafety and advantage; and as ftones, of whatever fize they may be, require a greater width in the bottom part of the drain than where wood or ftraw is made ufe of, the expence of forming them will be confiderably more. In every cafe the ftones ufed fhould be perfe&ily clean and free from clay, or any other earthy matter that may adhere to them, and be placed in the drains in fuch a manner as: that none of the mold or earth may get in along with them, which might be detrimental by filling up the holes and crevices between them. It has been afferted by fome, that drains filled with wood, and covered in the common way with ftraw or rufhes, are fuperior to ftones or any other kind of materials, for as the wood decays the water continues to pafs. But that when filled with ftones, and the drains ftop up, which in time muft often be the cafe, the earthy matter becomes quite folid round the ftones, from their not decaying, and the paffage of the water for ever prevented; which is not the cafe where bufhes or wood are employed, an oozing or draining being conftantly perceptible. Befides, by a repetition of the bufinefs, and making the drains in a tran{verfe direc- tion to the old ones, the advantage of filtration through the rotten wood is pre- ferved, and the fpewing up of old broken and injured drains removed and carried away. It has been further obferved, that as bufhes form more numerous cavities than either ftones or poles, they are lefs liable to be ftopped up, while the percolation or paflage of the water is promoted more than by fubftances of a larger and more folid kind*.: Black thorns are preferred by fome, from much experience, to all other forts of * Tt has been found that a load of bufhes containing one hundred and twenty faggots, will complete about three hundred and'fixty rods; and a load of ftraw of one hundred and twenty bottles will do the- a tll at along a by Tt all a lels at itl. ble in rioully ner, drains 3 from f very an be ay be, r{traw e. In or any ins in them, them. ‘in the cind of it when he cafe, cayings > where eptible, e direc is pre- ,4 and merous while es of 3 forts of ‘complete jj) doe Draining of Land. 325 materials for the purpofe of filling drains, probably from their not decaying fo quickly as many other forts of wood, and their affording an eafy and free paflage to the water by their bufhy nature. By fome it is a pra€tice to employ wodd in filling drains, by depofiting the faggots or brufli wood which is made ufe of, upon fmall bunches of wood in the form of billets fet upright in the bottom of the drain. But though this method is faid to have fucceeded in fome of the more northern parts of the ifland, and is perhaps capable of being pra€tifed with advantage in fuch lands as are not under the ftate of arable cultivation, it has been found that in fome cafes the feet of the animals employed in ploughing have funk in fuch a manner as to remove the materials that fupported the brufh wood, and by that means obftruéted the paflage of the water. Where this mode is followed, efpecially in lands that are to bear the treading of cattle, care fhould be taken to have a con- fiderable thicknefs or depth of earth upon the drains. It is remarked by the reporter of the ftate of agriculture in the county of Caermarthen in Wales, that> the moft complete method he is acquainted with, is that of cutting the ftrongeft parts of willows, and other aquatic plants, into lengths of about twenty inches, and placing them alternately in the drain, one with the end againft one fide of. the bottom, and the other with it againft the oppofite fide, foas to form a fort of crofs-work.. The ftronger parts of the wood being laid in this way in the drain, the fpace between on the upper fide is filled with the{mall twigs or bruth wood that has been left, and the whole is finifhed by a flight covering of ftraw, rufhes, ot fuch-like fubftances, being laid over them. It has been obferved, that the boughs of willow, alder, afp, and beech, are extremely durable when put in fuch drains in their green ftate before the fap is dried up; but that when fuffered to become dry before they are put under the ground, they decay more quickly. The re- porter has feen willow taken out of a bog where it had laid thirty years, with the bark frefh and fappy as if juft cut from the hedge; and it is well known, he remarks, that beech laid in the water green will continue found for almoft any length of time.| It has likewife been remarked by an able agricultor, Mr. Majendie, that wood of eighteen years’ growth, is much more durable than fuch as is only ten- or twelve. On filling drains with ftraw, where the foil is a clofe retentive clay, it is ad- fame: the bufhes are moftly worth fourteen fhillings, and the ftraw eighteen fhillings, the load. The ex- pence is therefore eftimated at about twelve fhillings an acre, the ditches being made about a rod diftant» from each other. 306 Draining of Land. vifed that the drains fhould be made near to each other, fhallow, and filled with that material only, as it is quite unneceflary to employ wood or other more durable materials, where the fides of the drains are not likely from the nature of the land to crumble down into them. In fuch cafes, the diftance of the drains fhould feldom be greater than three or four yards from each other, and about twenty inches in depth; or fuch as may be eafily produced by firft ufing the plough, then fhovelling up the bottom of the loweft furrow, and afterwards taking out one fpit with the land-ditching fpade: drains formed in this way, with the materials, coft about two fhillings and fix pence a{core rods. It is further remarked, that drains cut through tough retentive clays, and managed in this way, will be found foon after they have been made to have formed over the ftraw employed in filling them, an arch of fuch ftrengthas to fupport the weight of the foil, and any thing that may come upon it in the courfe of managing the land; and that in the courfe of twelve or eighteen months, from the ftraw being an uniform fubitance, it is wholly rotted and conveyed away, -Jeaving clear open pipes in fuch drains, as the water may have had a free and eafy paflage into, by a proper attention having been paid to the filling of them with the moft open and porous parts of the furface of the land*. But the beft method of filling hollow drains with ftraw is probably that which has been lately praétifed of twifting it into ropes. The mode which has been moft generally followed, is that of treading into the drains loofe ftraw; but it may be forced much more effeCtually to the bottom of the drains, and convey the water away much more readily, and be alfo of much longer duration, by being wound into a firm hard rope, about the fize of afmall cable, while the bufinefs of filling the drains is rendered more expeditious, and the quantity of ftraw which is neceflary not by any means increafed. This method has been practifed by Mr. Bedwell, in the county of Effex, with great fuccefs and ad- vantage, and who has found that: the ftraw is tougher and in a better condition for winding after it has been picked over by cattle, than in its frefh and dry ftate. A reprefentation of a machine for this purpofe may be feen in’ the annexed plate. Bricks are fometimes made and employed for the purpofe of draining, but they are in general too expenfive, and not well fuited to furface draining, though they are proper for fuch drains as are to carry off the water iffuing from fprings, in which cafes a large traét of land may frequently be laid dry, without employing any very great quantity of fuch materials. The bricks ufed in this way have moftly * See Vancouver’s Report of the County of Effex. cdwih=| T more ature of e drains nd about fing the 1s taking with the ays, and to have eth as to he courfe . months, ed away, free and of them at which has been w; butt nd convey iration, by while the juantity a has beet fj and ad condition Draining of Land. 307 atr excavation for the water to pafs along, and are placed in{tiff foils upon the bottom of the drains; but in fuch as are foft, they are mottly laid one upon the - other, fo as to form a fort of cylindrical paflage for the water; or they may be placed on a foundation made of common bricks: reprefentations of bricks for this ufe may be feen in the plate.. Pipes made of burned clay, about eighteen inches in length, having an opening three or four inches in diameter, are alfo made ufe of in this way in the county of Effex, and fome other diftri€ts; but from the narrownefs of their apertures they can only convey a{mall quantity of water, they are therefore more fuited to the conveyance of water from{prings or other places for domettic ufes, than for the purpofes of draining land. As it is a matter of confiderable importance in the bufinefs of draining, to have the work properly executed, on this account the perfons who perform the cut- ting of the drains fhould not be contraéted with for the filling of them, but merely for the cutting and leaving them clean in the bottoms. The filling ber ing performed by labourers hired by the day, in order to guard more effeCtually againft necligence, and the want of proper attention to the work; and even when done in this way, either the farmer himfelf, or fome other perfon who can be trafted, thould frequently infpeé the performance. It is obferved by an in- genious drainer, that it is an invariable rule with him never to fuffer the man who digs to coyer up the drains, they being left for him or his bailiff to infpeet; they are then filled up well to the fhoulders with wheat ftubble, cut and ftacked, for the purpofe immediately after harveft; and a fmall ftick or two put at the outlets to prevent their being flopped up by accidents: after this he turns a furrow of the upper foil or mold upon the drain by means of a common plough, taking care not to turn in any of the dead foil brought up by the land-ditch {pade, which fhould always be laid on the outfide, and be fpread over the land, It is proper, he fays, not to let the drains lie open any great length of time, as they may get injured by wetnefs or froft; his general rule is to fill them up in the courfe of the day*. By confulting the annexed plate, the methods of filling drains in different cafes may be better under{tood. Methods of draining mines, quarries, and pits.—Befides the removing the injus rious wetnefs of land arifing from fprings, and that on the furface caufed by the{tiff and retentive nature of the foit, there is another application of the prin- ciples. which have been explained, which is in the draining of mines, quarries, and * Mr. James Young,‘of Clare. fuch : Dra o of Lane ning of Latnd. Ys Ai tte pits as have been formed in the digging of marl or other fubftances:of a Gmilar kind, where:they are prevented from being wrought by it. As the injurious water 1s brought down from the more: elevated: fituations through the porous trata of materials at confiderable depths, as has been al- ready fhewn; where pits, mines, or quarries, happen to be formediat the bottom of fuch declivities, and are inconvenienced or wholly obftruéted, either in the digging or working, by the water contained in-them, it may be poffible, in many cafes, to prevent its coming inte fuch mines or pits, by cutting or boring into the loweft edge of the porous trata where the level of the fituation in which itvis, is lower than where it lies in the pit or mine. In order to accomplith this object, it will be neceffary to.afcertainif any porous ffratum prefents itfelf higher up the elevation than the place where the mine or pit 1s formed, that may conduf& the water it poffeffes to the porous body that is below it; as where fuch a ftratum is difcovered by cutting into it, much of the water may be drawn off and) pre- vented from pafling down. But, notwithftanding the water from above may be cut off in this way, a quantity fufficient to inconvenience the working of the anine or pit may ftill filtrate from the fides of the porous bed, even though it may incline in the direction of the lower ground. When this is the cafe, it may, however, be readily taken away at fome place in it. To accomplifh this, and thereby obviate the effeéts of the water, the termination of the porous fratum below the pit muft be afcertained; and where there is any mark of a natural outlet at the place, a large drain fhould be formed, in order to admit the water to fow off with more expedition. Where, however, there is a thick bed of fome impervious fubftance, fuch as clay, placed upon the termination of the porous material, the drain need only be cut a little way.into that, as by boring through the reft a fufficient paflage may be given to difcharge the water. In this way, the draining of fuch grounds as lie above or near to mines or pits, may be of great advantage ie In refpeét to the removal of the water contained in the bottom of fuch mines or pits, another method of proceeding is recommended; as the level of the ground may probably be no-where lower than that of the opening of the pit. It is folely in cafes where the dire€tion of the ftrata and porous materials have an inclination with the furface, or lie horizontally, that fuch a mode as that which has been juft deferibed can be employed with advantage. In inftances where the direétion of them is the contrary of the above, the only chance of * See Johnitone’s Account of Elkington’s Mede of Draining Land, p. 78. eS:0l'g Watlons been ale e bottom er in the tn tony - into the h itis, s object, er up the rduct the a ftratum and prt: ze may be ng of the though It . cafe, it plith this, he porous mark of 3 o admit the isa thick mination ct that, 28-0! (charge or near 10 fuch mint evel of the of the pit terials hart ode 38 thal {n inftan? iy chance removing the water is by difcovering their terminations on the other fide of the Draining of Land, 309 } i elevation, which may in many cafes be in fome meafure afcertained by a care- ful ufe of the level, and a nice obfervation of the manner in which the{trata of mine or pit lie. But this will be much better comprehended by conlulting the annexed plate. This is the manner of obviating the effects of water in finking the mines or pits; but a different mode is to be purfued in removing that which is met with OQ ‘in the bottoms of the pits or mines, or which iffues from the rocky ftrata on ‘their fides. Here the aid of machinery of the pump kind becomes neceflary, ‘the operation of which may frequently, as where the ufual ftream is infufficient, be affifted by the water proceeding from the drains that have been juft men- tioned, and which is more fully fhewn in the plate. It may alfo be further ufeful in raifing the produfts from the mines or pits in fituations which are fuitable, and where a full command of it can be had. Another mode of remov- ing water in thefe cafes is, by digging or boring in the bottoms of fuch pits, and thereby letting down the water into the porous materials below where they exit. This is a method that has been praétifed with fuccefs in different fituations*. In raifing ftone from quarries, it not unfrequently happens, that much obftruc- tion and inconvenience is produced by water breaking in when the workmen come to fome depth, from the rocky ftratum in which it has been confined; and which it has been ufual to remove, either by means of expenfive machinery of the pump kind, or very deep and troublefome cuts, made under the level of the water from the neareft fituations that will admit of them. But as in thefe cafes it moftly happens that the water is pent up and confined, both below and on the fides of the rock, by fome impervious material, fuch as clay, fo as to keep it full and prevent its flowing off; it may be more ealily, and with much lefs expence, carried away by cutting a drain through the impervious material that inclofes it on the moft depending fide; which may frequently be difcovered by the nature of the furface-ground and the ufe of the level. This will alfo, at the fame time, have the effeét of rendering the ground that is near it dry. And in other cafes of this nature, where the water finks down through the porous or tured ftratum of ftone, and is confined by a clofe and compact one below, whic! has fand and gravel or other porous materials beneath, it may be conveniently removed by boring or digging through the compaét ftratum, and thus letting the water down. This method is faid to be particularly advantageous where the termination of the rocky ftratum, which is generally compofed of loofe frag- * See Agricultural Report of the County of Hertferd, p. 67. Vw 330 Draining of Land. ments of ftones of the fame kind, with fand, to fome depth, and of the nature’ of quickfand, is to be cut through*. In marle. pits alfo, which, from the nature of their fituation, moftly require much cutting through fome part of their fides, in order to remove the water that prevents their being wrought, the mode of letting the water down by means of pits dug through the upholding ftratum below the bed of marle into the porous materials underneath, might be economically praétifed. In fuch cafes, the number of the pits muft be proportioned to the fpace occupied by the marle; and when they are required to be of fuch depths as to be liable to give way, they fhould be built up, or nearly filled with loofe ftones,{> as to admit the water to pafs off; fuch lateral drains as are neceflary communi- cating with them. In fome fituations of the pits, as where the bank flopes lower on the con- trary fide than the level of the water, an eafier mode may be praétifed; fuch as by forming a drain in it, and then perforating with a horizontal boring in- ftrument into the terminating part of the ftratum that holds the water; thereby removing and keeping it below the level of the marle. And in addition to thefe, in fome cafes, as where the water of fuch pits proceeds from fprings in the high grounds above them, it may be ufeful to intercept and convey it-away before it reaches the marle-pits.: The principles that have been already mentioned refpeéting the nature and dire€tion of the different ftratified materials that conftitute the earth to a confie derable depth below its furface, have likewife another application in the raif- ing of water in wells; as upon a full and exa& comprehenfion of the variation of them, in the different cafes in which attempts of this fort are to be made,. muft, in a great meafure, depend the fuccefs of the operator; as has been fuffi- ciently fhewn by the various accounts of finking them in particular fituations,. that have been prefented to the public f. On thefe principles may be explained the reafon, in digging wells, that if ftrata of fand, gravel, or other loofe porous materials be firft met with, water can feldom or ever be found until clay, or fome other impervious fubftance, be reached; or, where clay or other impervious material is begun with, until the the operator has dug down or proceeded to a bed of fome porous fubftance, fuch as rock, fand, or gravel f. They allo thew, that by digging wells in particular fituations, in valleys or level grounds, where the water defcends between the ftrata from a diftance at * See Johnftone’s Account of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Land, p. 48. F See Andesfon’s Treatife on Draining. t Ibid. p. 6g, 2 ae 2 sie cacy 5 call ee ee > Nature require © Water town by Larle inty Ln fuch upied by liable to {) as to ‘OMMUns the cone ed; fuch poring ins ; thereby dition to prings in j ILaway ature and to a conf n the rail e variation be made, been fuft- fituations, s, that if th, water ftance, be ; yntil the {ubftance, valleys 0" jitance@ TET TOE PIT Draining of Land. 331 a oreat height, by building up, or otherwife raifing, the top of the well, fo as that it may not give way by the preflure of it;—it may be raifed to a confider- able height above the ordinary level of the well;—and thus, in many cafes, be rendered more ufeful than it could otherwife be. Curious inftances of this nature have been frequently noticed by writers*. And further, that by widen- ing the bottoms of wells in fome cafes, as where the water filtrates between the ftrata in too fparing a quantity, it may be augmented nearly in a fimilar proportion to the extent of the opening+. Pra€tical examples of thefe kinds may likewife be met with in the Philofophical Tranfa€tions. As from the ftagnation and retention of too much water, in or upon lands, whether in the ftate of tillage or that of grafs hufbandry, much injury muft be produced;—in the firft cafe, by its rendering the foil too moift and poachy for being ploughed up fufficiently early for many forts of grain crops, and for the manure being properly incorporated and preferved in it; and in the latter, by the cold which it caufes in the winter feafon, rotting, weakening, and thereby rendering the abforbent roots of the graffes incapable of performing their offices; —it is obvious, that the operation of draining muft conflantly be effectuaily performed, before any other fort of improvement can be attempted with the leaft profpect of fuccefs: until this has been fully accomplifhed, it is indeed impoflible to know whether the Jand be fuitable for the growth of crops, or what benefits may be produced in it by the application of manures. And, as the removal of fuch degrees of wetnefs as prove detrimental to lands, contti- tutes in moft cafes, and efpecially in thofe of the fenny and boggy kinds, an improvement that muft be of great utility and duration{, it would feem pro- * See Johnftone’s Account of Elkington's Mode of Draining Land, p. 79. + See Darwin’s Phytologia. + Vaft improvements in the quantity and value of lands have been made by this means in different diftriéts. Mr. Young inferts the following Table on the authority of Mr. Parkinfon, as improvements in drainage, by acts in which he was a commiffioner in Lincolnfhire. Improved|o)q value Improve- res. 3 Ac value. ment. Tatterfhall embankment°> 892}.£. 838)£.387~Z- aco Alnwick Fen--= 2 1,097 703 54 648 The nine embanked Fens to Lincoln| 19,418] 15,634 1,943) 13,592 Holland Fen eleven towns==|22,000} 25,300 3,600] 21,700 me 43.407] 42,375)— 5.982| 36,390 And 35% Draining of Land. a per that the proprietors fhould, in moft cafes, be, at the principal expence‘of the bufinefs, as it is feldom performed in an effe€tual manner when undertaken by tenants, unlefs they are unufually fpirited, or have fuch length of leafes as affords them the certainty of obtaining: the full reward of their exertions. When this fort of improvement is made in the early period of adeafe, it would, however, be proper in the proprietors to demand a fuitable intereft on the fum advanced, and upon a renewal, to have it added perhaps in the way of. rent. From the whole of the facts and circumftances that have been mentioned, con- cerning the nature of the different ftrata that conftitute the earth, the dire€tions in which they are depofited in it, and the manner in which water is carried down, confined, and forced to the furface of foils, fo as to become, in different ways and degrees, injurious, it would feem evident, that fprings of fuch kinds as can be in any material degree detrimental to land, need never be appre- hended where there is a great depth of porous materials, fuch as fand or gravel, without the intervention of clayey or other impervious ftrata; or in the contrary fituation, as where the clayey, marly, or other impervious body, extends toa confiderable depth.‘This is a matter that fhould, therefore, be conftantly kept in the minds of thofe engaged in the bufinefs of draining lands. And, that where the mifchief proceeds from fuperficial wetnefs,caufed by the ftiff, réten- tive nature of the foils, there muft be particular attention paid to the nature And it is further remarked, that from this view of the drainages in the fouth-eaft diftrict of the county, united with the improvements on the Ancholm, and in Axholm, it will appear that there is not probably a county in the kingdom that has made equal exertions in this very important work of draining. The quantity of land thus added to the kingdom has been great; fens of water, mud, wild fowl, frogs and agues, have been converted to rich pafture and arable, worth from 20%. to 40s. an acre: health improved, morals correéted, and the community enriched. Thefe, when carried to fuch an extent, are great works, and refleét the highelt credit on the good fenfe and energy of the proprietors, Without going back to very remote periods, it is afferted that there cannot have been lefs than 150,000 acres drained and improved, on an average, from 5s. an acre to 258.3 ora rental created of£.150,000 a-year. But fuppofe it only£. 100,000, and that the profit has, on an average, been received during the period of thirty years, the rental has in that time amounted to three millions, and the produce to near ten; and that when, with the views of a political arithmetician, we refle& on the circulation that has at- ‘tended this creation of‘wealth through induftry, the number of people fupported, the confumption of manufactures, the fhipping employed, the taxes levied by the ftate, and all the clafles of the com- munity benefited, the magnitude and importance of fuch works will, it is faid, be feen, and the pros priety well underftood, of giving all imaginable encouragement and facility to their execution. By means of drainage in boggy asd other forts of wafte lands that are too wet for the purpofes of vation in various places, improvements toa very confiderable extent have alfo been effected: in many inftances raifing the value of the land from almoft nothing to 15s, or 20s. the acre; as may by=) A£ we feen by confulting the different Reports of the Board of Agriculture. erro ence‘of ertaken eles as certlons, t would, the{um rent, ed, cone ireGtions : carried different *h kinds ¢ appre: r gravel, contrary nds toa tly kept nd, that f, reten- e nature ict of the there is not of draining. fowl, frogs re: health extent, ar Without 9,000 acres 99 2-year. the period near ten; hat has at- iumption of f the coms nd the pror i purpoles of ested; in x65, OH = ats HATTL ‘iar art UGS mae Dry porous Soil, recewing the Rain Water. Leva of Drains orifice at the Brook Ligh port S DRAINAGE OF BOGGY LANDS FROM SPRINGS. ( \ ya H Ae moa SSN Rs SD l faeieagell CT fintiaye~ { Pee LUT SS iS Crit TEs re + ie wa Ty ip fee 7 Why eva Gravel Ke contaning Springs Cutlet of Springs The Water breaks out- when the Springs are full. Ground. Upper level of the Water Gravel Sc cordaanimg Spring s Outlet Boggy Surtace Springs A.A.A Sprung Clay D.D.D. Drain cut along the level Peat Earth. Main Spring Level of the outlet. of the lower Spruugs E Outlet. Phy a.’ ~ PLATE XX XLX Drainage of Boggy Lands from Springs. [ To face. Page 3 B33. Fig. 1. Shows the manner in which the ftrata of hills or elevated grounds are difpofed, and broken or interrupted in their dire@tions to.the lower lands or valleys: A, the thoiteft method of boring for reaching an inferior ftratum. fig. 2. Explains the method of draining practifed by Mr. Elkington in the fir cafe of {pring bogs, as delineated by Mr. Johnfton. fig. 3. Is a fetion of the fame drainage, when: the ftratum of clay, where the trench is cut, is thicker than the level of the orifice will permit the depth of the drain to be, A being the depth of it at that level.‘The reft ofthe clay, from A to.B, is to be perforated by an auger to the lower point of the porous ftratum at.D, when the water will rife up in the trench from the preflure above the level of the drain.. fig. 4. Reprefents the mode of drainage in the fecond cafe of{pring bogs on Mr. Elkington’s principles, as explained by Mr. Johnfton. fig. 5. Is a view or feétion of the fame. DRAINAGE OF BOGGY& = pe Fig 2. iN Ee ea Sy on High Porous Bank A iia nino S Se LLG MN MME Mitre Re Peay= ce; Bogay eee all eS eee rae SUT ace sae. 5mm eas Porous Sand Bank WU > joy fijijjifjj;;si;\ AAA Set HY PY Muninh\\\ LAK. :/ Les HLH S Ue _ Level of Drains bottom& outlet’. . Reservotr of the Springs. Drain Saad contauang the Spr ee =< “oe 6)~=,: See Sprig ane= Qa. Level ): ae! 5> Wer >}=« ni= kf! a A g u 2 o>) L -:™ tn S n)= Peed| 5 oS>, rhe ae: a aes BS S & > E oes=S S HS s} ~ NI= 3 AS.= q~ 5 S Be= | See es eS S~~ S‘ =:= » . Ry) :~ IK a. 2 Z Zi ee: 1Lg fOr,:“ 35"te>~:\ou_- ee Bogg Vv JIUTT ACE. 4:; pee NS“Si“3 6 Dre S:'/ .;‘) '] PEN oF Asal; Upper level of Water is i CONLATUNG Oo pPFUigs“tj, « 3: Ky Gj YY == IBY TUNG S‘A. G EE} Wi if Y, Beng: Wy iff ly a Ne: ty PLATE XT. Drainage of Boggy and Wet Lands, [ To face Page 332.] Ee fig. 1. reprefents the plan of draining purfued by Mr. Elkington in hilly fituations, or pee where there are high banks, with wet grounds below. aoe ae fig. 2. Isa view or fe@ion of this drainage, as given by Mr. Johnftone. Fig.3. Is the reprefentation of the plan of draining where the banks are irregular. = Fig. 4. Shows the manner of cutting and managing the drains in this cafe. And aa fig. 5. Is a fide view or feétion of the fandy bank. aaa fig. 6. Explains the method of draining of bogs where the fand-banks unite. Where the bog has a defcent from the fide A A to the fide BB, adrain cut on the fide AA may be fuffi- cient for the purpofe. fig. 7. Is a front view of this drainage. Fig. 8. Exhibits the plan of another method of drainage, recommended by Mr, Elkington, in boggy or fpots of marfhy land injured by ftagnant moifture, but where{prings.do not exift. This is by letting the water down into the porous fubftratum retentive body above. Fig. 9. A front view or feGtion of this drainage: ABCD here, as in the plan, reprefents the drains cut through the boggy earth, and filled up to within a foot. and half of the top with. =. loofe ftones. below by perforating through the EFGH_ fhows the perforations of the auger through the clayey ftratum, and the defcent of Pant the water into the rocky or Porous ftratum below. ————— K, the place where a cut fhould be made for draining off the water where the land declines fufficiently, and the porous fubftratum is faturated with it fo as to throw it on the furface [i oe 1 e|{ A ey| through the perforations. 5 my en st ee ee chen UPL UW) AQ pasdae) ta AY) Dry ~ ~S S y \ SS ™ > RS ~ 6 priuugs: AND Ss? and ig Dich ee& Ground S WAMPY the Cover 4 Rw or ew smal Stones ‘ut wverted Ditch b ~ ~~ NX Ne 8 Be===: S=? : t & ’= Supposed Level of the Spr! 9 we Lig:= nen aaa: i q my IN S=\ ‘ ee: Sand:/ GRE facies sae Sen es eS ee pObne omar ¢ TL cub the— holla:——————== R ack BB Ge Sie BSD St core Set neBes ocea AR oe Bier Sr EE SP Se or Fig.6 y: —— tc Spring\ tf IERIE IAI TOTP AEH \ ee LASS YEO NBG DBS GOES oI ORI HAIGOOSBE r__-xWs Nt es“ =: y MS Sand pr& 2= F ec cet Ane 2 CREP ER PL LASLE by oth CBr tin Be wee ve. BE Suit & a t(43 Ps ee ee ar tle" ~ ¥ : ‘ 7 = my rm~(Ana HaAl WGAN ss cassia = ~~ r PLATE XLII. Drainage of Filly Lands and Mixed Soils. [To face Page 333-] Fig. 1. Reprefents the plan of Mr. Elkington’s method of draining ina hill compofed of alternate beds of rock and clay. Fig. 2. Is a fide view or fection of the fame, which explains the fituation of the firata and the places for cutting the drains. Fig. 3. Shows the nature of the drains; the main drain to be formed wholly in the clay, and drains cut into each of the fiflures between the rocks when the water is contained there: AA AAA, points in the main drain, where attempts may be made to effeCtually intercept the water iffuing along the dotted line above it by boring, inftead of its being reduced by the fmall cuts, fo as to produce no injury on the furface of the land beiow. Fig. 4. Is aview or fection of the hill to be drained, and the mode in which water may, from the irregularity of the retentive ftrata, be drawn off on the dry fide for dometftic ufes. Fig. 5. Reprefents the mode of raifing the water to the level of the head of the refervoir in low fituations, by confining it in a narrow pipe or chimney of brick. At Fig. 6. is reprefented Mr. Elkington’s method of drainage in cafes where the foi compofed of alternate beds of clay and fand. The form of cutting, fo as to remove the wet- nefs from the different refervoirs, is fully fhown. In fome cafes this wetness may proceed from s are {prings higher up, and paffing overthe upper foil through the fand beds, by not being permitted to defcend lower than the retentive bed of clay. In thefe fituations the drainage may be ef- feted with facility, after. a conducting main drain from the outlet has been formed, by making an upper drain to intercept the water coming from the chief fprings, as explained by Mr. John- {ton in the new edition of his account of the mode of draining land. Fig. 7. Shows the methed ef draining in other cafes of this fort, as where the land or field is hollow, and only requires one principal drain to be cut towards the middle. Fig. 8. Explains other cafes of this nature, where, from the diftribution of the ftrata, other drains become neceflary, in a floping direCtion acrofs the declivaties. ay ak RE ON CE TNT TI 2) “EL Sik a 2 SerPFagoee ee See eaeh Ge oeds ie: MV.([ SS eo \cigali aaal ia(ial elgie} elo! inane\ Seer th BBD Ee ' ‘ ee oy =i =o a UML J UIC bab af ORE 2PRPMEPSRPPOSPSVSHGEEREAD SES —“—w«~ IGE of LANDS é Seeeete 22229 cal eros Risley telqictelg wie! r \\ DRAIN ——— ae a Per Dram oT oo Ve: Se ae ~ ~ ~ SS S SS S SS NS ~~ ~ ~ ~ L Re SQ ~ aS SS bee) ~ XN ~ Ne SS ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ S ~\ ~ ~ ~e Y ~ N ~ XN N ~ S i > Be) aS SS » ~~ S ~~ = = om 7OpPHO? u are rh ' ' ' 1 ' i ' ' t i} 1 ' ! | ' ' ' ' 1 ! 2 Ee ne CRaPeFOso Ditch 2 | A 2222 22 OBAAhOSPBISB ahsncsi PLATE XLII Drainage of Lands porous abone, and retentite below. Pe face Page 332.] REPRESENTS the* plan of Gaining followed by Mr. Elkington, porous on the furface and. retentive underneath, and w midddle where the drain is made, Figs. 2 and 3 Fig, 1. where the foil is here the ground declines towards the the ridges being formed fo as to anfwer the declivity. Explain the irethGd of forming the drains where the grounds have more than one ee or are nearly level, or incline a little te one fide. Fig. 4. Is a view or fection of the above:°, Fig. 5. The Effex method of draining in planened{pringy lands, where the furface foil is tenacious, as defcribed by Mr. Kent. Main declination of the land from a to 4. Fig. 6. Reprefents a field drained by means of one of its ditches in the room of a chief drain. Fig. 7. A field drained by a principal drain‘in the middle, the fides. Fig. 8. A field dr than on the fides. declining more at that part than ained by two outfide principal drains, the land being higher in the middle DRA TINA GE DN VARIOUS KINDS OF S O7Z.[aa NIG 2332: Fug. 4. j| A\| 3|| ; ff my dbi y YY OYG) GO QAYY LO POV VAY bil Mi Bw iy 4 j| | CLG i: CLLEGE ae Lig. 3. ij BW) es“iy 7) fie My yy Uy VU—Yy Uy lg.é Y tig. 9. ae?~ egy hs LE | eS SS PLA. 3 Es : Drainage in various Kinds of Soil. [To face Page 332.| Zig. 1» Reprefents a mode of draining where the furface, fubfoil and bafe of the foil are impervious, and where the ridges are improper to be levelled down by fubdrains in the fur- rows between them. Fig. 2. Shows a manner of draining where the furface foil and bafe are repellent, and the fubfoil porous or abforbent, by fidelong drains where the land has much declivity, formed in the— parts where the wetnefs is predominant, as at a, down to the under ftratum and a little into it. Fig. 3. Exhibits a method of draining where the furface is impervious, the fubfoil abforbent and clofed, and the bafe impervious or abforbent and clofed, by drains formed according to circumftances in a fimilar manner to thofe in Fig. 2. In this cafe they will feldom be required to be fo near to each other as in the former cafe. Fig. 4. Explains a mode of draining where the furface and fubfoil are abforbent and clofed, and the bafe either impervious or abforbent and clofed, by cutting drains through the fubftrata, forming a firm bafe for the bottoms of them when neceflary with tough turf, heath or buthes, performing the work in a dry feafon. Fig. 5. Reprefents a mode of draining where the furface foil is impervious or abforbent, the fubfoil porous and clofed, being conftantly charged with wetnefs from internal defcending water by means of a gravelly conductor, the bafe being impervious by the cutting of only one drain acrofs, at the lower part of the flope, as at a, where the fubfoil is fufficiently porous. Fig. 6. Explains a method of draining where the furface foil is porous or impervious, the fubfoil abforbent or varied, being charged with water from above in a partial manner, through veins, or fand, gravel, or fiflured rock, by means of covered drains made to decline in an eafy manner, from the affected part to a common drain. Thefe modes are recommended by Mr. Marthall. Fig. 7. Is a traniverfe feCtion of a ridge on a flat furface for watering in the firft year of its formation, ufed in Gloucefterfhire.: Fig. 8. Shows a ridge in its full elevation with its fides being perfectly inclined planes, having the proper fall of two inches in each yard. Fig.g. Explains the form of a ridge for trying the effects of watering in flat land. Fig. 10. Is a levelling implement recommended by Mr. Marfhall, as very ufeful in fetting out water-courfes, fo as to give every part an equal and uniform degree of defcent. It fhould be made five feet and a half long, and in height from four to four feet and a half, according to the height of the perfon to employ it. Fig. 11. Is the obje& ftaff: the crofs piece fhould be painted white. The whole fhould be made of a good fize, and exactly as high as the level. RTARTA HH i Wk Wii Side WW MON! of a Hall\ LW i pif F“ss NY, eel Porous Surtace a SS Wreor DRAINAGE OF MINES QUARRIES& PITS. SR, Mouth Ne 7 NaS Lower AQ ‘Si a WAG, Yn SK } GGA Ss JS Wh. | 5=~ NS LG y i}= BLS Sie as Ss yj pA t= om SS. Ny Y( h ::£ Zari I SS 5 Ys, Ss ij, ei 3 _ is yh x ag ie (FU PH stor” Free ety a Wet Rushy Surface. 5 sae i~—— b. Outlet of the Water. Grou nd Sa c.c. Upper Soll yo d.d.d Dry Rock. | Cn Wet Rock. } a.a.a. Springs or Outlets of part of the Water Uv... Upper Level of the Water. | s: } b.b.b. Drain along the tail of the Rock C Drain for carryuig of the Water MOH MY - Pagy PLATE XLV. Drainage of Mines, Quarries,%&c.. [To face. Page 333.| Fig. 1. Reprefents a view or. fection of the drainage of a mine, as praétifed by Mrs. Elkington, explaining the manner of cutting off the water in finking the fhaft,&c. Fig, 2. Is'the plan and manner of forming the drainage.. Fig. 3. Explains the mode of cutting the drains through the clayey ftratum covering the rocks, fo as to difcharge the water there pent up by its. Fig. 4. Is a view or feCtion of this drainages Fig. 5. Reprefents the method of letting the water down into the porous ftratum below, by digging pits or boring through the impervious body by an auger. In fome cafes another porous ftratum may be difcovered by boring below the fecond retentive one, and the water _ be thereby reduced to a ftill lower level. \ \ ANAK is \\ BAe ¢ Sy i ws SH SEE ov at val! 17 vs wes ey yrs\ \ Se RW, SSN =\ Se Nut VV \ AS ORS NN\\ YS| (or ee, Bahl\‘\ NS a ie AN KAN! 3 ARK NN X\| } ‘ NN 3\\\ NN\\) S EK Ey 8\ ee Pip ad \ \\ ‘ Thal fee * SE a ese =e= : ies~% ee S 37 1 gt fast SA AN \| \\ S \\ —<—s yh \ WY\ \ Ny\'\ NY\ = py\ Fl Pac I; Ki) nt y\ FRE QS a\\ AN \\ 8 niet rai iN\\ aA 2 1\\ i AYE a ee NW a area a LAN ee I \. LAN NN \ 4[| Pe\ N AA\\ a og es) be9 tl(Ph-abs ANY\\ 2 eI ee aca lez\\ i)\) A Eh. grr Se eee eae ——— 73 BZ Za Ee= el yp ee ee NS wens GZ zit y on wat<§: Z ee ST oe Z oe}>a Sere ata J“ SFOs, Sater as eer Fame tes| HS ee G i 2— STS Ff Sons ¥ sat= Se Ss oS ae a bP Ee:= M2 Sate aN=i— tt ag maeies= ee rahe,= ye a: i Staph ews Terr: \\ x|\\\ \ nae Zz AEE GE - SO Z ZF AX ZZ ZIZE LZ \\\y\) u Ss SSA AY HIN L NY\\\ ay| MS} i: KANN eee CLVALS LVM AUT AT CASO a LIAL FO TO ENIT@2Ue IATEX Ted SE a EG Ih aA eh WW SRA, Wn PLATE XLVI. iy Drainage of Weinefs caufed by Mmeral Strata. [To face Page 332.] Fig. 1. Shows the plan of draining wetnefles on the tops of hills and banks, contiguous to low grounds, but fupplied from high lands at fome diftance by means of metallic fubftrata. The ftrata C D continue on fome rife in high ground north of rivulet to higher level than line A B, by which fprings, E and F, from the crop of the metals, are fupplied. An outlet will be obtained by a cut from a rivulet to bank G free of the former, and by boring or finking: pit from H to I the water pafling through porous{trata from C D to E F will be reduced to the level L M; of courfe, the fource of{prings E F be cut off, and ground on top and fides of hill become dry; and metals to that depth wrought without inconvenience from water, which could not be done by boring in bottom of rivulet, as fhown by dotted line. When ftrata K crop out to furface and produce wetnefs, the pit or bore H I may be continued till it reach it when neceflary. This is a method defcribed by Mr, Johnitonc, in his account of Mr. Elkington’s mode of draining. a oy ben, OF ~ ayaa : i. ot wil as ni oes wey ati) se Ls ii as UF LV VBERTS MOLE PLOUGH. PL XLVI PL XW PLATE XLVU, Mr. Lumbert’s Mole- Plough. [To face Page 332.| In the Plate are given reprefentations of the plough, and the windlaffes by which it is drawn: in which Fg. 1.is the beam. 2. the mole, to which fegments for lengthening it {crew on at 3. 4. the roller at the heel on which it preffes. 5. the chain, from 50 to 60 yards long, which winds on to the two cylinders, 7, 7. 6, a pulley, round which the chain 5. plays. 8, 8, 8, 8. Windlafles, turned each by two women. g. Stays which, entering the ground, aflift in keeping the machine fteady. 10. the anchor. The proportion and refpective angles of the different parts of the implement may be found by the fcale. Itis wrought by eight women; and Mr. Lumbert contracts for the work at 13d. the perch, lug, or rod of 54 yards, his foreman agreeing with him for doing it at three farthings, the machine being found, who pays himfelf and the women out of it. It performs from Iso to 200 perchesa day; and 300 have been done. 200, at three farthings the perch, amounts to 12/. 6d. a day; the eight women, at 8d. each, amounts to 55. 4d., leaving 75. 2d, for the foreman’s pay, and the repairing of the chain, which breaks often, and wants a falfe link whenever that happens. It was found to move, on an average, 5 yards in a minute; but much time is taken up by moving the windlafs, frame, and anchor. The inventor goes to any part of the kingdom with the machine, at 14d. the rod; but when to a diftance, muft have infured work in the proportion of 2co rods for every mile out. He fells the tool for 50 guineas, as he has a patent. It ufually goes 17 or 18 inches deep, but can go deeper; and has been found a very effe€tive tool on clayey foils, the drains con- tinuing to run after many years. ame Mr. Young has given a particular account of this valuable draining-plough, and fuggefted various applications of the windlaffes, which may be feen in the forty-fecond volume of the Annals of Agriculture, page 413. Sth ee ee a nena oes a SECTIONS of Livlled up Porous wyper sorl| Clay&e covertd DRAINS.& draining Implements Liga LOrous | | Clay&e| = AS Fig 24 pl Fig. 73. i z upper soul|| fee b Jand or|@ gravel shes]| \ IUCN AAUNT| ad ~ Va p O/| Cla 2 Engine for Zwesding Straw 710 TOMS for laying tr the bottoras: of Drains, ei Sand or gravel Clay be Gravelly & porous SOUL abt ny, ] asl) LLL Ps Nisa =—— le Minny, Di PL. XLV Dir eS wad PLATE XLVIII. Seétions of Covered Drains and Draining Implements. [To face Page 332.] Fig. 1. Reprefents a /houldered turf-drain; the inverted turf refting here more firmly on the fhoulders than in the common method without them, leaving the part hollow below. Fig. 2. Shows it filled up. Fig. 3. Reprefents the wedye-form of drain, a part of the bottom of the wedge part being removed before it is put in again. Fig. 4. Shows it when filled up. Fig. 5. The feétion of a hollow drain:@ loofe mould thrown in to the depth of one foot; b fod inverted two inches thick; c round land ftones one foot thick; d flat ftone or cover four inches thick; ¢ fough or conduit fix inches{quare lined with ftone. Fig. 6. Another fection: a loofe mould as above; 4 thin fod inverted, ftraw, heath or rufhes; ¢ round land ftones or faggots of brufh-wood; d flat ftone or cover four inches thick; e triangular opening fix or eight inches. Fig. 7. A feGtion of drain: a land ftones as before; 4 triangular or coupled opening, fix or eight inches. Fig. 8. Seétion of hollow drain: a loofe mould or gravel thrown in one foots 4 fod, ftraw, heath, or rufhes, four inches; ¢ land ftones thrown in, d one foot eight inches thick. Fig. 9. Se€tion of covered drain: aloofe mould thrown in one foot; 4 ftraw,&c., fix ‘ches in thicknefs; ¢ brufhwood laid longitudinally and fufpended by crofs billets of wood» des to the height of crofs billets open one foot fix inches. hollow drain: a loofe mould or gravel one foot; 4 fod inverted formed by draining-fpade, one foot deep and eight wide at having bottom and fi Fig. 10. Another feétion of fix inches; ¢ pipe or opening fhoulders. Fig. 1. ¢ pipe or opening formed by draining- ropes, laid lengthways. Fig. 12. Reprefents a dra houfes, and Fig. 13. Shows another fort of draining-brick for conftru€ting a large fquare drain laid Seétion of covered drain: a drain one foot deep; 6 clay trampled in fix inches; fpade one foot deep, and filled with three large ftraw ining-brick chiefly ufed for{mall drains, as conveying water to ‘without common brick. Fig. 14, Exhibits another form of draining-brick for forming larger forts of drains. Fig. 15. Upper draining-fpade. Fig. 16. Lower draining-fpade pointed at the bottom. Fig. 17. Wooden fpade for peaty foils. Fig. 18. Bottom fhovel with turned-up edges. Fig. 19. Scoop for cleaning out and fmoothing out bottom of drains, Fig. 20. The rod fcrew for the auger four feet. Fig. 21. Chifel and punch for cutting ftones. Fig. 22. The auger. Fig. 23. Wooden-handle with iron plates on bot wedges. h fides to ftrengthen holes for rods; aa fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 24. 25. 26. 276 Iron key. Tron handle. Boards ufed in boring with the auger. , An inftrument for levelling drains, water-courfes,&c.: a 6 the fides of the frame; adaline marked off. Fig, 28, Is an improved machine for twifting ftraw into rores —S l) DRAINING BRICKS. i>” S ¥ Uy!; LG.S: ign iin afb > AONE TET PLATE XLEX Draining-Bricks. [To face Page 3326] Fig. 1. RePpResEnts the form and manner of placing bricks, invented by Mr. Afhworth of Turton, near Bolton, in Lancathire, in the draining of land, in which 84 bricks are required to every eight yards, while with common bricks 192 are neceflary; of courfe there is a faving of 108 in this way in every eight yards of draining. Fig. 2. Is another form of brick, in which 55 bricks are fufficient for draining eight yards. in length; by which 137 bricks are faved in that diftance, Fig. 3. Isa form which takes 110 bricks to complete a drain of the fame length; by whieh 82 bricks are faved. This form is only neceflary where much water is to be conveyed away. fig. 4. Is another form which employs and faves bricks in the fame Proportions as fig. 1. Fig. 5. Is another form of brick that employs and faves in the proportions of Jig: 3. tis particularly ufeful in draining boggy foft lands, and where there are quickfands. fig. 6. Is another form that faves bricks as in fiz: 2. Fig. 7. Another form that takes the fame as in Jigs. 3 and 95. Fig. 8.1s acrofs feGtion of one of the bricks 7 inches broad and 2 in thicknefs. The perpendicular line from A to B is 1 inch; the flope from B to C 1} inch; the diftance from A to D by a perpendicular line from C is full z inch. The perpendicular line from E to F is 3 of an inch; the flope from F to G full 21 inches; the diftance from E to H_ by per- pendicular line from G is 2 inches. 5 oe fig. 9. A full length view of the brick, exhibiting the narroweft flope. It is ro inches from Tto K. fig. 10. Is another whole length view of the fame brick the contrary way, prefenting the broadeft flone, = aaa seenibaiiienisna... celal vo PRP i-:—=~ aes wes cee:; = m~ eye— a-_- ee Gr ye ie a Draining of Land, 3 333 and pofition of the land, the dire€tion, cutting, and mode of filling the fuper- ficial hollow drains employed in fuch cafes; and, at the fame time, to the ridging and furrow draining, as well as the loofening of the foil to a good depth, when in a ftate of arable cultivation; as upon a due execution and coma bination of thefe, the fuccefs of the drainer muft greatly depend.| From the great variety that exifts in the nature of the ground to be drained, it will alfo always be of the utmoft confequence to afcertain, with accuracy, from what fource or caufe any wetnefs of land, which is to be removed, arifes, before the bufinefs of draining is begun; as without a confiderable degree of caution. in this refpect, many unneceflary drains may frequently be cut, and much money expended without advantage; as the work muft be managed very differently in cafes where it proceeds from furface-water merely, and thofe in which i¢ depends upon the dribbling of land, or other fprings. i ST —— } { | We; ean We Ne a iti nia a Pye|} BEd fd a rah} RI 1) a al Hi i Hilt Hi Mi Hi iy | i i au if 1; i | SECTION IX. Paring and Burning. Paring and Burning—Prathice of, adopted at an early Period—A Procefs in which various Changer are produced in Soils—Some of which probably leffen Fertility—Others greatly promote it—Con- fumption of vegetable and animal Matters prejudicialThe Converfion of the frefh vegetable Products into faline Matters highly beneficial—Combination of Oxygen with the Soil of great Utility---The faline Matters feem to be the Caufe of the great Luxuriance of Crops after—Muft tend to exhauf? the Land—Great flimulant Power of, ufeful in promoting Vegetation—Manner an which Lime may be ufeful when ufed with the Afbes—Injury only done by the Lofs of vegetable or animal Matters—The earthy Matter not capable of being lefened by—Frequenily left in a more pulverizable State—Lo/s of vegetable Matter probably not fo much as Suppofed by fome Writers—Afbes produced in the Procefs foewn to be highly ufeful—Nature of the faline Subftances —Fixed Alkali and vitrivlated Tartar, both ufeful for the Purpofe of Vegetation—Other Modes in which the Proce/s may be ufeful in promoting the Growth of Grops—By the Reduétion of all Sorts of coarfe vegetable Materials— Rendering them more readily acted upon by other Subftances in the Soils ~--By preventing the Land in this Way from becoming too open and light for Grain-crops—By the Earth, in many Cafes, being rendered more mellow and fine, and thereby more fuitable for the Re- ception of the Roots of growing Plants—By the complete Deftruttion of Weeds, in fome Inftances, the Lands are more.at liberty to fupport the cultivated Crops.—The Pra€tice probably more adapted to * fome Sorts of Lands than others— Leaft ufeful on the thin, light Soils, or fuch as have been in Tillage —Mof advantageous on the fiff, heavy, coarfe, and Jour Soils; or fuch wafte Lands as are infeed with coarfe Productions of any Kind—This fupported by the general Experience of Agricultors— The Reafon of, explained—Lhe Opinion of an able Writer upon—On moffy or peaty Soils muf? be prathfed with great Caution—Improper for the Operation in fome Cafes—Dr. Anderfon’s Opinion againft the Prattice on—A Faét refpecting, in other Sorts of Land— Improper Management proe bably the Cauje of—May however fometimes be employed on them—More Caution neceffary than in other Scils——The Practice general on the coar{e, wafte, heavy Sorts of Soil—Utility and Advantages of, acknowledged by moft Writers on Agriculture—Mr. Middleton’s Opinion of in breaking up Land—Thofe of others flated—Caufes of Objection to the Practice of Paring and Burning—Origin of—No Lofs of Soil in, but from the vegetable or elaftic Matters—T his not fo great as fuppofed— Clayey Soils fupprfed by fome to be moft liable to Injury from improper Management of—By others Sfuppyfed ufeful in mellowing the Soil—Mr. Young’s Opinion of the Objections made to, in Fen Diftritis—Lacis foew little Danger to exift when properly performed—Differences in the Method ~ ee I en Paring and Burning. 335 of performing the Operations— Probably neceffury froin the Differences of Soil—Manner of proceeding soft ufeful in different Cafes— Implements employed in the performing of, different— Advantages of each—Hand Tools in general moft effectual—Ploughs moft expeditious when they can be ufed— Seafon for the Proce/s—Dry Weather highly neceffary—Spring Months generally the bet-Muft vary from the Nature of Crops-—-For Rape and Turnips—For Barley— For W heat—T bicknefs of Parings foould depend on the Nature of the Scil—Mr. Boys? Opinion of—Ufual Depths of— Cir- cum/flances to be regarded in fpreading the Afbes—Particular Alode of, in fome Places—ObjeGions to—Expences of, tn lighter Sorts of Soils-—In Fen Diftritts—Manure produced by—Moft advantageous Methods of cropping after the Procefs in different Cafes—Eftimates of the Expence and Profits of—Utility of the Praétice—How may be rendered lefs neceffary—General Objervae Lots OM. Tue practice of bringing land into a fuitable condition for the growth of grain or other crops by means of fire, or the operation of paring and burning the furface or fward, is probably a method of cultivation that was adopted at a very early period. It is a procefs by which various changes are produced in the materials of the foils on which it is employed; fome of which would feem to.— leffen rather than improve their fertility, while others have obvioufly the power of promoting and augmenting it in a very confiderable degree. The action of the fire during the time of the combutftion, efpecially when carried toa great height, by forcing off and difpelling much of the moifture and elattic principles that they contain, as well as by reducing the proportions of vege- table and animal matters which may be mixed and incorporated with them, muft have the effeét of producing fome degree of deterioration; while by its converfion of the freth vegetable produéts, as the different kinds of coarfe plants. and graffes, into afhes of an alkaline, faline nature—which, as has been al- ready feen, poffefs the property of quickly rendering the portions of vegetable materials which may remain, proper for fupplying the nutrition of plants—and by combining oxygen with the argillaceous, earthy, or other particles contained in them, in fuch a manner as to be eafily parted with during the incipient ftages of vegetation, great advantage and improvement muft unqueftionably in many eafes be produced. It would feem to be chiefly on the former principle that ‘the crops are generally found to be fo abundant after land has undergone this procefs; as the faline fubftance contained in the athes, though frequently finall in quantity, by bringing fuch parts of the foils as were not before ina fit ftate for the purpofe of being applied to the fupport of vegetables, fuddenly into that fitua- tion in which they may be taken up by the abforbent roots of the plants, a vaft immediate fertility may be given, but which muft foon have the effect of ex- 336 Paring and Burning. X haufting the ground, if grafs or fome other kind of green crops be not culti- vated in due rotation upon it. That fome effect of this fort takes place, in fuch cafes, is.fhewn by the general experience of the moft corre&_pra€tical agricultors. There is alfo another way in which the faline matter thus formed may be conducive to the purpofes of vegetation, which is, by the great ftimulus which it is known to afford to the roots of growing plants, by which they may be in- duced to take up a larger proportion of nutrient matters from the foils on which they grow. And on lands prepared in this manner, efpecially where they are of the clayey kinds, it is probable that. in fome inftances fo much oxygen may be combined, by means of the fire, with the particles of the clay, as, in particular fituations and circumftances, to render it capable of forming nitrous acid;—as is the cafe with imperfettly-baked bricks*, which, where lime is made ufe of at the fame time with the afhes, may conftitute a fort of calca- reous nitre;—a fubftance which experiment has fhewn to be highly favourable to the procefs of vegetation. In the method of cultivating lands, by means of. paring oe burning the fur- face, fuch loffes or deteriorations of foil as may be fuftained, muft evidently, as has been juft ftated, be produced by the quantity of vegetable or animal mate rials which may have been confumed or difperfed in the ftate of carbonic acid or other aérial forms; as it is fufficiently known, that not a particle of the real earthy matter of the land can be deftroyed or carried away by the procefs; it being left in moft cafes, where the bufinefs has been properly performed, probably ina much more mellow and friable condition than it was before the commence- ment of the operation, and perhaps more fuited to the abforption of elaftic prin- ciples from the furrounding atmofphere. A late ingenious writer, however, ftates the difadvantage in refpett to vegetable matter to be nineteen parts out of twenty+; but as he has not informed us what is the degree of lofs of fuch matter by this procefs, where it is incorporated in the ftate of foil, or the nature of the experiment from which his conclufion was drawn, we are inclined to be- lieve that in this mode of preparation it is not by any means fo great, whatever it may be where the vegetable matters are themfelves fimply fubmitted to the aétion of the fire; efpecially as in the trials which we have made by burning fuch foils as contained a large proportion of vegetable materials, fo as nearly to refemble that of garden mold; confequently having confiderably more than is * See Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 225. + See Dundonald on the Connettion of Agriculture with Chemiftry, p. 147. be iy Rae iat ati Cult. e, in Ctical ay be which Ye itl- ils on Where much clay, ming @ lime calca- irable e fur. ly, as mates “id of 2 real fs; it ybably ence | prin- yever, s out fuch ature 0) be- tever o the fach ly to an 18 Pe Poring and Burning. 337 ufually met with in the lands that are fubjeéted to the operations of paring and burning, it has not been nearly in fuch a proportion even under a high degree of heat, which ought in every cafe to be as much as poflible avoided. And it is further conceived, by the fame author, that as it is only from the afhes of freth or growing vegetables that faline matters, fuch as fixed alkaline falts, can be pro- cured, none being produeed from the burning of dead or decayed vegetable fub- {tances, the proportion of alkaline or other faline matters obtained by the procefs is fo fmall, that if the utility or advantage of the praétice depended materially upon them, it would be more economical to purchafe them*. Experience has, however, fhewn, that whatever may be the proportion of faline matter which is formed in this way, a great deal depends upon the afhes which are produced; as it has been found by thofe who have been largely engaged in the pra€tice of this hufbandry, that on thofe parts where the afhes were f{pread out upon the land as foon as the procefs was finifhed, the crops were highly luxuriant and produttive; while on thofe, where they had been from neceflity taken away, they were very mean and inferior, not being worth more than from an eighth to a tenth of the value of the others f.. The faline fubftances that are formed during the procefs of paring and‘burn- ing, have been found to be the fixed vegetable alkali and vitriolated tartar: in the latter cafe the alkali of the confumed vegetable matters uniting with the fulphuric or vitriolic acid, which is frequently found to exift in fome ftate of come bination or other in foils. Thefe fubftances have been found by experiment to be capable of promoting the growth of vegetables in a confiderable degree§. But in addition to thefe modes, in which the practice of paring and burning may be beneficially employed in the cultivation of land, there are fome others which feem of a more mechanical nature; fuch as its reducing the various kinds of coarfe vegetable produ€tions, as heath, furze, different forts of dwarf fhrubby plants, tough benty graffes, rufhes, and many other aquatics, into fuch a powdery carbonaceous ftate||, as that, by the ready action of other fubftances upon them when thus reduced in the foils, they may become ufeful in pro- moting the growth of proper kinds of vegetables; but which, without under- going this procefs, could not by any means, from their great elafticity and * See Dundonald on the Connetion of Agriculture with Chemiftry, p, 148. + See Young’s Agricultural Report of Lincolnfhire, p. 257. ¥ See Dundonald, p. 149,§ See Home’s Experiments. P lj See Kerwan on Manures, p. go. Paring and Burning. o 338 almoft indeftru@tible properties, be prevented, for a very confiderable length of | time at leaft, from rendering the ground too light and porous for growing any fort of grain crops. The ftate or condition of the foils, in fo far as refpects their textures, as has been already fuggel fted, muft likewife in many cafes be greatly improved, being by: fuch means, when properly performed, rendered much more mellow and powdery, nd thereby more proper for the admiflion of the fibrous roots of the growing A nibs as well as more capable of minutely dividing the particles of the manures, of whatever kind they. may be, that are hee applied to them, and cunfe- i i quently of affording a more full and equable fupply of nourifhment to the crops ann | Jd re that may be cultivated. | And further, from the procefs radically deftroying, in moft inftances, when well performed, all forts of plants of the weed kind that may have eftablifhed them- felves in the foils which are fubjefted to the operation, the lands are left pers feAily clean, and therefore in the moft proper fituation for affording the whole of the nutritious properties which they contain to the fupport of the crops that may be put upon them. || From this view of the manner in which the procefs of paring and burning lt may contribute to the improvement of land, the nature of the produéts that are formed by it, and the effeéts which they produce on the foils, it would however appear to be a mode of cultivation more adapted to fome forts of ee ee oe ee a, land than others; as where they are light or thin, and there is much vegetable i matter accumulated within the foil, whether from the decay of fucceffive crops: of different forts of plants, for a great length of time, or the repeated applica- ah: tions of manures, without their having much{ward or coarfe vegetable produéts, | fuch as have been mentioned, growing upon the furface, it may do harm, efpe- | cially when a great degree of heat is not carefully guarded againff, and judicious | modes of cropping introduced, by leffening the quantity of ufeful vegetable ot matter which they contain, without fupplying any thing as a compenfation. 1 But where they are more fuff and heavy, and there is a thick matted fward(dif HW pofed to the produ€tion of mofs, or covered with any fort of rough, four plants, q | By 1 ,°° avhether of the grafs or other kinds), it muft, when cautioufly praétifed, be a ie 4 Fi 3: 5: a aE highly beneficial, and perhaps, in many cafes, an indifpenfable mode of cultiva- | Pa ee re TE tion; not oe y rendering them more open and porous in their textures, and reducing the coarfe vegetable mafs into that fort of form in which it can be rere eget readily turned down and incorporated with the earthy materials, bué alfo by of ny Paring and Burning. 389 fo fupplying a portion of faline matter that may operate fill further in promoting their fertility. ‘That thefe are the effects of the procefs, and the cafes in which it fhould be rejected or employed, feems evident, from the eae of the moft exact and careful pra€tical agricultors. has been obferved by: an- intelligent inquirer, who feems to have paid great attention to the effeéts of the different a modes of practice that are employed in different diftri€ts in the cultiyation of 4 Jand, that fuch foils as are light and friable are Dek vhere confidered as unfit A or improper for being treated by means of this procefs*. And a very expe- rienced writer, who appears to have cautioufly examined the nature and effects ofsthe operation, affures us, that he has many doubts about the propriety of extending the practice to fuch foils as have been alteady fertilized and brought into a proper ftate of tilth by the application of manures.« All kinds of earth,”’ fays he,“ though they be in their original ftate when dug from a great depth, infertile, become more fertile by degrees on being expofed to the air on the furface, when impregnated by manures, and the gradual rotting of the roots of plants that grow upon them, along with the intermixture of de remains of animals that die there. They are fits in time converted into that kind of fubftance which we call vegetable mold. This vegetable mold, then,” fays he, ** is neither a fimple earth, nor a mixture of any number of fimple earths toge- ther, but it is fuch a mixture see with the remains of animal and vegetable matters united with them.‘Thefe remains of organized bodies,” he thinks,“ communicate fomething to the foil of an apparent oily or mucilaginous nature. Along with the ena which it is thus feen to acquire, thefe give it a more friable texture and a greater facility than it originally poffeffed of abforb. ing water in a proper manner, and retaining it to a certaindegree. Now,” fays he,“there feems to be little reafon to d6ubt that fire tends to alter, deftroy, or diflipate this mucilaginous quality which the mold derives from the fpontaneous corruption of organized bodies. So that wherever the foil has been gradually fertilized by this procefs, there feems reafon to fear‘that the burning of its {ward will rather prove hurtful than beneficial+.” It is, indeed, afterwards fuggelied, that thefe are given as reafons for oe ces of the propriety of the method under fuch circumftances; but not by any means as rules for praétice. The reafoning appears, however, to be Enabled 5 in rine and to be fupported by * See Donaldfon’s Prefent State of Hufbandry in Great Britain, vol, III. p. 388, 4 Asnderfon's Effays, vol, III, p. 256. 340 Paring and Burning. the few fa€ts and experiments that have been recorded in fuch a way as to be in any degree depended upon. There is alfo another fort of foil on which the procefs of paring and burning muft be praétifed with equal caution, or perhaps in fome cafes be wholly rejected, from the danger there is of its red ucing the materials of which it is con- ftituted in too greata degree.‘This is that of the peat or moffy kind.“In this cafe,” fays the able author mentioned above,“ it is not the plants which grow upon it, but the very fubftance itfelf that ferved as a foil on which the plants grew, that is totally deftroyed by incineration. This fubftance is,” continues he, “ by burn-beaking, amazingly diminifhed in quantity; and the little that remains, inftead of foil, after this deftruGtive procefs, is an inert earth, which is more unfit for the purpofes of vegetation than any other that has ever fallen under my obfervation*.” He therefore conceives the burning of fuch a foil as perni- cious in every cafe, but more efpecially fo where there is no poffibility of ftopping the combuftion, after a thin paring of the furface or fward has been confumed, and to ftop its progrefs juft at that moment he knows to be a matter almoft impra€ticable. This is not, he affures us, the refult of mere opinion; it has been confirmed by innumerable proofs of the praétical kind. And it has been obferved by others, that this has been the cafe in other forts of land; and that a material objeftion to paring and burning is, that in very dry feafons, when the moifture of the earth is very low, the fire catches the foil below and caufes what is called pitting; making great unfightly holes to the bottom of the moor, which with great difficulty are extinguifhed.- About thirteen years ago a large common at Chatteris, in the Ifle of Ely, it is faid, was thus burnt up fixteen or eighteen inches deep, to the very gravelft. Thefe are, however, we fufpect, in many inftances at leaft, the effets of mifconduét or improper management, and of courfe afford little real objeStion to the practice when well executed. We believe, indeed, notwithftanding the above opinion, fupported as it is by the great experience of the ingenious author, that in fome cafes mofly foils may be fubjeéted to the procefs of paring and burning with much benefit to the cul- tivator, provided that it be performed with proper care and attention. And it is unqueftionably pra€tifed in various diftrits without any injury being produced by the deftruction of the materials that conftitute fuch foils ft. On fuch kinds % See Anderfon’s Effays, vol. III. p. 257. + See Agricultural Report of Lincolnthire, 3 See Agricultural Report of Lancafhire, p. 10g. And of the Weft Riding of Yorkthire, P. 1496. Ses Ser Paring and Burning. 341 of foil more care will, however, probably be requifite to prevent the fires from becoming too violent, than in fuch as are compofed of more earthy or lefs com- buflible fubftances.. But where the foils are of the latter defcription, or fuch as are of the four, heavy, ftiff, and fenny kinds, and where they are overgrown with fuch coarfe vegetable productions as have been already mentioned, there cannot be the leaft doubt entertained of the propriety of adopting fuch a method of praétice in breaking them up and bringing them into a ftate of cultivation. Indeed, however much the writers on agriculture may have differed in opinion on the propriety of paring and burning in other cafes, in thefe they feem to be nearly agreed, and in general confider it as the moft advantageous and ready method that can be employed. On inclofing the wafte lands in the parifh of Bows, in Yorkfhire, large por- tions, it is faid, were fubjeéted to the procefs of paring and burning; but the few perfons who ploughed up the ground without previoufly employing this method, had great reafon to regret it*. It is alfo remarked by an able writer, in fpeaking of bringing into cultivation the chafe lands in the county of Middlefex, that the impropriety of breaking up this kind of land without paring and burning, is manifefted in the neighbour- hood of Beech-hill, where land, after twenty years’ inclofure and cultivation, is in a worfe ftate now than it was originally. Well would it be for the owners of fuch allotments, fays he, if they could now pare and burn it; but it has been ploughed, and not producing more than what the vermin deftroyed, laid down in fo rough a ftate to grafs, as to be incapable of being pared and burnt: the original wiry bent and dwarf fhrubs are now growing in full vigour: and that on the incloture of Stanwell, in the fame county, the allotments on Houn- flow-heath fucceeded well under the perfe&t prattice of paring and burning; and ill, where the turf was ploughed without the application of fire. In the former cafe the land was immediately fit for turnips, tares, barley, and clover: in the latter, the tough, wiry bent, heath, and dwarf furze, kept the land too light and fpongy for any crop. Even rolling, he afferts, cannot keep it down, for its elafticity raifes the foil foon after the roller has paffed over it, and it is of fo imperifhable a nature, that it is likely to plague the farmer for many years. The difference between the two methods of breaking up rough ground, is, he thinks, more than the value of the freehold in favour of paring and burning, % See Annals of Agriculture, vol. XID p. 253. B49 Paring and Burning. which immediately opens a fource of great profit; whereas the other proceed: sence and difappointment. in addition to this it is obferved, that paring and burning has more merit than any other manure, in its property of converting heath, furze, fhrubs, and wiry bent, into coal, moit fitly prepared for the food of plants; and that it will pulverize fuch a foil as much in two years as all other means can effeé in twenty*. And others eontend, that on any fort of foil which has not before been reclaimed from a ftate of wafte, and where furze, broom, brambles, ferns, ue &c. abound, thefe operations, when properly performed, are produ€tive of the moft beneficial confequences. That there is perhaps no other method that could be devifed, fo well adapted for preparing land in a ftate of nature, and incumbered with fuch produétions, for valuable crops with expedition and certainty; and that on this account, paring and burning might well be con- fidered by Virgil, and other ancient writers, as a fure means of improvement. And further, that in fuch cafes they are fo at this period, may, it is thought, be proved by the concurring teftimony of thofe to whofe lot it falls to cultivate the common or wafte lands in many of the new inclofed diftrifts ef the king- dom. It is further ftated, that inftances are frequently met with of great advantage refulting from this mode of management; and that wherever land is rendered unfit for cultivation by the incumbrances that have been mentioned, the Devonfhire mattock and the paring-fpade may be ufed with the greateft propriety T. It has been likewife remarked by Mr. Young, in the Agricultural Survey of Suffolk, that“in that diftritt they could not cultivate without this capital affiftant. It is fcarcely poffible, profitably, to bring boggy, moory, and peat foils, from a ftate of nature into cultivation, without the afliftance of fire, which is the moft effe€tive deftruction of the fpontaneous growth, and never fails, but becaufe the men employed do not pare deep enough.” From fuch cafes as have been{tated above, wick much deftruction has been produced by the improper management of the burning in a particular fort of land, the notion of the foil itfelf being leflened, which has formed a great objec- tion to the practice, feems to have originated; but it has been already fhewn, that no lofs can poflibly take place, but from the confumption of a fmall por- * Middleton’s Agricultural Survey of Middlefex, p. 290. + See Donaldfgn’s Modern Agriculture, vol. III. p. 389. (1s hore ‘ubs, at it fect been thes, “the that and and con- nent. t, be vate cing reat nd is oned, eatelt ey of pital peat hich| but been rt of yec- Wil) pore eS ee ee Paring and Burning, 343 tion of the vegetable material that may be contained in it, either in a living or decayed ftate, or the difipation of moifture and elaftic matters; and that there ts reafon to fuppofe the lofs in thefe refpeéts is not fo great as has been commonly imagined. It has been remarked that clay foils are much more apt to be injured by paring and burning than any others Where the flame in the heaps is allowed to burft out with one ie the foil is apt to be reduced to a bricky fort of fubftance, incapable either of imbibing any quantity of moifture, or of again Me eee teh in as the growth of plants; hence, in fo far as mif- management takes place in this refpe€t, in fo far:is the depth of foil perma- nently leflened. But were paring and burning to leffen the foil to the degree which fome people affert, there would not have been an inch of foil in the counties in the fouth-weft part of the ifland many years ago. Such an objcétion to the practice of paring and burning, does not therefore appear to carry much weight along with it. It is no doubt very fpecious and plaufible in theory, but the practice of ages has proved it in a great degree ill founded*. But by others it is contended, that the large portion of powdery brick earth produced in this way has a tendency, by being incorporated with the ftiff retentive mold, to render it more mellow and pulverizable; an effect which we have already fuggefted as ufeful in promoting the growth of crops. Mr. Young, in fpeaking of the different objeétions which have been made to this pra€tice in fen diftri€ts, from the fuppofition that it tends to reduce the foil greatly, as is evinced by the finking of drained lands that have been pared, fays, that it has been found that a Bale of ploughi ng and cropping ftiffens, _concentratés, and diminifhes the lighter kinds of fon mee; and that the ftratum of black peat earth, which on their firft breaking up was confiderably deeper than the plough ran, has been within the m emory of the prefent oceuplers,, without any frefh paring and burning, fo far reduced, that without taking more mold, or ploughing deeper than ches fore had been accuftomed to do, they have not only palfed the whole of the black peat ftratum, but have ploughed up two or three inches of the clay beneath it; and that if it be granted, which he thinks will fcarcely be denied, that the furface of the adjacent depaftured fen jands, from the decay of vegetables, dung of animals,.and the{oil brought thither by the waters from the neighbouring high lands, has been contin: ually, though flowly, increafing, there will then appear other reafons for their prefent * See Modern Agriculture, vol, III, 4 See Anderfon’s Effays, vol, III. p. 242, 344 Paring and Burning. different level than mere paring and burning.“It is well known,” fays he, ‘that earth is not to be diflipated by combuftion; it is more likely that this appearance proceeds in the firft place from the light peaty earth of a fen foil being gradually confolidated by alternate cultivation and pafturage, fo as to fink below the level it formerly-preferved in its uncultivated ftate; and in the next place, may it not proceed from the commons gradually rifing higher by the accumulation of mud and foil depofited by the upland waters?” Thefe faéts, which feem to reft upon the foundation of pra€tical expe- rience, fufficiently fhew that little danger is to be apprehended from the deftruétion of the foil when the procefs is properly performed, and a.correét method of after-management purfued. In the method of performing the procefs of paring and burning, there are fome flight differences in the practice of different diftri€ts; and perhaps in ma- naging this bufinefs, an attention to the nature of the lands may be as neceflary as in other cafes of hufbandry, as it would feem that fome, as thofe of the more clayey and heavy kinds, would be moft benefited by having the fire to come as much as poffible into contaét with the whole of the Ginga parts of them, without being carried too far, as by that means they may be rendered more proper for the reception of the roots of vegetables after being flightly ploughed, as well as more fuitable for fupplying nourifhmént to them; while in others, as thofe of the more light and thin defcriptions, it might be moft advantageous to merely confume the thin paring of{ward after being piled up for the purpofe,with- out permitting the fire to exert its influence upon the mold or foil immediately below, as in this way there would not probably be fo much danger of injuring the ftaple, by deftroying the vegetable matters contained im fuch foils. In the firft of thefe modes of burning the fward, it is obvious, that the fods or parings fhould be piled up as little as poffible into heaps, the advantage of a fuitable feafon being taken to apply the fire to them in the ftate in which they lie, or are fet at firft after being cut up, or after a few only have been placed together, as happens in fome inftances where they are immediately after being cut, fet on edge to dry, and placed in ferpentine directions, in order to prevent them from falling over; but in the latter cafes they fhould be formed or built up into little circular heaps or piles, fomewhat in the form and fize of the little cocks made in hay-fields, the fods being placed the grafs-fide downwards, in order to admit air; but the openings both at the bottoms and tops, after they have been fully fet on fire by fome combuftible fubftance,{uch as ftraw,&c. are ee ee en i are ma- flary t the re to ‘ts of nore hed, 'S, aS us to with iately uring ds or of a they: aced yeing ayent built little ds, in - they Cc, ale a ee Paring and Burning.$45 to be clofed up, as well as thofe in other parts covered by an addition of fods; fo as that the combuftion may proceed in a flow,{mothering manner, fuch as is practifed in the making of charcoal. When the whole of the earth in each of the piles has been a€ted upon by the fire, the heaps may he fuffered to extin- guith themfelves by flowly burning out. There is another method of pra€tice of this kind, which is much in ufe in fome diftricts, as in Devonfhire and Cornwall, for breaking up and preparing grafs lands for the reception of what have been termed fallow crops, which is that of#irting; in performing which a part of the fward or furface is alter- nately left unturned, upon which the next thin furrow flice is conftantly turned, fo that the fwards of each come in contatt, by which means the putrefactive fermentation is fpeedily excited, and the greateft part of the grafly vegetable matter converted into manure; what ultimately remains undeftroyed being, after repeated crofs-cuttings with the plough and harrowings, all the mold or earthy matter having been previoufly well removed from the roots of the plants by fhaking, colle€ted into fmall heaps(which is done either by the hand or with iron-headed rakes, conftruéted for the purpofe), and burnt, the afhes being then {pread evenly over the land*. The operation when managed in this way is termed beat-burning, and would appear to be the moft proper and ufeful on land where the turf or fward is not very tough or matted together, and where there is little or no coarfe vegetable produéts growing upon it. In accomplifhing the operation of paring, or of feparating the{ward from the furface of the foil, feveral different inftruments are made ufe of in different parts of the kingdom: that which was the moft employed in-the infancy of the art was a kind of eurved mattock or adz, about feven or eight inches in length, and five or fix in breadth; and which from its fhape would appear to have been better adapted for cutting up the roots of brufh-wood, furze, broom, or other coarfe fhrubs, than for paring off the furface ofa field free from fuch incumbrances.‘This inftrument is, however, it is faid, common. in the fouth-weftern diftriéts; and that, though it no doubt retains in a great meafure the. fhape of the inftruments firft ufed for the purpofe in that part of the country, when the lands were in a very different ftate, yet-the labourers who are in the practice of ufing it, are able to pare off the fod with great dexterity and dif- patcht. But in other diftriéts, where the fod is pared off by manual labour; * See Agricultural Report of Devonfhire. + See Modern Agriculture, vol. HI. pe) 4 Paring and Burning. the ordinary dreaft-/pade—in fome places called the breafi-plough, and in Scot- land the faughter-/pade—is moftly employed. The iron or cutting part of this C < implement is about eight or nine inches in length, and from ten to twelve in breadth, having frequently a kind of edge rifing up a few inches at the right- hand fide of the turf next to the unmoved fward. This inftrument, which is he ftrength of the arms of the ing the breaft againft that part of the frame or thaft which isyheld in the hand. In working the tool, the labourer generally cuts the fods at about an inch or an inch and a half thick, and from ten to twelve formed with a fine edge, is forced forward-by t perfon ufing it, and by pref broad;. and when the{pade has run under the fod to the length of about three feet, he throws it off, by turning the inftrument to one fide, and proceeds in the fame way, cutting and throwing over the fods, the who ridge. In this way of performing the operation the labourers, by following each other with a flice of the fward or furface of the land, accomplith the bufi- nefs with much eafe and expedition. \ Another inftrument that is fometimes ufed for paring the fod is the horfe-paring-. plough, an implement made of different conftruétions, according to the circume fiances of the ground to be pared. In the fenny. diftricts on the eaftern coatts,. where paring and burning is praétifed on a large fcale, they have ploughs con- ftructed for the purpofe of a particular form, but which vary from the common ploughs chiefly in the breadth and fharpnefs of the fhare or fock. They are admirably calculated for paring off the fward or fod of fuch grounds as are level, and where neither ftones, bruth-wood, ant-hills, nor othér impediments: obftruct their progrefs; but where fuch obftru€tions prefent themfelves, the breaft-{pade or common team-plough, with a{mall alteration of the fhare, will be found preferable, both in refpeét to the extent of ground that: can: be pared, and the fuperior manner in which the work in fuch cafes can be per- formed*. Ploughs, from their great expedition and regularity of performing the bufinefs, fhould always probably be made ufe of where the nature and fituation of the land will admit them, in preference to fuch tools as require manual Jabour.. In fome of the weftern counties the common plough only is: ufed. There the old grafs-fields, when. it is propofed to burn the fward, are rip or /lob furrowed about the beginning of winter; and being again crofs-ploughed the following fpring, the fods are colle@ed and managed. in the manner men- tioned in fpeaking of fkirting. In thefe cafes the plough has, however, a * See Modern Agriculture, vol; Ht S 5) le length of the- a a = 7‘ i aay Paring and Burning. S47 wing turned up onthe furrow fide of the plough-fhare, by which the furrow is cut any breadth required. The work is alfo fometimes done-by means of the {pade, mattock, and breaft-plough, in fuch cafes. In refpe&t to the feafon for performing this operation, it may be obferved, that the months in which the greateft quantity of land is pared and burned are April, May, and June: the particular period muft, however, always depend much on the ftate of the weather, the nature of the crop, and the farmer’s con- venience. But for accomplifhing the work with the greateft difpatch, and alfo with the leaft trouble and expence, a dry feafon is obvioufly the beft. The pru- dent farmer fhould not embark in the undertaking, unlefs there be a reafonable probability of his accomplifhing it while the weather keeps dry and favourable. The latter end of May or the beginning of June, when the hurry of the fpring feed-time is over, in the more northern diftriéts, when a number of hands can be moft eafily procured, may upon the whole be confidered as the beft and. moft convenient feafon; as at this period the green vegetable produ€ts are in their moft fucculent and full ftates, and of courfe may probably afford more faline matter; but in the more fouthern counties either a much earlier feafon muft be taken, or the interval between the hay feafon and the harveft-time mutt be fixed upon, the latter of which is, on the principle juft ftated, evidently the beft, where the extent of ground to be burnt is not toolarge. In other feafons it would frequently be impoffible to procure a fufficient number of hands for performing the bufinefs. In bringing wafte lands into cultivation, where an extenfive traét of ground is to undergo this procefs, the autumn may in many cafes afford a convenient opportunity for the operation. As the crops that are fown after paring and burning are various, and as the feafon for performing the procefs muft in many cafes depend in fome meafure on their nature, we may obferve that when rape or turnips, which are the moft prevailing crops in fuch circumftances, are to be cultivated, the end of May or the beginning of June will be the moft proper time: but if barley or oats be to be fown, the paring and burning muft be completed as early in fpring as the nature of the feafon will admit; and when lands are pared and burned as a preparation for a crop of wheat, July, or even the beginning of Auguft, may in favourable feafons anfwer; but it is better to have the ground ready fooner. The depth to which lands of different qualities may be pared with the moft advantage, is alfo a point that would feem to require fome attention-in the conducting of proceffes of this nature; as it can hardly be proper to pare light, thin, ftapled foils, to the-fame depths as thofe of the more deep and heavy 54% Paring and Burning. kinds.‘This fhould probably, in fome degree, be regulated by their particular nature, and their differences in refpeét to ftaple and heavinefs. Mr. Boys, however, who is in the habit of breaking up thin chalky foils, and fuch as have been in tillage in this way, obferves, that in Kent, where the method of paring moft in ufe is with down-fhares or breaft-ploughs, they take off turfs as thick as the nature of the foils will admit, from half an inch to two inches; the thicker the better, provided there be a fufficient portion of vegetable matter contained within them to make them burn well*. The moft ufual depths of paring are, however, from one to three or more inches. When the feafon is not very wet, the turfs will commonly be fufficiently dried in about a fortnight or three weeks, even without being turned; but in rainy weather they require a longer time, and muft be turned more than once to prevent their ftriking out roots and fhoots, which might hinder them from burning. When the turfs have fully undergone the procefs of burning, and are reduced to the ftate of afhes and a powdery earthy matter, the whole fhould, as foon as poflible, be fpread out over the land in as regular and equal a manner as the nature of the work will admit of; for without great attention in this refpeét, great inequality in the crops may take place; befides the foil will be made lighter in fome places than in others, which may be difadvantageous in the fame way. The fpreading, where it can by any means be accomplithed, fhould always be performed before any rain falls; as where this point is not attended to, a great lofs may be fufiained by the faline matters being carried down in a ftate of folution, and their beneficial effe€ts in a great meafure loft before the crops are in a condition to receive them. In order to fecure the full influence of the afhes, the land is frequently flightly ploughed over immediately after the afhes are fpread out. And it is ftated by Mr. Donaldfon, that“ thofe who are more than ordinarily attentive in this refpe€, only rib or flob furrow the field, fo that the athes may be got covered up with the greater expedition and difpatch.” By this mode they cannot probably, however, be fo equally mixed with the foil as by that of ploughing the whole field with a very flight furrow, fo as juft to cover them. The expence of preparing lands by the operations of paring and burning, muft obvioully vary according to the nature and fituation of the land, the method in which they are performed, and the cuftoms of the diftri€t in regard to the price of labour. On the thin fort of chalky foils it is obferved by an expe- * See Agricultural Report of the County of Kent, é SRE) SS ORO TS le ae ag oa aaa alae Paring and Burning, 349 rienced agricultor, who is accuftomed to have fuch lands prepared by this means, that the expence for paring at a moderate thicknefs, where the land is not very flinty, is twenty fhillings per acre; for laying it up in heaps and _ burning, ten fhillings; and for fpreading the afhes, three fhillings; and that a coat of manure is thus produced on the Jand of from eighty to one hundred and fixty cart-loads per acre, for the trifling expence of thirty-three fhillings. A hun- dred cart loads of dung purchafed from neighbouring towns and villages, at the diftance of three miles from the land, would, he fays, coft, carriage home in- cluded, ten times the price of down-fharing, and yet would not improve the land more. But that, where the land is well covered with turf, it may be ploughed for burning about two inches deep, with a common plough, drawn by a pair of horfes, early in the fpring, and as foon as a drying wind fets in, the turf be laid in heaps and burnt by labourers for one pound one fhilling per acre, which will produce near two hundred cart-loads*. As the author has not informed us of the quantity contained in fuch loads, it is impoffible to decide with any certainty in regard to the benefits of the procefs in fo far as manure is con- cerned; but his ftatements fully fhew that it is more confiderable than is genc= rally fuppofed. And in fome fen diftri€ts, where the original furface is rough and unequal, from great tufts of rufhes,&c. called haffecks, Mr. Young obferves, that fome perfons cut them with fpades at the expence of five to ten fhillings an acre, and others with the plough. Paths for the horfes are in that cafe to be cut by hand, and the plough made on purpofe, and called a haffock-plough, cuts laterally much beyond the line of its draught. But opinions are faid to be in general, that the hand-work is the cheaper; in either cafe, the haffocks are dried, heaped, burnt, and the afhes fpread. After this they go over it again with a very complete and effective tool, called a fex-paring plough, the furrow of which is burnt f. In the management of land by means of paring and burning, it will con- ftantly be neceffary to attend to fuch a mode of cropping as will tend to its improvement, whatever may have been the manner or kind of foil in which the procefs was performed. Without a nice and exa@ attention in this refpeé, ‘much injury may frequently be done, and an ufeful pra€tice be brought into difrepute. When the nature and fituation of the land will admit of them, as in the lighter forts of foils, the growing of turnip or rape crops to be eonfumed on * See Agricultural Report of the County of Kent. t See Agricultural Survey of the County of Suffolk. 350 Paring and Burning. / the ground would feem to be moft proper for the firft year; then a white o: grain crop, as oats, or wheat; after that, turnips again, or in fome cafes, peass beans, or fome fort of green crop, to be eaten off if poflible by theep; and ladtly, a grain crop with grafs feeds: but on the heavier forts of land, where the turnip hufbandry cannot be fo well introduced, cole, clover, and bean crops, may often be interpofed between thofe of the grain kinds with the moft propriety and advantage..And it would feem that the interpofition of green*crops ought on the whole to be more frequent.in the former forts of foil than on thofe of the Jatter, on account of their containing, in general, a lefs proportion of vegetable matter. It is often attended with great advantage to apply 3 fome fort of manure, fuch as lime, with the fecond crop of turnips in cafes of thefe kinds. Itis afferted, that in fome of the weftern diftri€ls, where the method of paring and burning‘is very much praétifed, and held in high eftimation, old fainfoin lays, and all fuch{wards as are of a fufficient texture,‘are ufually broken up in this way. Turnips are frequently the firft crop; and from the frefhnefs of the land, and the good effeéts of the afhes, a large crop is moftly produced. But as in thofe cafes the time is too fhort to get the land in proper tilth for the fucceed- ing crops of barley, grafs feeds, and other fimilar crops, it is often adopted as a better method to fow wheat in the firft inftance on one ploughing; after which, from the afhes being ftill frefh in the ground, a crop of turnips may be as cer- tainly depended on, and there is a fufficient length of time to get the land into a complete ftate of tilth. Wheat ftubbles, of the more graffy kinds, which will produce a tolerable quantity of afhes, are alfo frequently pared and burnt for turnips with a confiderable degree of fuccefs. In fhort, when this pra€tice is properly followed up with the turnip and clover hufbandry, its good effects cannot it is conceived be difputed*. In others, cole feed is fown on a-fhallow ploughing, and never harrowed, order not to difturb the whole furrow; but rolled, or lightly bufh-harrowed. This is intended either for a crop of feed, or for fheep-food: in the latter cafe, it fells in fome places for a guinea an acre; in the former, for two or three gui- neas. Oats are then fown; the crop is produétive, and the land, if well laid down to grafs, becomes good meadow. But the management in this refpeét is frequently very bad, only clover and ray grafs being fown, and‘after fix or feven years pared and burnt again; inftead of which, if proper feeds were fown, the land would be ever after in a ftate of improvement. * See Agricultural Survey of Gloucefterhhire. ~ Lote Ss Said nian < as aio seek in RE= at Paring and Burning.: 351 \ Where there are poor, wet, cold, hungry paftures and negleéted meadows, over- run and filled with all forts of rubbifh, and abounding with too few good plants to render their improvement eafy without breaking up, it is obferved, that thefe fhould be pared and burnt; not to keep under the plough, to be exhaufted and ruined, which is infallible, and the land left in a worfe ftate beyond all compas rifon than it was before, but to be laid immediately to grafs, that is, as foon as the courfe of hufbandry neceffary will admit. This, it is conceived, ought to be without variation, under any pretence whatever, in this courfe of Crops; ift: Pare and burn for turnips to be fed on the Jand with fheep: but in moift-' bottomed lands, rape will often fucceed better than turnips; and the fheep feed better with rape upon fuch lands. 2d. Oats; and with thefe oats the grafs feeds fhould be fown.. The oats and the turnips, it is afferted, would-more than pay all the expence of a’ previous hollow draining, fhould that be neceflary; of the paring and burning, and every other charge; and the change, from.a very bad pafture to a very fine one, would all be neat profit. The tenant, it is con- tended, would be greatly benefited, and the landlord find his eftate improved, if let as farms ought to be let; with an abfolute exclufion of felling a‘lock of. hay under any pretence whatever*. And it is further afferted, that this method is practifed with great fuccefs in the /en land in Lincolnfhire, the bufinefs being performed by means of the plough; and cole feed afterwards fown. In fome cafes, horfes and ploughs are found, and the labour put out; which, including a ploughing in order to turn in the athes, is done-at feven fhillings an acre: the'cole-is fed with theep, and is worth ¢hree pounds an acre; but felling price, forty to fifty fhillings. Then oats, eight quar- ters an acre, and ten quarters has been had; then colé and’ oats again; being Jaid down with fourteen pounds of white clover, and one peck of ray, the grafs lets at twenty fhillings. It is found to be a great and lafting improvement- of the land. This is conceived to be a low eftimate, from the land keeping five fheep an acre, from Lady-day to Michaelmas, and one and a half on the acre in the winter. Where then, it is enquired, is the fuppofed’ mischief of this pratticet? There are other forts of lands, as dry, rough fheep-walks, covered with ling,’ furze, broom,&c. which fhould alfo be broken up in the fame manner, bat uni- verfally to be laid dewn again with the graffes fuitable to the foil and to fheep. On weak, thin, ftapled land, two crops of corn, after paring and burning, may ng, often be pernicious.. Perhaps they might be. well laid-down without a fingle. * See Agricultural Report of Suffolk.. ¢ See Young’s Agricultural Survey of Lincolnthire. Se ee ca = earns 3se Paring and Burning. one, which would be a better method of management. It is alfo fuppofed by fome able agricultors, that it would be better to take, in fuch cafes, two or three fucceflive crops of turnips, in order to completely eradicate all the feeds of the ling, furze, and broom, before the land is laid-down to grafs, as otherwife thefe plants may appear with redoubled vigour. Thefe obfervations feem juft, and to be founded in good fenfe, reafon, and experiment; they place the abfurdity of indifcriminately condemning this mode of agricultural improve- ment in the cleareft point of view; as the injury that may take place in fome cafes may be occafioned by an injudicious and improper method of culti- vation. It is further remarked by an experienced pra€tical agricultor, that, of all the improvements in the cultivation of land that have hitherto been made ufe of in the diftri&t where he refides, this ftands foremoft; fome of the very worft Jand having been made to produce excellent crops; and poor chalky downs, of {carcely any value in their original fate, are by it made to produce good turnips and clover, and crops of corn, often equal in value to double the fee fimple of the land. Inftead of the land being injured by the operation, as fome theoreti- cal writers have imagined, provided it be under a proper fy{tem of manage- ment and fairly dealt by, itis, he thinks, put into a progreflive ftate of improve- ment from the time of its furface being burnt. It has frequently, fays he, happened, that Jand after burning has been fown with corn four or five years in fucceffion without being folded with fheep, or any part of its produce ever returned in manure; even charlock and other weeds have been fuffered to remain, by which it has been annually burthened with a double crop; hence it has been left in an impoverifhed ftate, and the burning is unjuftly condemned for the mifchief done by the negligence and rapacity of the cultivator. Let the land wher burnt, continues he, be perfeétly cleaned from charlock and other weeds, by growing turnips until the weeds are totally eradicated by hoeing,&c. Let the turnips be fed off the land, by fheep lying on the land day and night; then fow it with barley and clover; the latter to be fed off with fheep, folding them on the land for wheat. Laftly, return the ftraw produced upon the land in manure, mixed with clay or loam, or any other frefh earth that is near at hand, for a fecond Norfolk rotation, which may be repeated; or the land may be fown with fainfoin, to remain till a turf is formed fit for paring and burning again. This plan being purfued, the praétice of burning the foil will, he conceives, not give any caufe of complaint either to landlord or tenant. Theorifts, fays he, exclaim, that by paring and burning the ftaple of the land is reduced, and the d by 0 or ds of rwife D jul e the OVE fome culti- of all ufe of wortt ns, of urnips ple of oreti- nage roves ys he, or five roduce ared{0 nce It ied for eland reeds, Let then them nd in hand, agail eS, not uy he, nd the a aad a lea) a Paring and Burning. 353 {oil is wafted; which may be fomewhat true: but all this is very immaterial, if fine crops of corn can be produced where none ever grew before, and the land at the fame time be improved®. In{peaking of the injudicious and improper modes of cropping repeatedly with white or grain crops after this procefs, an intelligent pra€tical writer forcibly obferves, that if a dung-hill were given to a bad farmer, and it was ufed on fimilar principles, it would almoft equally exhauft the foil; yet who has found out that dunging land is bad hufbandry? Paring and burning gives, {ays he, a dung-hill alfo: it 1s bad management alone that converts it imto an evil. Make it the preparation for grafs, and all is fafe f}. * Boys'’s Agricultural Survey of Kent. + Young's Agricultural Survey of Suffolk. { The praétice of paring and burning has been found fo advantageous in fome cafes, as to render lands, the produce of which was not worth two fhillings and fix pence, in the courfe of four years ca- pable of producing two valuable crops of corn, and as many of turnips, and to be rented at twenty fhillings per acre. The expences and returns of breaking up frefh land of the ftiff loamy kind, and cropping with oats and peas, is ftated in the following way by Dr. Wilkinfon, in the fifteenth volume of the Annals of Agriculture. The fummer being loft in preparing the land for a wheat crop, the crops are, he ob- ferves, charged with two years’ rents and taxes. OAT CROP. fe sd. Rents, for two years, per acre=- I 090 Poor-rates~ a o-'© 3.0 Road levy-°=- Oo 1 90 Stocking the bufhes=-- 0 6 0 Paring and burning 2= f° 9-0 Levelling hillocks=<- 0 4 6 Spreading afhes== ot Git L.G Once ploughing->- 010 O Harrowing--°=~ 0 22 0 Four buthels of feed-oats, at 295.=- OL O £. 4:8.0 Sold feven quarters of oats, at£.1. 1s. perquar. 7 7 Oo Seeds and expences-°- 4 8© Profit per acre£2119 0 Straw, not charged, more than defrayed ex- pences of mowing and threfhing- ZB PEA 354 Paring and Burning., The kinds of grafs feeds that may be the moft fuitable after the operation of, paring and burning, muft evidently be different according to the nature and ij quality of the land. In the lighter forts of foil, thofe kinds of grafles that cover the earth well will in general be the moft proper. On chalky foil faintfoin may moftly be employed to the greateft advantage. On the fenny forts of foil, marle- grafs, with a little meadow foxtail-grafs, will frequently be found the mof PEA CROP. \ Re Pee The expences the fame as for the oat crop, with the addition of ss. for four buthels of feed, at 35.--*=e Ax CaO: Sold four quarters of peas, at 325.= 7g D8 7000 PSA tis aa fe From the ameliorating nature of pea crops, and the excellent ftate in which they leave the land for-a crop of wheat, they will, it is fuppofed, be on the whole more advantageous than the oats. The expences and profits on cold, moity, old meadow lands in York fhire, with a north-eaft afpect, cul- tivated in this way for turnips, as given in the twelfth volume of the fame work by Mr. Middleton, are thefe: £- Paring~ 2=> Drying and burning-== Spreading the afhes““~ Ploughing once-~= Harrowin g=~== Seed, 3 lb. and fowing O50 20° O76:0 OP ANHNNYO@& 7.0900 0 0 Weeding(in pared and. burnt land little ne- 4 ceflary)-= Bey ee| PAE Cer ee Rent, tythe, taxes, and affeffments-.018 0 fit i 2 7Os v) The turnips, a plentiful crop(large fizes, about a foot diftance), eftimated in feeding flock by the acre, at-=f 92 6 Li Profit per acre£> 2918.0 §t is added, that“in that neighbourhood the ufual agiftment price is fix pence a week for ing wethers, and three pence a week for hogs(lambs of the preceding feafon), and{hells left by the wethers,” fatteh= to eat the broken turnips On of > and cover N may marle. ¢ moft } fora %, cule Ni, are ttefi= nips oo ee gr ee Paring and Burning, 355 beneficial, And a fmall mixture of the fineft ray, or darnel-grafs, is likewife found to anfwer well. For marle-grafs, though it has fome refemblance to red clover, is materially different in its effeéts; the former being found unfriendly to all natural grafles, while the latter is quite the reverfe.. This is a fact that has been eftablifhed by extenfive experience. One other very material advantage refulting from the cultivation of marle-grafs, is faid to be, that neat cattle are not fo liable to fwell by eating it in moift weather, as they are from red clover; nor is its hay fo dangerous to the horfes’ wind as that made from clover. And it may be further obferved, that the heavy or clayey foils will in moft cafes require the largeft proportions of grafs feeds to be fown upon them, in laying them down after this preparation. From the great eafe and expedition with which all thofe coarfe forts of land, which have been mentioned as proper for being broken up by this means, are rendered fit for the growth of-crops of different kinds, fuch as thofe of grain, rape, turnips, potatoes,&c. as wellas from the very abundant produce, which is generally the cafe after fuch preparation, it cannot be doubted, but that where proper attention is paid to the conduéting of the procefs and the method of management afterwards, it muft be highly beneficial, and probably the beft that can be adopted. It has indeed been lately remarked, that“ when the hufbandry that fucceeds paring and burning is judicious, no mode of improvement can be compared with it; for it is certain to produce great crops of turnips and grain, and thefe are certain means of future fertility in the hands of a judicious, farmer*.? Z In addition to this, it is likewife obferved, that fuch kinds of land, when they are returned again to the ftate of grafs after having undergone the proceffes of paring and burning, generally produce not only a much lefs coarfe, but more fweet and plentiful herbage. But notwithftanding the great advantages that evidently refult from the ope- rations of pating and burning on fuch kinds of land as have been already defcribed, it is probable that by adopting better forts of management in refpect to the modes of cropping in thofe that have been under tillage, as by alternating green crops of fome fort or other with thofe of the grain kinds, and the full practice of the convertible hufbandry, or that of laying them down to grafs in a proper manner, and at fufficiently early periods after they have been converted to the purpofe of growing grain, the neceflity of having recourfe to fuch praftices may in a great meafure be obviated. Indeed it has been well * See Agricultural Survey of the North Riding of Yorkhhire, p. 22. ¢ See Experienced Farmer, vol. IL. p. 8. spanner A il~->= ae ae 356 Paring and Burning. remarked by an intelligent writer, that whenever clean-fallows and fuitable fallow-crops fhall have been introduced and properly interpofed between thofe of the grain kind, as is the practice of the moft corres modern cultivators, burning-beat will certainly be no longer requifite*, In fhort, the neceflity of employing thefe methods in the breaking-up of fuch grafs lands as have been already in the ftate of tillage, would feem in fome refpect to arife from their being kept under the grafs fyftem too long; as by that means, in many fituations, their produce becomes coarfe, and the fward fo tough and matted as to be incapable of being broken up, or reduced by the other modes of cultivation. This is hewn more fully by the obfervation, that in fuch lands as are cultivated in the moft advantageous manner in refpe€t to their becoming produétive, as by the alternate courfes of grain and grafs, the operations of paring and burning, if not wholly impoffible, are at leaft extremely dificult to be performed, as the fward or turf of fuch grounds, from their being clean, and laid down in a proper condition, is moftly fo tender as not to be capable of being kept together in order to undergo the proceffest. From what has been advanced, it is obvious that in performing the pro- -cefles of paring and burning care fhould be taken that the burning be not carried fo far as to prove injurious by the confumption of the vegetable materials in the lighter forts of land, or by rendering the earthy matters too hard in the clayey foils, by permitting the fod to become too dry before the burning is begun. The more the latter procefs can be condu€ted in a {mothering manner the better, fo that the fire as upon the whole. The thicknefs of the turfs thould be regulated by the ftate of the fward’and nature of the vegetables by which it is covered; the afhes being immediately after the burning fpread out equally over the whole of the furface, and very lightly ploughed or harrowed in; corn and green crops, according to the nature of the Jand, being then cultivated in proper rotation, and returns of manure, in propore tion to the abundance of the crops that may be produced, made to the lands, the whole in due time being laid down to the ftate of grafs. By thefe means the danger of exhaufting the lands will not only be avoided, but great improves ment in many inftances be effeGted.’ * See Marfhall’s Rural Economy of the Weft of England, vol. I. p. 149, + See Modern Agriculture, vol, WI, p. 397. hd fuitahle Ween thofe Cultivators, S-UD of fuck eM In fome long; as by he fward{ ced by the vation, that 1 refpe&t to d grafs, the fe at leaft unds, from nder as not ST. ¢ the pro- ng be not vegetable natters too before the ited in a hole. The and nature ately after ery lightly ‘ure of the in propore he lands, fe means improves FLATE: 1, Paring Plough for Rough Land, :[Lo face Page 356.| In this plate are two fide views of a paring plough, given by Mr. Young, for coarfe rough Jand. The fhare is fix inches in width, and rifes or finks by means of pivot 2, which{crews into the holes 3. It is a highly ufeful implement, being capable of performing its work in cafes where the fen-paring Plough cannot ftir at all. It was in ufe at Sheffield Place, the feat of the Right Hon. Lord Sheffield, P.B. A. thirty-years ago, having been procured from Chethire, where it had been employed on the farm of Sir George Warren. a Vee to<7— Ss.=~ eS be=. ats sa<<> an a— =|= Cl~= ony os ie a PT a2| Len See| cs a Ss==o#2 33 eee rae{os a, f »_— ee= ss S> 255= fon= Sol Shee 2e oe eee ani it ae Sie ces “= ter Yeo eee} ee aS S~~=== Ss 3=)(Se Sy SS== S mK SECTION X, Fallowing of Land, Fallowing—In preparing Lands by Means of, various Changes take place in the Subftances that form Soils—A high Degree of Mellownefs and Pulverifation moftly effected by it—By Juch Means the different Materials become more uniformly and extenfively blended together— Advantages of this in the Growth of Crops—Dews and Moifture more readily admitted thereby— Defiruction of Weeds an, alfo ufeful in improving the Soils—Other Modes in which Pulverifation may be beneficial—By admitting the atmofpheric Air more 1 age into the Interftices of the Soils—By the Formation of carbonic or other Acids in Con Of fluid carbonic Acid—Of Ammonia, or volatile Alkai—The Praétice ee in thefe Wass more extenfvely beneficial than has been Suppofed—Is more adapted to fome Sorts of Land than others—JIn fome unneceffary or injurious—On the lighter and more diy Soils—On fuch as are rich from the Applications of Manures—Manner in which it proves hurtful in each—Ufeful in the wet, Sif, and tenacious clayey Soils in various /Vays—By the Pulverifation thus afforded the Roots of Plants are admitted more freely —By permitting atmofpheric Air to enter more fully into the Cavities of the Soils the Mat- ters that promote Vegetation are more extenfively produced—The Roots of Plants allowed to penetrate and take them up more freely by the great Increafe of Surface that thus takes place —The Deftruction of Weeds more effectual in this Way——Can only perhaps be effected in wet Soils by Summer Fallowing—Pleughing them in Winter often renders them more firf and adhefive —Dry gravelly Soils may moftly be managed without this Process; but wet, clayey ones cannot— No Modes of Cropping perhaps fully effectual in the latter—On fuch Soils they witl not therefore obviate the occafonal Use of Summer Fallowing—May fometimes leffen the Neceffity of its being employed—Without this Procefs many ufeful Products could not probably be formed in the Soils, fo as to promote Vegetation—Green Crops are however neceffary to be cultivated as much as poffible with the View of keeping Stock—Sorts of Plants moft ufeful on, in this Vay—Ruta Buga—Cab~ bages—Beans—Peas—Clover—From the great Varieties in fuch Soils, Differences in the Ufey Repetition, and Modes of Fallowing, may be neceffary—The/e fhould be attended to by the Agricultor —Methods of performing it foould be varied according to Soil and Circumftances— Modes of, in different Cafes, defcribed—How full Pulverifation may be beft effected in=—Propere/t Times of performing the different Ploughings—Different Methods in which they may be done with the moft Advantage in refped? to the Aération of the Soils—Weeds may be ufetully collected in fome Cafes —~Ploughings afferted by fome to be only neceffary—Difficult in fome Cafes to prepare fiif Souls in this . a 358 Fallowing of Land, Way—Their Cloddinefs prevents the Root Weeds from being deftroyed— Only offe ually deftroyed by the Pulverifation of frequent Horrowing and Rolling—Picking of the Weeds fometimes prace tifed after—This Method economucal, by rendering fewer Ploughings necefjary—Froft more powerful after-—Little Danger of fuch Soils being made too| fine—This proved by Experiment— Other Methods of Fallowing that have been recommended too intricate to deferve the Attention of Farmers —What necefary to be regarded in the Application of Manures after, in different Cafes—This fometimes wholly unnecefary—Frequently found more ufeful for the fecond Crop after—Reafons why the Cultivation of full green Crops may often be more ufeful—Depends probably on feveral Caufes— Summer Fallowing may be much lefened by this Means—Why they feem to improve the Land more than light poor Crops—Land always left more fine and mellow after large green Crops are grown — Hence more advantageous to the Cultivator than naked Fallows—Should be more frequently intro- duced both ot light and heavy Soils—Are admiffible on the latter more frequently than is in general fuppofed by Farmers— How bef? managed on—Obfervations on green Fallows in general, In the preparation of land for the reception of grain or other forts of crops by repeated ploughings, or the frequent expofure of new and freth furfaces to the a€tion and influence of the atmofphere, a variety of alterations and changes are produced in the earthy as well as other kinds of materials that enter into the conftitution of the foils.-‘Uhe heavier or more earthy particles of the land, by being under different circumftances of the air and feafons thus frequently ftirred and turned over, are fo effe€tually divided or feparated from each other, and broken down, that even in moft of the ftiffer forts of ground, as well as thofe of the lighter kinds, there is a degree of pulverifation and mellownefs effe€ted that could fcarcely have been induced by any other means; in confe- quence of which, the portions of vegetable matter that are prefent, and that may have been reduced into the carbonaceous ftate, with the calcareous, the argillaceous, and other earthy ingredients, and fuch metallic fubftances as may exift in the condition of oxyds or calces, become fo uniformly and fo exten- fively blended and incorporated, and the manures that are afterwards applied fo minutely intermixed with them, that the fibrous roots of the growing crops, of whatever nature they may be, are enabled to penetrate and extend them- felves more fully, and of courfe to draw more regular and varied, as well as more abundant, fupplies of nourifhment. Befides, on account of the extreme divifion and pulverifation that takes place, and the great irregularity of furface which is produced in this way, the dews and light refrething rains that are fo frequently occurring in the early {pring months, are more capable of being admitted and diffufed through and detained in the hollows and interftices of the ground, and thus to contri- do oyedt S prace ower ful ~ Other armers 5—This fons why Cau/es— and more é grown ly intron general crops ces to anges r into land, uently each as well lownels -confe- id that us, the 5 may exten- pplied crops, them- rell as Peet i allowing of Land. 7 bute powerfully to the fupport of the crops in the more incipient ftages of vegetation. a By the repeated turning-in and deftruction of different forts of plants of the weed kind, much vegetable mucilaginous and faccharine matter may alfo be added, as well as the land improved by the putrefaétive fermentation that muft from thefe caufes be conftantly taking place. There are alfo other modes in which advantages may be gained by the repeated turning-over and breaking-down of the particles of foils, as from much of the atmofpheric air being by fuch methods of hufbandry blended with the fine particles of the foils, and detained in the numerous hollows and cavities formed by fuch degrees of pulverifation, a larger proportion of oxygen may be fup- plied, which by its union with the carbon and other inflammable materials that are moftly contained in foils, may produce the carbonic or other acids, accord- Ing to the circumftances of the cafes, in greater abundance, and in this manner aid the growth of vegetables in a high degree. And as the water or moifture that is included in large quantities in the pores of foils in fuch powdery ftates, may undergo the procefs of decompofition more fully, by coming more minutely in contaét with the portions of atmofpheric air that are covered up and impri- foned with it in them, the fupplies of ammonia or volatile alkali, by the combina- tion of its hydrogen with azote, may be more regular and more copious, as well as thofe of nitre, by the more complete union of its fuperabundant oxygen with fome other portion of the abounding nitrogen or azote of fuch air™*. It has likewife been fuggefted, that as the atmofpheric air confiffs, or is con- ftituted of oxygen, azote, and the fluid matter of heat, if the heat that caufes them to exift uncombined in the form of gaffes be drawn away from them by fome other material while they are confined in the cavities of the foil, they may by their nearer approach to each other combine fo as to produce nitrous acid; or the oxygen, in its fluid ftate, not in its aérial one, may more readily unite with carbon, and thus conftitute a fluid, not an aérial carbonic acid, which is fuppofed to be of great utility in promoting the growth of plants. And further, that if any procefs of the putrefactive kind be going on where atmofpheric air is in this way confined in the interftices of the foil, and by the deprivation of its heat is converted from a gas to a fluid, the azote may combine with the hydrogen of the decompofing water, or contribute to decompofe it, and in this manner form volatile alkali, which, like nitrous acid, may, either during the procefs of its formation, or after that has been completed, be of very material utility in pro- * See Darwin's Phytologia, p. 283. = ee ae $60 Fallowing of Land.& “moting vegetation, while at the fame: time the oxygen afforded* by the decom- pofing water may, like that of the atmofphere, contribute to the produétion of the carbonic, nitrous, or phofphoric acids; and in this way render carbon, phof- phorus, and the bafis of nitre, capable of being taken up by the abforbent roots of growing plants. From the great diminution of bulk that has been found from experiment to take place where atmofpheric air 1s confined in contaét with water, it is conceived that there may be a decompofition of both the water and the air, and a produétion of both ammonia and nitrous acid, which:are known to be beneficial in promoting vegetation*. In thefe diferent views the pra€tice of fallowing may in various inftances be highly beneficial, notwithftanding the obje€tions that have been fo repeatedly brought againft it by writers on hufbandry; but at the{ame time it muft be ad- mitted that in fome forts of foil it will, for fimilar reafons, be much more advan- tageous and ufeful than in others. On the lighter kinds of land, where full and luxuriant crops of different forts of plants, as turnips, potatoes,&c. may be grown, that produce a clofe, thick foliage, and which, as has been fhewn by experiment+, afford under fuch circumftances much carbonic acid, which, from its being greatly heavier than the common air of the atmofphere, muft fall upon and be mixed with the foil in fuch ftagnated fituations, and thus, together with the more conftant moifture that muft be prefent in fuch cafes, promote the folution and decay of various vegetable matters, and continually add carbonaceous and other materials fo as to greatly improve the foils, it can but feldom be neceflary. Befides, as in thefe foils, by the ufe of the drill, and repeated hand or horfe hoeing during the growth of the crops, the ground may be kept perfeétly clean from weeds, and in a fine mellow or powdery ftate, without the danger of being injured by too much eva- poration and expofure in the way of fallowing; and likewife in foils of the fame nature, that are rich from the frequent applications of manure, and in which the proceffes by which the different nutritious fubftances that have been defcribed are formed and prepared, are properly going on, it muft be injurious and improper to expofe their furfaces frequently to the influence of the air, fun, and rain, as is the cafe in fallowing, as by fuch means the portion of car- bonic acid that may exift in the ftate of a fluid, may be made to aflume the gaffeous form, and be more readily difipated, as alfo the phofphorus and the other materials in their different conditions before they form nitrous acid or * See Darwin's Phytologia, p. 284. + See Priefiley’s and Ingenhoufes’s Experiments on Air. CON. n. of dhof. bent been ed in ‘both acid, es be tedly e ad- dvan- | and ay be fhewn yhich, mutt thus, cafes, nually yils, it of the Crops, nellow h eva- of the nd in been urlous 1€ ait, f care ne the id the cid OF saa ePallowins of Land. 361 t 5 wy. WO Whee ammonia. Thus befides the injury that may be ee one in fallowing fuch forts of and, by the carbo and ether inflammable materials which th 2ey contain, com- bining with the o xygen of fge{urrounding atm oe ere, and el by their further union with other fubftances fo as to form infeluble compounds, fuch as phofphat of lime and calcareous nitre, as has been ingenioully fuggetted by an intelligent writer*, the: re may be others of not lefs confequence arifing from the _diffipation and lofs of the carbonic or nitrous acid, or of volatile alkali in the gafleous flate f. But in all the wet-bottemed, ftiff, adhefive, and clayey forts of foil, which conititute a large proporfion of the lands of the ki ingdom, where, from the clofe- nefs of their textures, and the great tenacity of their particles, but a very flight, or indeed fcarcely any degree of pa eiahon has been eaectd: the practice of fummer fallowing may often be highly ufeful and advantageous, not only by the great mechanical alterations that must of neceflity take place in them by the repeated ploughing or turning up of their parts to the influence of the atmo-- {phere, but by their admitting the particles of the manures that may afterwards be applied, to be blended cad incorporated with them in a more minute and extenfive manner; and their becoming fo perfectly aérated as that the different proceffes, that have been mentioned, 1 may take place and properly proceed, fo as to form in them fuch fubftances as have been found of utility in aiding the growth of crops; and which could not poflibly have been produced without fueb pulverifation as is the effect of fallowing. The degree of friability and mellownefs that is produced in this way in fuch foils, has alfo other advantages, fuch as thofe of admitting the roots of the grow= ing plants to. penetrate them with greater facility, and prefenting a more exten- five furface for them to draw their nourifhment from. And as in lands of thefe kinds there is a conftant tendency to throw up abundant crops of root and other weedst, it is perhaps only by the frequent turning over of the foil, and the tearing of them up by harrowing, as is the cafe in fummer fallowing, that they can be effe€tually eradicated and deftroyed. It is principally in this view that the working of fuch foils in the early fpring or fummer months becomes fo particularly neceflary; as at the period in which the feed is to be put into the ground, neither the feafon nor the flate of the weather * See Dundonald on the Connection of Agriculture wit! A Cheinifiry® + See Darwin's Phytologia, p. 288. 4 See Agricultural Survey of the Weft Riding of 5 sbihice, Po. OL ‘ ee e J xe 362 Fallowing of Land, will admit of their being fufficiently broken down and reduced by ploughing, or the weeds to be deftroyed. And it may be added, that wet lands, by being turned over during the winter feafon, are liable; in many cafes, to become more ftiff and adhefive, by which the roots of the crops muft be more limited and confined in their means of acquiring nourifhment from them. It has been lately well obferved, that“* when land of a dry, gravelly quality, vets foul, it may eafily be cleaned without a plain fummer fallow; as crops, fuch as turnips,&c. may be fubftituted in its place, which, when drilled at proper intervals, admit of being ploughed as often as neceflary; whereas wet foils, which are naturally unfit for carrying fuch crops, muft be cleaned and brought into good order by frequent ploughings and harrowings during the fummer months*.” Indeed it is ftrenuoufly contended by the fame author, that the moft judicious intermixture of crops upon clay foils will not preclude the neceflity of a fummer fallow; though he admits that it may go a great way in preventing the neceflity of its being fo frequently repeated ft. But another writer, whofe experience has been confiderable, while he allows that there is no queftion at all of the merit of fallowing when compared with bad courfes of crops, and who thinks, that if the hufbandry is not correét in this refpeét, the fallowift will certainly be a much better farmer than his neighbours, contends that there are courfes which will clean the fouleft land as well as any fummer fallow, by means of plants which admit all the tillage of fucha fallow.‘ Cab- bages,” fays he,“ are not planted before June or July: winter tares admit of three months’ tillage, if tillage be wanted. Beans, well cultivated, will pre- ferve land clean, which has been cleaned by cabbages; and in any cafe two fucceflive hoeing crops are,” he thinks,“ effe€tive in giving pofitive cleannefs, Thefe obfervations are not,” he fays,“ theory; they are practice: and it is high time that mankind fhould be well perfuaded, that the right quantity of cattle and fheep cannot be kept on a farm,-if the fallows of the old fyftem are not made to contribute to their{upport f.” Thete is probably, however, many fituations of clayey foils fo exceedingly ftiff and wet, that though turnips, cabbage, or bean crops may be grown upon them, it cannot, from the great Jabour and difficulty of their preparation, and the high degree of injury that muft be done in the eating or carrying them off the land, be to much advantage, or fuch as to admit of that fort of culture during their growth that will keep the ground perfeétly clean from weeds. In * See Brown's Agricultural Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkthire, p. 81. t See Young’s Agricultural Survey of the County of Suffolk. t Ibid, $ —_—~ iti, oe. fa ae, ote ° allowing of Land. 365 fuch cafes no courfe-of, cropping, however judicious, can probably be effetual in this refpe€t: it is indeed well known to fuch praétical farmers as have had the management ofsfoils of this nature, that it is fearcely poffible to be effeéted even by fummer fallowing itfelf. It has alfo been juftly obferved, that foils of this defcription are fo frequently from neceflity ploughed over when wet, that an adhefion and fournefs is produced that cannot be removed without ex- pofure to the heat of the fummer’s fun, and the pulverifation afforded by the repeated operations of the plough and the harrow. There is no fort of crop that can in fuch cafes fupply the place of fallow, as turnips are highly detri- mental; and drilled beans, though they may anfwer in the way of an affiftant to fallow, and have the tendency of keeping lands clean that are already in a proper condition, it is fuppofed, from the neceflity there is of fowing them early, that they can never be beneficially fuftituted for the radical improvement that is produced by a clean fummer fallow*. But even if fuch forts of land could be kept perfefly clean and free from: weeds by the judicious interpofition of bean, cabbage, or other fimilar crops that might be cultivated on them, it is evident that the various beneficial pro- duéts which have been mentioned, and which are the refult, in a great mea- fure, of the perfect pulverifation and high degree of a€ration that is produced by means of fummer fallowing, could never be formed in fuch an abundant manner as to be of much utility in aiding the growth of crops. Nor could they be in fo fuitable a condition for the admiflion and extenfion of the abforbent roots of the plants that may be cultivated upon them. Yet though thefe circumftances may demonftrate the pra€tice of fallowing to 9e occafionally neceffary and highly ufeful on fuch wet, adhefive, clayey foils; as the proper and moft advantageous quantity of ftock for the improvement of fuch farms can feldom be kept where it greatly prevails, the repetition of the practice fhould, in this view, be prevented as much as poflible, by the cultiva~ tion and growth of green crops as often as the lands may be in a ftate fit for them, and they can be had recourfe to with any chance of fuccefs. The Rutd Baga, or Swedith turnip, as being a plant fomewhat more adapted to wet, ftiff foils, than either the common cabbage or turnip, might probably in fuch cafes be advantageoufly fubftituted as a green crop, and by being eaten off in the later fpring months, when the ground became fufficiently dry to bear the cattle or fheep without injury, admit of a pea crop: after which the land would proba- * See Brown’s Agricultural Survey of the Weft Riding of Yorkthire, p. 88¢ 564 Fallowing of Land, bly be in a fuitable condition for wheat; or a crop of clover might be taken, and then wheat. But in all fuch cafes much muft depend upon the degree of cleannefs, pu lverifation, and aération, that has been accomplifhed by the occa fional ufe of fummer fallowing. As there is much variety in the conditions of fuch foils as may occafionally require the aid of naked or fummer fallowing, in order to render them fuitable for the growth of clean ¢ oO ain or other crops; fome from the nature of their fitua- tion and the fub foils on ae they are placed, being more inclined to the reten- tion of injurious moifture or wetnefs than others, confequently more difpofed to be cold, and to the throwing up of large crops of weeds; while others, from the large proportion of clayey or tenacious loamy materials that may be mixed and incorporated with the pebbly or other ingredients, may be more ftiff and reten- tive, and of courfe more difficult or more incapable of fufficient pulverifation, and of admitting the roots of fuch plants as are capable of being cultivated upon them, to readily eftablith themfelves and draw from them proper fupplies s of thefe different ftates, there may probably be others that have not ret been well afcertained or attended of nourifhment. And befides the varie to, fuch as may proceed from the differences in the qualities or properties of the clays or loams as they enter into or exift in their compofitions; upon each of which fome diverfity in refpe&t to the neceflity, repetition, or method of con- duéting the bufinefs of fallowing, may depend. The correét agricultor fhould therefore conftantly— them in view, whenever it may be requifite for him to prepare land by means of fummer fallowing. In regard to the method of performing the operation, it fhould always, like moft other proceffes in hufbandry, be conduéted with a due attention to the cir- cumflances and qualities of the foil, as more pulverifation or breaking down will evidently be required where the land approaches to the nature of a perfeé clay, than where it has more of the loamy quality; and where the retention of moifture is confiderable, more regard will be neceflary to the deftru€tion of weeds, than where there is a greater tendency to drynefs. In moft cafes where the practice of naked fallowing is thought neceflary to be performed, the moft general method of proceeding is, for the land to be firft ploughed up in autumn, a fecond time after the barley feed-feafon is finifhed, and two or three times or- oftener afterwards, as. circumftances may render neceflary; the ground being well broken and reduced by means of harrowing in the intervals of the differs. ent ploughings. But it has been obferved, that* in many diftricts feldom more than three ploughings are given to lands in a courfe of fummer fallow; one in Fallowing of Land, 365 autumn, or early in fpring; another during the fummer; and afterwards the feed-furrow. This preparation appears, however, it is further faid, extremely defective; as in an ordinary feafon it is fcarcely poffible that with fo few plough- ings either the root or feed weeds can be completely deftroyed; and when the fummer happens to be wet or rainy, the lands under fuch management mutt certainly be in a very bad ftate for receiving the feed*: It has likewife been long fince judicioufly recommended, both in the prepara- tion of lands by winter fallowing for barley crops, and fummer fallowing for thofe of wheat, that when it 1s firft ploughed up after the harveft is over(which: fhould always be done as deep as pollible), no time fhould be loft in rendering the new-turned-up foil as fine as poflible by harrowing; as repeated trials and attentive obfervation have fully fhewn, that fuch lands as are made fine before: the fharp froft and winter rains come on; receive a much larger fhare of their influence than any others. But that if the land be left in a rough ftate,. there is feldom time for the rains and froft to penetrate or affect more than merely the outfide of the large clods or lumps that are prefent. The outfide may thus, indeed, be pulverifed; but the middle of the lumps, wherever they are large, are found nearly in the fame hard,{tiff ftate, as when turned up by the plough. Hence it is evident that the benefit of the air, winter rains, and frofts, on lands thus left, muft be only partial; and that of courfe the harrowing it in the fpring, efpecially when the latter of thefe are over, is too-late for its receiv-- ing the full benefits which might otherwife have accrued from them, and the power of promoting vegetation not being nearly fo great. Therefore to make winter fallows as fine as poffible in autumn, and then ridge them up in that pul- verifed ftate, is acting moft agreeably to nature; the greateft poflible quantity of furface being thereby expofed to the atmofphere, and the land left in the ftate wherein the rains and the frofts are moft eafily admiflible: they are confe-. quently more capable of penetrating and enriching the whole mafs to a much greater extent. By this means too, a larger proportion of atmofpheric air is‘involved and. incorporated with the mold, and of courfe a.more perfeét degree of aération effeGied. It is contended, that it has been invariably found that the froft pene- trates a quantity of earth, formed into a large hard clod, only partially, on ace: count of its bulk and hardnefs, and that the fame clod, broken into four parts,. would’ be thereby penetrated four times as much; or, in other words, that four. * See Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture, SS wires ee Sa a a ar = sa Se —— ASG mes the quantity of earth would be affeted, and on a thaw be pulverifed‘by it. For it is always found, after the breaking up of a fevere froft, that all the C imall clods crumble eafily into Pes while the large ones are only flightly reduced by the crumbling abet a portion of their external furfaces”*. [There cannot be much do ist that by reducing fuch tiff; adhefive foils, a sequire fallowing, well on fee when firft ploughed up, great advantages in i way of pulverifation may be accomplithed,.as in the{pring and fummer months they are apt to cake, and become fo hard and lumpy as to be wrought with gf Vee fin ba In order to fully afcertain the utility of this method of preparing fallows, one ialf of a field of ten acres was left as nearly of an equal quality as poffible, in the rough ftate after ploughing; while the other was made very fine, by har- rowing a beating in pieces any large hard clods which the harrows could not reduce. In the following fpring it was obferved, that that part which had been harrowed was much ane without any additional working than the other could be rendered by repeated Smee. {i is therefore evident, that upon moft forts of fliff, clayey foils, where fallowing becomes nec abies we fir! ploughings fhould be given if poflible before the commencement of the winter feafon, and that they fhould alfo be well reduced by means of harrowing, in order to promote the decay of fuch vegetable matters as may be upon the furface of the land, as well as to promote a more complete ftate of pulverifation and aération of the foil. This is often moft ufefully performed by gathering up the ridges, as in that way the ground is not only laid off of the injurious moifture. In the fecond ploughing in the fpring, which more dry, but the furrows more effeftually opened for the draining d 3 is generally before the crofs-ploughing is given, thefe ridges. ought to be cloven or ed back again, and, after laying a fuitable length of time, be well ewes or feveral times, and occafionally rolled, that fufficient oppor- tunity may be given to colle€&t and remove every fort of weed that may be brought up to ihe furface. After this bufinefs has been properly performed, the land may be again ridged up by. means of the plough, by which it is rendered lefs affeled by wetnefs, and the portions of foil that had not been touched in the ELH HENGE ftirred. In this way a perfectly clean fallow may foon be produced. It has, however, been maintained by fome writers who have had much opportunity of a nGne the matter, that ploughing only 1s neceffary; the colle€ting the roots of the weeds and removing them being utelefs and im- % See Letters and Papers of the Bath Agricultural Society, vol. II.+ Ibid, ——EEE Fallowing of Land, 867 proper. But in the ftiffer forts of clayey, wet foils, where, we have conceived the fallowing fyftem to be chiefly occafionally neceffary, it is almoft impoffible to get perfettly clear of different forts of root weeds in this way, from the cloddy manner in which fuch lands break up in the operation of the different ploughings,the earthy lumps often containing many that are not in the leaft degree injured in their power of taking root, by the heat to which they may have been expofed in fuch ploughings. In thefe cafes, they can only perhaps be effec- tually eradicated and deftroyed by the high degree of pulverifation that may be accomplifhed by means of frequent harrowings and rollings; the weeds being afterwards carefully removed by the hand*. In this way there may alfo frequently be a confiderable faving of expence by the leffening of the number of ploughings. The froft in the winter months has alfo, as has been feen, a much more power- ful a€tion where fuch reduétions in the clods of fuch foils have been effe&ted. In fuch foils there can feldom be any danger of their being made too fine by opera- tions of this nature, as the feed furrow, when given fufficiently deep, conftantly leaves the land lumpy and irregular. enough for the purpofes of covering the grain and proteéting the young plants during the feverity of the winter feafon f. The benefits of affording as high a degree of pulverifation or finenefs as poffible to the land in the management of this procefs, has been fully fhewn by the refults of well-conduéted experiments. The produce of a field of barley and broad clover, one half of which had been prepared in the moft perfe& mode of fallowing, and the other half in the common method, on being harvefted and kept feparate, was in the following proportions: That which had been con- ducted in the latter way only affording twenty-four bufhels to the acre, while the former yielded thirty-one, and the grain confiderably better in quality. There was alfo an equal fuperiority in the clover crop the fucceeding year, that on the moft perfe&tly-prepared part being heavier by nearly half a ton on the acre}. In addition to this, it cannot have efcaped obfervation, that in large fields of wheat, where from accident or other caufes fome portions of them have received more frequent ploughings than others, that in thefe parts * As it is difficult in fome inftances to get quit of the weeds and other trafh that may have been brought together by this means, it is probable, that by mixing cauftic or quick lime with them, when it can be readily procured, in the proportion of three or four bufhels to ten or twelve of the weeds, fre= quently turning them over till perfectly reduced, and afterwards adding earth and dung, a good compot might be formed. t See Agricultural Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkshire. 4 See Letters and Papers of the Bath Agricultural Society, vol. II, 358 Fr ria| eae om QD‘pf ¥ 7 em nes alieociees ane ai od orenat lanoth$ A,= ey i ai ame e Crops gen rauly appcat for a great acne OF time more periect and promuling oth.~.« tha A.Oon the o Ene! parts nef ES, 5 lager ps(sy A a5} Ac S Rey lice ves<5 Leen) ES epee} befides thefe, other methods, efpecially in PRP aaies 2 up uncu ee Tanne arith- view to ie a1] Owl ing and renderino them mare reguls‘and| way 4anas With a VIEWw O 12ilO PECL PC LICL Ia!> LILI TTPOE Pe 2 Uic na we Bip for 7 Lh‘ 7A} Oye g va| y W C h(1, ANY Ayr. 1, QU y cultivation, have been p! opoied Dj riters on huf yandry; but t] 1ey al fo imperfeétly reprefented as fcarcely to be ect ie fr or of fuch execution as not to deferve the notice of the Bee al agriculter. In cafes where manure 1s neceflary to be applied to land afte prepared by the procefs of iene fallowing, i it fhould be done according to the C nature of the manure and the circumitances of land in refpeét to richnefs and the ftate of its tidage. Lime or marle are generally laid on with the preach pe re} benefit during the fummer months, as about the middle of jun§ or the beginning of pues) in which cafes it fhould be fpread out as equally as-poflible over the land, and ploughed in with a very flight furrow, fo as only ag: to mix and incorporate it with the mold; as by this means, where farm-yard manure is applied at the time the feed furrow is given, in a fimilar manner, the calcareous. and vegetable manures, by being thus more uniformly blended with the foil, as well as by their more extenfive operation on each other, afford more abundant and regular fupplies of nourifhment to the crops during the firft ftages of their generated that is highly favourable to fuch ftates of vegetation. That fome advantage is afforded in this way is evi- growth, and a degree of heat may be dent, from the rapid growth and great verdure that generally takes place where fallows have been managed in this manner. In fome cafes of land after fallowing the application of manure may, how- ever, be wholly unneceffary, as from the great deftru€tion of weeds, and the advantages produced in the different ways ot have been mentioned, fuch im- provement may be given. as to endanger the firft crop by rendering it too Juxu- riant, and confequently liable to be lodged before it becomes ripe, if manure be applied the fame feafon. Very firong crops of grain have, indeed, fre- quently been produced on fallowed lands without the fmalleft quantity of manure having been put upon them*.— Further, it has been afferted, that even Jands that have been confiderably exhaufted by improper cropping, haye been found to afford a much better crop in confequence of a fallow, without the application of any dung, than from a complete dunging without a fallowf. * See Agricultural Survey of Mid-Lothian. t+ See Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. II. eateft naing over - and ute i$ Reade et — Fallowing of Land. 369 In fuch inftances, therefore, it will be more economical and advantageous to make ufe of the dung with a view to the fecond Grop that may be cultivated on the land, and not that which immediately follows the fallow. - Though the advantages that have been ftated to arife from the perfe& pul- verifation, aération, and cleannefs, occafioned by fummer fallowing, in thofe foils where it has been found to be occafionally requifite, can feldom be fo fully obtained by other methods of cultivation; yet as that method is conftantly at- tended with a heavy expence to the farmer, and as many of the benefits thar are produced by it may be effe@ted by the repeated partial fallowings that muft occur in the hoe-culture of different forts of crops, it fhould be conftantly the aim of the agricultor, where the climate will admit of it, to leffen the neceflity of fummer fallowing, even on the wet clayey as well as the light kinds of foil, by the judicious interpofition of fuch forts of clofe, thick, green crops, as can be grown and cultivated on them under the hoe fyftem. This is ftill more neceffary, on account of the lofs that muft be fuftained from the land often remaining fuch a great length of time totally unproduGtive where the fallowing procefs is going on. It cannot, indeed, be difputed, but that the practice of fummer fallowing may be greatly leffened in many diftri€s by the proper fubflituting of green fallows, or what are termed fallow crops, fuch as beans, peas, cabbages, tares, and rape, for the heavier forts of land; and buck-wheat, potatoes, and turnips, for fuch as are of the lighter kind*. It is likewife maintained as a faét, that where large and Juxuriant crops of thefe preparatory kinds are grown, thofe by which they are fucceeded the following feafon are for the mott part ftill larger, fo that the lands are more improved by large crops than fuch as are poor, This amelioration or increafe of fertility has been attributed to different caufés- as the prevention of evaporation from the foil by the fhade produced by fireh large crops; the putrefa€tion.of the various vegetable matters, which may be more abundant after fuch large crops, taking place more completely and more effectually under fuch circumftances; and laftly, to the repéated pulverifation and a€ration that is produced by the different hoeings: but it is probable that advantages may be derived in each of thefe ways, as well as from the carbonic acid or fixed air that is afforded by the fhaded leaves of the plants being depo- fited upon or united with the foil. That the melioration in fuch cafes muft depend on caufes of this kind there can be little doubt, as much of the nutr# * See an interefting correfpondence on fallowing heavy foils, in the Appendix to the fourth volume of Wight’s Prefent State ef Huibandry in Seotland. 38 378 Fallowing of Land. tious properties of the land muft obvioufly have been confumed during the growth of fuch crops, which muft have been again reftored to it by fome fuch procefles. But in whatever manner this effect may be produced, as it is conftantly found that land is in a better condition, and, when turned up, in a more friable and mel- low flate after fuch crops as are large, than thofe that are poor and light; it is of courfe evident, that if ground can be covered with fuch{mothering crops of the fallow kind, or thofe that will admit of frequent pulverifation by means of the plough or hoe, fo as to keep it clean and free from the growth of ufelefs plants, it may be more beneficial to the agricultor, not only for the fake of the immediate crop, but alfo on account of the increafe of manure produced by fuch means, and the advantageous condition of the land for the reception of fuch crops as may be afterwards cultivated upon it*. In thefe different views, as well as thofe that have been already mentioned, the introdu€tion of green crops of fome fort or other fhould probably be more frequently attempted on all defcriptions of foils; and it would feem probable, that on the{tiff and heavy kinds of foil—from its having been found, that in many well-cultivated diftri€ts, by the growing of proper leguminous crops in drills or rows, fo as to admit of the ground between them being frequently ftirred, either by means of the plough or the hoe, fuch kinds of land, after they have been once well cleaned by a fummer fallow, may be kept perfetly clean and in fuitable tilth for the pro- duétion of good grain crops—they may be much more generally had recourfe to than has commonly been the cafe: but on fuch forts of land great atten- tion is neceffary to introduce fuch kinds of green crops as are adapted to them, and that as little injury as poflible be done by the treading of animals in the feeding them upon or taking them from the ground. But as neither the full effets of pulverifation or aération, nor the complete deftruétion of root weeds, can in fome cafes be fo perfe€tly obtained by the cultivation of fallow crops as by the making of fummer fallows, it may be advantageous to the agricultor to have recourfe to them occafionally with thefe intentions on the heavy and more wet forts of land, as well as thofe that have been injured by improper methods of cropping. * See Agricultural Survey of the North Riding of Yorkshire. . cniDist=~ the uch und mel. itis ps of ns of felels F the SECTION XI. Cultivation of Arable Land. CULTIVATION OF ARABLE Lanns---Confidered in Regard te thofe that have not been under the Plough, and fuch as bave been in a State of Tillage—In the firft Sort many preparatory Ope~ rations necefjary to be performed.—REMOV AL OF VARIOUS OBSTRUCTIONS TO PLOUGHING— Stones—Different Kinds of—How be/ft performed—Neceffity of in different Cafes explained— May frequently be converted to ufeful Purpofes—Land Proprietors fhould be at Part of the Ex- pence of.—CLEARING FROM Woop—Different according to Circumflances—How performed in Trees of the Timber Kind—By trenching with the Spade—By the Plough—When the Roots have been fomewhat removed, a Crop may be taken—Afterwards more effectually cleared—Mh/fily a better Praftice to do this at firft—Reafon of which explained—~Manner of in Plants of the forubby Kinds— Different Plants prefer different Sorts of Soil—Broom—Bramble—Furze— Thorn—Dwarf Willow—Sotls on which each grows moft luxuriantly de[cribed— Alteration of, by the Application of fuitable Subjiances, how advantageous in deftroying them—Subftances to be applied in this View—Methods of extirpating them when grown large—The Praétice of burn= ing in the furze Kind to be avoided as much as poffiblem-Neceffary to keep fuch Lands in Tillage till there is Time to fully deftroy then—When laid down to Grafs, maft beneficial to be paf- tured with Sheep—Heatu—Nature of the Land on which produced—Affords lefs vegetable Matter for Improvement of than other Plants—On this Account lefs friendly to the Growth of ufeful Crops—Practices to be adopted in removing it, and in bringing the Ground into Tillage -—By cutting—By paring and burning---By burning only—What neceffary to be aitended te in each—Implements moft ufeful in cutting it——Ltme neceffary to be applied to in its cauftic State —In larze Proportions—Mr. Young’s Opinion of—Manner of doing it~-Should be in a fine powdery State, and equally fpread out—>. oN Cultivation of Arable hari 4etohhy or Py," iN oT ee| Ondg ULL tvaled CULO Lulibitle——Lba OF bag sane b Cary CF VOURG. IID L ilie wo of moffes can only be praétifed in inftances fimilar to the above, where the fub- foil is rich and good, as in moft fituations it has been found that the bottom foil ] is either compofed of rocky materials, whitifh granite, or pyritical gravel, and pyritical and aluminous clay*, which muft confitute a foil much worfe than the peat-earth, and which could feldom be cultivated to advantage. -Another method of bringing this fort of foil into cultivation, and which in many fituations 1s much readier and lefs expenfive, as being accomplithed with- out the floating of the mofs: this is by the application of lime in its cauftic ftate, in large quantities, after the land has been rendered as dry as poffible by the cutting of large ditch drains.‘This is a method of pra€tice that has been carried to a great extent, and conducted with much fuccefs, in Ayrfhire, in Scot- land f, and which has fince extended itfelf over different diftri¢ts in the fame neighbourhood. The benefits refulting from the cultivation of this fort of foil are fuch as to render it an obje€t of great attention. Such, indeed, are its advan- tages there, that“the culture of mofs has become, in many cafes, a diftinét fpecies of farming, to which individuals apply to the neglect of every other purfuit T.” * See Headrick, in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. II. p. 311. + It feems from Mr. Headrick’s account, to have been accidentally introduced by John Smith, efq. ‘of Swinridge Muir, near Beith. ¢ It is obferved by Mr. Headrick, that the following detail may affift the inexperienced to form fome idea of the value put upon mofs by thofe who are acquainted with it: A young man, fon of a farmer on the eftate of Swinridze Muir, has taken 20 acres of mofs from William Patrick, efq. of Trehorn, writer to the fignet in Edinburgh, for four crops, at 25s. per acre of yearly rent. All that was done by the proprietor was to dig the mafter drains, which alfo ferve the purpofe of fences; in other refpeéts the mofs was delivered in its wild and unfubdued ftate, the tenant being at all the expence of working and manures, and obliging himfelf to lime, at the rate of ten Ayrfhire chalders per acre. The mofs was in crop, 1797, for the firft time. Mr. Headrick was feveral times upon it, and remarked, that where the lime had been early enough applied, which was the cafe with the greateft part of it, the crop (oats) was uncommonly good; even the worft was much better than fome contiguous land whichshad been torn from Muir, and limed. On a fmall corner, which had got no lime, nothing grew. The proprietor himfelf expected no fuch rent, had it not been voluntarily offered by the tenant. The folid land there, which has been long in cultivation, does not average 20s. of rent, as the fituation is not very acceflible. Two{mall patches of cultivated mofs, contiguous to the town of Beith, were lately let at the rate,’ the one of£. 10 per acre perannum, for two crops of potatoes, the other for£.7 per acre for two crops of oats, to be fown down with grafs feeds. The firft of thefe patches had been conftantly in pota- toes ever fince it was reduced to cultivation, and the occupants were to furnifh what dung they chofe for their crops at their own expence. The fecond patch, of more than three acres, had been conftantly either in potatoes or oats from the time of its firft fubjugation, and would have given much more, had potatoes been permitted; but it was thought advifablg to bring it into grafs. It muft be 3 E S94 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Moffy or Peaty Ground. The manner of proceeding in bringing this fort of Jand into tillage is fo well defcribed by the author of the valuable paper we have juft quoted, that we fhall infert it in hisown words.“In entering upon the improvement of a mofs in its natural ftate, the frft thing to be done is to mark out and cut main or mafter drains, eight feet in width by four and a half in depth, and declining to two and a half at bottom; thefe coft one fhilling per fall of fix Scotch ells. In fome inftances it will be found neceffary to cut thefe drains much deeper, confe- quently at a greater expence. Thefe drains almoft in every inftance can, and ae| i are fo conducted as to divide the field into regular and proper inclofures. They always make it a rule to finifh off as much of a drain as they have broken a 7 up before they leave it at night, becaufe if a part is left dug, fuppofe half way, the oozing of water from the fides would render the bottom fo foft that they could neither ftand upon it nor lift it with the fpade. When the mofs is fo very foft that the preflure of what is thrown out of the drain may caufe its fides to fall in again, they throw the clods from the drain a confiderable way. back, and fometimes have a man to throw them ftill further back, by a fpade or the hand; for this reafon too, they always throw the ftuff taken from the drain as equally as poflible on each fide of it. In digging the drains, the workmen ftand upon{mall boards, to prevent them from finking, and move them forward as the work advances. When the mofs lies in a hollow with only one outlet, it is neceflary to lead up a drain, fo as to let the water pafs this outlet, and then condué& it along the loweft or wetteft part of the mofs; this middle drain is afterwards floped, and the ftuff thrown back into the hollows that may occur; upon it, the ridges are made to terminate on each fide, while a ring-drain, ferv- in the purpofe of a fence, is thrown round the mofs at the line where the rifing ground commences.‘This can generally be fo managed as to divide the mofs into a fquare field, leaving ftraight lines for the fides of the contiguous fields, The ring-drain intercepts the furface water from the higher grounds, and con- duéts it into the lower part of the outlet, while the floped drain in the centre receives and difcharges all the water that falls upon the mofs. After the mofs collapfes, in confequence of liming and culture, it is often neceflary to clean out thefe drains a fecond time, and to dig them to a greater depth: their fides become at laft like a wall of peat, which few animals will venture to pafs.” admitted, that land immediately contiguous to a town fetches a rent for conveniency, as well as for what it actually produces; at the fame time it muft be obferved, that the beft folid land to which thefe patches of mofs belonged, and fome of which had been long ir. pafture, brought only a rent of from£. 3 to£.6 ior two years’ crop, the whole being let in parcels by public auction, Ph ean S RS= SO NED OT S eT Cultivation of Arable Land.—Mojy or Peaty Ground. 395 In cutting thefe drains in the moffes in Lancafhire, one precaution has been found of the utmoft importance; which is, that if the drain be cut to its intended depth at one operation, it will be impoffible to prevent the fides from falling in, and no labour can afterwards effe@tually repair the damage. It ts highly neceffary, therefore, to attend to the nature and confiftence of the mofs, and not to cut deeper at one time than will fuffer the fides to remain perfeéctly firm*: When this bufinefs has been performed, the ridges, according to the fir ft writer, are marked out, either by a line, or three poles fet up in a line of the proper breadth, and formed in a way that will be mentioned when we come to fpeak of ridges. Thefe are then to be top-dreffed with lime. The fooner, fays he, this is done after the ridges are formed the better. When the mofs appears dry, experienced farmers throw on the lime, but do not clean out the di- vifion furrows until the enfuing winter. When it is foaked in water, and the the lime is ready, they clean the divifion furrows, and after the water has run off, apply the lime immediately. It is of great importance to have the lime applied while the mofs is{till moift, and the lime in as cauftic a ftate as poflible. For this purpofe they have the lime conveyed from the kiln in parcels, flaked, and laid on as faft as the ridges are formed. Being dropped from carts, and flaked at the neareft acceflible ftation, it is carried to the mofs by two men on light hand barrows, having a hopper and bottom of thin boards, and there fpread by fhovels as equally as poflible. During the firft and fecond years, the crop is generally carried off in the fame way. In fome places, where a mofs is covered age, and acceflible by carts in dry weather, he faw them give a good dofe of lime to the mofs before it was turned up with the fpade, and another after the ridges were formed. It is furprifing, he fays, how quickly they execute thefe operations with the hand-barrows. In other places: where coarfe boards can be procured, they lay a line of them along the crown of a ridge, and convey the lime upon them in wheelbarrows. “ The proportion of lime allowed to the acre is various, being from three to eight chalders. Improvers are much lefs fparing of this ingredient now than for- merly, and much greater proportions have been applied with good effect. Suppofe 120 bolls, or 480 Winchefter bufhels, of flaked or powdered lime allowed to every Scotch acre; this would coft at the fale kilns forty fhillings; and thus the reader may be enabled to calculate the expence of lime per acre in this diftrict, at every given proportion: but moft of the farmers here burn lime for them- {elves in vat kilns of fod, and think they have it much cheaper than it could be with coarfe herb * Agricultural Report of Lancafhire, p. 95. en eee SoS Se ee 396 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Moffy or Peaty Ground. got froma fale kiln. In many places lime-ftone abounds fo much, that houfes, fences, roads,&c. are conftructed with it; and when a farmer burns the lime- ftone within his premifes, he at leaft faves the expence of carriage. In fome cafes, after the lime is laid on, they go over the ground with hoes or with{pades, hack- ing and mangling the clods, and mixing the lime more completely with the fuperficial foil; but where there is much to do, and hands are{carce, they feldom think of thefe operations. After the land has undergone this preparation, it is in a fuitable condition for the reception of the feed, which it is obferved is fown atthe ufual feafon, whether it be wet or dry, and, as has been already feen, harrowed in by a fmall harrow, drawn by two men*. It is ftated that four men will with eafe harrow at leaft five or fix roods per day, two and two dragging the harrow by turns, and two breaking and dividing the mold with fpades. Where the liming has been accomplifhed at an early period in the preceding fummer, a good crop may moftly be expe€ted; but if it has been only recently performed, the firtt crop frequently fails, from the lime not having had time to combine fufficiently with the mofs fo as to form it into a foilt. It is probable that this does not, however, wholly depend on the lime not having reduced the peaty earth to the proper ftate of foil, but partly on its not having neutralifed and defiroyed the acid properties of fuch foils.| In refpeét to the crops moft proper to be cultivated on foils of this kind, fome variety may be admitted, according as they are more or lefs wet, and have greater or lefs depth. But, as a chief point to be aimed at in cropping them at firft, fhould always be that of preventing their furfaces from being too much aéted upon by the fun and wind, fuch plants fhould be provided as have a tendency, by the luxuriancy of their growth, and the clofenefs of their foilage, to afford as much fhade and covering as poffible, as by the moifture being thus preferved the operation of the lime is much promoted. In this view, potatoes, turnips, winter rye, and rape crops, may, in the flighter boggy foils, be had recourfe to with fuccefs. The firft is a fort of plant that has been found to anfwer fo well, and been fo highly produétive on all moffy foils, that it is the general prattice, where manure can be procured, to cultivate them for the firft crop; the cuftom, in moft inftances, being to fet them on beds or ridgesa little raifed.| Where po- tatoes are grown more than one year on the fame Jand, the fecond crop may fre- quently be putin without dung. Turnips and rape may, however, in many cafes, be grown with great advantage, as firft crops, on foils of this defcription, both * See Commipnications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. IL. p. 318. t Ibid. on Re een —— Cultvvation of Arable Land.—Moffy or Peaty Ground. 897 on account of their great value, the fhade they produce, and their being ca- pable of being put into the ground without fo much digging as is neceflary for potatoes. Mofs-lands*, from their being much difpofed to the throwing up of grafs, are not fo proper for the growing of grain crops, but a crop or two may frequently be taken after potatoes or turnips, efpecially where the liming has been per- formed fome length of time. Oats and barley are moftly good crops, but fuch land is often too light for wheat. The early white Polith oat is generally re- commended in fuch cafes, as being the Jeaft liable to lodge, or run too much to ftraw. Where barley is employed, grafs feeds are frequently fown with it, but it is probably a better practice to put them in feparately. On thofe foils, rye-grafs, as well as white and yellow clover, have been found to thrive extremely well, efpecially where they were in a proper ftate of preparation for them, as by the growth of potatoe or turnip crops. And though red-clover has not always fucceeded, it is probable, that in fuch moffes as are not of the deep kind, it will be found an ufeful plant. In fome diftrits it has been found, that clover may be fown with great advantage immediately after the potatoe crop, when it has been taken off early f. And as it isneceflary that there fhould be a tolerable proportion of moifture conftantly preferved in thefe foils, in order to promote the full operation of lime upen them, it would feem to be the moft advantageous method in bringing * It is obferved, by Mr. Headrick, in the fecond volume of Communications to the Board of Agricul- ture, that in Scotland the expence of delving a mofs for the firft time, where the furface is tolerably fmooth, is 23d. per fall, or£.1. 138. 4d. per Scotch acre;-but where inequalities occur, which muft be thrown by the fpade into hollows, it cofts about£.2. per acre. If there be eminences, which mutt be removed into hollows, by wheelbarrows, runningupon boards, the firft expence is greater, according to circumfitances."I'he fecond delving, where potatoes have not intervened, cofts from£.1. to£.1. 6s. per Scotch acre, the divifion furrows being at the fame time cleaned out.’ The third delving, and clean ing of the divifion furrows, cost£. 1. per acre;. but the mofs-is then fo friable, thatit may be wrought with the greateft eafe and rapidity. At the above rates, an ordinary workman will earn 1s. 6d. per day; and an able and experienced one, from that to 2s, 6d. per day. They ufe a ftrong fpade edged with fteel, and have alfo'a gritftone near them, for fharpening the fpade. In the evenings they repair its edge upon a grindftone, and when the fteel is worn away, they lay it again with new fteel, Sometimes the mofs isfo foft, that they walk upon boards while they are turning it over. . And that when mofs is wrought by the{pade, it feems to be of no confequence whether it be wrought wet or dry; but when it is wrought by the plough, opportunities muft. be watched, as horfes cannot walk upon it, for fome years, during wet weather.: + See Agricultural Report of Lancafhire, p. 99. 398 Creltivation of Arable Land.—Fforming of Ridges. them into cultivation, not to allow them to be rendered too dry by the cutting ef drains, but to proceed with the bufinefs in fo gradual a manner, as that they- may conftantly retain that degree of moifture which is moft fuitable for the com-: plete a€tion of the lime, without being too wet for the crops that are to be put upon them. It is evident, from what has been advanced, that there is much variety in foils of this kind, and that they will of courfe require different modes of til-- lage. Where they are very thin, and depofited upon a loamy or clayey fubftra- tum, it may be a good prattice, after paring and burning the coarfe top fward,» to plough fo asto bring up a portion of them, by which, and the ufe of lime, the. land may be rendered highly produétive. And indeed, where they are of much’ greater thicknefs, this method has been advifed after their being fufficiently reduced by frequent turning up, drying, and burning; but it is probably a better method to depend upon the application of lime, where it can be pro- cured in quantity fufficient for the purpofe. After paring and burning, on lands of this fort, the crops, efpecially thofe of the turnip, rape, or grafs kinds, may frequently be put in by means of a light harrow, without ploughing or digging them over. Ridges.—-In the conftruéting of ridges on fuch Jands as are to be brought into cultivation, great attention is not only neceflary to the nature and quality of the foil, but alfo to its fituation, as by thefe, their fize, height, and direc- tion, muft in a great meafure be regulated. Where the land is of fuch a na- ture as to be highly retentive of moifture, or, from the peculiarity of its pofi- tion, liable to become too wet for the growth of ufeful crops, the ridges fhould in general be made narrower, and have a more rounded or convex form, than in the contrary cafe, or where it is expofed to injury from becoming too dry. But in the firft cafe they ought not, however, to be raifed fo very high as is fometimes the pra€tice, as by fuch means much inconvenience is often fuftained from the crowns becoming too dry, and the grain ripening in a flow and partial manner. Befides, narrow ridges, with but a little elevation, are, in general, much more effe€tual, in taking away the water that may be injurious. Where neither the circumftances of the foil, nor the nature of its fituation, require that the ridges fhould be formed in a particular manner, or of any cer- tain breadth, that of making them about eighteen feet may be the moft fuit- able, as they are found to anfwer well in the way of keeping the ground pro- perly dry, and of the moft convenient dimenfions for turning the teamis in a ee ene eee Cultivation of Arable Land.—Forming of Ridges. 399 ploughing. Befides, the feed, where this method is purfued, can be eafily fown by one caft up and another down; an operation which, in other circum- ftances; would be attended with confiderably more labour. The covering of the feed by means of harrowing is alfo accomplithed with more facility and difpatch, as by employing double implements of this kind, one turn may wholly finith the bufinefs. In the reaping, too, they have advantages, in allow- ing the number of reapers that are neceffary to work with convenience, and without being in the way of each other. In wet, clayey, or any ftiff and tenacious loamy foils, where the under ftra- tum is clay, they fhould, however, be ploughed as much as poflible into ridges of much lefs fize, in order that they may be kept in a ftate of drynefs, fuitable to the growth of the crops that are to be put upon them. Three or four feet, according to the degree of tenacity and wetnefs, may, in fuch forts of land, be fully fufficient. In the counties of Effex and Hertford, on this fort of wet foils, three feet are found to anfwer the purpofe in a very effectual manner; and it has been obferved, on the authority of much experience, that their fu- periority over ridges of greater breadths, for taking the water off without wafh- ing the land, is incontrovertible*. In fhort, as there is much variation in lands of thefe kinds, it may be obferved, that the width and flatnefs of the ridges fhould be increafed as they recede from the nature of clay or clayey loam, and approach that of fand, in order that a larger proportion of moifture may be pre- ferved; while, on the contrary, as they are becoming more of a clayey quality, they ought to be narrower, and to have a more high and rounded form, that the difcharge of injurious moifture may be more expeditious. In loamy foils they fhould be either broad and flat, or narrow and round, in fome meafure, according to the degree in which they approach the fandy or clayey foils. In very wet, clayey foils, where they reft upon a fubfoil of fome porous kind, great advantage in the way of drainage may often be obtained by finking the furrows fo deep as to reach it. In lands of the marfhy or fenny kinds, as moftly approaching in fome degree to the nature of thefe, the ridges fhould alfo be made narrow and rather round. As the principal defe&t of land of the fandy kinds is that of parting with_ its moifture too readily, and of courfe becoming quickly in a ftate of too much drynefs for the purpofe of healthy vegetation, it is the moft advifable to plough them into very broad ridges, or even in fome cafes quite flat, with= ¢ See Agricultural Survey of Middlefex, p. 144. SS z— Sa a eee Se Tae eee ao Cd Cultivation of Arable Laid—Forming of Ride out the leaft degree of furrow being made, as in this way the moifture may be ffeciually retained in fuch foils. In forming ridges on fuch foils as are of the boggy or mofly kinds, fome attention is neceflary in refpe@ to their depth, and the proportion of wetnefs that may be prefent-; as where they are thin, and have but little injurious moif- ture, they.may be more broad and flat, than where they are deep of mofs, and more retentive of moifture: fix or feven yards may, in general, be the beft. But, even in the deeper forts, long experience has thewn, that in the{r@ inftance it is improper to make them too high or too narrow; where they are made too high, they throw the water off from their fides, without admitting it to penetrate their fubftance, the top of courfe gets too dry; when too narrow, there is a lofs of furface from too many divifion furrows: the breadths already mentioned are found to be the beft: and when the improvement is completed, the ridges appear like fegments of wide circles, with a clean well-defined di- vifion furrow between each of them. The moifture is thus caufed flowly to filtrate through the mofs, rendered friable by lime, until it-reaches the divifion furrows, and is difcharged. As the mofs fubfides for fome time, and clofes in towards the furrows, it is generally neceffary to clean thefe out before winter, and at the time the crop is fown, until the mofs acquires folidity*. The ridges in thefe foils are moftly formed by the fpade, the workman begin- ning nearly in the middle of the part which is to form the ridge, only leaving the fpace of about eighteen or twenty inches, upon which the materials raifed from the trenches on each fide are depofited, fo as to conftitute thé crown; and in this way of digging up and turning over narrow{pits on each fide he pro- ceeds till he comes to the divifion furrows, which are cut out and laid on the fides. The ridge being thus completed, and appearing as if done by the plough. In deep mofly foils, efpecially thofe of the more fpongy kind, it is probable the breadth of the ridges may be increafed with advantage after they have col- lapfed and become fufficiently firm, as by fuch means they will be more fuitable for being laid down to grafs, In regard to the direétion of the ridges in lands of all defcriptions, where there is not a neceffity of giving them a particular pofition, either with a view to drainage, or fome other circumftance of importance, it fhould conftantly be, as much as the fituation of the grounds will admit, in the line of north and fouth= as in this dire€tion much advantage may be obtained in the ripening and dry- * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. IL. RT Pee Cultivation of Arable Land.—Forming of Ridges. 401 o ing of the crops, from their being more fully expofed to the influence of the fun and wind. It has, indeed, been remarked> that the fhocks, after grain has beenreaped, fhould be fet in the fame direftion, and not have an eaft and weft pofition, as in this cafe the fheaves on the north fide are many days later in being in a proper condition for being conveyed to the ftack, than thofe of the fouth. Further experience has alfo afforded the means of fhewing the bad effects of ridges having an eaft and weft dire€tion; it being found that corn on the fouth fides, of fuch as were not by any means high, fhot into ear, and changed and ripened a week at leaft earlier than that on the north; and that at the time of reaping, the wheat on the fouth fides was, in fome patches, too ripe; while that on the north fides was in many parts abfolutely green*. In forming ridges in fuch lands as are hilly, or have much declivity, it is ne- ceffary that they be neither made too fteep, nor have too much of a horizontal direction, being drawn fo as that they may have that fort of eafy floping di- rection, by which the water can be taken off in a gradual manner. In this way there willnot only be great advantage in the economy of labour in plough- ing, nearly one third lefs power in the team being fufficient; but the injury and inconvenience of heavy rains wafhing down the foil and manure, are in a great meafure prevented. The author of“ The Gentleman Farmer” mentions the inftance of a hanging field that had been carefully dreffed with lime and dung for turnips, and in which the turnips were fairly above the ground, when a heavy fatal fummer fhower{wept down the crop, together with the lime, dung, and a portion of the loofe foil, leaving the land bare and expofed. On the method of forming ridges in lands that have fuch fituations, it has been lately well obferved, that when the fields hang fo much as to be ac- counted fteep, the ridges ought neither to be drawn parallel to the bottom of them, nor at right angles, ftraight up and down; either of which would be inconvenient in the ploughing, and injurious to the foil. They ought to be drawn diagonally. The great point is to underftand in what direGtion this dia- gonal flope of the ridges ought torun. In this refpe&t the cultivators in his diftritt are perfetly corre€t; and it is his wifh that their example were fol- lowed by all farmers whofe land has a great declivity, of which there is a con- fiderable proportion, not only in that, but in all hilly countries whatever. The form and dire€tion of the ridges are, he obferves, contrived with fuch judgment, that the furrow(or, as Lord Kames with move accuracy calls it, the furrow * See Marthall's Rural Economy of the Midland Counties, vol, II, p. 18. i. 402 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Forming of Ridges. flice) falls eafily away from the mold-board, as well in afcending as in defcend- ing the field, which is the principal fecret. There can, fays he, be no more han two diagonal lines in any four fided figure, which is generally the form of inclofures; and if you bring a fenfible ploughman to each of the angles below, defiring him to look towards each of the oppofite angles above, he will at once tell you, which of thefe diagonal direlions is eafieft for himfelf and his horfes, and will accordingly fix on that line by which the furrow 7 afcending will fall moft readily into its place, having his right hand and the mold-board of his plough with a fide-afpeét to the bottom of the field. But, in order to render this more plain, fuppofe, fays he, the field to have a fteep defcent and a fouth- ern afpeét, the ridges are drawn from fouth-weft to north-eaft; which is the cafe in the inftance alluded to. Suppofe again, fays he, the field to have a northern afpeét, the ridges are drawn in the fame direction, but with this dif ference in ploughing, that you afcend fouth-weft in the laft cafe, whereas you defcend{outh-weft in the firft. If the field fronts the eaft, you afcend north-weft; if the field fronts the weft, you defcend north-weft; or invariably four points forward from the flope of the field, in going up the hill.* It is further remarked by the fame able writer, that if, on the contrary, the ridges be made parallel to the bottom of the field, all the dexterity of man and the force of cattle that could be applied, would be infufficient to turn every fecond furrow up againft the hill.‘The expedient univerfally employed, according to the old fyftem, in ploughing fields of this kind, was, fays he, either to plough with a double mold-board, or, if the mold-board were fingle, to plough only one furrow, in going twice the length of the ridge; but moft frequently the laft. Both are bad hufbandry. In the former method you lofe none of your time indeed, but one half of your labour is loft by the latter. His principal obje€tion, he thinks, holds equally againft both. All the foil is year after year rolling downward, and in procefs of time the upper part of the field will be peeled to the bone, and quite bare of foil, while a great bank is ac- cumulating along the bottom, like a dunghill, compofed of the richeft land in the field: and withal the furrows are laid fo completely on their back, that little be- nefit is derived from the manure, excepting it be laid on the furface the firft year. He alfo adds, that where a hill is to be dreffed, in order to be laid down into grafs, it ought to receive the laft furrow by going round in a fpiral line, without ever turning the plough, beginning at the bafe, and ending at the top; See Dr. Robertfon’s Survey of the County of Perth, p. 124. Cultivation of Arable Land.— Altering of Ridges, 403 as by this method lefs labour is required, and the appearance of the land is more beautiful. But in the preparation of the ground for this laft furrow, it may be ploughed diagonally, with the view of keeping the foil from falling to the bottom, as has been noticed above; and in this intention the furface of the hill may be conveniently divided into three or more feétions. Befides, in this way, no more ftrength of team is required in ploughing fuch elevations, than in that of ploughing on a level, while where the foilis of the gravelly or fandy kind, the great inconvenience of the moifture going off too quickly, is guarded againft by its being detained in the furrows*. This fpiral method of laying the furrow flices, is likewife recommended by the firft writer, as the neateft for finifhing off a lawn or pleafure-ground, near a refidence, even where the land is flat, as it brings the whole furface toa regular uniform appearance, and pre- vents the unpleafant effect of furrows on the eye. On fuch lands as are level, or have but little inequality of furface, the beft Zea neral prattice is, to form the ridges as ftraight and as regular in refpeét to breadth as poffible, as by having them crooked, and of irregular breadths, the water is not only liable to ftagnate and injure the foil, but the fri€tion in plough- Ing is greatly increafed, and the furrow flice is not fo well laid over, being more difpofed to fall back. And befides, many unneceffary turnings are requifite, on account of the inequalities of breadth, by which much time is loft, as well as much trouble given to the ploughman. In old cultivated lands, where high, crooked, and irregular ridges are fre- quently met with, it often becomes neceflary to have them altered, fo as to ren- der them more ftraight and level. This is, however, a matter of more difi-. * See Gentleman Farmer, p. 75. + Mr. Donaldfon obferves, that in various parts of Great Britain, and efpecially in the more fertile’ and populous diftriéts, the ridges are remarkably crooked, unequal in breadth, and made to rife towards the middle, or crown, to the height of feveral feet above the furrows on either fide. And that it is ob- vious that thefe are formed in the worft manner, to an{wer the purpofes which are now intended by di- viding a field into ridges, It is not, however, he conceives, to be fuppofed, that this could have efcaped the obfervation of all the farmers of former times. On the contrary, from the pra¢tice having been fo general, it is more than probable that this form of ridges, which is-now confidered as abfurd, was once deemed, like many other ancient praétices, an improvement; for on many of the hills in Scotland, where the lands are dry and tolerably level, and where cultivation had, no doubt, taken place at the ear- lieft period, although now abandoned to the growth of heath(ling), the ridges are as ftraight as any in the beft cultivated parts of the ifland. The reafons which induced the farmers of former times to form the ridges in the manner which now appears fo objeétionable, may, he fuppofes, be explained in 2% I EOE 4.04 Cultivation of Arable Land.— Levelling of Ridges. culty, and which demands more knowledge and care in its execution, than fs commonly fuppofed. The moft fuitable period for accomplithing the work where the plough is employed, is when the land is undergoing a courfe of re- peated ploughings, as in the cafe of a fallow; as under fuch circumftances the more elevated parts of the field may be ploughed over as often, and in fuch di- reCtions, as is moft fuitable for bringing them into a level ftate. Where the ridges are not raifed to any very confiderable height in their middles, but badly formed in other refpects, they may fometimes be readily brought into proper order by being fplit, or cloven down occafionally; a mode which is performed by beginning at the furrows, and terminating at the crown, or middle of the ridge, fo that the former furrows become the crowns, and the new furrows are made in the middle of the old ridges, which being filled by a furrow from each fide, has the tendency of foon bringing them into a more equal and level form. Where the foil is of the light, gravelly, or open and mellow kind, the plough may be conveniently employed in levelling the ridges, without producing any injury of confequence to the crops that may afterwards be put upon the land. It is proper, however, even in lands of thefe kinds, to ufe much caution in performing the operation, in order to avoid the injury that might be caufed by too large a proportion of the under-foil being brought to the furface in different parts of the ground. It is aflerted, by Dr. Anderfon, that where this is done by fuch implements as are contrived for expeditioufly bringing them to this fituation, as ploughs, harrows, drags,&c. the farmer of neceflity buries all the good mold that was on the top of the ridges in the old furrows; by which he greatly impo- the following manner: When the lands were generally cultivated in the open field, or run-ridge fate. the furrows of the ridge were commonly the march between one farmer and another. The portion of Jand belonging to each tenant in any one place was thus fo fmall, as to prevent him from ufing any other method of draining, than that of raifing the ridge fo high as to allow the water fo run off in the fur- rows, without doing damage to the crop. All the ridges which are broader at one end than the other, will, he thinks, generally be found narroweft at that end of the ridge which is ftill moft wet and{pouty. It is, therefore, more than probable, that the ridges were purpofely made narrow at that end, as the only means by which lands fo poffeffed could be drained. As the moft crooked ridges are on fteep and floping grounds, it may be prefumed, that prudence direéted the firft cultivators to adopt that pofition of ridges, in order to prevent the foil from being wafhed away by fudden falls of rain; which would no doubt have been the cafe to a greater degree, had the ridges been all ftraight. Each furrow becoming a{mall rivulet, and having nothing to impede its courfe, muft have done more injury to the foil than if ithad run off in the circuitous courfe formed by the crooked ridges. eran eee Cultication of Arable Land.—Levelling of Ridges. 405 ‘verifhes one part of his field, while he too much enriches another; infomuch, that it is a matter of great difficulty, for many years thereafter, to get the field brought to an equal degree of fertility in different places: which makes it im- poffible for him to get an equal crop over the whole of his field, by any manage- ment whatever: and he has the mortification frequently, by this means, to fee the one-half of his crop rotted by an over-luxuriance, while other parts of it are weak ahd fickly, or one part ripe and ready for reaping, while the other is not properly filled; fo that it were, on many occafions, better for him to. have his whole field reduced at once to the fame degree of poornefs as the poorett of it, than have it in this flate. An almoft impra@ticable degree of attention in {fpreading the manures, may indeed in fome meafure, he thinks, get the betfer of this difeafe; but it is fo difficult to perform this properly, that he has fre- quently feen fields that had been thus levelled, in which, after thirty years of continued culture and repeated dreflings, the marks of the old ridges could be diftinétly traced when the corn was growing, although the furface was fo level that no traces of them could be perceived when the corn was off the ground. But this, he obferves, is a degree of perfe€tion in levelling that cannot be ufually attained by following this mode of praétice, and therefore it is but{el- dom feen; for all that can be expeéted to be done by any levelling machine, is to render the /urface perfeGtly{mooth and even in every part at the time that the operation is performed: but as in this cafe the old hollows are fuddenly filled up with loofe mold to a great depth, while the earth below the{urface, upon the heights of the old ridges, remains firm and compaét, the new-raifed earth, after a fhort time, fubfides very much, while the other parts of the field do not fink at all; fo that in a fhort time the old furrows come to be again below the level of the other parts of the field, and the water, of courfe, is fuffered in fome degree to fiagnate upon them, infomuch that in a few years it be- comes neceffary once more to repeat the fame levelling procefs, and thus renew the damage that the farmer fuftains by this pernicious operation. On thefe accounts, if the farmer has not a long leafe, it will be found in gee neral, he thinks, to be more for his intereft to leave the ridges as he found them, than to attempt fo alter their dire€tion: and if he attends with due cau- tion to moderate the height of thefe old ridges, he may reap very good crops, although, perhaps, at a fomewhat greater expence of labour than he would have been put to upon the fame field, if it had been reduced to a proper level furface, and divided into ftraight and parallel ridges. But where the land is of a clayey, loamy, or more tenacious and wet quality, 406 Cultivation of Arable Land.— Levelling of Ridges. there will be more difficulty; as well as more attention required, in levelling and changing the fhape of the ridges; as it frequently happens that in fuch forts of foil, after the earth from the crowns has been removed in order to render the ridges level, efpecially where done by mechanical means, a coarfe, unfriendly, ftiff foil, is brought up, that requires fo great a length of time, and fo much amelioration to bring it into a ftate capable of fupporting good crops, as can not be compenfated by the advantages that may be obtained by the improve- ment in the form of the ridges; befides, it is feldom poffible to accomplifh this. on fueh foils without the danger of doing great injury by poaching. Hence it has been recommended not to be attempted, except in cafes of confiderable length of leafe*. It may, however, in particular inftances, be neceffary, and highly beneficial, to have the bufinefs performed, though it fhould be attended with much trouble and expence, which in diftriéts where labour is cheap may probably be beft executed by means of the fpade, as in this method the vegetable furface mold may ftill be preferved on the top for the reception of the crop, and no injury be fuftained by the bringing up of the fub-foil. From the lofs and inconve- nience that attend this procefs, where machines are employed, Dr. Anderfon advifes that they be wholly laid afide, and that the following praétice, which he has found fuccefsful, be had recourfe to. When the bufinefs is to be done, let a number of men be colle&ted with fpades, and then fet a plough to draw a furrow direétly acrofs the ridges of the whole field, intended to be levelled. Divide this furrow into as many parts as you have labourers, allotting to each a ridge or two, more or lefs, according to their number and the height of the ridges. Let each of the labourers have orders, as foon as the plough has paft the part affigned him, to begin to dig in the bottom of the furrow that the plough has then made, about the middle of the fide of the old ridge, keeping his face to the old furrow, working back- wards till he comes to the middle of the old ridge, going deeper as he proceeds, according to the height he has to bring down; then let him turn towards the other furrow, and repeat the fame on the other fide of the ridge, fo as to leave the bottom of the trench he has thus made acrofs the ridge entirely level, or as nearly fo as poffible. When he has finifhed the part of the furrow allotted to him, which the plough has made in going, let him then go and finifh in the fame manner his own portion of the furrow, which the plough makes in retyrne * See Gentleman Farmer, p, 76; and Anderfon’s Effays, vol. I, clling 1 forts tthe ndly, much: a8 Can proves th this nee it erable ficial, ouble e beft mold injury conve: lerfon vhich with of the arts. as ording s have dig in dle of ack- eeds, s the leave 2], oF otted n the tytn Cultivation of Arable Land.—Levelling of Ridges. 407 ing.[tis obferved, that the old furrows ought to be raifed to a greater height than the middle of the old ridges, fo as to make allowance for the fubfiding of the loofe earth with which they are filled. It is alfo recommended, that thefe temporary or crofs ridges be made 40 or 5o yards broad at leaft: for, although fome time will be loft in turning at the ends of the broad ridges, the advantage that is reaped by having few open fur- rows is more than fufficient to counterbalance this lofs: and, in order to mode- rate the height that would be formed in the middle of each of thefe great ridges, it will always be proper to mark out the ridges, and draw.the furrow that is to be the middle of each fome days before the labourers are colle@ted to level the field, to prevent any hurry or lofs of labour in the future operation of levelling. This breadth may be proper, where the land is fufficiently dry, but in wet, ftiff foils, it fhould be much lefs*. * The following eftimates, though greatly below the prefent price of labour, may thew the advan- tages of the different modes in refpect to expence: Suppofing the price of labour in Scotland to vary in different places from fix pence to one fhilling, and that the medium price be fixed at nine pence per day; and that the hire of a plough, with fourhorfes and two fervants(for fo many, in general, will be requifite to labour properly ground in the condition that this is fuppofed to be in), varies in like manner from three to five fhillings per yoking, and that the medium price of this be called four fhillings; in this cafe, the comparative expence of levelling, by thefe two different modes, would, the doétor fays, be as follows: Eftimate of Expence of levelling by the 8‘pade, Efimate of Expence of levelling the fame by the For wages to eleven labourers one Gaya 5." a; pee es atnine pence each, z= peas For 2 yokings and a half of a plough, 5. d. For the hire of a plough 21 yokings, as before---o10 0 at four fhillings each,- For harrowing ditto, fuppofed at 1-4th of the ploughing,- O772) 176 0.10; 9 ees Total expence of one day’s work, eo 18 3 Total for once ploughing,&c, ter oe Ty ees The fame five times more repeated, 3 2 6 Total expence of levelling by plough and harrows,-- 315 0 Total expence of levelling by the {pade,=-= 0.18 3 or Difference,— 2 16 9 108 Cultivation of Arable Land.— Levelling of Ridges. But though the levelling in this way may have been performed in the mof perfect manner, fomething further is, it is obferved, required’ to bring the land into the moft proper condition; as the earth below the plough furrow, at the crown of the former ridges, is folid, while that by which the former fide furrows has been levelled is loofe, there muft be a prejudicial inequality that is neceflary to be obviated.‘This is recommended to be removed by em- ploying a foot-crow, to dig and loofen the earth below the furface plough fur- row in the middle of the former ridges, as much as poflible, without turning it up. By this means, and leaving the former furrows a little more elevated than the old crowns of‘the ridges, the operation will be very complete*. -here are other methods in which this operation may be well and conve- niently performed. It has been propofed, by Dr. Robertfon, in his valuable Report of the State of Agriculture in the County of Perth, to begin the pro- cefs by removing the made or meliorated foil, on the crown of the ridge, to one fide; which may be done by two or three ploughings in one diretion, turning the furrow always one way.‘This is eafier, he thinks, than doing it withthe fpade. Then fuch a quantity of the buried foil may be caft with the f{pade from the crown of the ridge, as will fill up the furrows at pleafure: and laftly, the meliorated foil may be fpread over the furface of the whole. If it is not thought enough to fave the meliorated foil on the crown of the ridge alone, firft one fide of the ridge may be taken, and then the fame procefs re- peated on the other; by which means almoft all the wrought foil may be kept on the furface. A good fummer fallow, a hearty dofe of lime, and the mixture of wrought mold, will; he fays, re-animate the new foil, and reftore its vegctative power to its primitive ftate; and a very few feafons will naturalize the whole foil, while the farmer has the advantage of ftraight ridges, moderately raifed. When the fituation of a field is fuch as to render it incapable, or very incon- yenient, to be ploughed acrofs, a method, but which is lefs perfeét, may be employed; which is, firft to cleave out each ridge in tuch a way, as to leave an open furrow in the middle of it; in doing which, about a yard on each fide of the old furrow fhould be left untouched, which, when the whole field is ploughed over, will conititute ditches of fome depth between the ridges. The labourers aré then to be fent into the field with fpades, in order to dig out trenches in the openings in the middle of the ridges, of depths proportioned to their heights, the earth thus removed being thrown into the furrows on the fides, i + * See Anderfon’s Effays, vol. L. Cultvcation of Arable Land.—Ploughing. 409 After the whole has been dug out in this manner from one to the other, the plough is to be again made ufe of to turn back a furrow of the furface mold from each fide into the new-formed trenches; the diggers then beginning again to work in the bottom of this new-formed furrow, throwing the earth con- {tantly into the hollows between the old ridges. If by thefe means they be not fufliciently raifed, another furrow muft be turned back into the trenches, and another new one dug out after it, repeating fuch ploughings and dig- gings alternately, as often as may be found neceffary for the purpofe. The whole being in this way brought to a proper level, it fhould be harrowed acrofs, if the plough cannot be ufed, in order to blend all the materials of the foil as well together as pofhble. The expence of performing the bufinefs in this manner, is rather more than in the former method, as well as the levelling lefs completely effeGted; fo that, unlefs where a fuitable number of labourers for managing cannot be obtained, or fome other matter intervenes, the other method will always be advifable in preference toit. Yet this is much better than any of thofe methods ufually made ufe of with machinery*. It is obferved, that by either of thefe two methods the farmer has the fatisfaCtion of getting his ground reduced to a proper even- nefs at once, fo as to reap the full benefit of a fummer-fallow, or any other operation that he may think proper. But as the earth below the furface muft for fome time be unequally firm, as has been already fhewn, it will be necef- fary to lay it into narrow ridges for fome years at firft, and keep the furrows perfectly open and clean, to prevent, as much as may be, the water from ftag- nating too much among the loofe porous earth that fills up the old furrows. In this view, the two-bout ridges, as they are called, may be the moft advan- tageous when they can be eafily and perfeétly formed. But as the plough, when judicioufly employed, is by much the moft eafy and expeditious method, and alfo that which can be the moft generally made ufe of, on account of the fcarcity of labourers, in many fituations, it will be pro- per to attempt the bufinefs by that implement, before the more expenfive one of the fpade be had recourfe to. And by direting the plough in different lines of dire€tion, according to the particular circumftances of the cafes, it will be found to anfwer the intention in many inftances where the ufe of the fpade might at firft feem to be neceffary. Ploughing.—This, or fome other method of loofening and turning up the fupes * Anderfon’s Effays, vol. I. 3G ——=== a 410 Cultivation of Arable Lénd.—Ploughing. rior parts of foils, is conftantly requifite in order to render them fuitable for the reception of the feed or crop that is to be cultivated. It is by means of this kind that a convenient bed for the roots of the young plants, and a proper con- dition of the land for fupplying them with due nourifhment, is ina great meafure provided, as well as a proper ftate of drynefs in many cafes afforded. Hence, in performing the operation, it becomes a matter of confiderable utility and im- portance to the agriculturift, to pay particular attention, not only to the ftate and nature of the ground, but alfo the feafon of the year, and kind of crop that is to be grown, as in this way he may frequently render the preparation of his lands more perfect and fuitable, and at the fame time obviate fome of the natural defe&ts under which they may labour. Thus, in almoft every defcription of foils, ploughing them up before the latter part of the autumnal, or beginning of the winter feafon commences, renders them capable of im- bibing and retaining a large p oe 1 of moifture for the fucceeding fummer; while the turning them up during the fpring and fummer, caufes much watte and difcharge of moifture, by evaporation and other means. Therefore, where the foil in its natural ftate is too dry, and poffeffes too little tenacity for the growth and fupport of fuch crops as are neceffary to be put into the earth in the{pring months, the land, by being fully brought into a ftate of preparation for the crop in the autumn, and the feed introduced without any additional ploughing in the fpring feafon, may be preferved in a more moift and adhefive condition, confequently in a more proper ftate for the growth of fuch crops; but where the foil is naturally moift, and the crops that are to be cultivated require that it fhould be dry and mellow, when they are put into the ground, the plough- ing, by being deferred for the winter, and performed as late as poflible in the fpring months, when it is become a good deal dried, will be the more ad- vantageous for the crops that are to be grown upon it. But, befides thefe, there are other circumftances that conftantly demand no- tice in the prattice of ploughing Jand. In all the ftiff, heavy, and more adhe- five kinds of foils, that are much difpofed to the retention of moifture, whe- ther they be pertfeétly clayey, or have more of a loamy quali ty, it fhould be a common rule never to plough or turn them up when wet in any great degree, except where the nature of the crop requires it; as when fuch forts of land are ploughed under fuch a condition, the parts of which they are compofed are ee apt to cake and run together into hard lumps, that require much ble and difficulty to be afterwards reduced into a fine ftate. And further, great injury is produced by the treading of the team, as well as a much greater troud t the ‘this COn- {ure er ih dims ftate crop ation fome very nnal, im. ner; vatte vhere * the hin tion onal efive , but quire ugh: Je in e ad- ealtahiatiac eee aso eae” eee ee Cultivation of: Arable Land.—Ploughing. All power neceflary in performing the operation. But, at the fame time, they fhould not be permitted to become fo dry and hard as to afford too great refiftance in that way, before the operation is proceeded upon. Some, however, fuppofe, that all thofe foils in which clay prevails over the other ingredients may be ploughed even when wet, without any injury being done, if the bufinefs be accom- plifhed before the fetting in of the winter frofts; but that the teams had much better remain totally idle than draw a furrow in the fpring, until the ground be in a fufficiently dry ftate*, The marfhy, moory, and peaty or moffy defcriptions of foils are in general, when in a ftate of tillage, to be ploughed when the feafon is dry, as they can feldom be wrought to advantage, and frequently not at all, when they are wet to any confiderable degree. But in the dry, fandy, and probably in fome of the more mellow and fri- able kinds of loamy foils, the bufinefs of ploughing, efpecially for the putting in of the feed, may be performed when they are ina ftate of confiderable moif- ture, not only without their fuffering any inconvenience, or the feed being in- jured, but often with advantage, as they are liable to part with the watery par- ticles that they contain too readily. On this laft account the very dry forts of fandy land fhould, whenever the weather is hot and dry, merely be ftirred in fuch way as may be neceflary to prevent the growth of weeds, otherwife the great exhalation of moifture’in fuch feafons may render them too dry for the healthy vegetation of the feeds or plants that may be fown or fet upon them. The cul- tivators of foils of this nature have, therefore, many advantages over thofe who are engaged on the more ftiff and heavy forts of Jand, in being able to perform the various operations of arable hufbandry with much lefs ftrength and expence of team, and by being much lefs interrupted by the wetnefs of feafons. In regard to the depth and frequency of ploughing lands, they moft con- ftantly depend, ina great meafure, upon the qualities and the fort of crops that are to be grown. But in general the different preparatory ploughings fhould be deeper than thofe of the feed furrow, which ought moftly to be light, and the flice not too much laid over, that the feed, efpecially where the broad-caft method of fowing is adopted, may be the more perfeétly covered. It is well obferved on this fubjeé, by an able practical writer, that though deep ploughing has been greatly recommended by fome modern writers, upon parti- cular kinds of land, where the bottom and top are of two oppofite qualities, and * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. 111. parti. p- 45. 412 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Ploughing. neither of them perfectly good, that a mixture may fometimes be very beneficial, and the experiment of going below the common depth fometimes anfwer. But that where the top and bottom, for eighteen or twenty inches depth, confifts of the fame foil, he does not believe it js ever worth while to exc hange the upper part, which has been enriched for centuries back, for a part lefs rich, merely becaufe it is more frefh. He has, indeed, he fays, obferved, that deep ploughing(except for fome particular grain and plants) is by no means necef- fary. The vegetation of ordinary corn and grafs does not require any great depth. In many.parts of Cornwall the land is, he affures us, exceedingly fruitful, though the foil is extremely fhallow; and in many other counties they find, by experience, that they ruin their land by ploughing below the ufual depth. Befides, when land is ploughed very deep, the roots of the weeds are only turned over and removed, and hardly ever thrown upon the furface to wither; but clean, fhallow ploughing diflodges and deftroys them much more effe€tually. Nay, hand-hoeing is, he remarks, allowed by every body to do more towards cleaning land thana ploughing. And even the pra€tice of burn- baking, he contends, effeCtually cleans land, though it only goes t This feems, he fays, to thew that very deep ploughing is by fary towards cleaning land: and it muft, he thinks, be univerfally allowed, that the longer we keep our manure within three or four inches of the furface the better; efpecially upon a light foil, from which it is apt to fink, and efcape too foon*. And door Anderfon, who has had much experience in this way, informs us, that though benefits may be derived from the opening up of the foil to a confiderable depth in fome cafes, it is by no means neceffary to at- wo Inches deep. no means necef- _tempt to plough, on ordinary occafions, to a great depth: on the contrary, unlefs it be for very particular purpofes, he is fatisfied that fhallow ploughing will, for the moft part, be more beneficial than the reverfe. In that cafe the fur face foil, in which all feeds muft germinate, and draw their nourifhment for a confiderable period of their growth, will, he conceives, be rendered much more fertile by the fame quantity of manure, than if it-were mixed with a much greater depth of mold; and as it is known that the fertilizing q Pp ~ 4ii Zi ualities of all manures orous as to admit of a flow abforption of that water, the under-foil will gradually become more fer- tile by this procefs, which will tend to nourith the crop. Onretentive foils, where the practice of loofening them to fome depth by other implements is omitted, deep ploughing is, however, he conceives, extremely neceflary. are carried downward by moifture, where the foil is fo * Kent’s Hints, “ape * the Cultivation of Arable Land.— Ploughine. ALS It is further remarked by the firft author, that upon all Jight foils it is necef- fary to prefeive, at fix or eight inches below the furface, what farmers call a pan; that is, the ftaple, at that depth, fhould be kept unbroken; by which means manure will be kept longer on the top: and in dry feafons the lefs depth the pan has, the lefs liable the corn will be to burn, provided the pan confifts of earth, and not of rock; becaufe the roots of the corn will, he thinks, find more moifture by ftriking againft a body of clofe earth than they will in a greater depth of hollow earth; as it is evident the former preferves more moifture in dry feafons. And that another advantage which is obtained from this pan is, he conceives, the having a lefs quantity of mold to work and keep in heart. Where very deep ploughing is practifed, this bottom, or pan, muft be deftroyed; and much more manure will be required in that cafe, he fup- pofes, to keep the ground in good condition, and fit for the growth of crops. In regard to the frequency of ploughing or turning over ground, in order to prepare and render it fuitable for the produétion of good crops, it is obvious there muft be much difference according to the nature and condition of the foil, as well as the kind of crop that is to be grown. The ftiff, clayey, loamy, and even chalky foils will, in general, ftand in need of more frequent ftirring, either by means of the plough, harrow, or fome other implement, in order to feparate and break down their tenacious particles, than thofe of the fandy or gravelly, and more light kinds, in which there is much lefs adhefion. Be- fides, where lands have been, in a courfe of tillage for fome length of time, whether they are of a clayey, loamy, or even fandy quality, they may require s frequent ftirring than where the contrary is the cafe.. And where the me- thod of putting the feed into the ground by means of drill machines is be had recourfe to, a fine ftate of tilth will, in general, be indifpenfably neceflary. a ee) ~© he nature of the crop that is to be culiivated muft, however, in moft cafes, direct the number of ploughings that may be neceffary, as fome demand a much finer ftate of tillage than others; though in moft cafes a well-reduced earth is favourable. It has, indeed, been afferted, that the finer land of any kind is made by tillage, the richer and more capable of fupporting plants it becomes. A proof of which may often be met with in lands where a part has, from accident or other caufes, been better tilled than the reft, as, though they be v d afterwards conftantly managed in precifely the fame manner, the part fo treated always affords better crops than thofe which have not had the advan- tage of fuch tillage*. * Tull's Horfe-hoeing Hufbandry, 8vo. edit. p. 44. ALA Cultivation of Arable Land.—Ploughing. Where the nature of the crop is fuch as to be greatly retarded and injured in its growth, by the occurrence of other plants, as in wheat and barley, the Jand will conftantly require to be rendered fine and mellow, either by frequent ftirring by the plough, or the growing of fuch preparatory crops as have a ten- dency to bring it into a friable and clean ftate, by the fhade which they pro- duce, and the repeated tillage and culture which they receive while growing. And where fuch plants as produce large, knobby, or tap roots, in or upon the foil, are to be grown, it will be neceflary to have the land well broken down, and rendered mellow by repeated turning over, in order that they may more readily pufh down, or extend themfelves in other dire€tions. Befides, it has been feen that a fine ftate of tilth is always the moft favourable for affording the nourifhment and fupport of crops in a fre e and equal manner*, both on account of its admitiing the fibrous roots of the plants to fpread and extend themfelves with more facility, and the manures to become more minutely di- vided, and more intimately blended with the foils; as well as from the fub- ftances that conftitute the food of the plants being more readily and more co- ploufly formed by the chemical combinations and decompofitions that take place under fuch circumftances. And further, by means of fuch degrees of pul- verifation and mellownefs, the feed, efpecially when it is of the fmaller kind, is not only more equally and more perfeétly covered, but its vegetation more quick, from its becoming more fully in conta&t with the mold, and from the moifture being more minutely diffufed and retained in the ground, which is an advantage of much importance in the cultivation of many forts of crops. In the choice of implements for the performance of this bufinefs, the agricul- tor fhould be careful that they are well fuited to the nature and quality of the Jand, as it is not poffible that any particular fort of plough can be employed with equal facility and advantage on foils of different defcriptions. The clayey, and all the more{tiff and heavy kinds of land, will require ploughs of more ftrength than thofe of the thin chalky, anda light, fandy, or gravelly nature. he former may moftly be managed in a proper manner by any of the well-con- ftructed kinds of ftrong ploughs, as the Suffolk iron fwing-plough,&c. and the latter by thofe of the light fort, as the Rotheram plough, Small’s chain-plough,&c t. But whatever defcription of plough may be had recourfe to, it is a matter of the greateit confequence that it be properly fermed and attached to the draught, as where thefe points are not minutely attended to, there muft conftantly be * See fection on Fallowing of Land.+ See fection on Implements, Cultivation of Arable Land.—Harrowing. Als a confiderable lofs in the economy of labour and time, as well as in the com- pletenefs of the work. With fuch ploughs as have a fuitable form and con- ftru€tion for paffling through the earth without affording unneceffary refiftance, any of even the heavier forts of foil may be ploughed with little more than half the ftrength of team that is employed where the contrary 1s the cafe. It has been lately found, that in a light loamy foil, Small’s plough, with two horfes a-breaft, and the ploughman driving by means of rope reins, pable of performing its bufinefs with equal readinefs, and to a greater depth when requifite, than the ordinary ploughs of the diftri@ with four horfes, a ploughman, and a boy as a driver. This advantage, it is conceived, arifes from the“ fymmetry of its parts, and the formation of the mold-boar Is of caft-iron, and fo conftruéted as to afford the leat pofhible refiftance in pafi- ing through the earth; and in giving the horfes the greateft purchafe in their draught, by placing them near the plough*.” But it is remarked further, that “the leaft variation in the formation of the mold-board, or in the proportional diftance of the refpe€tive parts,” is capable of deftroying the effeét; which further proves the neceffity of clofely attending to what has been mentioned above.| Harrowing.—This is a procefs in tillage that becomes ufeful after ploughing has been performed, both with the view of breaking down and reducing the particles of the foil, fo as to aid the pulverifation that has been effected by the plough, and that of dragging out and clearing the land from root and other weeds that may have commenced their growth, as well as for the purpofe of covering the feed. Was Ca- d, which In the two firft intentions the fize and weight of the harrows, and the length of the tines, or teeth, fhould in moft cafes be confiderably greater than wherg the covering of the feed forms the principal objeét. And where the land has been laid in a rough manner by the plough, and there are many weeds of the root kind, it will be more advantageous and effeétual to have harrows p in a dire€tion contrary to that in which the ground has been ploughe that means more weeds will not only be eradicated, but the parts of the foil be more fully and more completely divided, broken down, and reduced. And where feed-weeds are’to be eradicated, the furface fhould conftantly be, at firfl, made as fine and{mooth as the nature of the land will admit, by harrowing, to promote their more rapid vegetation, in order that the fubfequent operations of the fame kind may clear the land in a nzore perfect manner. ailing d, as by Drags, fcari- * Campbell in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. III, p, 233. 416 Cultivation of Arable Land——Harrowing. fi ers, fcufflers, cultivators, and what are termed fixed harrows, are often very effective implements 1n thefe different intentions where the foils are of the more {tiff and obftinate qualities.-Tines of different conftru€tions, according to the circumftances of the land, are alfo fometimes employed with confiderable be- nefit, in aul. and reducing the hard and cloddy condition of very tena- cious and ftubborn foils that have much of the clayey or ftrong loamy property. Where the defign of the farmer is only to have the feed covered by the operation of harrowing, it will not be lefs neceffary to have the furface part of the foil, after the feed has been fown, rendered as fine and mellow as the quality of the land will allow, as where this is negie¢ted the moifture is not fo perfeftly diffufed through or retained in the mold, nor the nourifhment fo equally fupplied, con- fequently the vegetation and growth of the crop muft be more flow and imper- fe&t. It is however remarked, by an intelligent writer, that though“ it is obvious that ftrong land requires more harrowing, in order to reduce it to a pulverifed ftate, than lighter foils; yet as all foils are rendered more firm and folid by harrowing, the lefs a ftrong foilis harrowed, if the intention is anfwered, the better. On the other hand, light fpongy foils, efpecially where there is any portion of mofs(peat), being rendered more compaét and retentive of moifture by harrowing, can fcarcely get too much*.” It fhould likewife be noticed, that in all the more heavy and retentive kinds of foil, operations of this fort, as well as thofe of ploughing, fhould be as little as poflible performed when the feafon is inclined to be wet; while in all thofe which are of a fandy, or open, porous nature, they fhould be pra€tifed as fparingly as the circumftances of the cafes will admit, when it 1s very hot and dry; asin the firft, great injury and difadvantage muft arife from their poaching, and becoming mortary; and in the latter from the too great evapo- ration and difflipation of moifture. In refpeét to the manner of performing the procefs of harrowing, when the feed has been fown, the common method, according to the author juft men- tioned, is firft along the ridges, then acrofs, and then along again. When the ridges are level, or nearly fo, they may, he obferves, be harrowed either way as the farmer may find an convenient, it being of little confequence whe- ther the harrow go firft acrofs or along the ridges of a well-ploughed field in proper tilth; but if the ridges are raifed in the middle, and the Jand indif- 1 ferently ploughed, it would be highly improper to begin by harrowing acrofs, “ Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture, vol. I. p. 51. \* f ~ es as thereby a confiderable fhare of the feeds would fall into the bottoms of the furrows, and be prevented from vegetating. There is ftill another circumftance, he remarks, in regard to harrowing, which, as it is frequently of very material importance, ought not to be omitted. It often happens, that after a field has been properly fummer-fallowed, manured, and prepared in the beft manner for fowing wheat, the farmer is prevented from fo doing by heavy falls of rain. Though no water may appear on the field, yet itis rendered fo poachy, that he cannot put on his horfes for the purpofe of harrowing in the feed, and that circumftance alone prevents him from fow- ing his wheat in due feafon. In fome parts of Scotland a method has been tried to remedy this inconvenience; which, when the ridges are ftraight, and not over broad or too high raifed on the crown, has, he fays, been found to anfwer beyond every expeCtation that could be formed. It is as follows: An axle, equal in length to the breadth of the ridge, is fixed on two cart-wheels; and to this axle is chained as many harrows as will cover the breadth of the ridge. To each of the ends of the axle two horfes are yoked, and made to walk along in the furrows of the ridge; the wheels turning eafily round, and following the horfes in the furrows: the horfes feet are, by this expedient, prevented from doing any injury, and the feed is as effe€tually covered as in the ordinary way. It is neceffary, however, he fays, that the harrows fhould not be turned fhort at the end of the ridge. But, to avoid confufion, it is better to go along one ridge, and return by another, which may be done as ofien as is judged saiasiqne for harrowing the field in a fufficient manner. But though crops may, by contrivances of this nature, be put into the ae in the moft proper feafon, under fuch circumftances, they mutt often be liable to great injury, or even deftru€tion, from the abundant wetnefs; it would probably, therefore, be a better praétice to have the lands prepared fo early as that the opportunity of a dry time might be afforded for harrowing in the feed in the ordinary way. When grafs feeds are fown, the operation of harrowing fhould be performed only in a flight manner, and with a very light harrow, that has fhort tines ot teeth; as where thefe circumftances are not regarded, they will be lable’to be put in too deep, and their vegetation of courfe greatly retarded, if not wholly prevented. Rolling.—This is another operation in the fitting of land, that is equally employed for breaking down and reducing the foil toa fine ftate of tillage, and for levelling and rendering it fmooth, after the feed has been harrowed in, In 3-H Cultivation of Arable Land.—Rolting, ALY AIS Cultivation of Arable Land.—Manuring. the ftiff, heavy, and adhefive foils of different kinds, the roller may frequently be made ufe Be in the firft intention, with very great advantage; but it fhould only be employed when fuch lands are tolerably dry, for when drawn over the ground under the contrary circumftances, little benefit can be afforded in the way of pulverifation, while much mifchief muft be produced by the poaching of the horfes, and the plaftering of the earth round the implement. But by ufing it in the manner juft directed, all the lumpy or cloddy parts of the fur- face foil may be effeCtually crufhed and reduced into a fine powdery ftate, fit for the reception of the feed. Or if in fuch forts of foil it be applied in the intervals between the different harrowings, it may contribute much in the fame way, not merely by reducing a great number of the lumps by the preffure that it caufes, but by forcing others fo much into the ground that they may be a€ted upon and further broken down by the fermentation that moftly takes place in the foil after land has been ftirred. In all the light and more porous forts of foil, very beneficial confequences may alfo be derived from this operation, by the confolidation of furface that is thus produced, and the more perfeét retention of moifture, by which the feed, efpecially if of the{mall kind, is enabled to vegetate more equally, as well as in a more expeditious manner. In cafes where land has been left raughafter ploughing, for the purpofe of more effectually deftroying root weeds, it may alfo be of utility, by being employed before the harrows, to give them more power in laying hold of and reducing the foil. And by the pulverifation that it affords, and the more perfe& reten- tion of moifture that it caufes in confequence of the furface being rendered more clofe and compact, the feed-weeds are produced more abundantly, and more readily deftroyed. It is likewife in thefe laft methods that it proves. fo highly beneficial in all cafes where grafs feeds are fown; as well as by the equality and{moothnefs of furface that is thereby produced*. It is well ob- ferved, by the fame writer, that if no other benefit were derived from rolling lands in tillage than fmoothing the furface, even that in harveft is of material confequence, more efpecially where the crops are cut down with the{cythe, which is general in moft of the fouthern diftri@s of the kingdom, and which the increafing fcarcity of labourers muft foon, in all probability, introduce into thofe of the north. Manuring.—In the application of manures to lands in the ftate of til. lage, conftant attention will not only be neceffary to the nature and quality of * Modern Agriculture, vol. III. p. Be aes itly uld the the ing thy furs fit the ame that re ace rts on, fect ore yed ing ten- ered and s fo the e k 1 a ‘s ae a aaa i Cultivation of Arable Land.——Manuring. Aig the foil and manure, but te the kind of crop that is to-be grown with it, and the feafon of the year, as well as the manner of its being laid on the land. Without proper management in all thefe refpects, much expence and watte of manure may often be incurred to little or no advantage. For, from what has been already advanced, it is fufficiently evident, that fome particular forts of manures are better fuited, and more capable of producing beneficial effects on fome kinds of land than others*. Thus, on the ftrong, clayey, or loamy foils, thofe of the animal or dung kinds, and which are capable of affording large proportions of ammonia or carbonaceous matter in proportion to their bulks, and fuch fubftances of the calcareous kind, whether burnt into lime, or ufed in their natural ftate, as are the moft friable, or have the leaft tendency to bind and cement the particles of foils together, are the moft fuitable and proper. And other matters, fuch as fand, and many fimilar bodies, that are capable of dividing and feparating the parts of fuch{tiff forts of Jand, may frequently be employed with great benefit in the view of altering the conftitu- tion and texture of them mechanically, though they poffefs little virtue in the way of manures. But thofe kinds of materials that have any great difpofition to increafe the ftiffnefs and tenacity of the foils, muft be carefully avoided. Hence clayey marle, and all the more ftiff and tenacious earthy fubftances, as well as what are termed by farmers the hot forts of lime, are in fuch cafes difadvantageous and improper for the purpofes of manure Where fand is employed on foils of this defcription, it fhould be laid on them where convenient, in proportions fuitable to the tenacity and ftiffnefs of the land, and under fuch circumftances of tillage as that it may be the moft capable of being minutely blended with it. The common fand can, however, only be laid upon lands with the view of its altering their textures, fo as to render them more mellow and proper for the growth of grain crops. Sea fand will be found highly beneficial, not only in this view, but likewife in conveying a portion of fertility. But, from the fa- line matters that it may contain, it may be either laid immediately on the land, or be mixed with dung and other manures into a compoft before this is done, according to the circumftances under which it is laid on. On the perfeétly loamy foils, efpecially where they are of the mellow and more friable defcription, almoft every fort of manure that is produced on the farm may be made ufe of with benefit. But where they approach much towards the * Sedtion on Manures. ALO Cultivation of Arable Land—-Manuring. ftifinefs of the heavier forts of foils, clayey marles may be improper, and where they abound with calcareous matters, lime, chalk, and other fubftances of the fame kind, fhould be lefs freely employed. In the application of manure to lands of the marfhy kind, when they are brought into a ftate of aration, fimilar attention will likewife be neceflary. It has been obferved, that where thefe foils are compofed of a heavy, moift fleech, avery fluggith fpecies of land is formed, on which the crop is lodged from year to year, before it arrives at maturity, which makes it of little value. A quantity of fand from the beds of rivers, when laid on fuch foils, enables them, however, to produce excellent crops of lump grain, which ftands until they are cut down*., But on the fandy and all the lighter forts of tillage lands, fuch manures as poffefs the property cf promoting and augmenting the tenacity, or of bringing the particles more clofely together, of retaining moifture, and of affording ftability to the roots of plants, will be the moft favourable. In thefe views, clayey marle, the fediments and depofitions of ponds or rivers, loamy and peaty earths,&c. with farm-yard dung, may be had recourfe to with propriety. {n Suffolk, on the fandy diftri€ts, the earthy fubftance applied is generally a clay marle; though a pure, or nearly a pure clay, is preferred to very leofe fands. But when the c/ay is not of a good: fort, that is, when there is none, or fcarcely any clay in it, but it is an imperfeét, and even a hard chalk, there are great doubts how far it anfwers, and in many cafes it has been fpread to little or no advantage. The quantity ufval is from fixty to eighty, and fomie- times one hundred Joads an acre, the load containing about thirty-two buhhels. Many experienced farmers, however, prefer carrying forty or fifty loads only, and repeating it after the firft courfe. The beft mode of doing it, according to fome, is to.lay down the land with grafs-feeds for a couple of years, and then lay the clay upon the turf the latter end of the fummer, and break up the land in the fpring following, to fet with peafe, if the land be pro. per for that crop. It is, indeed, conceived, that one hundred loads per acre are, perhaps, not too much for newly cultivated heaths or warrens. But for other fleet foils, which have been for a long time under cultivation; fifty, or at moft feventy loads, are quite fufficient—On fuch foils, to lay on too much is attended with great lofs. In this way the land receives more immediate benefit, and double the number of acres may be clayed ia the firft * Agricultural Survey of the County of Perth. Cultivation of Arable Landm—-Manuring, 42) years of the farmer’s leafe, without any additional expence*. The duration, and indeed the whole effeét, it is obferved, depends much on the courfe of crops purfued. If the plough be too freely ufed, and cora fown too often, it anfwers badly, and the effet is foon loft; but with good management it lafts twenty years. Where the management is good, and the clay well adapted to the land, the profit is alfo very great. In many cafes a courfe of fallow and rye, or light oats, is converted to fine barley, clover, and wheat, and the pro- duce of the foil multiplied twenty-fold; but, on the contrary, the cafes in which the return has been inadequate, are not a few. And it is believed that it will be found, that on foils that will yield faintfoin, it is more profitable to culti- vate grafs, than to clay the land for corn. There are various forts of clay in ufe; fome fo exceedingly ftrong aid loamy, that they will not mix with the foil; others ftrong and full of particles of chalk; and another fort very tender, and which has a mixture of fand: the fecond is believed to be the beft; the ufe of it prevails very much at prefent, in the ftrong wet lands in high Suffolk, even where clay is ploughed up. Within a few years, the mixing clay with maiden earth and muck out of the farm-yards is very much praétifed; and good farmers tell you, that muck fhould never be carried upon the land alone: the reafon. of which it is faid is, that muck produces ftraw with little corn; but to grow a full crop of corn, compoft muft be ufed f. It is alfo faid to be a great improvement in the applying of clay, or marle, to Jands, to make ufe of fingle-horfe carts, inftead of the common tumbril, heavy cart. Calcareous materials, ate in their pulverifed raw flate, and fish of calcination, may in many inftances alfo be applied to foils of the above de= {cription, with very beneficial confequences. It has, however, been well obférved, that previous to the application of either chalk, lime, or gypfum, particular attention fhould be paid to the nature of the fand. If it fhould appear to owe its origin to lime-ftone, marble, thells, or other fuftances that admit of being burnt into lime, the addition of calca« reous matter would, in moft cafes, be ufelefs. At all events, the application of thefe fubftances fhould be firit made on a{mall fcale, in order to afcertain the effets they would produce tf. Mofs or peat earth, either in a ftate of combination with farm-yard dung or * In regard to the expence of this. application, it is obferved, that the men are paid from 278. to 30s. per one hundred and twenty loads, for filling and fpreading, earning tos. or 118. a-week; and the ex- pence of teams is about as much more, When this manuring is done, therefore, on very poor land, the expence is nearly equal to the value of the fee-fimple of the eftate. + Agricultural Survey of the County of Suffolk.} See Middleton's Report of Middlefex, p, AAS; AQ Cultivation of Arable Land.—Manuring. mv its natural itate, has likewife been found highly ufeful. Uponlight land, where there is a great proportion of fand or gravel, the mofly material naturally retains the rain and the dew, which that kind of foil could not naturally retain; and by this fupply of moifture, preferves fuch dry foils from the effeéts of fevere drought. After it is ploughed in, it likewife not only als as a fponge, but forms an addition to the ftaple of the land, which are circumftances not to be difregarded in the ufe of manures*.‘The manure produced by the turning in of fucculent green vegetable crops, may alfo fometimes in foils of this kind be attended with fuccefs. In the arable management of peaty, mofly, or moory foils, the moft advan- tageous application in the way of manure in the firft inftance will, in general, be that of lime, or fome other of the fubftances that abound in calcareous matter, in large proportions, together with the afhes that have been formed where the practice of paring and burning has been adopted in bringing them into cultivation. And after thefe have been well incorporated with the foil, farm-yard dung, where it can be procured, may be had recourfe to with great benefit. Clay, fand, gravel, and various earthy fubftances of a fimilar nature, may alfo often be made ufe of on fuch foils with great utility in the way of ren- dering them more firm, and giving them greater compaétnefs of texture ft. In the ufe of manures, befides adapting them to the nature and properties of the foils, the agricultor fhould be careful to apply them in fuch ways as may be moft fuitable for the produétion of their fulleft effe€ts. In this view, the nature of the crop, the condition of the manure, and the mode of its applica- tion, are to be well confidered; for it has been found from praétical trials, that where particular forts of manure have either been naturally found in the foils, or artificially laid upon them, fome kinds of crops may be grown and brought to perfe€tion much more completely than where fuch impregnations have not taken place; while on the contrary, other forts of crops can fearcely be pro- duced at all until a different fort of manure has been incorporated with the mold. Thus it is obferved that the common pea, whether white or grey, cannot be reared to perfe¢tion in any field which has: not been either naturally or artificially impregnated with fome calcareous matter. And hence it is fup- pofed to happen, that peas are rarely cultivated univerfally as a field crop, un- lefs in thofe parts of the country where either lime, marle, or chalk abounds, er upon ftrong clays: except, indeed, on the fea coaft, where fhell-fith are often catched in abundance, and where the fields are manured with their fhells ina flate of mixture with dung. But it is remarkable, that a foil that could * Agricultural Survey of Perththire, Pp: 297.+ Ibid. 298, Where retains ) and fevere e, but ' to be ning in ind be advan. eneral, areous ormed ‘them le foil, | great ature, “ren- erties s may vy, the plicas , that foils, pught not pro- the Cultvcation of Arable Land.—Aanuring. 423 fcarcely have brought one pea to perfe€tion, although richly manured with dung, from their running too much to haum, and, after bloffoming, dying away without becoming ripe, if it has once had lime applied upon it, is capable, when properly prepared in other refpeéts, of producing plentiful crops of peas ever afterwards*. Itis further remarked by the fame writer, on the refult of an experiment, in which the ridge of a field that had been miffed in liming pro- duced no good wheat, while all the other parts afforded a full crop, that lime, or fome other calcareous material, is equally neceflary for the produétion of good wheat crops as for thofe of the peakind. The general obfervation that the wheat, where this fort of manure has been employed, is thinner ia the ikin, more plump, and yields better, feems alfo to favour the fame conclufion. Im- pregnations of this fort appear likewife, it is fuppofed, particularly favourable for the production of barley crops, much more fo, efpecially if in large pro- portions, than for thofe of oats. But, on the contrary, turnip crops are found to be produced in the beft man- ner where the land has been enriched by means of dung; while lime, or other calcareous fubftances, do not promote their growth in nearly fo high a degree. This is alfoin fome meafure the cafe with cabbage, potatoe, and other crops of a fimilar kind. Hence it is concluded by the author juft mentioned, that turnips are the moft. fuitable for firft improving crops in fuch diftri€s as are deftitute of calcareous matter, and peas in thofe which abound with it. As in the cultivation of different forts of crops there are fome that require large{upplies of nourifhment during the more early ftages of their growth, while others demand fmaller proportions, but to be continued with great regu- larity and evennefs for a confiderable length of time, it will be proper and ad- vantageous to apply the manures in fuch ftates as may be the moft favourable for thefe purpofes. Thus, where thofe forts of luxuriant crops that ftand in need of much fupport in their early growth, fuch as potatoes, cabbages, turnips, carrots, peas, beans, and other fimilar ones, they fhould not only be laid upon the land in a lefs reduced ftate, efpecially where the lands are light, but be applied in fuch a manner as that the crops may derive the benefit of them in the moft full, equal, and expeditious manner. Hence in the two firft, as well, perhaps, as in fome of the other kinds, it may be the moft beneficial method te place it in drills with the fets or plants, and in the latter to be lightly ploughed, harrowed, or otherwife put in, immediately before the feed is fown. But as in the turnip, and other fimilar crops, from the fmallnefs of the feed, and * Anderfon’s Effays, vol. H. p. 302. & ADA Cultivation of Arable Land.—-Manuring. other circumftances, a much finer ftate of furface is neceflary than for the other kinds, it may be proper, efpecially where the manure is only harrowed in, to have it fhorter and more rotten than in the other cafes. It has alfo been re- marked, that by depofiting the manures in drills, much advantage will be derived in the faving of fuch articles, as well as in the crops’ being more effectually fup- ported, and confequently more productive. Befides, the manures in this way are more completely fecured againft the effeéts of evaporation*. In the application of manure for grain crops, as they are frequently liable, efpecially in the better forts of foils, to be greatly injured by an over-luxuriant growth, where the dreflings are laid on for the immediate crop, it may be a better praétice in fuch cafes to have them applied with the different prepara- tory fallow, or green crops, fuch as turnips, peas, beans, cabbages, carrots, &c. as in this way great advantages will be obtained, not only in the produc- tion of fuch crops, and their bringing the lands into the moft perfeét order for the growing of grain, but in the manures being more fully and more com- pletely blended and incorporated with the foils) Where the quality of the land is not very good, and the method of fummer fallowing is purfued, it may, however, in fome inftances, be a good method to apply the manures upon the fallows, both for the wheat and barley crops; as under fuch circumftances of the land, it is probable they are moft capable of being minutely blended with the foil, and confequently of affording the moft equal fupport to the grain. Where calcareous fubftances, fuch as fine chalk and the fhell marles, are to be made ufe of, it may alfo be the moft fuitable method to apply them when the lands have been reduced to a confiderable degree of pulverifation and fine- nefs, by ploughing, or other means; as under. fuch circumftances they will be much better and more minutely divided and incorporated with the mold of the foils than could otherwife be the cafe, a point on which we have feen that much advantage depends in the application of fuch matters. Such mate- rials are frequently laid on the land in their fimple ftates, and in making ufe of them at firft upon a foil, it may be the moft beneficial method; but where they are often repeated, the praétice of mixing them with earthy or other fubftances may be more advantageous fF. But in whatever way or on whatever defcription of tillage land the manure of the farm may be principally applied, it fhould never at firft be depolited, or covered up too deeply, in the foil; as where a large mafs of earthy matter is placed upon the manure, the effe&ts are not only much flower, but liable to be * Experienced Farmer, vol. I.-§e&tion on Manures. ? sind a other in, to N ye. tived \ fup- iS way liable, ‘Uriant bea epara- trots, oducs et for com. of the [ may, n the ses of with evain, are to when d fine- will be old of . feen nate- ife of , they ances ire of fited, ter 1S 0) be Cultivation of Arable Eand.— Manuring. 425 exerted when they cannot be of the moft utility in aiding the growth of the crops. Befides, as moft of the fubftances employed in this way have much ten- dency to fink down to the inferior and more folid parts of the foils below by the rains, and the neceffary hoeing and ftirring that muft fucceed, they will be fooner out of the reach of the abforbent roots of the plants which they are deftined to fupport, which for the moft part only extend themfelves in a fu- perficial manner. They fhould, however, in every cafe, be{o covered or placed in the earth, as that the difipating procefs of evaporation may be effe€étually guarded againtt. In regulating the proportions or quantities in which manures ought to be ap- plied to lands under the flate of tillage, various circumftances are to be taken into confideration, fuch as the nature, fituation, and condition of the land, the nanner in which it has been previoufly employed, the kind of crop that is to be grown, and the ftrength or goodnefs of the manure to be applied. In bringing different forts of Jand into cultivation, where they are naturally poor and thin in the ftaple, or where they have been much reduced and exhautfted by injudicious modes of cropping, as well as where full crops of thofe luxu- riant vegetables that require much fupport are to be cultivated, it will, in gene- ral, be the beft prattice to apply fuch full dreflings at once, as may be fufficient to bring the lands into fome ftate of richnefs and improvement, and at the fame time render them capable of fuftaining the crops that may be put upon them; as where fmall quantities are only laid on at once in fuch cafes, much lofs is moftly fuftained in the poverty of the crops, as well as in the great length of time that is required to bring the lands into a fuitable condition for the pur- pofes of tillage. In the applying of different forts of dung, and all thofe manures that are in 5? a fuitable condition for immediately imparting to the earth fuch fubftances as are proper for the nutrition and fupport of crops, efpecially where the principal object of the agricultor is the benefiting of grain, or fuch other forts of crops as may be dire€tly cultivated, and not that of the more diftant advantage and improvement of the{oil, confiderable favings in the quantities of the manures may probably often be made, by laying them upon the land and blending them with the mold as nearly as poflible to the periods of fowing or putting in the crops; as in this way there will be but little lofs from the diffipation or wafhing away of the nutritious matters before the crops are in a fiate to be benefited by them, as muft always be the cafe toa greater degree than is, perhaps, generally fuppofed, where the contrary praétice is purfued. In this method, they may be employed with ae| 426 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Manuring. great propriety to the wheat, barley, pea, or turnip crops, by being equally {pread out upon the prepared land, and then turned into it by means of the feed furrow, which in fuch cafes fhould in general be very light, or only fuch as is juft neceflary to cover them well. The quantity of manures of this kind that will ufually be requifite to be laid upon land under fuch circumftances, though it muft vary confiderably accord- ing to the ftate of the foil, and the goodnefs of the dung, will, in general, be from about fifteen or fixteen to twenty tons the ftatute acre. Where, how- ever, the main obje€t of the farmer is that of bringing the land into a proper ftate of cultivation, or that of affording a confiderable degree of amelioration and improvement, it will often be neceffary to have recourfe to much larger quantities if it be poflible to procure them. In tu urning d down clover, or other new lays, where there is a confiderable pro- portion of vegetable matter upon the furface, with the view of fowing wheat or other crops uppn them, it will feldom, perhaps, be requifite to have recourfe to ne ch full dungings as may be proper under other circumftances;. but in all fuch es the manures fhould not be turned into them to too great a depth, as where that is done the ore crop will often derive little or no benefit from fuch dreflings. But in whatever method, and in whatever proportions, manure of the dung kinds may be employed, it fhould always be fpread out with as much evennefs as poflible, and be turned into the foil as foon afterwards as the work can be performed with facility. In conveniently accomplifhing thefe points, it will be neceflary to depofit it upon the land in fmall heaps, and. not to have too much carried out at a time; as by the firft method the fpreading may be effected with much greater exattnefs, and by the latter, the whole may be turned into the foil fo quickly after its application as to prevent the wafte arifing from evaporation, or the effeéts of rain, circumftances of great confequence where manures may be applied either in very dry or rainy feafons. But where fubftances of the calcareous kinds, fuch as lime, chalk, marle, fhelly matters, and even fea or other forts of fand, are to be made ufe of in the way of manures to tillage lands, as much of their beneficial effe€ts evidently proceeds from their being very minutely blended with the particles of the foils, they may be applied with the greateft chance of advantage where the lands are undergoing the culture of repeated ploughing, as in fallowing for wheat, turnips,&c. for in fuch circumftances their parts are in the greateft ftate of divi- fion, or what by farmers is moftly termed mellownefs, and of courfe in the SP moft fuitable condition for admitting the particles of fuch materials to be the moft evenly blended and incorporated with them. In this intention, thefe forts of materials fhould always be fet on in fuch a manner, and be in fuch fine ftates of pulverifation, as that they may be fpread out upon the lands very equally. By choofing a rather dry feafon for the bufinefs, and depofiting the fubftances in {mall heaps along the ridges of the fields, fuch work may, in general, be well and conveniently executed.; It is obvious, from what has been already advanced concerning the nature and operation of thefe forts of manures, that they muft be ufed in different quantities or proportions, according to their qualities, and the differences in the foils*. It is, however, the common praétice to apply a larger quantity to the heavy and ftiff forts of land than to thofe of the lighter kinds. Lime is ufed in different diftri€ts at the rate of from one to four or five hundred buhhels, in proporticn as the foils feem to ftand in need of it. Chalk, in its calcined ftate, is employed in the proportion of from one to two hundred bufhels, and in its crude ftate toa much larger extent. Marle and fea or other forts of fand are laid on in various proportions from one to two thoufand bufhels, and in many cafes even confiderably moret. When ufed on tillage lands, marle fhould always be well broken down and reduced, as without this being duly attended to, but little benefit will often be produced. Where lime, either from chalk or limeftone, is made ufe of in repetition on the fame land, it may frequently be more beneficial to employ it in the form of compoft, with rich earths and other materials, than in its pure ftate, as under fuch circumftances its effeéts in different cafes have been obferved to be more beneficial. When made ufe of in fuch a ftate, the quantity laid on mutt, how- ever, be confiderably larger in proportion to the goodnefs of the fubftances that are blended with the lime.)| In the applications of lime to the furface of coarfe forts of land, with the intention of breaking them up, and bringing them into the ftate of tillage, much larger quantities than have been mentioned above may fometimes be required, and which muft be regulated by the nature and fituation of fuch lands, as has been already noticed. Lime may alfo, fometimes, be ufed on the wheat, turnip, or other crops, in the early{pring months, efpecially where danger from grubs, or other infeéts, is apprehended. In fuch cafes it is probably the beft method to employ it in very fine powder, and in its cauftic ftate, fowing it over the crops with as much ® See fection on Manures.+ Modern Agriculture, p. 204, Cultivation of Arable Land.—Aanuring. 407 428 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Manuring. regularity as poffible. This fhould be performed when the weather is dry, asin a rainy feafon injury might be done to the crops by the cauftic properties of the lime. It may likewife be made ufe of in the fame way, where no fuch danger is feared, to promote the growth of the crop; but in fuch cafes it is probably bet- ter to apply it in the flate of compoft with fome earthy fubftance, and ina larger proportion than in the former inftance. The quantity in all thefe cafes muft be regulated by the circumftances of the foil and the crops. In applying materials of the dung kind, or fuch as contain faline matters, as afhes, foot,&c. in this manner, it will alfo be neceflary to have them reduced into a ftate of fine powder, in order that they may be fpread over the crops with regularity and evennefs. The effetts of fubftances of this fort will alfo greater if they are fown over the crops when the weather is inclined to be wet. The ufe of fubffances that have been much reduced and broken down, by being thinly fown, and fpread out over the land by the hand, is a pra€tice that may be more generally had recourfe to in fituations where manures are fcarce and expenfive, asin this way the growth of crops may be promoted with but a comparatively{mall quantity of them. They are, however, much lefs conftant in their effects than fuch as are turned into the foil, and of courfe can only be employed for the immediate crop. Where permanent advantage and improvement are to be given, the more maffy forts of manure, either of the animal, vegetable, or foflil kinds, muft be applied according to the ftate and circumfiances of the foils. Various materials may be made ufe of in the manner of top-dreflings for arable land, fuch as rags reduced by cutting or chopping to very fmall pieces; rabbit,» pigeon, and the dung of poultry in general; foot, the afhes of wood, turf, peat, and coal; different animal matters, fuch as horns, bones, hoofs, &c. after being brought to acoarfe powdery ftate by grinding, or other means; the combs and duft of malt, and the refufe of various forts of feeds, fuch as flax and rape,&c. The rags are applied in various proportions according to circumftances, from half a ton to a ton and a half, or more, being fown over the land im- mediately before the laft ploughing, when they are lightly turned in, and the feed fown; their effects when ufed in this mode are often obferved for feveral crops.: The dungs of rabbits, and different forts of birds, are moftly employed for barley or turnip crops, in the proportion of about fixteen or twenty facks to the acre, each fack containing three bufhels, being thinly fown over the land ee Sg Cultivation of Arable Land.——Manuring. 4co after the laft or feed-furrow has been given, and harrowed in with the feed. They are frequently alfo fown on the young whea‘s and clovers in the fpring, with great advantage; but when ufed in this way, they fhould always be laid on very early, efpecially on the drier forts of foil, as about the latter end of January; but on fuch as are more wet, February, or even March, may be more proper. When their application is deferred to too late a period, there is often danger of their being lefs ufeful from the increafing drynefs of the feafon, and their rendering the land, in fome cafes, more apt to burn*. Soot is chiefly laid upon the crops of wheat, faintfoin, and clover, that have had no previous manuring. It is ufually fown over them with the hand, in the proportion of from twenty to thirty bufhels, or even more, to the acre, about January or February, having been colle¢ted into heaps during the winter for the purpofe. The vegetable afhes, and thofe of turf and peat, are likewife found ufeful to the young wheats and clovers, when fown over them in the fpring, in the fame quantities as thofe of foot 5 or a confiderably lefs proportion of wood athes, as eight or ten bufhels, may be fufficient. They may alfo be ufed on the turnip fallows with great benefit, being fpread over them, and harrowed in with the feed. If fown over the turnips in the early ftages of their growth, wood athes are likewife faid to be beneficial in preferving them from the ravages of the fly. In Hertfordthire, where thefe forts of dreflings are, perhaps, more ufed than in any other diftriét, the coal afhes are principally employed on the clover crops, being bought from the different collectors of them in the county, or brought in back-carriage from London on taking the grain to the market during the winter feafon, and fown over them in the early ae They are{cane laid on at the rate of about twenty or five-and-twenty facks of three bufhels each to the acre, and in this way are found of fuch utility as to prove the practice highly economical, and deferving of more general imitation by the agricultors of other diftrittst.: When foot and fubftances of the fame fort are had recourfe to, they fhould invariably be preferved in places conftruéted for the purpofe, and covered over fo as to proteét them from the rain and wetnefs, as where this practice is neg- leéted, the faline matters contained in them being diflolved, are carried down and loft, by which means their valuable properties are Se Pea diminifhed. The cuftom of laying them inJarge heaps in the fields expofed to the weather, * Synopfis of Hufbandry, p. 42++ Ibid. 43. 43 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Manuring. however convenient, fhould therefore always be avoided by the attentive a gri- cultor, as wafteful in a high degree. Where bones, horn, hoofs, and other hard animal materials are to be made ufe of in this way, they are commonly fown over the land in the quantity of from about half a ton to that of a ton to the acre, according as they are reduced or broken down, before the laft ploughing, and immediately turned in with a light furrow. If too large a proportion of this manure be employed, the grain, it is fuid, becomes too luxuriant, and too long in ripening, as well as liable to injury from mildew. When made ufe of in the more lumpy or unreduced ftate, they fhould be turned into the foila greater length of time before the feed is fown, in order that time may be given for them to undergo decompo- fition, and impart their nutritious properties to the earth. The combs and duft of malt are commonly made ufe of, as a hand-drefling to the young wheat crops, and thofe of barley, turnip, and clover. They are em- ployed at the rate of from thirty to forty bufhels, or more. They are frequently fown with barley and turnip crops, in Hertfordfhire, at the rate of about thirty bufhels to the acre, and harrowed in. This manure, like many others of thofe applied in the fame way, is found to be the moft beneficial where fown over the crops at fuch periods as that their effeéts may be promoted by the fuc- ceeding rains. The refufe of oily feeds, when laid upon heavy forts of land in the manner of a top-drefling, is frequently blended with a little lime, as about fix parts to one; but upon light or calcareous foils it may be ufed alone. It is ufually {own over the wheat crops, at the rate of eight or ten bufhels to the acre, and in fome places difperfed over the lands in the ftate of preparation for wheat or turnips, and then lightly turned into the foil. This is fometimes the prace tice in the county of Norfolk. The ufe of cakes or the refufe of this kind of feeds in the feeding of cattle, and other animals, has, however, of late, rendered it too expenfive to be much employed in the way of manure. There are, probably, many other fubftances of fimilar kinds to thefe that have been mentioned, that might be employed in this way, where there is a {carcity of other forts of manure, and in improving the fickly and defeétive crops in the early fpring months; but they have not yet been fufficiently at- tended to by agricultors. The expence of the application of manures in this way muft obvioufly be very different according to fituation and other circumftances; but, in general, confidering the great way they are made to go, and the readinefs and conve- ee Se FE aS ae ST LE Ta Cultivation of Arable Land,— Manuring. A31 nience of theirapplication, they may be faid to be cheap and economical*. By providing adequate fupplies of thefe manures, it is afferted by the author of B * Modern Agriculture,” that the ifconveniences of bad feed times and feafons may, ina great meafure, be obviated. And that as they are peculiarly adapted to the poor, light, fandy, and gravelly kinds of foil, from which the fpecifically heavieft grain is produced, they may place them more on an equality in re- fpect to their annual value, with thofe of the ftronger and richer forts. At all events, the increafe in the prattice of applying fuch fubftances in thofe dif- tricts in which they have been long had recourfe to, fufficiently, he thinks, juf- tiffes attempts of the fame nature in others, efpecially as fuch kinds of mate- rials may, in many fituations, be procured with facility f. In regard to the feafon of applying manures to land in the ftate of tillage, it muft always depend in a great meafure upon the convenience of the farmer, the ftate of the foil, and the nature of the crops that are to be produced; but where thefe do not interfere, the diffipating heats of the fummer, and the wafhing effects of the winter and autumnal feafons, fhould as much as poflible be avoided. For where they are laid upon the ground in the hot fummer months, except they be immediately turned into the earth, a large propor- tion of their moft beneficial, properties muft be forced off into the atmofphere by the continued a€tion of the heat, and be wholly loft; and where they are applied in the more rainy periods of the winter, they muft be liable to be dif- folved, and carried away into the furrounding ditches of the fields, or to fuch a depth below the loofened mold, as to be of but little utility to the crops. The early fpring, before the hot weather fets in, and the latter end of fummer, before the heavy rains begin to fall, and when the heat is becoming daily lefs, where the nature of the crops will admit, would probably be the moft advan- * It is ftated by the author of The prefent State of- Hufbandry in Great Britain, that the average price of top-dreffings in Hertfordfhire, is as follows: Le SOG: Thirty bufhels of foot, at 8d. is. w2°.= we. AOL SO Ditto of afhes, the carriage being the principal expence, 0 19 0 Ccalathess sre are enero Rey fo ae AS Ten buthels of oil-cake.duft, at 2s. 6d..,..-«1.5 Poriyibuthels of malt. duit, at.ts.0¢. 1...+. 220 Fifteen bufhels of horn fhavings, at2s..... 110 Oo§ + According to the author of the Synopfis of Hufbandry.§ Editor of Miller’s Dictionary, t See Section on Manures. 43% Cultivation of Arable Land.—Turning in Green Crops. tageous periods for their application, though the bufinefs is moft commonly per formed by farmers during the more vacant periods of the drying fummer feafon, and of the winter frofts*. There are flill other means of improving arable lands, befides thofe of the direét application of thofe fubftances that are properly termed manures; fuch as thofe of turning into the foil various kinds of green vegetable crops in the moft fucculent ftages of their growth, the folding of fheep on land, and the covering of the ground by the overflowings of rivers, or the tides of the fen. occ. Ploughing in green crops.—This is a method that has been employed in huf- bandry for a very confiderable length of time on the Continent, though it is but little practifed by the farmers of this country. This, probably, arifes in fome neafure from the foils being in moft diftriéts too wet and heavy for its being had recourfe to with much advantage; the light and more friable kinds of land being the moft adapted for improvement in this way, as in fuch defcriptions of ground the green materials undergo decompofition much more readily, and become more readily in the proper ftate for affording the nourifhment and fupport of crops. Indeed, in fome of the clayey foils, the putrefaétion of fuch fubftances is retarded in fuch a manner, that little or no benefit can be de- rived from them. In foils fuited to this method of manuring, crops of the green kind, fuch as buck-wheat, tares, clover, rape, and, where fown for the purpofe, peas or beans,&c. might be turned in as a preparation for wheat crops, without the ex- pence of fallowing. Where this practice is employed, the crops, as has been juft obferved, fhould always be turned down when in their moft luxuriant ftages of growth, and the foil is rather dry, in order that a fpeedy decompo- fition and decay may take place. It is probable alfo, that advantages may be gained in this view by the application of{mall proportions of calcareous fub- ftances in their cauftic or more aétive ftate over them before they are turned downt. The economy of this practice muft chiefly depend upon the favings in cartage, and the labour of preparation, which in other forts of manure mutft always be confiderable. In fome diftriéts+ this practice, after having been attempted, appears to have been given up from its not fully anfwering the purpofes for which it was % See Seftion on Manures.+ Ibid. ~ Young’s Agricultural Survey of Lincolnfhire, p. 265. y Nere -afon, f the fuch in the id the of the - Is but fome being land ons of , and t and yn of e de- ich as as Of he eX- 5 been uriant )mpo- ay be fub- ned yings 3 mult tS; to { was Cultivation of Arable Land.—Folding of Sheep. 433. intended, which in all probability was owing to the lands, in moft cafes, being either too wet or too heavy to permit a full and complete putrefa€tion of the vegetable matters turned down. Folding of sheep on tillage land.—This method of improving tillage lands feems to have been praétifed from the moft early periods of the art of agricul- ture, and to be ftill had recourfe to in different diftrits of the kingdom with the moft beneficial and advantageous confequences. It however can only be employed with much fuccefs where the nature of the farm admits of the fheep- hufbandry being carried to fome extent in combination with that of arable cul-| tivation; and where the foil is of fuch a dry, mellow, and light porous quality, as to require to be rendered more folid and compaét by the treading of the animals. In fuch as are much loaded with moifture, or are very ftiff and heavy, it will be improper and injurious.‘The treading, in the laft forts of land, tend- ing to render them more clofe and compatt, they of courfe become more improper for the growth of moft forts of crops by the pra&tice. As it is probable that much of the beneficial confequences of this method of hufbandry in tillage lands, muft proceed from the ation of the ammonia formed from the urine and excrement of the fheep, it is eafy to fuppofe that moffy or peaty foils, as containing much vegetable matter on which it can operate, may likewife be greatly improved in this way, as well as by the confolidation of the land from the treading of the animals. It is, indeed, impoffible to fuppofe that the whole of the advantage that is obtained in many cafes of this fort of foil, by the folding of fheep, can be produced folely in the latter mode. The praétice of folding may be ufefully employed on fuch foils as we have feen to be proper for it, in the fummer feafon, either as a preparation for wheat or turnip crops, in which cafes the foil fhould not by any means be ftirred to any great depth in the ploughings that may be given after the folds have been formed, as by turning in the furface-mold that has been rendered rich and mel- low by the procefs, to a confiderable depth, the good effeéts of the pratice mutt obvioufly be in a great meafure loft. In many inftancesit may perhaps be the beft method merely to harrow in the feed without any further ufe of the plough; or what is probably a ftill better pra€tice, efpecially on very light foils, is that of folding the fheep upon the Jand immediately after it has been fown. In hot fea- fons, the turningit in by a flight furrow, as preventing any lofs by evaporation, may, however, be right. Folding may alfo be had recourfe to in the fpring months, both as apreparation for the barley crop, and asaffording vigour and fupport to the young wheats, efpecially where the foils are fo light as to endanger the crops from the loofenefs of the mold about the roots. In the laft method the theep muft be iS AS4 Cultivation of Arable Land.—VYolding of Sheep. fuffered to remain upon the land only a very fhort time each day, and be put in at fo early a period of the growth of the crops, that no injury can be produced by the pulling up of the plants in the feeding of the animals. There is ftill another method of folding, which is fometimes made ufe of during the winter feafon, where the lands are fufficiently dry; this is that of confining the fheep upon fuch ftubbles as are intended to be ploughed up in the fpring. But inthe firft methods the folds fhould not be nearly fo extenfive as in the laft; a flock of one hundred and fifty ewes and lambs being in the former modes confined on about four or five rods of ground, while in the latter they ought to have ten, fifteen, or even more*. The fpaces of land on which they are confined may, however, be much varied, according to the circumftances of the different cafes, and the purpofes the agricultor has in view, but they fhould al- ways be fuch as that the animals may not be inconvenienced by being too greatly crowded together, and that the improvement of the land may be fully effected. Where they are not fo clofely confined, they may be fuffered to re- main a greater length of time on the fame fpot, though in general it is by much the beft pra€tice only to confine them one night on the fame fpace of ground., From the nature of this mode of manuring land, it muft be obvious, as has been obferved, that it can only be employed with much fuccefs where there is a confiderable extent of common, grazing, or pafture land, annexed to the arable; or where green crops, fuch as turnips, tares, rape, and other plants of a fimilar kind, are cultivated upon a pretty large fcale. As where the. fheep have not fuch defcriptions of land to feed and fill themfelves well upon, the evacuations voided by them can only be fuch as to afford a very flight improvement to the ground. There are befides thefe fome other circumftances to be attended to in the management of this bufinefs on arable lands. The fheep fhould conftantly be kept as neat as poflible to the lands that are intended to be improved by the fheep-fold, in order that no injury may be done to the animals, and that as little lofs as poflible may be fuftained during the time they are in driving from the paftures to the folds. In this view, fuch a number of folds will be neceflary as may allow the fheep not to travel further than would be fufficient for their feeding in other cafes, proper pafture or other lands being always provided for them as contiguous as may be to the grounds to be folded. In thefe it will alfo be an advantageous plan to keep them confined when the weather is wet and improper for their being driven and folded upon the ploughed * Synopfis of Hufbandry, Dut ny luced fe of hat of Inthe € asin former ought ley are of the uld ale 1g too fully to re- is by ace of s has there ‘0 the plants re the. 5 well a very a the ly be r the little n the offary their vided efe it sa ther yohed ale Cultivation of Arable Land.—lVarping. A35 lands*, as under fuch circumftances the lands are not only often much injured by the praétice, but the animals greatly hurt. ‘Lhe fheep, in all cafes of folding for the improvement of arable lands, fhould be fuffered to fill themfelves very well on the paftures or other grounds, be- fore they are driven to, and inclofed in the folds on the ploughed Jands. Hence it is probably the beft method to let them remain on the green food the whole or the greater part of the day, and only inclofe them in the folds during the nights, as in this way the greateft amelioration will not only be effected, but the leaft injury fuftained by the animals. In the mornings before they are turned out of the folds, it may be a beneficial cuftom to have them driven brifkly once or twice about the folds, in order to promote the evacuations of urine and dung. This may alfo, at the fame time, be ufeful in promoting the circulation, and benefiting the health of the animals. The kinds of fheep that are the moft fuitable to be employed in this bufi- nefs, are thofe of the Devonfhire, or weft-country breed, as being the moft hardy, and bearing the confinemeat of the fold better than thofe of the larger and finer kinds; but many of the other forts may be made ufe of in the fame way, in diftri€tts where the above breeds are not kept, though a little more care may be required in the managing of them. Warping.—This is a method of manuring and improving tillage lands, that can only be prattifed in particular fituations, as in the vicinity of large rivers and waters into which the tides of the fea flow, and where the level of the grounds is fuch as readily to admit of their being overflowed by them. The aim of the agricultor in this mode of manuring land is, by admitting the floods or tides of fuch rivers to flow over and ftagnate upon the land, to ob- tain a confiderable fediment or depofition of muddy and flimy or other matter upon the furface of the ground, fo that a new foil may as it were be created. In order to this, the tide is let in at high water to depofit the warp or enriching fubftance, and fuffered to run off again as it falls. But to produce the full effe&t, it will be neceflary to have the water under fuch command that it may be kept out or Jet in as occafion may demand. This is accomplifhed in moft cafes by the cutting canals fo as to join the rivers, and fixing fluices at the heads of them, which may be regulated at pleafure, fo as to admit the water of the fpring-tides only, and others in proper places for difcharging or taking it off the land. And that the water may ftagnate upon the lands toa fufficient depth, and be prevented from overflowing the adjoining grounds, * Anderfon’s Effays, vol. IIT. Pp. 27. 436 Cultivation of Arable Land.—lWVarping. Danks are raifed all round the inclofures to be warped, of from three to fix or feven feet in height, according to the fituation and other circumftances of the land, having proper flopes on each fide. Where the land to be improved by this means is of confiderable extent, the main canal may be cut toa great length, fo as to warp the lands on each fide of it, by lateral cuts in fuitable direGtions to aconfiderable diftance. But as the effeéts in thefe cafes are found to diminifh in proportion to the diftance from the river, a greater length of time will be neceffary for the depofition of the warp according to the diftance from it*. That itis not the water that’ produces the benefit in thefe cafes, but the depofition of mud, is evident from the bufinefs being difcontinued in the warping diftricts during frefh-water floods, as well as inthe winter feafon. The refult of the ana- lyfis of this muddy fediment, has fhewn it to confift of much mucilage, a very {mall portion of faline matter, with.a large one of calcareous earth; the refidue being mica and fand, each in a very minute{tate of divifion, and the latter in ‘much the largeft proportion. It is alfo fuggefted, that though no mention is made of any argillaceous material, from examination of the warp on the fields, it is obvious, that it is prefent in fome cafes. The ftiffer forts of warp are alfo fuppofed by fome to be the beft f. * The following direétions for managing this bufinefs are given by Lord Hawke, in the Agricultural . Survey of the Weft Riding of Yorkthire: «* The land to be warped muft be banked round againft the river. The banks are made of the earth taken on the fpot frona the land: they muft flope fix feet; that is, three feet on each fide of their top or crown of the bank, for everv foot perpendicular of rife: their top or crown is broader or narrower, according to the impetuofity of the tide, and the weight and quantity of water; and it extends from two feet to twelve: their height is regulated by the height to which the{pring tides flow, fo as to exe clude or let them in at pleafure. In thefe banks, there are more or fewer openings, according to the fize of the ground to be warped, and to the choice of the occupier, but in general they have only two _ fluices, one called the flood-gate to admit, the other called the c/ough to let off, the water gently; thefe are enowgh for ten or fifteen acres: when the fpring-tide begins to ebb, the flood-gate is opened to admit the tide, the clough having been previoufly fhut by the weight of water brought up the river by the flow of the tide. As the tide ebbs down the river, the weight or preflure of water being taken from the out- fide of the clough next the river, the tide water that has been previoufly admitted by the flood-gate opens the clough again, and difcharges itfelf flowly but completely through it. The cloughs are walled on each fide, and fo conftruéted as to let the water run off,‘between the ebb of the tide admitted, and the flow of the next; and to this point particular attention is paid. The flood gates are placed fo high as only to let in the fpring-tides when opened. They are piaced above the level of the common tides, « Willows are aifo occafionally planted on the front of the banks to break the force of the tides, and defend the banks by raifing the front of them with warp thus collected and. accumulated: but. thefe willows mnft never be planted on the banks, as they would deftroy the banks by giving the winds power to fhake them.” } Young’s Survey of the County of Lincoln, p. 277. a. ——— i ee Cultivation of Arable Land.—Warping. 437 As a fort of new foil is created by this praCtice, it is of but little confequence what the nature of the land may be, almoft all kinds being improved by it. {t will probably, however, be the moft beneficial in fuch light foils as are very open and porous, and fuch ftiff ones as are defective in calcareous matter, and which require fubftances of this kind to render them lefs tenacious. The beft fituation cf land for performing this bufinefs in, is when it is in the ftate of fallow; but it may be done when in that of ftubble, or other fimilar condition, and even in that of fward, when the grafs begins to decline. The feafon of doing it is generally in the fummer months, from May or June till Auguft, or September, as at thefe times the lands not only become the fooneft dry, a circumftance which muft always fully take place before the procefs of cultiva- tion can be carried on, but the tides are lefs mixed with freth water, in which fituation they are conftant!y found the moft effectual. Land, when once well warped, will continue for a great length of time in good condition; but not- withftanding this, it is fuggefted by fome perfons converfant with the bufinefs, asa better practice to apply a fmali portion of warp whenever the land is in the ftate of fallow, which, under the arable fyftem, will be about every five or fix years. By this means the farmer will be more fecure of having good crops. The depth to which the lands are covered with the water muft be va- rious according to the differences of their levels, and the heights of the tides in the rivers from which they proceed. When it can be done, it may be ad- mitted to the height of three or four feet or more, as the depofit of fediment is in fome meafure proportionate to the height of the water, though the fame ef- fects may be obtained from much fmaller quantities of water, by continuing the. procefs a greater number of tides. Lands that have been fubjeéted to this mode of improvement fhould conftaatly be kept in the ftate of tillage for fome length of time afterwards, in order that it may be brought to a proper condition for the produétion of grafs f. The expence of this method of improving lands will be very different in dif- ferent cafes, as the circunftances of fituation and diftance vary; but it can fel- dom exceed twelve or fifteen pounds the acre{, and in moft inftances it muft be greatly below fuch eftimates, probably not more than a third of them|. + Brown’s Agricultural Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkthire. } Young's Survey of the County of Lincoln, p. 284. } It is remarked by Mr. Day, in the Agricultural Survey of the Weft Riding of Yorkthire, that no eftimate can be made without viewing the fituation of the lands to be warped, and the courfe and ABS Cultivation of Arable Lan ide— Sowing. Lands after having undergone this procefs are moftly capable of producing abundant crops of almoft any kind; but in general oats are the moft to be de- pended upon for the firft feafon; and they are faid to be more proper for the growth of this fort of crop, and thofe of wheat and beans, than barley, as the foil becomes fo rich in this way, that it fuflers in general by being too rank and coarfe. Flax may likewife be grown in many cafes to great evantine They are alfo admirably adapted for potatoes, as well as variouskinds of feed crops, and the being laid down for the purpofe of pafture*. The praétice of warping is adopted on the rivers Trent, Oufe, and Dun, with great benefit; and upon the low lands that are fituated near to large rivers, in other parts of the kingdom, the tide waters of which are often muddy, it may probably be had recourfe to with equal fuccefs. Sowing.—In order to perform this bufinefs in the moft advantageous and per- fect manner, it will be neceflary for the agricultor to pay particular attention to a variety of different circumftances, fuch as the quality, preparation, and quan- tity of feed that is to be put into the ground, the time and depth of fowing it, the flate of the feafon, and climate in which it is to be fown; the nature of the land, and the particular kind of feeds or plants that are to be cultivated upon it, for on properly regulating and adapting his practice to thefe points, diftance it will be neceffary to carry the warp to fuch lands, as, rft. The fituation of the lands muft be con- Adered. adly. The quantity of land the fame drains and cloughs will be fufficient to warp. 3dly. The expence of building the cloughs, cutting the drains, embanking the lands,&c. An eftimate of which expencs being made, then it will be neceflary to know the number of acres fuch cloughs and drains will warp, before any eftimate per acre can be made; therefore it will be eafy to conceive the greater quan: tity of land, the fame cloughs and drains will warp, the eafier the expence will‘be per acre. In his opinion there are great quantities of land in the eountry, which might be warped at fo fmall an ex- pence, as from£.4 to£.8 per acre, which is nothing in comparifon to the advantages which arife from it. Ye has known land which has been raifed in value by warping, from£.5 to upwards of 4.40 and £-50 per acre; therefore it is eafy to conceive that the greateft advantages arife upon the worft land, and the more porous the foil the better, as the wet filters through, and it fooner becomes fit for ufe. The advantages of warping are very great; as, after lands have been properly warped, they are fo enriched thereby, that they will bring very large crops for feveral years afterwards, without any manure; and, when it is neceflary, the lands might be warped again, by opening the old drains, which would be done ata very trifling expence, and would bring crops in fucceffion for many years, with very little or no till- age at all, if the lands were kept free from quick grafs, and other weeds, which mutt be the cafe in all lands where they are properly managed; befides the drains which are made for the purpofe of warping, are the beft drains that can be confructed for draining ithe lands at the time they arenot ufed for warp- ing, which is another very great advantage.in low lands. * Agricultural Sumrey of the Well Riding of Yorkthire, Ucing e de. t the 8 the K and They Crops, Dun Vers, dy, it ) ‘per- mn to yuan: wing ature ated ints, e CON , The “which ns will | quan In his in eX¢ from o and and, The iched and, done ) till. inall ping, warp’ ae eee Cultivation of Arable Land.—Choice of Seed. 439 much of his fuccefs will probably depend. It will alfo be of much utility to have regard to the particular modes in which the feeds or‘plants are to be put into the foil, as fome variation will be required according as they are fown or put in by the broadcaft, drill, or dibbling methods. It feems to be fhewn by the experiments and obfervations of an intelligent phi- lofophical enquirer, that grain or feed during the act of vegetation draws oxygen from the atmofphere, part of which is retained, and the remainder thrown off charged with a portion of carbon. In this procefs the fubftances of the feed-lobes, therefore, undergo a confiderable change, an additional proportion of oxygen en- tering into their compofition, while a portion of their carbon isdiffipated. By this alteration in the proportion of their conftituent principles, the faccharine fermen- tation takes place, and fugar is formed, as demonttrated in the operation of malt: ing grain. The fugar and carbonic acid, from their being more foluble in water than the ovyd of the farinaceous matter, eafily, it is fuppofed, combine with the moifture in the capillary veffels of the feed, and find a ready paffage to the germ, the vegetative principle of which is thus brought into aftion by a ftimuliis adapted to the particular nature of it. By the decompofition of the feed-lobes, a nutritious fluid being thus formed and diftributed through the infant plant, ifs oruans, are: excited, to: exert, their fpecific a€tions, in decompounding the nourifhment conveyed to them, and in forming new oryds from the elemen- tary principles of it, in order to the increafe and evolution of the veffels: and fibres*. In this way, it is imagined, the firft flage of vegetation com- mences; which, if the ingenious author’s conclufions be well founded, would feem to fhew that the grain or feed, in order to its undergoing thefe different changes the moft readily, and in the moft perfe&t manner, on which, perhaps, healthy vegetation may depend, fhould not only be properly depofited in the foil, but be fo well ripened and filled-with farinaceous matter,.and poffefs fuch a degree of moifture, as may difpofe it to. undergo fuch changes in a fpeedy manner, while at the fame time a due fupply of fuitable nutritious matter is afforded for the healthy germination, and early growth of the young plant. In refpe€t to the choice of feed of the grain kinds, as frequently as poflible, it fhould, therefore, be a rule with the farmer to purchafe or referve fuch as is the moft full, plump, found, and healthy, of whatever defcription it may be, as it is only in this way probably that crops of good grain can be infured. And this pra€tice is further enforced from the circumftance of its being in fome 7 EX bo+ * Gough onthe Vegetation of Seeds, in the Memoirs of the Manchefter Society, vol. IV. p. 310. AAO Cultivation of Arable Land.—Choice of Seed. meafure the fame with plants as with animals, that the produce is in a degree fimilar to that from which it originated. But it is not merely on this principle that fuch grain as is fmall, fhrivelled up, and imperfeétly fed, fhould be rejeGted as improper for feed; but as con- taining a fmaller proportion of farinaceous matter, and being thereby, as has been feen, lefs proper for affording that degree of nourifhment and fupport which is neceflary to the young plants during the period of germination, or the firft ftage of their growth. Where fuch feed as is fhrivelled up, and im- perfectly ripened, is fown, in general but a little of it vegetates, and that which does, moftly fends forth plants of a weak and feeble kind, that afford only a lean and fteely fort of grain. Befides thefe, there are other circumftances which ought to be taken into the account in the choice of feed corn, fuch as that it be new and recently threfhed from the ftraw, and that the fkin be clear and thin; for it is found that grain which is frefh and only juft threfhed out, is in a much more proper ftate for quick vegetation than fuch as has been long kept, confequently lefs liable to perifh in bad feafons; and that where the rind or{kin is of a bright colour, and thin, a much larger proportion of fine farinaceous or mealy matter is yielded from the fame quantity of grain, which renders it of courfe more valuable to the cultivator.‘This is particularly the cafe in wheat, and the fame thing probably takes place in refpect to other forts of grain. The experiments of a late writer feem indeed to thew, that wheat, after being kept fix or feven years, though there may not be any per- ceptible difference in its appearance from fuch as is new, is wholly unfit for being made ufe of as feed, on account of only a fmall portion of it being ca- pable of vegetating*. This may, probably, in many cafes be owing to the grain being more difpofed under fuch circumftances to take on the putrefactive fermentation, or become rotten, than to the abforption of oxygen, which is believed to be effential to the procefs of vegetation, in the early ftagef. It is probable, too, that befides this effe& where the moifture and juice of the grain is much taken away, as is the cafe in keeping it for a confiderable length of time, the plants that are produced from it may even be lefs vigorous and luxuriant, as happens in gardening to fome kinds of feed, as that of the mel- lon, which is frequently kept for feveral years, in order to effet this purpofe the more fully. On the principles which have been ftated above, it is therefore obvious, that in * Synopfis of Hufbandry, p. 80. + Gough on the Vegetation of Seeds in Manchefter Tranfactions, vol LV. p. 310& 488. elled Con- has port OM, ot id im- d that afford ances fuch clear out, long e the f fine hich “the yther that Der fit for ng Ca- to the active ich Is ou(d the ngth and mel- pofe vat 12 Cultivation of Arable Lund.—Alode of colleGing Seed. AA order to fecure the moft perfect vegetation of grain, it fhould not be placed too much out of the influence of the atmofpheric air, and that the bed of earth in which it is depofited be in as fine a ftate of pulverifation as poffible, as under fuch circumftances the air is more uniformly admitted, and the feed, from being in a more equal temperature, and more equably fupplied with moifture, is ex- pofed in the moft favourable manner to the combined effects of the caufes that have been found to promote the germination, growth, and profperity of the young plant*. As to fuch grain as is in any way difeafed, it fhould never be made ufe of as feed. The experiments of the author of the Synopfis of Hufbandry clearly prove, that no method of preparation that has been yet attempted has been fufficient to render it capable of producing healthy plants. In his different trials he invariably found, that in wheat which was affected with the fmuc, the grains univerfally produced a fucceflion of ears that were tinged in a greater or lefs degree with the diftemper, and that neither fteeping nor the change of foil made any difference in preventing it, but that that which had been fteeped and limed, as well as that which was fown dry, afforded difeafed ears. The fowing of this fort of feed, though it may have been advifed by fome incautious agri- cultors who have placed too much confidence on the efficacy of /feeps, can only difappoint the expeftations of the farmer in propagating more widely the ravages of fuch vegetable difeafes, and producing fcanty fupplies of found grain. There is ftill another point that ought not to be overlooked in regard to feed corn, which is that it be clean and perfectly free from the feeds of every fort of weed, as where this is not fufficiently attended to, crops may be greatly in- jured, if not wholly fpoiled, by the growth of weeds, and fuch noxious plants introduced into the foil as cannot be removed again without confiderable trous ble and expence. There are different methods that may be purfued in order to fecure fuch grain as Is healthy, and proper for the purpofe of feed. The beft is probably that of feleGting from amongft the corn while it is growing in the fields, as in this way an opportunity is afforded of choofing fuch heads or ears of the plants of different kinds, as are the moft perfect, the moft forward and vigorous in their growth, and which contain feed that is the moft plump and full, and the beft ripéned.‘Thefe advantages may likewife, in fome refpeéts, be attained in the more valuable forts of grain, by having them picked over by the hand after % Gough on the Vegetation of Seeds, in the Manchefter Tranfactions, P: 324. 3 4 tA A4e Cultivation of Arable Land.—Mode of colleQing Seed, being threfhed out; but the practice is tedious, and not fo certain of having the feed from the moft healthy and beft ripened plants. In order to be poffeffed of the beft and moft perfeét forts of feed, the moft healthy and vigorous plants fhould therefore be chofen, and fuch as are the moft early in refpect to the feafon, and thefe while growing be fo preferved that they may not be injured by having weaker plants of the fame kinds near them; as the art of having good feeds does not, it is afferted by an experienced agri- cultor, depend upon obtaining new feeds from fituations at a confiderable di- ftance; but upon colletting and preferving the beft feeds or roots of our own produftion. This method of pragtice has been adopted in confequence of having remarked that, though vegetables of every kind are extremely Hable to undergo changes in regard to the periods of their becoming ripe and other properties, the beft feeds never fail to afford the bef plants*. In preferving feed grain, by colle&ting it in the ears from the ftack, there may however, it is obferved, be difadvantages, both in the way of leffening the produce by choofing the Jargeft ears which have feldom more than one upon a ftem, and by taking fuch as become ripe at different periods f. There are various methods of afcertaining the goodnefs of grain or feeds, but the farmer chiefly depends upon the appearances that they exhibit, preferring fuch as are full, plump, well fed, and that havea certain brightnefs and cleare nefs, without any fhriveling or fhrinking in the covering or fkin. The fame purpofe may, however, be accomplifhed with greater accuracy. by other means, as the weighing of a certain meafure;. it being well Known that grain or feeds, on being immerfed in fluids, have the more light and imperfect floating on the furface, while the better and more perfeét fink to the bottom. On this principle, folutions well faturated with faline fubf{tances, from their gravity being much increafed, become excellent for afcertaining the goodnefs of grains; as none but fuch as are perfe¢tly found will fink in them.. It is obferved by the author of Phytologia, that the weight of a given mea- fure of grain may alfo be a tolerably certain method of difcovering the quantity of hufk or bran contained in it, compared to the quantity of flour; as that grain which is cut too early, or which is otherwife not quite ripe, as happens in wet feafons, fhrinks in the barn or granary, and becomes wrinkled, and has thus a greater proportion of fkin or bran than that which has been more perfeétly ripened, and will hence weigh lighter in proportion. ® Prieftley in Communications to the Beard of Agriculture, vol. I,+ Ibid. Cultivation ef Arable Land.—Changing of Seed, AAS Another method that may be had recourfe to in order to diftinguith light from heavy grain, is that of winnowing, as the furfaces of light grains, from their being greater in proportion to their folid contents, will be carried further by the current of air afforded in the operation; yet in pafling them through a {creen the heavy grains may be liable to run further out on the floor from their being more propelled by their greater gravity, without the refiftance of the air en their furfaces being increafed*. And as grain that has undergone fermentation, or been heated much, or burnt in the flack, as it is meftly termed by farmers, is improper for feed, from its not being capable of vegetating, it may be of utility in many cafes to be able to:difcover where this has happened. The following method, which is perfectly fimple, has been recommended forthe purpofe. A pafte is to be made with water from the flour of the fufpe€ted grain, which is then to be wathed by the hand under water, which is frequently changed, until no difcolouration of it takes place. The fubftance which is left in the hand is the glutinous part of the grain, and which, if the corn be good, is elaftic, contracting readily on being drawn out; if it has only been juft heated, it is brittle; but where it has fermented, none of the gluten will be afforded+. Much has been advanced by fome agricultors on the importance of chang- ing of feed of the fame kind, probably from adopting imperfeét notions of the nature of vegetation, or purfuing falfe analogies in refpeét to the breeding of animals, but it is evident from the trials that have been made in the cultivation of grain, and from what happens in particular cafes of gardening, that it will be of no utility to have recourfe to the change of feed, provided it is properly adapted to the foil, except it be for an improved kind. The only thing neceffary is that of colle€ting and preferving the beft of the different kinds, in the me- thods that have been direéted above, and by that means prevent a degeneracy. ft is hardly to be fuppofed that the foil can become tired of, or be improper for, producing a fort of grain for which it is adapted, fince it may be obferved that the fame forts of plants are frequently propagated on the fame fpots of ground fora vaft length of time without any manifeft injury in refpe& to their quality. As fome of the varieties of the fame fort of grain or feed, when fown under fimilar circumftances of foil and climate, are however often found by the cul- tivators of land to be of a much more early growth than others, as well as of Pd stn) Oy i ae 7 Ce: tO 4%> 4 Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 455.$+ Mon, B. G. Sage, in Journal de Phyfique, 1794. Ad4 Cultication of Arable Land.—Changing of Seed, a more or Jefs hardy and vigorous nature, it may be of utility to change them in thefe refpects, the early kinds being always cultivated on the colder and more backward defcriptions of land, while thofe of the later are fown upon the drier and more warm foils. In this way the crops may often be confider- ably improved, as, in fo far as regards themfelves, they will enjoy the advan- tages of more genial foils and climates. Another advantage may be gained in this method, as by employing fuch early kinds of feed the farmer may, in fome cafes, delay the putting in of his feed for feveral days, without the danger of the crop being injured thereby, or of its not being reaped at the ufual time. He may likewife in the late foils thus obviate the difficulties and inconveniences attending bad feed times, as by fuch achange the feed, though put in later, may be equally early at the harveit*. It has alfo been remarked, that there is an advantage refulting from chang- ing feed from foils of oppofite natures, which cannot be depended upon when the change is made from fimilar foils. Some weeds will grow only in ftrong deep ands, while others are peculiar to light and fandy foils. When, from whatever caufe, grain abounds fo much with the feeds of weeds as to render it impro« per for fowing, by procuring feed from a foil of an oppofite nature the farmer is to a great degree certain that no dangerous feed-weeds will be introduced by the change+. The fowing of fuch grain as contains the feeds of weeds fhould, however, never be prattifed, except where perfe€tly clean feed cannot be pro- cured, as, though the above may be the cafe in regard to particular forts of weeds, it does not by any means extend to all. It is found that grain, like all other feeds and plants, when brought from a ‘warmer to a colder climate, gradually degenerates till, by being frequently cul- tivated, it becomes natural both to the foil and climate. And experience has fhewn that it degenerates fooner, and to a greater degree, in mountainous dif- tri€ts, than in the leve] and better fheltered parts of the country. At the fame time, it is well known, that many vegetables introduced from other countries, and which it was once thought would not come to maturity in this, have, by proper care and attention, been brought to a great degree of perfection. It is certain, too, thatthe introdu@tion of better forts of grain has foon become effec- tual in removing the poor‘kinds that were originally cultivated. This has been the cafe in refpe&t-to oats in fome parts of Scotland: which is a circum- fance that, the writer juft mentioned thinks, proves how much the quality of * Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture, vol, IJ. p. 261.+ Ibid, aga ar ors Cultivation of Arable Land.—Steeping of Seed. AAS grain may be improved by proper attention; and further, that frequent and judicious changes of feed, in the way ftated above, are of the greateft import- ance in effecting this improvement. And it is concluded, that from the long-eftablifhed pra@tice, and the acknow- edged advantages derived from annually importing feed-wheat from England into all the diftri€ts in Scotland, where that fpecies of grain is cultivated, which are well known; as wellas from the practice being no lefs general, although more local, for the farmers in Banff-fhire, where deep ftrong cold foils prevail, to procure, in unfavourable feafons, a great portion of the oats neceflary for feed from the light dry fandy foils in the adjoining county of Moray; and alfo the practice of many other diftrifts where improved agriculture is to any confider- able degree eftablifhed; it will be found that frequent changes of feed, for fome or other of the reafons mentioned above, are not only highly proper but indifpenfably neceflary*. On the whole it is maintained by an ingenious writer, that as the varieties of plants are fuppofed to be produced by different foils and climates, which varieties will afterwards continue through many generations, even when the plants are removed to other foils and climates, it muft be advantageous for the agricultor to infpeét other crops, as well as his own; and thus wherever he can find a fuperior vegetation, to colleét feeds from it; which is, it is imagined, more certain to improve his crops than an indifcriminate change of feed. And that where feed-corn is purchafed without a previous obfervation of its fuperior excellence, perhaps it would be more advantageous to take it from better kinds of foil, and from fomewhat better climates; as the good habits ac- quired by fuch feeds may be continued long after their removal to inferior fitu- ations. But, on the contrary, care fhould be taken not to colleét a change of feeds from worfe climates or inferior foils, unlefs the agricultor is previoufly certain that they are of a fuperior kind f. Though the praétice of preparing feed of particular kinds for being put into the earth, by fome means or other, feems to have prevailed, in fome degree, fince the earlieft periods of the art of hufbandry, the utility or advantage of the procefs does not appear to be yet fully afcertained by agricultors; fome contending that it is highly beneficial, while others maintain that no poffible benefit can be derived from it. It can, however, hardly be conceived, that a pra€tice of this fort fhould have been employed for fuch a vaft length of time, without fome * Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture, vol. II, p.263.+ Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 452, ———_— a———-—— an-- ne===——= a ee~~-=—- ee eS — os a SS a ae Se== 7m"ee 5. , Ss 7 a. re r 446 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Steeping of Seed. beneficial confequences had been obferved to refult from it. The nature of the vegetation of feeds, and the circumftances under which it takes place in the moft favourable manner, would alfo feem to fhew that it may be had recourfe to with benefit inymore cafes than it appears to have been cultomary te em- ploy it. by-the farmer. Various compofitions have been employed at different times for the purpofe of preparing grain which is to be made ufe of as feed.. In the more early attempts in this way, oils, and the decoftions or juices of particular plants, were chiefly employed, and the moft fully relied upon; but the liquors which have lately been the moft depended upon, are either water fo highly impregnated with common falt that an egg will{wim upon the furface of it, or fuch cham- ber-lye as has been kept for a length of time fufficient for its undergoing de- compofition, and the forming of ammonia. And whichever of thefe liquids ‘is made ufe of, the feed, after being fteeped for a proper length of time, is rendered dry and fit for fowing, by canftic or quick lime, in a fine ftate of pul verifation, being intimately blended with it. By modern agricultors, fteeps or pickles of thefe kinds appear to have been principally made ufe of for preparing wheat, in order to prevent it from being affeCied with difeafe; but it is probable that they may be applied to moft other kinds of feed, and in very different views, with ftill greater and more bene- ficial effects. As it would feem neceflary that the feed-lobes of grain, which have been found to confift of a vegetable exyd or bafis, compounded of carbon and hydrogen, impregnated with oxygen, a portion of oil, or of the bafis of it in an unoxydated ftate being diffufed through their compofition*, fhould be imbued with a certain proportion ef humidity or moifture, in order that fuch changes may take place in them as are fuited to the procefs of vegeta- tion; the fteeping ef feed may, in this way, not only fecure a more fpeedy and regular germination, but in fome cafes obviate the danger of its being in- jured or deftroyed by the length of time it may be neceffary for it to remain in the foil before it becomes fufficiently moiftened. And as it is probable that different kinds of feed abforb or take up different proportions of moifture in the fame time, this circumftance fhould be attended to in the praétice, and fuch ferts as are found to charge themfelves flewly, expofed in the fteeps for a geeater length of time f. Jn proof of the utility of fteeping in this view, it has indeed been obferved, * Gough, in Memoirs of the Manchefter Society.+ Ibid. ee See he Of the in the ourfe 0 CMs Durpote re early Plants, which gnated cham. ng de- iquids ne, 18 f pul e been being other bene- which carbon s of it fhould er that egelae peedy g in- ‘in In e that ire In fuch ‘or a rved, Cultivation of Arable Land.—Steeping of Seed. 447 by an experienced agricultor, that there can be no doubt that, in every par- ticularly dry feed time, feed of every kind ought to be fteeped juft enough to promote a quick vegetation. This method would, it is thought, at all times prevent great ceftruction by vermin, fecure a more uniform growth, and ereatly improve both the quantity and quality of barley and oats; and fometimes, in- deed, procure a crop of clover, which would, without fuch precaution, have been lot*. And others fuggeft that.by foaking feeds a day or two previous to their being put into the foil, their growth may be promoted equally as well as by watering the land by artificial means, either immediately before or after their being fown ft, But befides thefe, the fteeping of feed-grain may be ufeful in other refpetts; as, where attention is paid. to having the liquors as much as pofible faturated with faline matters, it may, as has been feen, enable the farmer to readily feparate the faulty imperfect feed that is incapable of vege- tating, from that which is good and proper for the purpofe, as the light im- perfect feeds conftantly float upon the furface of fuch liquids, and may be eafily removed, while thofe which are found and good fall to the bottom, and by being employed as feed may infure more regular, perfe&t, and uniform crops. And where liquids-or fubftances of a poifonous or deftru€tive quality, fuch as the folutions of noxious plants, cauftic lime,&c. are had recourfe to, they may be of utility both by rendering it lefs the prey of vermin, and deftroying fuch as attack it. The latter may likewife be of advantage by its properties of attraG: ing the humidity and moifture of the furrounding air and foil, as well as by deftroying fuch infeéts as come in conta& with it 1 ft may, in fome inftances, alfo be: of advantage to make ufe of fuch liquid materials as have been found ufeful in promoting the growth of plants, fuch as the carbonated liquor afforded by dung-hills, and many fimilar matters. It has been found, that by{teeping feed-barley for twenty-four hours in a fluid of this fort, removing the light grains that came to the top, and, on taking the grain out of tne fteep, fifting wood-athes over it in order that it might be fown with regularity, a much better crop was produced than from the fame grain fown without un- dergoing any preparation]. In China, the ufe of fuch fluids for the fteeping of feed is likewife fuppofed to be equally beneficial in promoting the growth of the crop, and preventing it from being deftroyed by-infeéts§. Others, however; affert that. folutions made with various fubftances, which * Middleton’s Survey of Middlefex, P+ 14h+ Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 464.$ Ibid; ii Chappel, in Memoirs of Bath Society; ae Staunton’s Embafly to China, 448 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Steeping of Seed. are fuppofed to have a tendency to promote the vegetation of feeds, have been employed without their producing any beneficial effefis*. But as little feems to have been done in the way of experiment with a view to afcertain this point, and as it is well known that both moifture and the recrements of vegetable and animal matters are highly ufeful in aiding the growth of the plants in their more advanced ftages, it may be concluded that they may have advantageous effects when applied to, and taken up by, the feed in the liquid flate, though it is obvious that their power in this way muft be confiderably limited, not only from the fmallnefs of the quantity imbibed, but from the feed containing the proper materials of its early nourifhment within itfelf. In regard to the effeéts of fuch preparations in the prevention or removal of the difeafed conditions of feed, there are different opinions entertained by agri cultors; fome contending that they are wholly ineffectual, while others main- tain that they have derived the moft evident advantages from them. Satisfac- tory experiments have, however, yet gone but a little way in determining the matter. The few trials that have been made by the author of the Synopfis of Hufbandry, with refpect to fmutty grain, feem to fhew that they cannot be much depended upon in this view, though they do not throw much light on the nature of the difeafe. A writer of much experience and acutenefs of obfervation is, notwithftanding, decided in his opinion of their utility, having wholly pre- vented the difeafe by making ufe of themt. In his attempts he appears, how- ever, to reft much of the effe€t upon the lime employed being newly burned and flaked in boiling water, and the fteep or mixture being then poured doiling- hot over the grain previoufly fpread out on a ftone floor, afterwards blending it well by frequent turning. The heat of the water, fays he, aided by the fuf- focating fmell of the fixed air difcharged from the lime, feems to be fufficient to deftroy the animalcule to which fome afcribe the fmut, and alfo to coat the wheat fo as to become a prefervative from vermin. And the able author of ithe Agricultural Survey of Staffordfhire affures us, that the propriety of the practice, and its good effeéts in the preventing of the fmut, are eftablifhed by the moft weighty of all arguments, experimental proof; and further that he has never known or heard of a well-authenticated inftance of its failure in pre- venting the difeafe. Experiment has not, however, fully demonftrated that this vegetable difeafe proceeds from animalcule, or that carbonic acid gas is effe€tual in deftroying them. It is more probable that the heat thrown out dure + New Farmer’s Calendar, p. 417;+ Middleton’s Survey of the County of Middlefex, e heen feems point, etable intheir tageous ugh itis ot only ing the oval of NY agtie ; mains itisfac- ing the opfis of nnot be ‘on the rvation lly pres ‘3, hOWs burned 1 boiling: blending ] the fuf- ficient to coat the ithor of j of the ablithed , that he 2 in pre ted that | gas 19 yut due jefess Cultivation of Arable Land.—Steeping of Seed. 44G ing the combination of the water with the lime, together with the cauftic properties of the latter might produce fuch effeéts. However this may be, the utility of the prattice is rendered ftill more probable by the author of Mo- dern Agriculture giving it as the refult of the experience of agricultors in general, that where it is followed fmut is feldom or never feen in the fucceed- ing crop*. When fteeps of this nature are, however, employed in this view, it would feem that the feed fhould lie much longer in them than when the intention is merely that of feparating the imperfect from the good and found feedf.| The manner of performing the bufinefs of{teeping is different in different places; but the moft common way is that of forming the brine, in the mode that has been mentioned, in a large tub or other convenient veffel, and then fimply putting in the grain and permitting it to remain for ten or fifteen hours, removing the light grains as they come to the furface, after ftirring it at different intervals. But another, and much more expeditious and convenient method, 1s that of placing the feed in a baiket, and letting it down into the veffel containing the fteep, fkimming off the light corn occafionally, and after it has remained a proper length of time, according to the views of the agricultor, removing its contents, and replacing them by other parcels. In whichever way the procefs of the fteeping is performed, no larger a quantity is to be prepared at a time than is capable of being put into the ground the fuc- ceeding day, as where the grain is fuffered to remain in the fteep for any great length of time, much of it is found to be incapable of vegetating t. In further proof of this, the writer of the Agricultural Survey of Mid-Lothian fays, that about four years ago, having fteeped a firlot of barley in urine for about three hours, and immediately thereafter caufed it to be fown at the ufual rate, in the middle of a field, unmixed with any other, there was not above a half of it came up, and even that grew fo weakly as not to produce above a third part of the crop with the reft of the field. An able experimenter has, however, fhewn that greater latitude may be taken in this refpe& than is commonly fuppofed||. And Mr. Mid- dleton has known feed prepared a week before it was fown, without fuftaining any injury. As the experiments of Mr. Gough have, notwithftanding, fhewn that the procefs of germination prefently commences after feeds have been * Vol. II. p. 281.+ Curfory Obfervations on Hufbandry, p. 63. t Donaldfon’s Prefent State of Hufbandry, p.281.| Gough, in Memoirs of Manchefter Society. 3M 4 450 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Quantity of Seed. imbued with a fuitable proportion of humidity, it would feem to be the moft proper praCtice not to delay the fowing much after the feed has been prepared. ‘ { ‘ In regulating the proportion of feed tha may be neceflary to be fown, at- tention will not only be requifite to the peculiar nature, quality, and fituation of the foil, and the periods of fowing or putting crops into the ground, but alfo to the ftate of the feafon, and the manner in which the fowing is performed. In general, for moft forts of crops, the ftrong, wet, and ftiffer defcriptions of land will require larger proportions of feed than fuch as are more friable, thin, and light. Hence the ftrong wet loams, and the ftiff retentive clays, demand more feed than the light mellow loams, and the fandy, gravelly, or even the thin chalky foils. As where lands of the rich loamy kinds have been fuitably broken down, and reduced by the various operations of tillage already de- fcribed, if the feed be not fown in too large a proportion,. an opportunity is afforded for the plants tillering, or fpreading themfelves from the roots, many ftems often iffuing from the fame root: in confequence of which, the crops frequently become, even when thinly fown, extremely thick upon the ground; and from the great nutritive powers of fuch foils, or what is moftly termed ftrength by farmers, would be greatly too much fo, if a large proportion of feed were at firft put in. And, indeed, in the cafe of root crops, whether fuch as are formed upon or within the foil where fuch lands are in a fufficiently mellow and friable ftate for producing them, the feeds or fets fhould not on the fame account be fown or put in in too great a quantity or too thickly. But in the flrong, ftiff, wet, retentive, foils, from the plants feldom ftriking or branching off much from the roots, except in particularly favourable cir- cumftances of feafon, a much greater proportion of feed will be neceflary, in order to fecure fuch full crops as lands of this kind are capable of fup- porting. On the light thin foils a lefs quantity will be fufficient, as if a large propor- tion of feed be put into fuch kinds of ground, from their poffeffing but little ftrength in comparifon with the former, the crops will rarely, except in parti- cular feafons, be well formed in the ear, or have the grain plump and well fed*. It is likewife a pra€tice in the beft grain diftri€ts, on all defcriptions of foils, to fow{maller proportions of feed on lands of the fame quality in the early periods of the feed time, than thofe of the later. The reafon of this, ac- * Donaldfon’s Prefent State of Hufbandry, p. 265. Mot ared, wats ation t al{o ed, ons of thin, mand e thin tably ' de- ty is any TODS und; rmed feed pon able it be Cultication of Arable Land.—Quantity of Seed. Ad} cording to the author of the work juft quoted, is, that grain fown early in the feafon takes deeper root, and has mere time to branch out additional fhoots, than that which is late fown, which, when the foil is not very free, as well as fertile, generally runs up into one fingle ftalk, fo that if a liberal quantity of feed be not allowed, the crop, however luxuriant in refpe& to the plants, muft be fcanty inthe article of grain. There may alfo be other reafons; as where the feed is put in at a late period, efpecially in the{pring fowings, it will not have time fully to eftablith itfelf in the foil before it becomes retarded by the hot and dry fummer weather, unlefs a large quantity of feed be employed fo as to afford proteétion by the clofe- efs of the growth of the plants. And in the late autumnal fowings, the grain may not become well fixed and rooted in the foil before the frofts begin to affect them, and on that account a larger proportion of feed be required. The ftate of the weather may likewife have confiderable influence in refpect to the fowing or putting feed into the ground, as where the feafon is very dry, and there is but a fmall proportion of moifture in the foil, more of the feed may fail in vegetating than where the contrary is the cafe._Hence the pro- priety of the practice of fteeping and putting in the feed in fuch dry feafon immediately after the plough. The manner in which the feed is depofited in the earth muft alfo produce confiderable difference in regard to the quantity of feed, as where the grain is fcattered over the whole of the land in fome meafure at random, as happens in the common broadcaft method of fowing, a much larger proportion of feed muft be required, even with the moft expert feedfman, than where the grains are depofited with equality and exaétnefs but only on certain portions of the land, as is the cafe in the drill and dibbling methods. Befides, fome difad- vantages may attend the firft method in refpe€t to the vegetation of the feed, that may likewife render a larger proportion requifite. From what has been advanced it muft be evident that the quantity of feed muft vary according to a great variety of circumftances, and that it is a matter of much difficulty to fix upon any proportion that may be fuitable to every circum- ftance and defcription of foil. From two and a half to three and a half buthels to the acre may, however, in general, be confidered as the proportion that will be the moft frequently requifite, both for the{pring and autumn fowings. It has been fuggefted by an experienced cultivator, that for fowing wheat broadcaft about the latter end of September, two bufhels and a half is the moft advantageous quantity on foils of a medium quality; and that for every ASO Cultivation of Arable Land.—Quantity of Seed. TU 5 Se eS ee Normanby-- 25| 3 4|4 aaa 4 3 Winterton--—| 4 New inclofed land. Barton--| 33| 4 4 A ee oe a 42 Wr iGrabuim us.(= A oS ea 9 Sh Aas Mr. Scrivenor= red eens eee ee[tee tae© Barrow--- 3 3| Wintringham- S15 Ae ot Ooh g— Neg ee[aS Wold land. Brocklefby-~ 32| 214| 4 Z 5 3 3 Belefby--+ oa epee ess 5 eae Peder 3 Humberfton=== 25.43 4 3 fz| 4 47| 32 =-|—!—y—l|—|—| 10 Marth land. tetuel»adiot al Roilcal bed i al als Daly= 65 erat ceo ot nl heh oe wee Spilfbury, Mr. Wright} 32| 4 4| 52] Sz| 72 Welton--- mes hess eee me(came come| ima ny Ditto-- Set ae ee Clay and marfh land.|Skirbeck—--| 23/32]—]—1 5| 724| 32 Reevefby-- 32[2a 4 32| 5 5 Mr. Parkinfon- 2 3 2 45|| 4 8 Ranby- oF iB.|# ik ge ho Ditto--= tae eee eee oe Lae Mr. Elmhurft ee a ae) A 6 Swinop=-= 32| 3 4 45|| 6 5 Mr. Ellifon--| 22/3[4 14-6 15 Strong land. Claypool===.| 8 Se| 33 4a ee) 42 Woolfthorpe--| 22| 32/3| 4216| 6 Grimfthorpe--| 22 3| Crea ae a 7 a Average’© 9-3 NSE 3s OG Fy Oke 321 32 os he TQ. W of dns of Cultivation of Arable Land.—Time of Sowing. A53 But though the proportions of feed that may be the moft proper and advan- tageous for affording the fulleft and moft abundant crops in different cafes, and under different circumftances, have not yet been decided by the aid of expe- rimental inveftigation, the only:method that appears capable of affording any degree of certainty on the fubject; there is ftill another point that fhould never be overlooked by the correét agricultor, which is that in fowing feed that is known to be good and perfeét in its quality, a lefs quantity will always be fuficient than where the contrary is the cafe, as in the former inftance almoft every feed will vegetate, while in the latter, many muft prove faulty. The time of fowing, or putting crops into the ground, is evidently a matter that muft depend ina great meafure upon their economy and the peculiarity of their nature. Hence the moft proper and advantageous feafon for fowing or etting fuch as poffefs the habit or are capable of perfe€ting and ripening their feed or produce in the fame year, is that of fome of the. more early{pring months, according as they are more forward or late in their kinds, and the clime more mild, or the contrary; while in fuch as are, from the peculiarity of their nature or habits, incapable of completing their vegetation in the fame year, the moft favourable period will be fome of the more early autumnal months, according to the differences of their habits, and the variations of climate and feafon; as by thefe means in the former cafe the feeds, grains, or roots, become perfe€tly evolved, and the radicles of the young plants firmly eftablifhed in the foil, and capable of fuftaining themfelves againft the hot feafon fets in which is to bring them to maturity; and in the latter the feeds have attained fuch a ftate of growth, and fo far fixed their roots in the ground, as to be capable of fupporting themfelves without fuftaining much injury from the feverity of the winter feafon, and confequently advance with greater ra- pidity in their vegetation in the fpring, in order to perfeét their feed by the heat of the fummer feafon. It has, however, by fome cultivators been particularly advifed to adopt the practice of fowing certain forts of grains and feeds, and alfo of fetting parti- cular kinds of roots, at much earlier periods in the{pring than is commonly had recourfe to by the farmer. Thus by putting barley into the ground in the beginning of February, great advantage has been fuppofed to have been de- rived in the forwardnefs and finenefs of the grain*. Againft this method it is, however, ingenioufly fuggefted, that as much: * Lord Orford in Young’s Annals of Agriculture, vol. IX. p..389. AS 4 Cultivation of Arable Land.——Depths of Sowing. moifture, with or without fubfequent froft, is more liable to deftroy the em. bryo in its very early ftate in the feed than after it has thot out roots and a fummit, and thus acquired fome habits of life, fuch early fowing muft in fome cafes be prattifed with caution*. Such an obje€tion cannot, however, be brought again{t the early autumnal fowings. The fame philofophical writer alfo remarks, that the difficulty of determining the beft feafon for fowing feeds in the{fpring, owing to the variation of the weather in the fame latitude, as well as of laying down the exaét feafons for fowing in different latitudes, oc- cafioned Linnzus to conftruét what he terms a calendar of Flora, which was afterwards adapted to this climate by Stillingfleet; which confifted in obferving the firft appearance of the root-fcions, or flowers of the uncultivated native vegetables, with dire€tions to fow the cerealia, or harveft feed, when fuch plants or flowers became vifible. By attention to obfervations of this kind on fuch forts of uncultivated plants in many climates, it is conceived fuch tables might be conftruéted as would point out the moft proper times of fowing the moft ufeful feeds or grains in every latitude and fituation. And it is added, that another tabular view of the climates where plants grow naturally, and of their native fituations in refpeét to moifture or drynefs, hill or valley, with the kind of foil where they were originally found, might alfo contribute to their fuccefsful cultivation. The above feem to be the objects of nature in the vegetation of feeds, in requiring fuch different lengths of time for arriving at maturity. The particular period in which each fort of grain, feed, or root, may be fown, or put into the earth, with the greateft profpeét of fuccefs, will be noticed when we come to fpeak of the manner of cultivation in the growth of the different forts. In the depofiting of feeds or roots in the foil, it may be neceffary to pay fome regard to the depth to which they may be introduced and covered; as upon thefe being fuitably performed according to the nature of the feeds or roots, the qua- lities of the lands, and the ftate of the climate, different advantages may be obtained in the early vegetation and fubfequent growth of the crops. In fuch feeds or roots as are to be put into the ground in the fpring months, as there is generally a large proportion of moifture in the foils from the con- tinued rains of the autumnal and winter feafons, it may be unneceflary to cover them to any great depth; half an inch or an inch may at moft be fufhcient, fo as to fully proteét them from birds and infeéts, for grain, turnip, carrot, and * Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 461, Ey. nd d ome Mriter feeds le, as 5 OC. | avas ig ative fuch d on bles the ‘that 1d of the heir 3, In cular o the 1¢ to a == Cultivation of Arable Land.—Depths of Sowing. A55 other fimilar feeds; and for roots, fuch as potatoes, and others of the fame kinds, from two to three or four inches, according to eee wie: may be as much as is requifite. But, in the early autumnal fowings, as, from the great diffipating heats of the fummer months, there muft in What be lefs humidity in the earth, it may be ufeful in fuch circumftances to have the feed buried fomewhat deeper, as two inches or more, in order that their vege- tation may not only be more fpeedily effected, but their roots more ful ly guarded from the effe€s of the frofty nights, which ufually take place foon after fuch Pettey Betides, they will thus be more effectually protected from the attacks of birds and other vermin, which are generally more eager and deftruc- tive from the diminifhed quantity of food at fuch periods. But in general, as we have already feen that the procefs of fprouting or early vegetating is greatly promoted by the feeds being fully fupplied with oxygen air, it may be the moft beneficial practice to have them but lightly covered or put into the foil, in rather a fuperficial manner, as by fuch means they will be the mot fully fupplied with atmofpherical air. Andon this account too it may be the moft advantageous method to have the feeds or roots depofited in the foil as foon as pofible after it has been turned up by the plough or the fpade, as in fuch circumftances it muft, as has before been noticed*, contain the largeft proportion of atmofpherical air among its conftituent particles; which it is obferved may be neceffary to ftimulate into elevation the plume of the embryo plant, as the moifture of the earth is neceflary to ftimulate the root into its elongation downwards f, or in other direétions. The depths of fuch fowings may be the moft perfectly regulated by the ufe of drill machines. The ftate of the feafon, and climate, in which grain feeds or roots are put into the foils, may likewife have fome influence on the cz‘ops, as has in part been already explained. It has been generally fuppofed that‘he beft practice is that of fowing in dry feafons, and fetting out plants in fuch as are moift; but it is obvious that,“im fo far as the fowi ing is concerned, this bufinefs ought, i in fome refpe&, to be con- duéted according to the differences of the qualities of the lands, and the nature of the climate in regard to its warmth, or the contrary.‘Thus in the drier and more mellow and porcus defcriptions of fo'ls, and the more warm and genial climates, it may in many cafes be advantageous not only to fow in the wet, or rather moift feafons, but alfo at more early periods than in fuch as are more * Section on Fallowing of Land,+ Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 461, —_=-" SS ea aS ee » | | | | | | i ih i} 456 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Kinds of Seeds fit for different Soils. retentive of humidity; as from the moifture being commonly, in fuch forts of land, quickly diflipated, a more certain and expeditious vegetation of the feed may in this way be fecured. But in the more heavy and wet kinds of foils, where the climate is colder, it will conftantly be a more beneficial method to choofe, if poffible, a dry and warm feafon for performing the bufinefs of fowing or putting in the crops, as by fuch means the erain will be more certain of vegetating, and in lefs danger of perifhing by the overabundant wetnefs, and the want of heat, ‘a fuch lands and climates. And it has been well remarked, that in fome clayey grounds much foftened by rain, if the feed be put into holes, and a dry feafon fucceed, an almoft impenetrable cruft may be produced by the quick exhalation of the moifture, and what is termed by farmers the fetting of the clay*; and in this manner the vegetation and early growth of the crop be much retarded, or ina great meafure prevented. Though it has been ingenioufly fuggefted, that ufeful purpofes in the early vegetation of fome forts of plants may be anfwered by the fowing of the fruits or hufks that furround particular kinds of feeds and berries f, no experiments have yet been made to fhew whether the fowing the chaff, or covering of the grain with it, might not, in particular circumftances of foil and climate, be of utility in affording it warmth and protection in the firft ftages of its growth. In regard to the nature of the foils, and the crops or kinds of feeds, or plants, that may be cultivated upon them with the greateft chance of profit and advantage, it may be generally obferved, that thefe may be the beft and moft perfectly adapted to each other, fo as to afford the moft abundant and moft valuable produce, by attentively obferving what forts agree moft fully in the nature of their nutritive properties, their ftates of moifture, their condition in refpeét to pulverifation or mellownefs, and their fituations in re- gard to warmth. Thus on all the more light and friable defcriptions of foil, fuch as thofe of the fandy, gravelly, chalky, and mellow loamy kinds, barley, oats, peas, turnips, carrots, and various other forts of green crops, as well as thofe of grain, may be fuccefsfully cultivated; while thofe of the heavy, gravelly, chalky, loamy, marfhy, and ftiff clayey, will be more fuited to the erowth of wheat, oats, beans, clover, faintfoin, and other forts of graffes of the artificial kind, as will be more fully feen when we come to fpeak of the rotation of crops, and the methods of cultivation that appear to be the * Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 465.+ Ibid. arts of of the le is le, and arded, > early e fruits iments of the be of th. ds, of | profit eft and ant and ft fully ., thelt ’ in re- of foil, varley, S well heavy, to the fes of of the ye the Cultivation of Arable Land.—Sowing Broadcaft AST moft proper for each kind of crop. But in this bufinefs, befides the properly adapting the nature of the crop to that of the foil, as tillage lands are liable ‘to be injured by the repeated growth of particular forts of crops, as thofe of the grain kinds, there is another circumflance that ought invariably to be kept in view, which is that of preventing the exhauftion or deterioration of fuch Jands by the judicious and attentive interpofition or alternation of fuch as are ameliorating, either by their fhade or other properties, or but of a flightly, exhaufting nature, with fuch as are more powerful in robbing the foil of its nu- tritious properties; fuch as thofe of the green, and which are often termed cattle, kinds, with thofe of the white or corn kind. In this way, befides the. prevention of injury, in fo far as refpects the exhauftion of the foil, advantages may alfo be gained by the land, from the different means of tillage which are thus required. In regard to the practice of fowing or putting the feed into the earth, dif- ferent methods are followed, not only in diftri's where the nature and qualities of the foils are different, but in thofe in which they have much fimilarity. The motft general and common mode, as well as that which is more or lefs pre- valent in almoft every part of the kingdom, is that of fowing or cafting the feed over the furface of the ground by means of the hand, having it afterwards covered to a proper depth by harrowing. In this method of performing the bufinefs, the moft ufual practice, efpecially where. the ridges are equal in breadth, and not of too great a width, as five or fix yards, is that of difperfing the feed regularly over each land or ridge, in once walking round; the feedf man, by different cafts of the hand, fowing one half in going and the other in returning. In doing this, it is the cuftom of fome feedfmen to fil the hand from the bafket or hopper, which they carry along with them, as they make one ftep forward, and difperfe the feed in the time of performing the next; while others fcatter the feed, or make their cafts, as they are termed by farmers, m advancing each ftep. It is evident, therefore, that in accomplifhing this bu- finefs with regularity and exa&nefs, upon which much of the fuccefs of the crop muft depend, there is confiderable difficulty, and the proper knowledge and habit of which can only be acquired by experience. Wherever this me- thod of putting in the feed is had recourfe to, it is confequently of importance for the farmer either to perform the operation himfelf, or to be careful in feleG- ing fuch perfons as are converfant with the bufinefs, as he may otherwife 3. N ASB Cultivation of Arable Land.—Sowing Broadcaft. incur much unneceflary expence in the wafte of feed, and run confiderable rifk in refpect to his crops. It has indeed been well obferved, that in this way of fowing, even with the moft expert feedfmen, where the lands or ridges are irregular or broader at one end than the other, a confiderable wafte of feed muft always be the confe- quence; as when turning repeatedly on the fame ridge, and at different parts, they cannot poflibly fcatter the feed with equal regularity as if it was of the fame breadth, and they could regulate their cafts by the line of a particular furrow-flice*. From the feed in this kind of fowing being fcattered at random over the ground, and of courfe vegetating or coming up without any regularity on every part of the land, the crops cannot derive any great advantage in their growth by after-culture, except in the way of clearing them from weeds by the hand, or fome other fimilar means; but in other methods this is not the cafe, as they can be much improved by hoeing and other means. It is probably from the eafe and expedition with which crops are put in, in this mode, its requiring little knowledge or expence of machinery, and the bufinefs be« ing capable of being performed in almoft every variety of feafon, as well as circumftance of foil and preparation, that it prevails, in fome meafure, in moft parts of the ifland. It is evident, however, that it is a lefs perfect, as well as lefs economical, method of pra€tice, in many refpeéts, than thofe that are defcribed below, as the feed can neither be depofited in the foil with the fame exaftnefs in regard to depth, regularity, or proportion, nor be fo placed as that the crop may be improved in its growth by culture afterwards. It may, notwithftanding, be praétifed with propriety and advantage in cafes where the nature of the land is fuch as not to admit the more perfe€t methods, either from their being fo extremely ftrong and ftony, or fo very ftiff and tenacious, as to greatly impede and difturb the progrefs and operation of the machinery which is employed, or from the ftate of the feafon being fo wet as to prevent the land from being fown by fuch means, Thus in foils that abound much with ftones; that are very ftiff, wet, and clayey; and in all fuch probably as have been but recently broken up, and. are not yet reduced by tillage to a ftate of sonfiderable finenefs in refpect to their mold; this method muft be had recourfe * Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture, vol. IT, p. 267, able the One ne. atts, the cular the very 1 by , or can this 5 bee I] as In , as that the aced may, > the from , a5 ery ent ith ave eof rfe = Cultivation of Arable Land.—Drilling. 43g « to as being the moft fuitable and convenient. And there is another fituation in which it muft probably of neceflity in many cafes be prattifed; which is that in which the extent of ground cultivated under the drill fyftem is fo very extenfive as to prevent a due attention being paid to the-after-culture of the crops, by its interfering with the other neceflary operations of the farm. In cafes of this fort, as much depends upon the after-management where ma- chinery is made ufe of, it will probably always be better to have fuch portions as cannot be properly attended to fown in the broadcaft method. This method of fowing, probably from its being that which was almoft generally had recourfe to during the infancy of the art of agriculture in this country, has frequently been denominated the o/d method, in oppofition to that which was afterwards introduced by Mr. Tull. There is, however, rea- fon to fuppofe that the method introduced, defcribed, and recommended by that ines writer, is not fo ew as it has been commonly believed to be; for it has been lately found that it is generally praétifed in the Inna- condah diftri&t-in the Eaft Indies, in the culture of all grains except horfe grain, as well as in that of hemp, tobacco, cotton, and the caftor-oil plant*; and it is faid that they both drill and dibble corn of every kind in Arabia, China, and Japan, where their fyftem of hufbandry has not undergone any material alteration for thoufands of years. In the Grill method of fowing, the grain or feed is depofited, by means of fome fort of machinery or other, in rows or drills at different diftances, according to the nature of the crop and the views of the farmer. It of courfe affords the means of diftributing the feed with a much greater degree of exaétnefs, both in refpe&t to the depth and the regularity of the rows, by which the crops not only vegetate and grow up in a more equal manner, but by culti- vation are capable of being more effectually aflifted in their after-growth, and at the fame time there is a confiderable faving in the quantity of feed. And as the grain by fuch means is neither too thickly crowded together, nor too thinly fcattered in the drills, there cannot be any injury in the weaknefs of the crops from the former caufe, or lofs from the too feanty number of{tems and ears in the latter, which muft always be more or lefs the cafe in the broad- caft method of management. Befides, from the equality of the depth to which * Halcott in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. J. p. 350. ? 460 Cultivation of Arable Land—Drilling. the feed is depofited in this way, in addition to the advantages that have been juft noticed, the crops become ripe in a more equal and uniform manner. In the affifting of the growth of the crop by the frequent ftirring and break- jng of the earth about it, for a confiderable part of the time it is upon the ground, benefits muft alfo be derived in different ways. By turning the earth in different directions, the mold muft become, not only more completely pul- verifed, but alfo newly and more fully a€rated, in confequence of which va- rious nutritious materials muft be more abundantly provided*; while, at the fame time, the foil is rendered more eafily penetrable by the fuperficial roots of the grain, and the power of tillering or fending forth new roots and ftems increafed by the earth being laid up to fuch of the joints of the corn ftems as are imme- diately above the furface.“By this means the fame advantages are, indeed, in fome meafure obtained, as by tranfplanting and fetting the roots of the plants deep in the earth, with confiderable favings in the expence of labour. There are likewife other ways in which utility may be derived in this method of ma- nagement, as by the more complete deftruction of weeds that takes place, and the harvefting of the crops, in confequence of it, being acomplifhed with more certainty and lefs trouble and expence, as well as by the land being left ina more mellow and produ€tive ftate for the growth of future crops ft. From the fine{tate of pulverifation in which the foil is kept by this method, and its being more free from weeds, advantages may fometimes alfo be gained in the way of preparation for putting fucceeding crops into the ground, which could not otherwife be the cafe.| But though this method of fowing feems to afford advantages in thefe dif- ferent views, it has not by any means been generally adopted by acricultors, the reafons of which, as fuggefted by an ingenious writer, are the diffi- culty of bringing common labourers acquainted with the praétice, the in- correctnefs of the machinery commonly employed in delivering the feed, and the expence with which it is at firft attended; but there are others which have probably had an equal if not greater effect in retarding its progrefs, as the applying it to lands in an improper condition, both in refpect to quality and the ftate of tillage, and the either wholly or partially negleét- ing the afteremanagement of the crops, upon which, it is obvious, much muff * Section on Fallowing of Land.+ Exter in Memoirs of the Bath Society, vol, IX. been cake ‘the eatth dul: h vas at the dts of eafed nmes leed, ants here ma- and more ina thod, aitied which fe dif iltors, diff e iN and hich g, a8 t to led mutt Riruat enamel. aa & Cultrcation of Arable Land.—Drilling. 464 depend. It is probable alfo, that by attempting too great favings in the quantity of feed, and allowing it to be fown too thinly, both in refpe& to the drills and the diftances of the rows, the practice may in many inftances have been brought into difrepute. It is, however, fufficiently{hewn by numerous comparative experiments*, that where the nature of the ground and the ftate of tillage are fuch as to ad- mit the implements to perform the bufinefs in a proper manner, and where a proper and regular attention is beftowed on the after-management of the crops, it is a method that has not only advantages in the ways that have been mentioned, but much fuperiority in the quantity and quality of the produce, as well as the more perfect tillage of the land. The forts of land on which this method of putting in the feed may be had recourfe to with the greateft probability of fuccefs, are all thofe of the lighter and more mellow kinds, that are not fo ftrong as to obftruét or impede the operation of the drill, and fuch of the heavy defcriptions as have been brought into a ftate of tolerable finenefs, and are not too wet or{tiff to hinder the action of the machine; but it can probably feldom or ever be employed to much advan- tage, except, perhaps, for fome particular forts of crops, on thofe of the heavy and fiiff, wet, clayey, kinds, as the operation muft always be liable to be incom- pletely performed; nor on fuch as are of a very ftony nature can it be made ufe of in a proper manner, as the ftones will conftantly be liable to derange the operation of the drill, and render the diftribution of the feed irregular and incomplete. In very wet feed feafons too, it muft, perhaps, give way in many cafes to the broadcaft method, efpecially on the wet and heavy defcriptions of land, as under fuch circumftances the operations of the drill would fcarcely ever be performed with that regularity and exa€tnefs which is neceflary. But in whatever kind of foil, and wherever the method of fowing by the drill is attempted, it will invariably be proper, befides fuiting the crop to the quality of the foil, to proportion the quantity of feed to the nature of the land, and the diftance of the rows to that of the crop, and likewife keep upa conftant and minute regard to the culture of the crop during its growth. In the fowing of crops by means of drill machines, different diftances in the rows and intervals have been recommended, according to the particular intentions of the agricultor. It is obvious that inconveniences muft be experienced by their * Amos on Drill Hufbandry. 452 Cultivation of Arable Land.——Drilling. being either too large or'too narrow, as in the former there muft be a great lofs of ground, and in the latter little advantage can be derived in the culture of the crops, while growing. The nature of the land muft probably have con- fiderable influence in regard to the diftance of the rows, and the manner of drilling. On the dry light forts of foil, whether loamy, gravelly, or chalky, that can be conftantly ploughed and kept upon the flat, as is the cuftom in the eaftern parts of Kent, clofe drilling is probably to be preferred as the moft ad- vantageous™*. But on fuch foils as require ridging, fomewhat wider diftances anay be proper. An ingenious enquirer on this fubje¢t found, that drilling three rows eleven or twelve inches afunder, on three-bout ridges, generally fucceeded well. The three-bouts, in this way, form a ridge about four and a half feet ‘in breadth; the three rows at the diftance mentioned occupying two feet, and the horfe-hoe, paffing on the fide of each outfide row, at the diftance of three inches, leaves the ridge two and a half feet broad, and the intervals be- tween the ridges about two feet}. It is, however, further fuggetted, from xemarking that in thefe cafes the outfide rows always afford the moft vigorous -and healthy plants,:that two rows only, on two-bout ridges, would be equally produftive, and leave the Jand in better condition. But whatever may be the moft applicable and moft fuitable diftances, which experiment does not feem to have yet fully fhewn, the very wide intervals of the early pra€tice are to be avoided as improper for all forts of grain crops, ‘both on account of the lofs that muft unavoidably be fuftained by the large- nefs of the fpaces, and becaufe the intervals, or{paces between rows, at muck defs diftance, can, in the improved methods of horfe-hoeing, be ftirred with equal facility and exa€tnefs. For various kinds of green crops, fuch as cabbages, potatoes, and others of a fimilar nature, wide diftances muft obvioufly be the moft proper. But the -width of the intervals, and the proportion of feed, that have appeared the -moft elegible to an intelligent cultivator, after a praCtice of fourteen or fifteen years, are for wheat, rye, barley, oats, and vetches, on fuch foils as are not wery wet, equidiftant rows of one foot, on five or ten feet ridges. And for beans, peas, and turnips, on three-feet ridges, two rows on each, nine inches apart, with intervals of twenty-feven inches f. * Farmer’s Tour through the Eaft of England, vol. IV. p. 215. $+ Wimpey in Tranfaétions of Bath Society, vol. VI. p. 126. 4 Clofe in Communications to the Hoard of Agriculture, vol. III. oo” we~~. teat ture Con. t of alky, IN the oft ad. tances ‘three eeded f feet feet, ce of s be- from ‘OFOUS qually vhich als of TODS, larges much | with ers of t the 1 the teen > not d for ches } Cultivation of Arable Land.—Drilling, 403 In refpett to the proportion of feed, it is obferyed, that fuch lands as-are in high tilth, and on five-feet ridges, will only require three pecks of feed of either wheat or rye, five pecks of barley, oats, or vetches, and ene bufhel of beans er peas, to the acre. It is fugeefted, however, that thefe proportions fhould be varied,.in the quantity of a peck to: the acre, according to the quality of the feed, and the richnefs of the land. It is remarked by another experienced driller, that in refpe@ to wheat and. barley, the diftance of the rows and the quantity of feed muft. greatly depend: on the quality of the foi]. Where it is‘ poor, the diftance between the rows: fhould not be more than about eight inches, nor the quantity of feed more than about nine pecks, being depofited to the depth of two inches and a half. If.of a middling quality, the diftance between the rows may be about nine inches, and the proportion of feed eight pecks; and where it is rich, the di- {tance of the rows fhould not ever exceed ten inches, with a quantity of feed of about feven pecks: The latter fort of grain fhould alfo have a finer tilth, and not be placed fo deep in the. foil. As oats do not tiller fo much as other grains, in drilling them a larger pro- portion of feed will- be requifite*. It is likewife ftated by the fame writer, that as beans and peas afford plants> of a very fucculent nature, they of courfe require a greater diftance between- the rows, and more efpecially as they are well fuited to the horfehoeing me- thod of culture. He:has conftantly found twenty-four inches to bé the moft: advantageous difance for fuch crops, and the depth of about three inches. In the fowing of: turnips, rape,&c. on the poorer forts of foils adapted to the growth of thefe plants, he has invariably found ten inches to be the propereft diftance, and on thofe of the richer defcription twelve... When they are fown at greater diftances, he thinks. they are apt to grow too large for keeping any great length of time. If fown at a wider diftance, which may, notwithftanding, be proper on fuch foils as are particularly rich, they fhould therefore be eaten off: before the fevere frofts fet in, as large turnips are very liable to be deftroyed by- them. In the putting in of carrot crops by‘the drill method, fourteen inches be- tween the rows is recommended as the moft proper diftance, the Jand being flightly harrowed over after the drilling is finifhed f.° * Amos on Drill Hufbandry, p. 199.+ Ibid, AO 4 Cultivation of Arable Lante=Dyrilline. ao The refult of Mr. Arthur Young’s enquiries, as ftated in his Eaftern Tour, refpecting the influence of different diftances on the produce in various kinds of crops cultivated in the drill or row method, is fully fhewn in tabular views of different forts of grain,&c.* * Wueat. i Crop ee Diftance. 5 ee Mr. Fellowes..{Eighteen inches ae 5 AG Four rows, at eight Mr. Arbuthnot inches on 34 fet 2 7| Horfe-hoes ; ridges Mr. Taylor..- jarenciocbes 2... daly 4: o| Ditto Mr. Reynolds...|Twelve ditto. 2 4 Thanet...|Nine ditto.«Wee o| Ditto Ditto.|Equally diftant 3 4| Ditto Mr. Anderfon.|Two rows on 5 feet I 4| Ditto Mr. Cowflade..|Eighteen inches.«| 3 4| Hand-hoes Ditto.‘-|One foot; 3 4 Average.! 3 I BARLEY AND Oats. Crops. Sort.| Diftance. Fee |§ Double rows, 3, 4, and oe Mr. Arbuthnot..|Barley} ¢ feet ridges f I»| Horfe-hoes. Mr. Taylor, 2.15 4Oats Eleven inches. 4 4| Ditto Thanet.«+.#Barley Nine ditto.‘ Ae de= 4| Ditto Ditto.°.|Ditto Ditto..: ane 4| Ditto Ditto. s.{Oats| Ditto.:: ot leg. o| Ditto Mr. Pool..|Barley| Nine inches.; Be o| Hand Mr. Anderfon..{Ditto| One foot.: 3 fo) Ditto.°.{Oats Ditto..° 3 3 Average.| 4 4” BEANS. : Produce. sre ese Crops. Diftance. Seed. Q. B. Following Crops. Lemington. ee:: i Sa o| Wheat Mr. Canham.__.{Every fourth furrow ees 4| Ditto, five qrs. Saxmundham.::: ney Sree 4 Woodbridge.. Sixteen er 18;inches|.~. 6 2| Wheat Colchefter..|Nineinches. othe 6 4| Ditto Mr. Arbuthnot../|Various. att land 3 3| Ditto Dartford. oe 3: Hee 1S o| Ditto Northfleet. a:: oa 46 o| Ditto Sittingburn. hie 2:| 2= 16 4| Ditto Feverfham.. Heighteen imghes 16. wale 4| Ditto Beakfburn*.°~. 7«|Twenty inéhes® 9° 9) 28©? o4-Dilte Mr. Taylor Cultivation of Arable Land Drilling. 463 Tour 5‘y° kinds| Since thefe tables were drawn up, many improvements have, however, been views made, not only in the mode of drilling itfelf, but likewife in the implements that are made ufe of for the purpofe, by which cénfiderable effe€ts muft have been produced, both in regard to the quantity and the goodnefs of the produce of crops under the row culture*. There is, notwithftanding, confiderable difficulty in afcertaining the moft proper and fuitable diftances in different cafes, as they muft of neceflity depend * Farmer’s Tour through the Eaft of England, vol. IV. p. 197. Beans(continued). c:: Produce.{< ae rops. Diftance.| Seed. Q. B| Following Crops. Double rows, fix-| ik | Mr. Taylor.; teens tuches'on>t>?| 4°| Barley ) 4-feet ridges. ‘Prefton.«.| Highteen to 24 inches| 5 o| Wheat Thanet. nie Se:: 4 4| Ditto Ditto. é.| Sixteen to 24 ditto 4 4| Diito Ditto.; Ay aon::: 4°| Ditto Dover(°°..|Eighteen ditto 4°o| Ditto ~, Sandgate ee:: 4 4 o| Ditto : Mr. Turner©. a:°: IS fe) MroAnderfon%. rings ound. “foils. oft of 5 that tse Cultivation of Arable Land.—Drilling., 47] are preferred by them. It has, however, been fufficiently fhewn in the feStion on Implements, that the chief points to be attended to are thefe of fimplicity of conftruction, and their depofiting the feed with regularity and exa€nefs without bruifing or in any way injuring it during-the procefs. Thofe which appeared to us the moft perfe&t in thefe views have been defcribed, and may be feen by confulting the plates. An implement fomewhat of this nature has been invented and ufed by Mr. Ducket, a very intelligent drill farmer, which has five fhares, which ftrike out as many drills or channels, on ridges prepared for the purpofe, in the ground, into which the feed is equally delivered from a fort of machine, termed a drop- ping box; or it may as in the above methods be broadcafted into the{mall furrows or drills made by the implement. For drilling all forts of grain crops, the implements which have been already defcribed are, fo far as we have had Opportunities of enquiring, the moft per- fe&t that have yet been invented*. Some of them, as that of Mr. Cook’s in- vention, being very generally employed in many of the counties where drill hufbandry is praétifed.? A drill harrow, the invention of an ingenious made many ufeful experiments-in drill hufbandry, from conftruction would feem to deferve notice. agricultort, who has its great fimplicity of It has fomewhat the form of a triangular harrow, upon which are fixed two hoppers or feed boxes, the delivery of the grain or feed being performed by means of a fluted nut in the bottom of the hoppers, fo adapted to the apertures as to work without the ne- ceflity of a bruth. It is capable of fowing eight rows at atime, at nine inches diftance. There is a double row of deliveries put ina diagonal pofition, to which motion is communicated by means of a wheel. This is effeéted merely by a new application of the univerfal joint. It is faid to perform its work with much facility and exaéinefs i. In addition to thofe that have been already mentioned as adapted to the drilling of bean, pea, and other fimilar crops}, it may be neceflary to obferve, that there are different fimple implements conftru€ted for regularly depofiting thefe forts of feeds in drills or fmall furrows. In the county of Middlefex, we have feen drills of this fort made fomewhat in the form of the very light fort of fwing ploughs; but without a coulter, having a{mall kind of feed- hopper attached to the furrow fide of the body of the plough, with the end * Sedticn on Implements.+ Hutchefon Mure, ef. } Young’s Annals of Agriculture, vol, XXII. p. 361.§ Ibid. a7 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Drilling. of the axle of a fmall light wheel that runs on the landfide, paffing through the loweft part of it, and fo contrived as to regulate the proportion of the feed according to the intentions of the perfon who has the management of it, and of being lifted up and prevented from fowing at pleafure. It may be drawn by one or two horfes, according to the nature of the land. It is faid to anfwer well, diftributing the feed with much regularity and exaétnefs, An implement that differs in fome refpefts from the above, but which has been found to be extremely ufeful for fowing thefe forts of crops, has alfo been lately defcribed in an interefting periodical work*. The plan is perfectly fimple.{t confifts of a fort of barrow or hopper, fixed between the{tilts or handles of a fmall fwing-plough, which ferves to draw the channel or fur- row for the reception of the feed. The wheel, which in this drill is very fmall, runs in the track formed by the plough-head, but fo clofe to it as not to be liable to be obftru€ted or put out of its courfe by the intervening of clods or lumps of earth, as is often the cafe in other machines. It is capa- ble of being prevented from fowing at pleafure by the wheel being raifed, which is eafily performed by means of.a fmall chain, which is attached by a pin to the right-hand ftilt. The advantages of this application of the drill- barrow are afferted from a€tual trials to be, that while it is fully effectual in faving the labour of a perfon to wheel it, the feed is depofited in the moft regular and exaét manner. This method of working the implement, it is ob- ferved, has been firft pratifed by Mr. Lyon, a farmer, at Wefter-Drylow, in Mid-Lothian, on his own farm f. It is likewife fuggefted, that a roller for fowing turnip feed may be applied to the fame implement. It may notwithftanding be obferved, that in all thefe forts of drilling im- plements, one principal defe& is, that of their only fowing or depofiting one row at atime. There is alfo a fort of{mall drill-plough that may be of much advantage in the cultivation of turnip and other crops of a fimilar nature, as It is fo cons * Farmer’s Magazine, vol. II. p. 162. + It is remarked in the above work, that this improved drill-barrow is made in a very correét mane ner, at the moderate price of eighteen fhillings, by Meffis. Brown, coach makers, Abbey-hill, Edinburgh; who alfo will, if required, make an indented roller for plan:ing potatoes by the fame machine, which it is obferved is now practicable from the new mode of cutting the feed by a{pherical inftrument, which, with the cutter itfelf, cofts three fhillings more, and is made to fit the box in the fame manner as the fluted roller for fowing the beans, and takes out and may be put in occafionally, thtoush 1 of the Nent of It may ds Ut is attnels, vhich has alfo been perfectly > ftilts or ! or fur- is very it as not ning of 8 Capa g railed, hed by a the drill- effectual he moft it 1s ob- rylow, im e applied illing m- iting one ntage in {o cols rrect mane bbey-hill, y the fame . fpherical box ia the afonally. Cultivation of Arable Land—Driliing, 473 trived that a much greater depth of cultivated foil may be provided for the reception of the roots of the plants, than in the ufual methods, without the expence being in any way increafed. In working it, one furrow is to be drawn ftraight the whole length of the field, and the proper proportion of dung being then placed in it, every fubfequent turn or bout of the plough is faid to form a new ridge, gather the dung, and bury it in the middle of it, and alfo make a drill, as well as depofit the feed in it, and afterwards cover it, forming every ridge equally of the fame height, and fimilar in every other refpec&t. In order to accomplith this in the moft perfeét way, the land thould, however, it is ob- ferved, be in a fine ftate of tillage. The plants being fet out to fuitable di- ftances by drawing a common hoe acrofs the ridges, it will likewife, it is re- marked, perform the bufinefs of hoeing in the moft perfe@ and expeditious manner. It confifts of a fmall wheel, with a feed box, which is fixed on a fpindle at the end of the axle, and in this way delivers the feed at the diftance which is required; the whole is attached to a very light{wing-plough. Where the ridges have been previoufly formed with two boxes, one at each end of the fpindle, two rows may be conveniently fown at a time. And if in the room of the hoe a plough with a double mold-board be made ufe of, with the fame apparatus, the ridge is formed at the fame time that it is drilled, one box only being made ufe of in this cafe. As in difirits where the practice of fowing grain or other forts of crops in drills or rows does not much prevail, there may frequently be a difliculty to com- prehend the number and kind of implements of this fort that may be neceflary, it may be proper to afford fome idea to the cultivator on the fubjeét.. Ft will, in general, be found that the nature of the foil, and the kind of crops that are to be crown, will have confiderable influence in directing the choice of implements. It has, however, been fuggefted by an able cultivator who has had much experience in putting in different forts of crops in the drill method, that in order to keep one hundred acres of arable land in high tilth, and re- gularly cropped, two Suffolk ploughs, one cultivator complete, one beam and handles, with only the tillage fcarifiers, one fixed harrow, one drill with corn fcarifiers, and a fet of flat hoes, with five horfes, would be required. And in addition, he would recommend two pairs of wheels with axes, independent of. the drill wheels, which he would never ufe but for the purpofes of drilling, except on very particular occafions. Of other kinds of implements, he thinks it almoft unneceflary to mention that one ftrong waggon, one of the light har- veft kind, with three dung carts, one common pair. of harrows, and two rollers, 3 B ATA Cultivation of Arable Land.—-Dibbling. ef one very heavy but only about five feet long for the purpofe of following the fcarifiers, and another of the common fort for pafling over the corn crops in the {pring of the year, would alfo be wanted. And it is added, that though the cultivator and fixed harrow may with propriety be confidered as appendages to the drill, they are neverthelefs applicable to the broadcaft fyftem of huf bandry, and that if generally employed they would fave more than one half the common expence incurred for tillage*. In addition to the above, it is probable that in particular cafes fome of the fmaller forts of drills, fuch as thofe conftruéted for putting in bean, pea, and turnip crops, might alfo be neceffary, as it is often troublefome and inconve- nient to employ the larger drills for fuch purpofes. Where a great variety of crops are cultivated, other forts of hoes befides thofe of the fat kind will likes wife frequently be requifite, as will be feen when we come to fpeak of the nature of hoeing, and the kinds of implements beft fuited to the purpofe in different cafes. There is ftill another method of putting the feed into the ground, befides thofe that have been already noticed, and which is certainly both fimple and exact when attentively performed; but which, fince drill machines have been brought toa greaterdegree of perfection, as it requires a great number of labourers,can probably be only employed to advantage in populous diftri¢ts, and where the value of la- bour isnot high. Thisis that of dibbling or fetting the feed fingly by the hand, a practice that was known and flizhtly employed at an early period of the art in this country, and which has lately been reftored by an intelligent agricultor f. ft would feem to have been introduced into the county of Norfolk, where it has fince been praétifed to a confiderable extent, about twenty years fince, by the cultivator of a fmall farm in the vicinity of Norwich. Since that time it has extended itfelf into different neighbouring diftri€ts, as thofe of the coune ties of Suffolk and Cambridge, and is alfo faid to be pra€tifed in Lincolnfhire, with fuccefs|. In this mode of putting the grain in, it is ufual where the land is of the light and mellow kind, to pafs a roller over it, before the bufinefs of planting is begun; the labourer then, with a fmall iron-pointed dibble, about three feet in length, in each hand, makes in moving backwards two rows of holes in each furrow flice that has been turned up by the plough, at from four to fix inches diftant from each other, according to the circumftances of the cafe, and * Clofe in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. IIT. p. 67. + Varlo’s Yorkthire Farmer. l| New Farmer’s Calendar, p. 333, ng the in the h the Wages it lute ralf the uf the ‘a, and conve. tety of I Tikes of the fe in s thofe t when ht toa obably of la- hand, > art in ultor t. vhere it nce, by time it > COUN» nfhite, 2 land efs of about ‘ holes to fix , and Cultivation of Arable Landi—Dibbling. 475 about two or three inches apart in the rows, having the depth of from one ta two inches. The perfon who is employed in making thefe holes 1s then followed by others who drop one, two, or three grains into each hole, as it may fuit the intentions of the planter. This part of the work is moftly performed by women and children. The whole is completed by running a bufh or lrght common harrow over the field*. In this way an expert dibbler,. with three ative aflift- ants, is capable of fetting half an acre of wheat, and three quarters of an acre of barley, oats, or peafe, a-day f. For wheat, in fome diftricts, a narrow fet- plough of only feven inches width at bottom,. is ufed to plough with;. a one- horfe roll then follows to level the flag, er furrow, for the dibblers, who ftrike only one row upon each: when the wheat is depofited, two or three hernels in each hole, a two-horfe roll follows, and afterwards the harrows twice in a-place;. when the field is finifhed in this manner, it is harrowed up again obliquely:. by this method the wheat is depofited in the middle of the flag, at nine inches diftance in the rows; and when come up, has the appearance of being drilled;. the two-horfe roller is fuppofed of material ufe in clofing up the holes, and pre- venting the wheat from being difturbed by harrowing;. and the land is made fo folid by rolling, that very little apprehenfions are entertained about the flug orworm. If there fhould be occafion to hoe in the fpring, the operation can. be eafily and cheaply performed. Bufh-harrowing is fuppofed of very little ufe; as it can only fweep the duft or light mold over the holes, and in the firft fhower of rain that follows moft of them will be feen, and much of the wheat be{welled out of them f. For peas, beans, or other fimilar crops, it will obvioufly be neceffary: to have larger{paces between the rows, and greater diftances ingthem, which muft: render a larger portion of ground capable of being planted in a given time.. When the children engaged in. performing the work of dropping the feed into: the holes, are only able to drop into one hole, fix are required to follow one: dibbler; when capable of dropping into two holes, three are fufficient for one dibbler; and where they can drop into three holes, two are only requifite for a dibbler. The wages are various according to thefe circumftances; for thofe who perform in the firft manner, it is generally three pence a-day for each child,, in the fecond it is feven pence, and in the third about ten pence halfpénny.. Four men to perform the bufinefs of dibbling, with a fuitable number of: * Modern Agriculture, vol. III. p. 83.+ Burroughes in Appendix to Norfolk Reports 4 Young’s. Agricultural Report of Suffolk... A765 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Dibbling. droppers, are confidered as fufficient to work in one party, which is a much better practice than that of allowing the whole to work together, as the feed is fet with much greater regularity and exa€inefs*. 7 The expence of performing the bufinefs of planting in this manner, is genes rally about nine or ten fhillings an acre for wheat, eight for barley and oats t, and feven for peas or vetches+; but this muft evidently be liable to confiderable variation, according as the fituation is populous, and the price of labour cheap, or the contrary. In fome of the dibbling diftri€ts, the difficulty and expence of the hand method have been attempted to be leffened by the ufe of machinery, fuch as rollers of the drill and fpiked kind. The manual practice is, however, to be preferred where labourers can be procured. This circumftance of ufing im- plements for the purpofe of putting in the corn, has probably led fome to fup- pofe that the pra€tice of dibbling was more on the decline than is perhaps really the cafe. The kinds of foil on which this method of putting in the feed has been prac- tifed with the moft advantage, are the light and mixed fandy, and thofe of a loamy quality. On the deep ftiff clays, it is feldom had recourfe to. The newly broken up lands of almoft all defcriptions may, in moft cafes, be ad- vantageoufly planted in this method. Various forts of crops have been found capable, in particular fituations and cir- cumftances, of being put into the ground in this way with advantage, fuch as thofe of wheat, barley, oats, peas, beans and vetches; the firft is, however, the kind of crop for which it is the moft commonly employed. Oats may, in many cafes, be beneficially dibbled on fuch lands as have been newly ploughed up from leys. But it is fuppofed by fome, that barley can feldom be dibbled, by reafon the land is fo dry in April that the holes will run in, and not ftand open to receive the feedf. In the more fouthern parts of the kingdom, the moft favourable feafon for putting in wheat, in this mode, has been found to be the latter end of Septeme ber, or the beginning of OMober; the months of March and April for barley and oat crops; and for peas and beans as early in the fpring months as the nature of the feafon will admit. The quantity of feed that is required in this method of putting it into the ground, is confiderably lefs than where the broadcaft, or perhaps even the * Baker in Norfolk Report.+ Ibid. t Young’s Agricultural Report of Suffelk, | Cultivation of Arable Land——Dibbling. Loy Much| feed drill fyftem, is followed; but the favings muft conftantly depend, ina great degree, upon the fteadinefs and accuracy of the perfons employed in dropping rene the feed, and the number of the feeds that are put into each hole. It has been as fuggefted by an experienced cultivator in this way, that where the droppers erable are properly attended to, the faving in wheat may be about fix pecks in the heap| acre, in barley eight, and in peas and vetches about four*. ’ a 5 The number of grains that are depofited in each hole, is different in different ee| circumftances, but the moft general praétice, and that which has been found an::; the moft fuccefsful, is three or four for grain crops, and one or two for thofe Ich as| of peas, beans, and others of the fame kindt. It is evident, however, that “ be they fhould neither be fet too thickly, nor in too thin a manner: as in the for- ek| mer cafe the plants may be drawn up, and the crops in confequence become {up- weak and not produétive; and in the latter, as where only one grain is placed haps| in each hole, they may be fo thin as to afford but a f{canty produce from the ! want of plants. Where due care has been taken in the putting in of the feed, prac-| there is moftly a confiderable increafe of produce in this way of fowing over of a: the others. The exa€t amount of the additional produce that is thus obtained, The|_ has not, however, been fully fhewn by the experiments of intelligent cultivae > ad tors; but it has been fuppofed, in refpe& to wheat, tobe from four to fix bufhels in the acre{, and the refult of an experiment made with the view of afcer- d cirs taining the difference in the produce between fowing and fetting barley, proves ich as it to be fill greater in that fort of grain, the experimenter having had twelve vever, bufhels on the acre more in the Jand that was dibbled, than that which was may, fown}. Conclufions drawn from loofe eftimates, or fingle experiments, can- ughed not, however, be depended upon, but it can fcarcely be doubted that the bbled, quantity of produce is greater in the method of dibbling the feed than fand in fowing it broadcaft. In the quality of the grain there is likewife a fu- perionity: the wheat and barley produced in this way are faid to be not 1 for only more free from drofs, but larger in the kernel, and of courfe weigh-= saat ing confiderably heavier|. It is eafy to perceive, that when the feed is atley put into the foil in the regular and equal manner that is the cafe in fete ting with the hand when well performed, the crops, of whatever kind they may is the= rises:: aT oe; be, may have a fuperiority in thefe different refpeéts, both from the plants in ae{uch inftances being lefs crowded together, and their becoming in confequence ) a* Baker in Appendix to Norfolk Report.+ Varlo in ditto. } Burroughes in Norfolk Agricultural Report.§ Baker in ditto.|| Ibid. ks Ars Cultivation of Arable Land.—Dibbling. more ftrong and vigorous, and from the air and fun being more fully admitted, by which they become more equally, as well as more perfeCly, ripened. It is. probable too, that in fuch cafes, from the greater regularity of the plants, the hoeing or after-culture of the crops, where it is prattifed, may be more effectually and more fully performed. There is alfo another reafon, that in particular in- {tances has been fuggefied as the caufe of the quality of the grain, in this mode of fowing, being fuperior, which is that of wheat being frequently dibbled upon fuch land as has been broken up from a new clover ley, in which cafe the feeds being fet in the furrow flice, or flag, the plants are not liable to be obtiructed in their growth; whereas, when fown in the ufual broadcaft method, much of the feed muft of courfe fall into crevices and openings between the furrow flices, where they muft be greatly impeded in their vegetation by weeds and other caufes*. This fhows likewife the abfurdity of putting wheat crops in by the broadcaft method upon fuch preparations of land.’ The pra€tice of dibbling peas and beans is only met with in particular dif- triéts to any great extent. In the county of Gloucefter, where. it prevails in a confiderable degree, the bufinefs is chiefly performed by women. In Middle-- fex and fome other counties, both men and women are, however, employed: in this fort of field work. In executing this operation with crops of thefe kinds, it is the cuftom in fome places to form the rows acrofs the ridgesy, but in others, the lengthways of them. The latter method is. probably the: beft, as the planters may be kept more perfeétly diftinct from each. others. and the feed be put into the beft part of the mold in the furrow flice, while in the former it muft frequently be liable to be put into the loofe earth in the feams or interftices formed by the furrow flices, and thus be provided with a lefs fuitable bed for vegetating in. With fome fetters, it is likewife a practice to make ufe of a line in order to guide them in placing the rows at equal diftances, but thofe who have been much ufed to the bufinefs-fel-- dom find it neceflary. In performing the work, the fetters,, beginning, each. at the end of a row, and forming holes at the diftances of about two or three: inches from each other, and of nearly the fame depths, introduce one or two peas or beans into. each hole; proceeding in the fame manner until the whole. is done. The intervals or diftances between. the rows are generally from about: ten to fourteen or fifteen inches. The proportion of feed that is. requifite in this mode of fowing muft obvioufly. * Donaldfon’s Modern, Agriculture, vol, II.+, Ibid, nitted, ~ Ibis 8, the tually lar in- ode of d upon e feeds irudted. uch of furrow ls and in by: at dif- Ns in a Liddle-. ployed. * thefe idges,, ily the: other,. _ while arth in ovided kewile: e rows G fel-- each. three: yr{WO whole about! ioully: Cultivation of Arable Land.—NMethods of Sowine mo advantageous.. 4&7 wv of o© So 479 be different according to the number of feeds put into each hole, and the dif- ferences in the width of the intervals; but from twoand a half to three buthels are the moft ufual quantities. The expence of this fort of labour is in moftt diftriCls from about three fhillings and fix pence to four fhillings and fix pence, or five fhillings, the acre. After the feed has been fet, the field is moftly har- rowed well over in order to cover it, by means of a light fort of harrow. This method of planting, befides its employing a confiderable number of poor perfons, the faving of feed, and the great improvement in the quantity as well as quality of the grain, poffefles other advantages; the feed is depofited to a proper depth in the beft parts of the fuperficial foil, and in fuch a manner, where proper attention is paid, as that the greateft poflible benefits may be derived from the fucceeding hoeings of the crops. And in the lighter forts of land the treading of the labourers in performing the bufinefs, by prefling the Joofe mold more into conta& with the grain, may render it capable of vege- tating in a more quick and perfeét manner. From the feed in this way be-. ing placed more in the folid or firm parts of the foil, it may likewife be lefs expofed to danger from worms, grubs, or other defiru€tive animals of the fame kind. And in many forts of grain, as well as peas and beans, the danger of their being brought to the furface by harrowing is obviated*. The ftraw being ftouter, the crops may be lefs liable to lodge after heavy rains, and lefs expofed to the danger of mildews f. It would feem obvious from what has been obferved on the different me- thods of putting feed into the ground, that each of them may poflefs a degree of merit, and be ufeful in particular cafes and fituations of foils and crops, but that in general the broadcaft praétice is probably liable to more objeétion than either that of drilling or dibbling, from its being lefs exa¢t, and the feed being difperfed with fuch inequality, and in fo irregular a manner, as to admit of little or no after-afliftance being given to the crops during the period of their growth by hoeing or ftirring of the more fuperficial parts of the foil about the roots of the plants. It mutt, notwithftanding, be had recourfe to probably in fuch cafes and circumftances as have been already noticed; but wherever it is practifed, as hocing is in a great meafure excluded, the land fhould obvioufly be in a good ftate of tilth, and as free as poffible from the produétion of weeds; points that have in general been inadequately attended to in this fyftem of arable managemeni. Experienced Farmer, vol. I.+ Norfolk Agricultural Report, p, arr. 480 of Arable Land—Methods of Sowing moft adeantageous. The method, by means of implements of the drill kind, in fituations, and under circumftances of foil and preparation, where it is capable of being pro- perly had recourfe to, both from the feed being depofited with more exa€tnefs in refpe€t to the depths and the regularity of the rows, as well as from the fuperior flate of tilth that is requifite in the firft inftance, and its eafily ad- mitting of every kind of culture while the crops are growing, is certainly not only more perfeét, but probably better calculated for the affording of full crops, and more adapted to the keeping of the land in the roft advantageous con- dition for improved modes of cropping. And the mode of fetting or putting the feed into the foil by the hand, though probably lefs exaét than that by the drill machine, except where par- ticularly attended to, and certainly lefs capable of being beneficially employed from the greater expence which it incurs, may, notwith{tanding, as it admits of after-culture, be found an ufeful pra€tice in fome cafes, efpecially where the land has been broken up from clover, or any new ley, and is not toe Riff or adhefive*. It has, however, been fuggefied t, that the method of fow- ing in drills is to be preferred, from the circumftance of a greater quantity of earth or mold being turned over, and confequently air included in larger pro- portions in the interflices, as in dibbling the fides of the holes are rendered more folid, and thereby lefs proper for the reception of the tender roots of the young plants. But the fuperiority or advantage of any particular method of fowing or put- ting crops into the ground, over that of others, will probably be fhewn in the moft clear and fatisfa@tory manner by the comparative ftatements that have been given by thofe aitentive cultivators who have inftituted and conduéted experiments on different kiads of foils and crops, with the view of afcertaining. a matter of fo much importance to hufbandry. In experiments made on two acres of a{tiff hazel-coloured loamy foil, laid up in eleven-feet ridges, worth about twenty fhillings an acre, and fown with oats, cole feed, barley, beans, and wheat, in the drill and broadcaft methods alternately, in the rotation of firft oats, fecond cole, third barley, fourth beans, and fifth wheat, the fuperiority of the drill fyftem,.over that of the broadcaft,. was found by Mr. Amos to be confiderable, not lefs than from one pound to, « * Experienced Farmers, vol. Tf.+ Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 441. ‘Us, Cultivation of Arable Land—Adcantages of Drilling. AS Ms, and one pound fourteen fhillings the acre in the grain and pulfe crops, and one 1 pro» fhilling and fixpence in that of the cole*. atnelg ‘om the afily aly ads* The refult of thefe experiments is given in the following manner: nly not fl, CROPS. OuS CON: OATS. hand Drilled Acre. DR. Broadcaft Acre. Dk. 1783. rs 1783. Es bed ure pats March 6, Ploughing up from fwarth o 5@ March 6, Ploughing up from fwarth o 5 o iployed 10, Five harrowings and one 10, Eight harrowings 3 o-4.6 admits rolling.;; oO 3 6 Seed fixteen pecks, at od. 0 12© where Drilling two inches deep, Sowing O03 . and eight afunder. oo 6 April2o0, Rolling—. 5 vaso. 6 G rs 100 Harrowing after oo«6 May 24, Hand-weeding, firfttime o 2 6 of fove Twelve pecks feed,atod. 9 9 0o June 15, Ditto, fecond time o 36 ntity of April 20, Rolling: o280:6 Rent, 8c. Co ¢ ver pr0e May 14, Breaft hoeing, fir time 0 2 0 a ee pcr P Ds: f du to eS ne June 5, Ditto, fecond time Oo.2 0 "4 Hand-hoeing ot 6 sof the Rent,&cg for one year oe are L525© Contra.| CR. > or put Sept. 19, Crop, fifty bufhels, at wn in the 28. xis. f 6 3 Contra. cR. ee ave: hat h Sept. 19, Crop, fifty-fix bufhels, at Profit 218 o onducted eee eS Gh 6G Superiority of the drill crop. a ertalning, Prokte: Loa th Kae"a nil, laid oll,‘ COLE-SEED. yn with Driiled Acre. DR. Broadcaft Acre. DR nethods 1783, fee.& 1784. a) bh beans Nov. 4; Ploughing land acrofs five Four ploughings. o 18..0 oadcaty inchesdeep_,: 5= 0 Six harrowing's o 3°0 4 t0 1784, Two rollings. o< 1-0 und.£0) March 1, Break-harrowing, firfttime o 1 6 Lime.= 105-6 26, Ploughing, fecond time a, 5-0 June 28, Sowing every other land, April 24, Break-harrowing, fecond feed, harrowing,&c. oO 1© time:.: oI 9 Rolling O06 Carried forward.£.0 12 6 Gs Carried forward.£.2 3 6 482 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Advantages of Drilling. And on two acres of land ridged in the fame way, but the foil of which was a light fandy loam, worth about eighteen fhillings the acre, fown in the Fie aa Brought forward, 0 12 6 Harrowing and rolling oer” oO May 16, Ploughing land, thirdtime o 4 0 30, Lime, 4¢chaldronscharged 1 0 O Drag harrowing. Ot, 10 June 12, Rolling and harrowing O52 oo 28, Ploughing, fourth time oO 4 0 Harrowing, and rolling WAGE}.. OF 2.22 29, Drilling every other land one inch deep and twelve afunder oo: 6 . Seed, a quarter peck oye po Harrowing’;@,,0.-6 July 24, Breaft-hoeing, firft time On 22800 Aug. 16, Ditto, fecondtime. G20 Rent,&c. one year. eee eo Expences=...- f. 3.13: 06 Contra. CR. Nov. 24, Value of cropappraifed 4 0 0 pe 8.@ Brought forward, 2 3 6 July ro, Harrowing-: ore 6 18, Hoeing, firft time. O.4: 36 Aug. 12, Ditto, fecond time on 26 Rent,&c. one year, eee ee Expences. 4.3 10 6 Contra. er. Nov. 24, Value of crop appraifed 3 16 0 Profit.« on 5 Superiority of drilled crop=» 399 1 0 Profit.cof200: 6506 Lia BARLEY. Drilled Acre. DR. Broadcaft Acre. DR. 1784. his. de 1784. Lier: Dec. 24, To ploughing, firfitime o 5 o Dec. 24, Ploughing, firfttime. Oya ke. 1785. Lime, charged half. o 18 0 March 20, Break-harrowing,; oT: 6 April 1, Ploughing, fecond time o 4© Harrowing, three times and rolling.‘ 0212-0 Drilling feed, two inches by nine..° 0 a: 6 Harrowing ditto° 0 Oo 6 Seed, eight pecks, at gd. 0 6 0 Carried forward.£-1 17 0 1706. April 1, Ploughing, fecond time ohaue Seale: Seed, twelve pecks, at gd. andfowing.. O12. 2 May 20, Lime, half charged. 018 0 Break- harrowing i Ot 0 Harrowing four times o 2 06 Rolling oo 6 Carried forward.£.2 2 9 ila Si Sats Laie wo hs a ee fray a| an ey fey fe) RS Cultivation of Arable Land.—Adzantages of Drilling. A8S drilland broadcaft manner with turnips, barley, clover, and wheat, in the ro- tation of firft turnips, fecond barley, third red clover, fourth wheat; the trials LPS: ta 8. Brought forward, 1 17 0 Brought forward, 2 2 9g Rolling.:. o..,0, 6 Hand-hoeing firft time o- 2 6 May to, Breaft-hoeing, firft time oO. 22.0 Hand-weeding<. oO. 2.0 Hand-weeding rows o 1.6 Rent,&c. one year Ir9 June 4, Breaft-hoeing,fecondtime o 1 6== See Hand-weeding rows 0=F-0 Hapences- eppige= 3 Rent,&c. one year ee eels) Contra. CR. Expences L524 20 Aug. 26, Crop reaped, and ina few Ce ee days thrafhed, produce Aug. 20, Crop reaped, and ina few SE ie ye ce days thrathed, produce Profit. 4 4.9 58 bufhels, at 3s. S-14 i170 Gain by the drilled crop 1 5§ 3 Profit stint 5 LOO£5 10% 0 BEANS. Drillea Acre. DR, Broadcajt Acre. DR. 1785.£. sd 1785. hes. d. Nov. 4, Ploughing, firft time O~ 5.40 Nov. 4, Pioughing, firft time o§Sc)0 1786. 1786. March 6, Break-harrowing© I 0 March 4, Break-harrowing:© 1% 8, Ploughing, fecond time oOo 4 0 8, Ploughing, fecond time 9..#50 +. Four harrowings at 6d OS2 10 Sowing the feed O70. 3 Rolling: 0: 30 26 Harrowing ditto, gtimes o 2 6 Drilling the feed three by Seed, twelve pecks at rotd.© 10 6 24 inches oO=9 6 April 20, Rolling and harrowing. a. 3 Harrowing ditto o6 6 May 29, Hand-weeding, firfttime 0 3.9 Seed, for 8 pecks, at 103d. 0 7 0 June 30, Ditto, fecond time Oo© 6 April2o, Rolling.:; oOo 66 Rent,&c.£296 Harrowing 2 oo 6=e May 16, Horfe-hoeing, firttime 0 1 0 Expences.£.2 9 g 20, Hand-hoeing the rows a=F. 6: June 16, Horfe-hoeing the inter-: Conia:. Se ie deo. Ee Sous 29, Produce, thirty bufhels Bric iS 18, Hand-hoeing the rows Dae ae 9) Prokt 215 3 26, Farthing up ditto, firft Gain by the drilled, ae time°°°(8) z Oo— — f. 3 16s eG Carried forward.£.1 7 6 ee Ss AS4 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Advantages of Drilling, of the fame cultivator alfo turned out in favour of the drill method. The ad- vantage in the turnip and clover crops being from eight to ten fhillings and Drilled Acre continued, ie Sted: Brought forward, 1 7 6 Contra. cae July 10, Earthing up ditto, fecond 1786. eee. tame=.: ema Mea©, Sept. 29, Produce, thirty-fix bufhels, Rent,&c.:: cee gece at 3s. 6d.:: 6 Gili Expencés;.... f.2° 9© Prout 4.3.16. 6 WHEAT. Drilled Acre. DR. Broadcaft Acre. DR. 1786.: Sa Be Oe 1786. Spe aa Sept. 8, Ploughing, firft time. O55. 0 Sept. 28, Ploughing, firft time Os 2 O&. 6, Break-harrowing and weed- O&. 6, Break-harrowing o I10 ing:: o-2 6 Gathering weeds 020 8, Second ploughing:@ EAS 8, Ploughing, fecond time o 4 0 Harrowing thrice, rolling Seed, nine pecks, 1s.4d. 0 12 0 once.;: O22<6 Sowing ditto 6 O83 Drilling every other land, 1787. Harrowing five times. o 2-6 and x-third by 1-eighth 0 o 6 April 20, Rolling and harrowing,&c.0 1© 1787, May 14, Hand-weeding, firfttime o 2 6 Seed, feven pecks, har- June 12, Hand-weeding,fecondtime,o 2 0 rowing 6d}:© 9g 10 Rent,&c. one year. ses alee! i li and harrowin April 20, Rolling ois ving Deo og ee for weeding.: Or Se May 6, Firft hoeing intervals, and hand-weeding the rows 0 3© 30, Second hoeing.: Oo 1 6 June 4, Hand-weeding rows Orr a > Year’s rent,&c..° ror 2 6 Conka— Expences 8£.2 11 10 1787. Aug. 26, Produce, 30 bufheis.§ 5) 0 Contra. eR. a 1787. Profit oe Ls Aug. 24. Produce, 36bufhels. 9 18© Gain by the drilledacre 1 14§ Prot.£.7 6 2 a’ oe = a pa 4) ee Se ae Se RS _ nr Sow on OF ON U2 OSS Fon© — > ES Cultivation of Arable Land.—Advantages of Drilling. 485 fixpence, and in thofe of the grain kinds, from feventeen fhillings to one pound nine fhillings i Sek OP Ss. tft. TURNIPS, Driiled Acre, DR. Broadcaft Acre. 1789. fe s. 1789. Z£.&. d. Feb. 11, Ploughing, firfttime. 0. 5% 0 Mar. 1, Ploughing, firft time Or 3a 8 Mar. 31, Break-harrowing: e796 31, Break-harrowing: OP 16 April 28, Ploughing, fecond time i276 April 28, Ploughing, fecond time oO-g78 May 10, Harrowing twice o ro May 10, Harrowing twice roma fa Gathering couch; o 2 6 Gathering couch of 2 6 24,‘len loads of rotten dung, 24, Ten loads of dung, half half charged.: Se ge charged. o12 6 Ploughing, third time. o 4:0 Ploughing in ditto o 4 45 Rolling 0 0 6 Rolling.:; o 0@6 June 16, Harrowing twice oF Oo June 16, Harrowing and rolling oer ee Rolling 0:0 6 18, Ploughing, fourth time So 4°0 18, Ploughing, fourth time oA 46 Three harrowingsand one Harrowing thrice. Oo-2-46 rolling.:; 9 2 oO Rolling:: 50. 6 Seed, 1lb. fugtr-loaf. O79 6 Drilling feed one inch by Sowing ditto.: o 0° twelve eo: 06 Harrowing and rolling Harrowing ditto 0-0-6 ditto.:: 6 io Seed, 11b. fugar-loaf 5-07 6 July 20, Harrowing for the firft July 20, Harrowing, firftweeding 0 o 6 weeding: i: oo 6 28, Breaft-hoeing, fecond ditto o 2 0 28, Hand-hoeing, firft time 6°34. 6 Aug. 18, Hand ditto, third ditto o.2 6 Aug. 18, Ditto, fecond time o 2 6 Rent, one year,&c. O19 0 Rent, one year,&c.© 19 Oo Bxpences 2{.3 4 0 Contra. CR. Dec. 10, Crop appraifed.: 3 ig© Profit tO AE G6 Expences.'". 3-5 3 Contra. CR. Dec. 12, Cropappraifed.: 3 8.8 Profit. o 2 9 Gain by drill.‘ 0 8 9g 6 ad. BARLEY, 48 On land where the foil was a light fandy loam, of the value of about twenty fhillings the acre, managed in the method that has been juft defcribed, the 6 Culiwwation of Arable Land.— Advantages of Drilling, 2d. BARLEY. Drilled Acre. DR. 1789. fe 8. a. Charge of dung, half, Oo 12 Dec. 20, Ploughing, firft time. 0.5 6 1790. Mar. 24, Break-harrowing opie Sa. April 10, Ploughing, fecond time O40 Harrowing thrice O41: 6 Rolling.:: 9. 0-0 Drilling the feed twoinches by nine. o Oo 6 Harrowingand rolling ditto o 1 0 Seed, eight pecks, at 10d. 0 6 8 May 6, Hoeing, firft time Ogee 8 Hand-weeding rows oO. 1.0 June 16, Hoeing, fecond time Ogt,© Hand-weeding rows. oO£6 Rent,&c. one year 6-190 Hsepences*. ff. 2 17-2 Contra ch. 1799. Aug. 26, Produce, fifty-two bufhels g 1 0 Prout... 2.20 ———— Broadcaft Acre. DR. 1789.£. 6d Half the charge of the dung.:: oi 0 Nov, 20, Ploughing, firft time. oO. 4-46 1790. Mar. 24, Break-harrowing. Oe tao April 10, Ploughing, fecond time o 4 oO Seed, twelve pecks, atrod. 0 10 0 Sowing ditto,: o o 6 Harrowing ditto, fourtimes 0 2 0 ‘Rolling ditto...: 0 Oo 6 May 20, Weeding the firft time cee a June 16, Weeding, fecond time o 2@ One year’s rent,&c.. OhIQ=40 Expences™.-/.2 18 6 ‘Contra. CR, Produce, forty-feven bufhels 8 4 6 Profits,< ae oe, Tn favour of the drilled 3d. RED CLOVER. Drilled Acre. DR. cf 2 a T7QI. Seed, one ftone, laftyear 0 7 0 Mar. 29, Bufh-harrowing Is. raking and gathering off weeds, 3s. 6d. rolling 6d... Oe.5 0 June 30, Mowing and making firft crop-:: C250 Carting home.: O15.0 Expences on fecondcrop o 15 6 Year’s rent,&c.: 0 19 0 Expences-.£.3 6° 6 ree eocerene crop a;: 0.17 10 &.6 3 10 CERES= mS Broadcaji Acre. DK. 1791. fi aS d. One ftone of feed: O70 Mar, 30, Bath-harrowing: O. Feo Raking and gathering weeds. 0:48 30 Rolling 2: O70) 16 Mowing the firft crop o 2 6 Making itintohay. One 6 Leading ditto home O12,°°0 Mowing the fecond crop 0 2 o Carried forward.£.1 10 6 pt a ao. OY© Gd(So Cultivation of Arable Land.—A dvantages of Drilling. 487 7 crops being potatoes, barley, red clover, and wheat, in the courfe of fri potatoes, fecond barley, third clover, fourth wheat, the fuperiority of the drill Contra, CR. ke Ss Firft eddith:: o 4@ Firft crop, two ton hay 6-674 Second ditto, one and a half ton z: 410. Gg Second eddifh;© s o 10 19 0 Expences ogee O56 Eroht-. 9,£.4 12-6 Drilled Acre. DR. 1791. Se Bet. Oct. 4, Ploughing A: Oais5 Five harrowings and one rolling:: 233-0 Drilling feed 2+ inches by nine.::© 0.6 Harrewing ditto. Oo.@ 6G Seed, 8 pecks, at 1s. 6d. 0 12© #792. April 16, Harrowing and rolling, firft weeding fo) fe) May 1, Hoeing the firft time fe)° 12, Hand-weeding rows O=F 6 20, Hoeing fecond time Oo 5-6 24, Hand-weeding rews eo 1-6 Rent one year,&c.° 19 O Expences Pall<3 ie aay ae Contra. ER. £792. Aug. 30, Produce, forty-two bufhels 10 10 9 Sheep feed April‘ e 3 6 10 13 6 Profit Rae AS| aoe: hae 7 Su, Brought forward, 1 10 6 Making ditto o 2 6 Leading cittohome, e990 One year’s rent,&c.. Oo 19 0 Expences mf ag a Contra; CR. Firft and fecond eddifhes, o 8 o Ditto crops, 34 tons 9 16-0 Io 3 9 Expences Sei 6" ae Se Prout 5=. se, ao In favour of drilled 0 yo 6 WHEAT. Sy lan ae Broadcaf? Acre. DR. 1791. fxn See O&. 4, Ploughing.;: a=8- 6 Seed nine pecks, 15s. 6d. O° 535-6 Sowing ditto. fo)= Harrowing fix times. e230 1792. April 16, Ditto and rolling< oi 6 May 12, Weeding firfttime, Calls g 26, Ditto fecond ditto fo) fe) Rent one year,&c. 919 oO Expences»£62 6 9 Contra. CR. Sheep feed e: o 3 6 Produce, thirty-fix buthels 9 Profit oO 16-<9 In favour of drilled, 1 9 Q 88 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Advantages of Drilling. practice appears ftill more evident. As the detail of the potatoe crop feems principally is s here omitted*. ‘ntended to fhew the difference between horfe and hand hoeing, it *€&-O@ S, ift. POTATOES. Drilled Acre. Details of omitted. Broadcaft Acre. Details of omitted, ad. BARLEY. Drilled Acre. Dk. 1790 fs, hs Charge of dung half.@ Fc*G Jan. 18, Ploughing, firft time O45 70 Mar. 9g, Break-harrowing QO 16 April 10, Ploughing, fecond time© 4© Three harrowings Gaet-26 Rolling.::©2026 Drilling feed 2 by ginches 0 0 6 Harrowing and rollingdo. 0 1 0 Seed, feven pecks, atird. 0 6 5 May 14, Hoeing the firft time o 2 0 Hand-weeding rows OF 36 June 6, Hoeing fecond time o 2 0 Hand-weeding rows. Go. 9. 6 Rent one year,&c. 1-0 Expences Pees i oe ee Contra. CR. Sept. 4, Produce, 56 buthels 3s.6d. 9 46 0 Profit tia Sk: ae’) 3d. Drilled Acre. DR. 17Qle es. a, Seed, one ftone fown laft year e e e° 7(oe) Mar. 30. Bufh-harrowing.: O°-F 26 Raking and gathering weedso 2 6 Rolling:; 9.0 6 Carried forward A Go Ms 4 I 9 Broadcaft Acre. DR. 790. E ie ee ae Charge of dung half 6.15 0 Jan. 18, Ploughing, firfttime. On5© Mar. 9, Break-harrowing- St 2G April 10, Ploughing, fecond time So: 4.8 Seed, twelve pecks,at 1od. 0 10© Sowing ditto 0.90 22 Harrowingditto four times 9 2 0 Rolling.:: oo. 6 May 14, Weeding firft time oO 4.0 June 4, Ditto fecond time eo fe Rent one year. ieee See Expences oes 45 Contra. cR. Sept. 6, Produce, forty-nine bufhels, a5. 4a.:° S. ga-% CLOVER. 419 1 Tn favour of drilledacre 1 15 oo Geas5 7 Broadcaft Acre. DR. 179I.£.& d. One ftone feed.: eo lo Mar. 30, Bufh- harrowing o=£e°6 Raking andgatheringweeds 0 2 6 Roiling.:‘ oo 6 Carried forward.£.0 11 6 t olUe.lUCOlUCU8WlUCOlCU™ Vo.eO=O SO ~~ a. Alaaqao Im Pc Ses Cultivation of Arable Land.—-Advantages of Drilling. A89 The value of the ftraw in all thefe experiments is fuppofed to be adequate to the expences incurred in reaping, threfhing, and conveying the produce to the n rke It is likewife afferted, that in a variety of trials conducted in a fimilar man- ier, but on lands of-very inferior qualities, as fuch as were not worth more z fhillings the acre a-year, the advantages were Sears Li Ss ip Brought forward o 1: 6 Brought forward oir 6 July 4, Mowing firft crop ye 6 June 20, Mowing firft crop Oo 2"-6 Maléuy.. es Making it.:: o 2 6 Carting home,&c. 2 OF121; 9 Leading ditto.‘ O10 6 Mowing fecond crop. Ono 2 O Mowing fecond crop. o 2 Oo Making ditto fe) 2 6 Making ditto©° fe) 3 io) Cariing ditto home,&&. 0 g© Leading ditto.-°o 7 6 Rent one year,&c. ft 1© Rent one year,&c. I 6 Expences 2 hee 23 oO Expences«£3 0 6 Contra, CR, €or fra Produce of the two crops, ae eee on ihees donc Bi‘es52 Produce, two tons and a Firft and fecond eddifh= 0 10 nel eee«= BGS g 10° Profit: pou. O Expences, Pas In favour of the drilled Oris<56 J{== e BN Pickt_.f.6,9. 9£6 7 0 4th. WHEAT. Drilled Acre. DRe Broadcaft Acre. DR. 1791. fee gr) ivg1. Le s. d. Oct. 1, Ploughing land.: Ge 5 8 O&. 4, Ploughingland.‘ o 5 9 Four harrowings and one Seed, eight pecks, ts. 6d. 0 12© rolling.:: on42 6 Sowing ditto,: 90 o 6 Drilling feed zi byginches 0 0 6 Harrowing ditto fix times 0 3 0 Harrowing ditto.:° 0 6 1792. 1792. April 1g, Ditto and rolling firft Seed, eight pecks,at 1s.6d. 0 12 0 ae°:; a. April 17, Harrowing and rolling firft May 14, Weeding firft time 0 3 0 time: ae 28, Ditto fecond ditto o 2 0° 28, Hoeing firft time. 0 2 09 Rent one year,&c. eae May 2, Hand-weeding rows« o 1 6 Expences nie Oat Mie© a Se Carried forward,£.1 5 0 Centre 4.50 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Advoantages of Drilling. never upon an average lefs than from twelve to fourteen fhillings the acre an nually in favour of the drill prattice*. The advantage of the drill method of fowing even for grain crops, feems therefore to be placed by thefe experiments in a point of view that muft tend to promote the practice; and for peafe, beans, turnips, potatoes, cabbages, vetches, and many fimilar crops, it has long been almoft generally confidered as the moft convenient and beneficial by thofe who have not fuppofed it adapted to grain. But in refpect to an increafe in the produce on various defcriptions of foil, fuch as thofe cf the loamy and mellow, as well as the cold, clayey, and more ftiff kinds, experiments which are afferted to have been made with much ac- curacy appear likewife from Mr. Cook’s ftatements to be in favour of the drill fyftemt. This was found to be the cafe in Mr. Boote’s praftice, when extended £ d. Brought forward 1 5 o 16, Hoeing the fecond time oF 6 20, WMand-weedingrows, OF) iO Rent one year,&c... ae oe Contra. ae es Sept. 18. Produce,.for thirty bufhels,£. s. d, Expences af. 2: 8 6 63.: 902 6 i Sheep feeding April Contra. CR. P oop ae Sept. 14, Produce, thirty-fix bufhels, Profit£L.615 6 6s.‘ e. 190° 16) oa Gain in favour of drilled Sheep feeding April. OF. 3° 0 acre‘:: ce Ae Profit sag,§ 30-56 i.3 Ft 6 * Amo on Drill Hufbandry, p. 126, + The refults are the following: WHEAT, Drilled produce per acre. Bs GQ. Broadcajed produce per acre. 3786. On loamy foils== 47°06’ o B. 6.°Q, Cold clay ditto=- 44§ 2 Onadjoining land»=- G48 Ditto-=== 25 ft 3 BARLEY, Onlight land--- jz 40 Very light fandy land Ad Oo o Qn faine fort of Jand»* 270. 4 WHEAT, on 8 WY 4 Cultvcation of Arable Land.—Advantages of Drilling, AQ} to more than three hundred and fixty acres, as well as in that of many other cultivators*. Since the refults of thefe trials were taken, the various im- provements that have been Eide=e in the machinery for the purpofe of drilling the crops, and thofe for hoeing and keeping them clean afterwards, muft probably have contributed to render the aimerandes in the quantities of produce under the different methods of fowing ftill more confiderable. The practical ftatements of a later experienced drill cultivator may, probably, on thefe accounts, be more fatisfa€tory, and afford a more correét view of the fupériority of the praétice. The writer, after a flight trial with another drill machine, and becoming more acquainted with the nature of the drill culture from a more extenfive obiervation of it in different places, determined upon making ufe of Mr. Cook’s machine, and the method of management which he has recommended. He began by drilling in November, 1791, two acres and a half of light, dry, loamy, land, not worth more than twelve fhillings the acre, middling barley foil, broken up from the ftate of a foul, poor, pea ftubble, with red lammas wheat, at the rate of one bufhel to the acre, in rows with nine-inch intervals; another part of the field, confeffedly better by five or fix fhillings the acre, being fown at the rate of two bufhels to the acre in the broadcaft method, and managed in the beft manner of that prattice. The crop of the broadcaft fowing was, on account of the thinnefs of that of the drilled, it is faid, much fuperior in its appearance during the winter and the early part of fpring; but the other after being fcarified once in March, and horfe-hoed the laft week in May, exhibited a decided fuperiority, the broadcaft declining confiderably; and that on the crops being reaped, that part under the drill WHEAT. Drilled produce per acre. Be G. Q Broadcajied produce per acre. Bo GocQs 1787. On flinty loam in clover ley On fame fort of land-> 20 3 0 one earth-- ats iS Ditto two years clover On fame fort of land-- 25@ 0 ae-- 2342 9 Poor cold clayey after On fame landadjoining=-- 13 49.9 clover--- 25° 4° 90 BARLEY. On flinty loam after wheat 27© o Onthe fame land->- N te Le) .@) The fame fuperiority in the quantity of produce is evident in various other ftatements, both with egard to wheat, barley, oats, beans, and peas; but the nature of the foil is either not diftin&tly me tioned, or there is not a clear comparifon made between the two methods of putting in the crops. * Rev. Mr. Cook, in Memoirs of Bath Agricultural Society, vol. TV. p. 326. ‘a 9> ry®. ral q A“pa J: cy Vey fe eo 492 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Advantages of Drilling. fyftem afforded nineteen bufhels three pecks on the acre; while the part ma- naged in the broadcaft method did not produce quite five bufhels on the fame extent of land. And in a fecond experiment on one acre of potatoe fallow, of the annual va lue of about twenty fhillings, prepared by being once ploughed and harrowed, and. fown in March in the drill mode, with one buthel of white lammas wheat; the plants when in deuble leaf being once fearified, and immediately afterwards harrowed acrofs with a common harrow, and after attaining the height of fix or elght inches horfe-hoed, the crop had alfo the appearance of Beis thin and flight till after midfummer; but the produce, on being reaped, both in grain and ftraw, was, notwith an aiding, very confiderable, being twenty- nine bufhes three pecks, nine-gallon meafure. In the fpring of the fame year, thirty acres of land of the value of from thirty-five to forty fhillings the acre, were tilled, manured, and prepared in every way in a fimilar manner; fifteen acres of which being drilled in rows at nine inches, with two buthels of feed to the acre, and fifteen acres broadcafted, with from three to four buthels the acre. During the growth of the crop, and at the time of cutting it, the feafon was extremely wet. The crop put in, in the latter method, was lodged, ftained, and fecured with great difficulty; while that in the former was{carcely lodged at all, and being clear from weeds was houfed without injury, at half the extra expence of the other. The produce of grain was from ten to fifteen buthels the acre more in quantity and one fhilling the bufhel better in quality, ee the broadcaft crop had the advantage of bei ng the firft fown, which was a point upon which much depended that feafon. And in a concluding g experiment, a field of ten acres tilled, manured, and pre- pared for wheat, in every refpeG& in a fimilar manner, xcept that half was drilled with one half the above sroportion of feed at nine-inch intervals, and the other fown broadcaft, doubts being entertained of the value of the land in different parts, two twelve-furrow ridges were, by way of proof, gathered through the middle of the part intended for drilling, the row fowing being commenced on each fide of them. The two ridges were managed, both i ike fpect to sioner fowing, and being weeded, in the manner of the common hufbandry of the difiri@. The drilled erop had one{carifying and horfe- hoeing. At the period of harveft, the two ridges were firft cut;. and immedi- ately afterwards a breadth equal to one of them, of the drilled, was cut on each fide, and each part fecured and kept feparate till in a proper condition to be thrafhed, when they were carted into different barns, thrafhed out and winnowed; the drilled crop affording twenty nine bufhels three pecks,. and the OGQ [Cultivation of Arable Land—Saving of Seed by Dri ling’. 4G3 broadcaft twenty bufhels one peck. And that the experiment might be con- dud- With as much accuracy as poflible, the fame perfon was employed to winnow and meafure the whole* Thefe experiments appear to have been made with fo much exaéinefs, and in fo judicious a manner, that there can be little doubt of the refults; and they have prefented fo favourable an ote of the practice to the writer, that he aflures us he has ever fince followed it for the whole of his crops, repeatedly fowing a part broadcaft by way of proof; but that he has never once among al] lied trials feen the broadcaft fowing equal the drilled part. There is another point in which the fuperiority of the drill method of fow- ing is faid to have a confiderable fuperiority, which is in the faving of feed; but it is probable that in this way the advantages cannot, in general, be fo great as the flatements of cultivators under particular circumftances of foil and ~ fituation have made them f.‘This would feem to be the cafe, from the obfervation * Exterin Memoirs of the Bath Agricultural Society, vol IX. p. 23. + The Rev. H. J. Clofe ftates the differences in expence, thus: Srep-Corn.—LExpence on.131 Acres of: Arable Land, in irproved Drill-Hufoandry. Acres Lanse de 1799. 31. 0f Wheat, 3:pecks of feed per acre, at 8s. per buthel.: S$. 2920 26 Early white peas, 3 pecks per acre, at 8s. per bufhel. 4- TO) i8 Dun peas, 1 bufhel per acre, at 5s. 3d. per bufhel:;: 4. ta 16 rT: oe 5 Tick beans, 3 pecks per acre, at 5s. per bufliel:°: Bt26 5 6 Early maz. beans, 3 pecks peracre, at 6s. per bufhel.‘ F as 7a 12 Oats, 1 bufhel peracre, at 3s. per bufhel 5°:; 1-16© 13 Barley, 1 bufhelperacre, at 3s. 6d. per buthel.:: dumagitg > 12~Vetches, 14 bufhel per acre, at 6s. per bufhel: é 3 Bt 8.26 - Total. L354. CoS Szep-Conn.—Expence on 131 Acres of Land, in Broadcafi-Huandry. Acres.£.& d 1799. 31 Of wheat, 3 bufhels peracre, at 7s. perbufhel..° we Bae 26 Early peas, 4 bufhels per acre, at 8s. per bufhel:, oo) A See 18 Dun peas, 4 bufhels per acre, at 5s. 3d. per bufhel°°- 18 18 0 15 Tick beans, 3 bufhels of feed per acre, at gs. per bushel°- dmo5 0 6 Early maz. beans, 3 bufhels per acre, at 6s. per bufhel°° 5. 8 o 12 Oats, 4 bufhels per acre, at 3s, per bufhel:‘°° 7 4 0 13 Barley, 3 bufhels per acre, at 3s. 6d. per buthel:‘° 616 6 12 Vetches, 3-buthels per acre, at 6s. per bufhel.::- 10 16 0 Lod Cultication of Arable Land.—Quaniitics of Seed. fo frequently made that thofe engaged in this‘method of pratice generally con- tinue to increafe the quantity of feed in almoft all defcriptions of crops, and on moft forts of foil*. The great differences in the details of expence under the different methods, as given by the very intelligent prattical agricultor juft mentioned, fhew, however, that much advantage may be derived in this way, where a correct attention 1s beftowed in the management. On the exa€inefs of this it is probable, however, that much of fuch favings muft depend. There is reafon to fuppofe that fome proportions of feed may be more ad- vantageous than others in regard to the quantity of produce, as it is obvious that injury muft be fuftained from crops being either too thin, or too much crowded together upon the ground. Few experiments have hitherto, indeed, been made with a view to the afcertaining of this mattert; but the refults of the few trials that have been attempted, feem to{peak in favour.of the drill method of only a middling proportion t. ot 6.0. Seed in the broadcaft hufbandry:£34) 10.6 In the drill hufbandry:;- 34.60 Saving in the feed-corn<6) toe Ua" 6 ee This it is added is the exa& amount-of the quantity of feed ufed on 431 acres of arable land the fame year, and of the proportion of feed other farmers would have employed on the fame quantity of iand. The favings in this mode might, he thinks, be about 8,000,000 bufhels of wheat, 3,000,006 bufhels of barley, 1,000,000 buthels of rye, 4,000,000 bufhels of oats, and 1,000,000 bufhels of beans and peas, which are yearly thrown away in feed-corn, independent of the additional produce which by the new fyftem might be obtained.—Thefe calculations cannot, it is obferved, be fuppofed to be accurate, but the writer hopes the aggregate would not be very erroneous. * Young’s Annals of Agriculture. + In Mr. Boote’s experiments made in 1787, by drilling different grain crops, the refults were, ac- cording to Mr. Cook, the following, on different forts of foil: Quantity of Seed. Crop. Soil. Produce per Acre, 4 Gallons::..... cc WW Neatats- On loamy afterbeans.- 45 bufhels. 6 Ditto:. Ditto- On poor clay after clover.. 25 buthels, 4 gal. 6 Gallons..» Barley.~ On loamy landafter turnips. 75 bufhels. 5 Ditto:. Ditto:- On fandy land ditto:- 58 bufhels. 5 Gallons°- Oats:. On ditto after barley.«5 74bu thels. 3 Ditto--*: Ditto 2...- On loamy land after barley. 76 buthels. t ed ¢ Cook in Memoirs of the Bath Agricultural Society, vol. IV. p. 328. Cs my eg“ia. 205:; A‘‘ Cultivation of Arable Land.—Advantages of Dibblins. 495 Numerous experiments have been defcribed by writers on hufbandry, in which the drill method has been fhewn to be greatly fuperior to that of the broadcat for various forts of luxuriant vegetable crops, fuch as peas, beans, potatces, cabbages, and even turnips in moft cafes. It has been obferved by an attentive drill cultivator, that beans, when drilled in two rows, at nine inches, with an interval of twenty-feven, if weeded fufficiently early, and well ploughed be- tween, become quite thick and abundantly produ€tive. And, in planting@ coarfe piece of poor land in two different ways with potatoes, the one part in the common lazy-bed manner, and the other in drills of two rows at a foot afun- der, and three-feet intervals between, for the purpofe of being wrought by the common plough, and which were three times ploughed and once hand-hoed during the time the crop was in the ground; it was found, on the crops“being taken up, thatthe part fet in drills was by much the beft, notwithfanding it had. been planted with only about two thirds the quantity of feed. And it js afferted that, in the fowing of turnips by means of the drill, befides their being better, there is a faving of four fhillings the acre in the after-culture of the crop, when drilled at twelve inches apart, and an opportunity afforded of performing the bufinefs in a much more effeétual manner*. And the experiments of another cultivator of this ufeful root feem alfo to fhew that a greater weight of produce may be obtained by fowing in drills on one-bout ridges, at twenty-feven inches diftance, than in the broadcaft method, or even in drills, on a level furface, at twenty-one inches+. In regard to the pra€tice of dibbling, though it may, as has been already ob- ferved, in particular cafes and circumftances of foil and preparation, when cor- rectly performed, have a degree of fuperiority over the broadcaft method, from the circumftance of more air and moifture being admitted to the plants, and, where the cuftom of hoeing prevails, from the foil being more fully ftirred; yet, from the expence and difficulty that attend it, and its being conftantly liable to be performed in an improper manner, it would feem to be not only lefs advan- tageous than the drill method, but lefs capable of being generally applied. But whatever may be the advantages of particular methods of fowing, or in whatever manner the crops may be put into the foil, it will conftantly be necef- fary to attend to their being kept as perfe€ly clean and free from weeds as poffi- ble by fome means or other; as it is utterly impoflible, from the clofenefs and * Exter in Memoirs of Bath Society, vel. 1X. + Jobfon in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. JT, — tah lp av Warine 496 Cu ti eva E10 of Arable LaNG,.— i O0cin: Or the want of free admiffion of air, as well as the great confumption of nourifh- : pan Pen pen pe mca a pa hea et, ment that muft be daily drawn from the foil, in cafes wl fuch a number and variety of plauis are fuffered torves: etate together, that there can be abundant \ePYreE sULG crops of grain if the bufinefs of eradicating them be either wholly ne eglected o 7 1 only performed in a partial manner. Where the mode of putting in the feed will 7 i admit of it, care fhould be taken to have the intervals, or portions of ground between the rows, as frequently ftirred as may be fufficient for affordi ing the moft full and perfect vegetation and ripening of the crops. In the broadcaft hutbandry, from the plants ftanding in an irregular manner, the bufinefs of weeding and cleaning can only be performed by the hand with implements of either the forceps or hand-hoe kinds. But where the drill fyftem 43 1 or that of dibbling, prevails, as there is more regularity in the ftate of the crops, this may be executed in other ways, and in a more eafy, expeditious, and ef- feftual manner, by the ufe of horfe-hoes, or other powerful implements of the fame kind, drawn by horfes Hoeing.—This isa procefs in which the foils, by being frequ iently|: broken down, and divided, while the crops are growing upon them, are rendered not only more fuitable for affording fuch fupplies of nourithment as may be necef- fary, but for providing and continuing that fine ftate or condition of the mould which is moft adapted to their perfect growth. It is pees perhaps, one of the moft ufeful and important operations in the practice of drill hut ibandry, and one that fhould never be negletted by thofe who are aay in that fort of cul- tivation. It is a practice in which various advantageous changes are produced; the weeds that are injurious to the crops, are not only effec ne eradicated and deftroyed, but more abundant and more regular contributions of nourifhment pro- vided by the different new combinations of air, moifture, or other matters that muft take place either within or upon the foil, in confequence of the mold being often turned over: and the crops, by being thus left in a clean and free fitu- ation, become more vigorous and healthy in their growth. The pulverifation thus effe€ted, likewife leaves the Jands in a more open and permeable con- dition for the reception of the rains and dews into their internal parts; and the fibrous roots of the plants are not fo liable to be injured by the drying and cracking of the earth about them during hot feafons. There is alfo an- other effe€t produced by hoeing, that, in many cafes, may be of great import- ance; which is, that, by throwing up the mold againft the{tems of the plants in the fpring months, a great increafe in the crops may be accomplifhed by the ALLY — Cultication of Arable Land.=—Loveing. 497 tillering or fhooting out of new ftems from the joints about the furface that are thus covered with earth, as happens in tranfplanting, and which has been well repre- fented by a late ingenious writer*. Befides, the land thus undergoes confider- able preparation, and becomes in a more proper and fuitable condition for the reception of fucceeding crops}. It is alfo extremely obvious that, in proportion as foils are kept in aloofe, mellow, and pulverifed ftate, they muit be more readily and more fully imbued with the various matters that may fall upon them.. Thus the different fubftances that are precipitated, or come in contact with them, from the furrounding atmofphere, fuch as rain,{fnow, dew, air,&c. become more intimately and more abundantly blended, incorporated, and combined with each other and with the mold, in fuch foils as are frequently ftirred and ren- dered light and open by hoeing, than where they are fuffered, by neglecting this procefs, to become hard, compa¢t, and almoft impenetrable. In fuch fitu- ations as where the ridges are high, they feldom, indeed, penetrate much be- low the furface, being too readily carried away by the effects of the fun and wind, from their ftagnating there, and becoming much expofed to them. From the great differences in the nature of foils, it is probable, however, that the procefs fhould be conduéted fomewhat differently. On the ftiff, heavy, and loamy kinds of Jand, or fuch as are much inclined to throw up weeds, it may be more frequently neceffary than on fuch as are light, thin, or fandy; as in the latter, efpecially in hot weather, much injury may be fuftained by a too fre- quent expofure of the internal parts to the ation of the fun and air, by the great exhalation of their moifture, and other beneficial properties. It has been obferved by a praétical writer, that the land for the purpofe of hoeing fhould neither be in too dry nor too moift a fituation, but in a middling condition, between thefe different extremes. But that on light and dry mellow {oils the operation may be well performed at almoft any time; while on the wet and fliff ones it can only be done to advantage in fuch feafons as render them the moft ready to break and fall down into{mall particles: as if done when moift in any confiderable degree, much injury inttead of benefit may be’ pro- duced{. It may, indeed, be remarked, that on the fandy, gravelly, and all {uch foils as admit the moifture to readily filtrate and pafs away through them, there can feldom or ever be any neceflity for delaying the procefs of hoeing on account of the wetnefs of the land; though, in other cafes, it is obvious that * Darwin’s Phytologia. + Tull’s Horfe-boeing Huttandry, ch. ix.; and fection on Fallowing of Land. + Amos on Drill Huftandry. ae Wy 498 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Hoeing. much attention muft be paid to the fituation of the ground, in this refpeét, be- fore the operation be undertaken. In refpe& to the methods of performing the work, it was advifed, by the more early cultivators in this way, and while the large fpaces were employed, to hoe or turn the foil from the rows or ridges on which the plants grow in the firft operation, and by thus forming a fmall ridge in the interval, to leave flight furrows or channels for the reception of the moifture and other matters of the atmof{phere on the fides of the rows of plants, thereby expofing a large extent of furface to the action of the air. And it was conceived fcarcely poffible to perform the operation too deep, or come too near the rows of plants, fo that they were not cut or rooted up; as by thus baring, and nearly expofing, the roots, no injury was fuppofed to be done. And it was further imagined that, in particular cafes, as in expofed level fituations, the little ridglets, by being thus raifed, might afford fhelter and protetion to the rows of plants, and by keeping the roots freer from moifture, be lefs obnoxious to the effeéts of the frofts. It would feem, however, to be a better practice, and more conformable to that of garden culture, by which plants are made to grow in the moft perfe& and luxuriant manner, to turn the earth up to the plants during the feverity of fuch eafons, and thus more fafely prevent the effets of high degrees of cold or frof upon them. As it is obvious that, by leaving little mold about their roots in the lighter defcriptions of foil, they muft be conftantly expofed to danger from the crumbling down of what remains in the winter feafon; and, on thofe of a ftiff quality, by the little channels being formed fo near them, mjury may be ap- ‘prehended from the ftagnation of moifture, and the great degrees of cold pro- duced in confequence of it. In the{pring thofe ridges, that had been formed in the middle of the intervals or fpaces, were fplit up and turned back again to: the plants, which, from the mellownefs of the mold, produced by the aétion of the frofts upon them for fuch a length of time, was believed to. afford more: nourifhment and fupport to the crops. The fame ftate of mellownefs and pul- verifation may, in moft forts of foil, however, be effeéted without the rifk of expoling the roots to danger, by a more frequent ftirring of the foil, without forming ridglets in the intervals, fo as to draw it away from the rows of the crops. Oo Sei Dung, twelve loads, and Dung, twelve loads, half {preading-=*o IG” 0 charged, fpreading,&c. 0 16 0 March 1, Ploughing fecond time- 0 4© Mar. 2, Ploughing fecond time oO“4 oO April 2, Harrowing ditto-=o 0. 6 g0, Harrowing twice="= ao 2 Og 24, Ploughing with 3 ploughs o 4 0 April 24, Ploughing with 3 ploughs o 4 0 Planting 12 hands 3 inches Planting 12 hands 3 inches deep, 9 afunder, with deep, 8 afunder, 24-in. 30-inch alleys-© 4.0 alleys-- Oe EG Seed and cutting; 36 Seed and cutting, thirty- bufhels at. ts. 4d. et Ob fix bufhels at 1s.4d.- 2 8 o Rolling- 20 08-6 June 1, Harrowing for firfthoeing 0 0 6 June 1, Harrowing for iff hoeing 0 o 6 14, Hand-hoeing firfttime- 0§ o 10, Skim-hoeing firft time+ 0 F oO 26, Second ditto:-- 0 4© Hand-hoeing the rows-© 3© July 6, Earthing up-= OC fe" 26, Skim ditto, fecond-time- o 1: 0 Aug. 3, Picking weeds”-=O£6 Hand ditto rows”-= 9, 3° 6 Taking up, leading, py- Julyt-15, Earthing up rowstwice- 0 2© ing,&c.~- rm, 0 Aug. 2, ee out weeds Oho Fepeueca win&: O&..20, Taking up, pying,&c.- 116 0 Be. Contra. CRe ee ee Produce, 420 buthels at 8d.--- TH 0. 0 Gontra. ck, Profit 616 6 Produce, 590 bufhels, at Advantage in favour of 8d.-“ s* AG 73° 4 horfe-hoed acre- 313 10 ‘ Profit£.10 10 4 f-10 10 4 And 502 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Hand-hoeing. and lefs expenfively performed, but the mold ftirred to a much greater depth. By attending to the above principles, and thofe of accomplifhing the operation on feveral rows at a time, an ingenious cultivator has lately contrived an ufeful tool of this fort, which hoes three rows at once, and is capable of being varied according to the purpofes for which it is employed*. In the firft form, a fine tilth is faid to be ftruck by it into drills for receiving any fort of feeds with much more readinefs than by the ordinary method of ftriking with the corner of the comman fquare hoe, along any line of dire€tion, as when one drill is cor- And on an acre of ftiff hazle-celoured loamy foil, of about the fame annual value, under a cabbage crop, the refults of trials, conduéted in the different methods, were thefe: Florfe-hocd Acre. DR. Hand-hoed Acre. DR. 1790. Ln bana, 1799. ae. A, Jan. 14, Ploughing- O25: C an. 15, Ploughing==O. 5.(0 Feb, 20, Harrowing twice- Oo f© Feb. 21, Harrowing twice= 6° Mar. 13, Dung, twelve loads, half Mar. 11, Dung-~ 3 OslI 0 charged, at 3s.- 018 oO 14, Ploughing fecondtime- 0 4 6 14, Ploughing fecondtime- 0 4 0 April 20, Dragging, harrowing, and April20, Drag- harrowing and couching-= 0 4:6 couching== 0 3.6 May 14, Ploughingthirdtime- 0 4© May 14, Ploughing into four-feet Plants, 5,500-= 0 33 49 lands-°=-O..4. 9 Planting 36 by 30 inches o 10 6 Five thoufand plants at June 10, Hand-hoeing and earthing as. 6d.-- 012 6 up-- 7 O42--0 Planting 48 by zoinches o 8 6 July 20, Ditto fecond time 0: 7 6 June 10, Ploughing from rows» 0 2 6 Aug. 1, Hand-weeding,&c.- o 2 6 Hand-hoeing and hilling 0 3 6 Rent:- oS iy ae July 41, Poughingtorows-- 0 2 6 ore Rme ae 20, Earthing up by horfe-hoe.o 1 6 aoe Aug. 3, Hand-weeding and vermin Contra. ae killing== ee ee eS Dec. 21. Produce, 41 tons-+§ 4:0 Kent,&c.- oe gS i ae wet Pront==<3"| ye™s 4.9 0 Advantage in favour of horfe-hoed acre= a2 5 Contra. cR.— Dec. 21, Valueof produce, sotons t0 0© LG ike oO Prokt'i-+if. 5 11 0 From the expeditious and effectual manner in which the operation is performed in this way, there can be little doubt but that it muft have an equal fuperiority in other forts of crops. * Ducket, junior, in Communications to the Board of Agrieulture, vol. IT. o FF 8 no™ Nn oH OO ere Cultivation of Arable Land.—Hand-hoeing, 503 rectly opened, the reft muft, of neceffi ity, be made with exa€inefs. This is made ufe of in an adva ancing pofture; but it has another form which admits of its being drawn, the perfon ufing it moving backwards, the a3 effure being aflifted by a rope or itrap pafling from that part of the handle where the hand is applied, roid the body of the labourer. The third ts fo contrived, that trenches for potatoes, es or other fimilar crops, can be readily made by it.« It ha’ skewrife another mode of conftru€tion, in which a{pace is left in the middle, that allows of its paffing on each fide a row of any kind of plants with great facility, and without any danger of their being injured. Its conftruétion may, however, be better under-: food by the annexed plate. Ht is afferted that two acres of bar] ley may be hoed in a day by means of this implement, and that good work may be made with it 1 oats and wheat* The breaft-hoes baw alfo been recommended, by fome expertenced agricultors, as more ufefulin hoeing grain crops fown in rows at narrow diftances, than thofe of the common. kind, from their performing the work in a more perfect and ex- peditious manner. The triangular hand-hoe having the point of one of the angles downwards,. has likewife been found of confiderable utility in. thinning and fetting out crops, fuch as turnips, whether fown in the drill or broadcat method. There are other kinds. of hoes which are wrou ight by the hand, that maybe employed for particular purpofes, but which have been a lready mentioned+. It has been remarked by a noble and intelligent promoter of agricultural im- provements, ina late work t, that the Portuguefe, who confiderably excel'in the ufe of the hee, have an seule it of this fort, which, by its weight and conical thape, and from its handle being light and hort, performs its work to a good depth, without requiring much exertion in the perfon that ufes it. They em- ploy it in the breaking up of the{trong lands of their vineyards, which could not,y, it is fuppofed, be w rought by hoes conftruéted in the manner that our common enes are. Thefe principles have however been, jn fome degree, applied in the forming of the different forts of hand-hoes defcribed above. It is alfo fuggefted, that this implement may be found extremely ufeful in the digging and cultivat- ing of the land of fteep. mountainous diftrifs; as well as-in the forming of com- poft manures of lime and earth in the corners of fields where the plough. cans not be made to perform the bufinefs, and in very hilly fituations, where the * Ducket, junior, in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. If. + Section on ie 1s t- Lord Somerville’s Syftem of the Board o Ser ST 504 Cultivation of Arable Land.—-Hand-hoeing. {pade cannot be eafily employed. On head lands, in arable fields, and in orch- ards, or other plantations, for hand-digging it may likewife, it is fuppofed,. be found of utility in different cafes*. The implements that are had recourfe to where weeding the crops by hand- labour is practifed, are very few, confifting principally of a fort of forceps, or tongs, that aét on the principle of the lever, having handles of two or three feet in length, by which they are made to take hold, and force up different ftrong weeds, fuch as docks and thiftles, that cannot be otherwife handled fo as to be drawn up and completely removed. The prevention of the growth of feed weeds is attempted in different methods in different diftri€ts; in fome, as has been feen, by the expofure of the foil to the action of the fun during the hot fummer months, every third or fourth year, ac- cording to the nature of the land, by frequently ploughing and expofing new furfaces+; but in others by the alternate fowing of grain, and what are termed green crops, and the ftirring of the earth frequently well between the plants, by means of the hoe, while they are growing. The laft is undoubtedly the befi praétice in all cafes where the nature of the land will admit of it, as there is ne lofs from the land remaining, for a time, in an unproduétive ftate. It is remarked by a late writer, that, in the diftri€&t which he defcribes, on the fandy foams this bufinefs is effe€ted by hoeing the crops of peas, tares, and turnips. On the peas or tares being removed from the ground, the land 1s ploughed and har- rowed, and the root weeds burnt, after being brought together by means of rak- ing. Andon the land thus freed from rost weeds, turnips are fown, and the feed weeds deftroyed by repeated hoeing[. By a proper attention to the nature of crops, and the cultivation of them in rows, fo as to admit of a full and effec- tual application of the hoe while they are upon the ground, it is probable that the growth of weeds may, in moft cafes, be in a great meafure prevented, with- out having recourfe to other more expenfive procefles. Even under the broadcatt culture, a greater regard to the modes of cropping, and a more free and liberal ufe of the hand-hoe and the forceps, may have confiderable effect in the preven- tion of the growth of weeds, and the injurious confequences refulting from them, as well as in keeping the foil in a more mellow and proper condition for the produdion of ufeful crops of all kinds.— The hand and breaft-hoes being feldom fufficiently effeétual even on the hteft defcription of foils, from their not performing the bufinefs to a fufficient lig * Lord Somerville’s Syftem of the Board of Agriculture, p. 156. + Seétion on Fallowing of Land.+ Middleton’s View of the Agriculture of Middlefex. Cie 1S ne 1 the | har- nature effec > that with- dcaft beral ‘even: le Gf Mpa Led fhe Petite ak ad te ie || _——<$$<$$<—=| —————— _ SSS i} Le/ j JS ottttorr ofp We Aha Led OV fhe AL VC ies - USEFUL HORSE HOE. PLATE LIf. Useful Horfe-Hoe. [To face Page 504.| Tus reprefents a Horfe-Hoe or Shim recommended by Mr. Young, the hint of which he took from the Berkfhire one, and to which the beam and block is capable of being applied. He has found it a very ufeful tool. Ina wide interval, the three fhares may be worked ona level. Between the rows of cabbages, after earthing ups the two external fhares may be fet to cut the weeds that are apt to rife on the fides of the ridges, without difturbing too. much earthy and the centre fhare funk to fcrape the bottom of the furrow. The centre one may alfo be In forging the fhares of all Shims, Mr. Young well worked alone between narrow rows. obferves, that the blackfmith fhould be careful to give them tendency enough into the ground, bending them downwards: for want of this caution he has found many of them to work badly; the wheel in the beam counteracts this tendency fufficiently. wo S=|==— Fs af‘ NR fe Ta=e Y, 1A ap gh rat fe Aimahja Tp J ee pe|:> Cultrcation OF Pauic LONG,—Lfi OP IE 1 NaH, 42". 505 7 depth, thofe of the horfe kind have become more general. Befides the former fort being in every cafe difadvantageous in point of ecc nomy, the circumftance of fo. much more work being capable of being performed by thofe where horfes are employed, the latter are to be preferred in moft inftanc« where the nature of the foil and crop will admit of them. Some fuppofe that the great fuperiority of the horfe-hoe is fhewn by the finenefs of the appearance of fuch crops as have been hoed in that way over thofe in which the hand method was employed; while, at the fame time, it de- monftrates that deep and complete ftirring of the foil is in general to be pre- ferred as the moft beneficial for perfeting the growth of the crops. In the hoeing of fuch crops as are drilled at final] diftances, the horfe-hoe an- nexed to Mr. Cook’s drill machine is an extremely convenient and effective im- plement on almoft any foil. And for narrow intervals and mellow foils, the expanding hor/e-hoe, invented by Mr. Amos, and the /iv-/hared horfe-hoe, may be found very ufeful and ef- fective implements*. The former has much fuperiority in confequence of its expanding fhares, by which it can be fet to fuch diftances as may be required within the limits of twelve and thirty inches, and, of courfe, be capable of ftir- ring the ground in intervals of any diftance between fuch extremes f. It has been found ufeful in hoeing bean crops, whether drilled or fown in equi- diftant rows; and may likewife be applied in the hoeing of potatoe or cabbage crops, as it is capable of performing the bufinefs in a tolerably complete and expeditious manner. The harrow which is attached to it may be ufeful in particular cafes, as where the land is difpofed to throw up fucceflive crops of weeds, and in the prepara- tion of it for the reception of crops. The fix-fhared horfe-hoe, from its being regulated in refpect to the rows, may alfo be made ufe of for grain crops where the diftance is but fmall, as nine inches. It may likewife be ex Sploped in the preparation of the more ftiff, gravelly, and ftony defcription of foils, or fuch as are infefted with weeds, by fubftituting the coul- ters in the places of the triangular hoes. The coulters being fo contrived as to cut and divide the upper parts of the earth at the fame time that the infer! parts are effe€tually ftirred. But for performing the bufinefs, in particular cafes, the fame pra€tical agricultor has recommended the ufe of a{mall Rotheram plough, or a common plough of any diftti€t, made upon a fmall{cale, with a broad fharp thare; on{tiff foils, where th: nature of the crops will admit of wide intervals, he thinks fuch forts of ploughs * Amos on Dnil-hufbandry.+ Se€tion en Implements. 506 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Horfe-hoeing. preferable to all other kinds of hoeing implements; as they can be made to go to any depth required, and be wrought very near the rows, at the expence of merely the labour of one horfe where the foil is of the light kind, and in a fine ftate of tillage. And another defcription of plough that may be of great utility in this bufinefs in earthing up the rows of plants on each fide at once, is that with two expanding mold-boards, as by this means much work can not only be expeditioufly performed, but the mold Jaid up to fuch heights as may be thought the moft advantageous to the plants. But it is maintained by an able writer on rural economy, that all the different. operations of the horfe-hoeing kind may be effeéted by means of the common fwing-plough, and in a much more complete and perfect manner, than by the affift- ance of the hoe or double-mold-boarded plough, which is commonly made ufe of for this fort of bufinefs*. The procefs of horfe-hoeing, as defcribed and recom- mended by Tull, Chateauvieux, and other writers of the fame period, is, he thinks, objetionable on different grounds. From the earth in the firft operation being turned away and removed from the rows of the plants by the furrows be- ing drawn on each fide of them, and turned towards the intervals, the roots of the plants muft be left naked and expofed on each fide at the fame time; and the narrow ftrips or ridglets on which they are placed, from being in this way rendered dry and hard by the powers of the fun and wind, be rendered lefs proper for the fupport of fuch plants, and confequently greatly retard and in- jure them in their growth, unlefs it be prevented by fuch other means as have a. tendency to obviate the advantageous effe€ts of the procefs, fuch as that of nei- ther going in any degree fo near the rows of plants on either fide, or fo deep, as might otherwife be the cafe with fafety, but in fuch a manner as to leave a confiderable portion of earth for the roots of the plants to bed and extend them- {elves in; and fo that there may be fufficient refiftance afforded by the ridglet on the left-hand fide of the plough, to enable it to turn up the neceffary parts of the folid earth on the right-hand fide; and further, that inftead of its going di- re&tly downwards near to the rows, be fo managed as to form the cut obliquely outwards, in order to guard againft the mouldering down of the earth from the upper parts, and leaving the roots of the plants expofed. Thefe combined. circumftances render it clear, that a large proportion of the foil muft remain un- (tirred near to the place where the plants grow, and which, of courfe, can derive no advantage whatever from the procefs of hoeing. The fecond procefs, or that of turning the earth back towards the rows, is ufu- ally performed by a double-mold-boarded plough pafling down the middle he- 3. Anderfon’s Recreations in Agriculture, vol, ET, HORSE TTQETIN G. E (Op oe é: EF D;W~WéWCi i, i) nul IM : L ) Ht } ee eee cn haan it im/ A. Fig.1. C D | ij A a<=' : ill C| nn l i \. || i | HA WH AK:) eee al | I, in peg NS ete hee LY to Le ZY IE at Olen g ZB fig. 1 f Yz Lj tj; Gy G77 tj, Vv Z Yj Z a UNA tlic ccc ALTA li AAA tp in:|| af: Ninn lig.5 vp Mj" e eee LEE SO ee eS J > ye See lig 7: \ -—— RO—----_" lj -—-—--— QQ--->----” < —-———-—-—- —————-—- 9g i 1 H fea ae ae es eer as PLATE Lt. Horfe- Hoeing, [To face Page 507.| tN illuftration of the nature of horfe-hocing by means of the wing-plough, Figs. and 2 veprefent the furface of a ploughed field by the lines AB, AB, and CD, CD the bottom of the ploughed part of the field, which is fix inches in depth; this being the whole of the bed in which the plants are to find their nourifhment. FF reprefents two rows of plants intended to- be horfe-hoed, that are placed at three feet apart. At the firft operation the plough makes the turrow bs cye, Fig. 1, turning the earth from the row of plantsE; and returning on the other iide of the row makes the furrow a d /, leaving the row of plants F ftanding upon the eminence dabe. The fame operation being performed on the row I, it is left as in the figure, and fo through the whole field. The furrows in this cafe are reprefented as going to the depth of three inches, and the diftance g 6 is nine inches, and made to approach nearer to the row E on each fide, and to go perpendicularly downward, fo deep as to reach the bottom of the manured foil, as. is reprefented by the dotted lines J4iand gk. Tt is evident that the fmall pillar of loofe earth f+ g k, deprived of all fupport on the oppofite fide, could not have refifted the preflure of the plough while it forced out the earth in the opponte. furrow; nor have ftood: in this pofition, or retained moifture to preferve the plants alive. ig. 2. Reprefents the fame field as it is left after the fecond operation, in which the furrow made by the double-mould-board plough is reprefented as four inches deep(being eight inches Perpendicular from the furface of the raifed upearth).. Little of the mould can be actually removed by thefe operations, though repeated ever fo often; more than three-fourths of the vegetable mould remain untouched. fig. 3. Reprefents the fame field as before, with the rows of plants EF growing upon it. But inftead of beginning the fir{t hoeing, as before, by running the plough along the right-hand fide of therow E, go along the left-hand fide of it, fo as to lay the earth toward that-row, as atabdc. Having performed this operation on the left-hand fide of the row E, and fuppofing the plough brought back to the fame end of the field, fuppofe: it to begin between the rows E and F, by drawing the furrow marked d ef(the fpace between dand g being prefumed to be at this time folid mould), fo as to turn the earth toward the row F. Then(the plough being again brought back to the fame end as at firft) draw the farrow 47 A, which, by having had an open furrow to the right-hand fide of it, canbe with eafe made deeper than the former. Ther, by going a third time in the fame direction, draw the furrow g/m; going in this cafe as clofe to the row as-you pleafe, as the folid earth on the back of it prevents it from being deranged. In this way, by this firft operation, a much greater proportion of.the mould is turned over than by the common procefs, as in Fig. 1 5 the black. part of the figures in both cafes reprefenting the part of the mouid that is left untouched. Fig. 4. Reprefents. the field after it has undergone the fecond hoeing; in which the dark parts reprefent the mould that has been left untouched. In this operation all the{teps of the laft hoeing are dire@tly reverfed: inftead of beginning at the back of the row E, and, turning- the furrow towards it, the plough begins on the right-hand fide of the row Fy and going in an oppofite direction, turns the.furrow towards the row F.‘That done, ftill holding the fame di- rection, it is made to pafs between the rows F and I!, fo as to open the furrow 1 op(the dotted line gr» reprefenting the open furrow that was left in the firt hoeing). A fecond furrow is then drawn in the fame dire€tion, fo as to form tie opening sz(the dotted line 775+ repre- fenting the furface of the mould as left at the lat hoeing);-and a third furrow, drawn in the fame dire€tion, leaves the opening xy 25 in which fituation it remains till the third hocing» hy commences, nial Thus every inch of the mould, except perhaps the fmall bit ¢¢ wr under each row, wil! re- | ceive nearly as complete and thorough a fummer fallow as if no plant whatever had grows | Hi a Plate LAM. continued, upon the ground. Which if compared with Fig. 25 the difference between the merits of the two operations will be obvious. But if at the laft hoeing the field had been left as reprefented by the dotted line def. Fig. 5: having the furrow turned toward the row F, and the earth ftrongly laid up to the tems of the cabbages, the plough, when it is intended to finith off the opera- tion, fhould be introduced fo as to turn the earth toward the row E. Inthat cafe, the operator, by inclining his plough a little to the left, makes it cut in an oblique direction, inftead of per- pendicularly, as he has hitherto invariably worked; and, ftriking deep, fo as to go quite to the bottom of the manured mould, he forms the opening f, fo as to leave aclear opening in the middle, with the loofe earth clofely laid up to each fide. Fig. 6. Shows the mode of returning the plough fucceffively to the fame place without any lofs of labour, the black lines on which are intended to reprefent rows-of plants of any kind, on a field regularly laid out for horfe-hoeing. Suppofe the plough to ftart at A, and,. going right forward, it enters the field on the right-hand fide of the row marked B; and pro- ceeding forward to the other end of the field, it opens a furrow, laying the earth from the row B toward the adjoining row to the right; then turning to the left hand, it returns on the other fide the fame row, laying the furrow from it on that fide alfo. In this inftance, the row B wilk be left precifely in the fame ftate as every row is left after the firft hoeing in the Tullian method. The plough proceeding forward to the end where it began, or the lower end of the field, it then: turns to the left, and goes up the row 2, having the fecond row(or that row toward which the earth moved by the laft furrow was laid) on its left hand, fo as to turn the earth from it on that fide. Proceeding forward, it turns at the head toward the left hand again, and returns down the furrow 2, leaving that row in the fame fituation as the former. After the fame manner proceed, widening always as you go round, and turning ftill to the left, till the rows become: fo far afunder as to make it inconvenient to turn longer in that diretion. When you find it neceflary to fhift a new ridge on account of its width, being returned to the fame end fronr which you began, count the number of furrows opened, multiply half that number by three; then, beginning from the point where you ftand, fet off as many intervals as make up the number you have found; and then mark the row where you ftop. Inthe figure the ridge confifts of fix rows; and as three is the half of fix, and three times three make nine, it fol- lows that, pafling thefe nine intervals, you mark the tenth row, which falls on the row e¢ marked on the figure. Move the plough then from where it ftands, as marked by the dotted line and darts, and enter it on the interval on the right-hand fide of the row© proceed exaétly as at firft, till you open fucceflively the furrows 4, 5, and 6, both going and returne ing, as marked by the dotted lines and darts in the figure. There now remains a fpace of fix rows between 3 and 6, which is untouched.‘Turning the plough ftill to the left, as before, open the furrow 7 going upward; but, inftead of turning to the left at the top of the ridge, now turn to the right, and go down the furtheft untouched interval, opening the furrow 7 on the return. At the bottom, turn ftill to the right, and fo again at the top, opening up fuccef- fively the furrows 8 and 9, where you clofe, turning the earth on both fides towards D, fo as to leave it exactly in the fame ftate as a Tullian row would be left after the fecond hoeing. The plough, when thisis finifhed, comes out at E, whence it may proceed to another. By begin- ning at A, and following the dotted lines in the direction of the darts, the progrefs may be re- gularly traced throughout the whole procefs. Proceed regularly after the fame manner tili the whole field is gone over, and obferve that every fubfequent hoeing is performed by directly re- verfing this; beginning always in the fecond hoeing where the firft left off, and leaving off where it began, making the plough go in a contrary direQlion; fo as to begin at the bottom in the interval 9 on the right-hand fide of the row D, and return downwards in the interval 9, and fo on till the whole is completed. This method is defcribed and recommended by Dr. Anderfon. Of the nted by trongly operas erator, of per. tothe| bein the hout any of any A, and,.. nd pro. the row he other v Bwilk method. , it then: hich the ‘on that 1s down “manner become: u find it nd fron y three; > up the he ridge it fol > TOW ¢ ie dotted proceed | returne ce of fix before, he ridge, ‘ow 7 on D fuccel- D, fo as 1g The f begia- y be ree r till the ectly 1G# ving of tom 10- eryal 4 Cultwation of Arable Land.—~Horfe-hocing. 507 7 tween the rows, fo as to divide the ridglet equally, and throw up a part to each row. Bythis means the loofe mold that was turned from the rows in the pre- ceding operation, is now returned back to them, together with a portion of the folid earth from the middle. It is, therefore, evident, that fo{mall a portion of the folid parts of the earth is ftirred in this way in this part of the procefs, that but little advantage can be gained by the crops,in proportion to what might be the cafe by a more full, effeétual, and complete ftirring of the various parts of the foil. And as the whole of the bufinefs of this fort of hoeing confifts in the mere repetition of one or other of the above operations, it muft follow that much of the ground muft be left unftirred, and of courfe not pulverifed or expofed to the ameliorating influence of the atmofphere, by which new and more abundant fupplies of food may be prepared, and the growth and vigour of the plants be promoted in the moft full and complete manner.* But in order to place the defeéts of this fyftem of horfe-hoeing in a{till more clear point of view, and to fhew the fuperiority of that by means of the common {wing-plough, the ingenious author juft mentioned has accompanied his defcrip- tions of the different procefles with figures or reprefentations of the manner in which the hoeing is to be performed in each cafe, and which may be feen confi- derably enlarged in the annexed Plate. The perfect kind of hoe-culture that can be given by means of the common plough, when applied in the manner that has been juft recommended and explain- ed, will, it is conceived, render the plants capable of advancing with a degree of vigour that can never be attained under any other circumftances. The ground will be kept conftantly moift, fo that in the drieft feafons ever experienced in this climate their leaves will exhibit the moft healthy verdure, and extend to’ fuch a length, in turnips and cabbages efpecially, as quickly to clofe upon each other, and in a fhort time leave no appearance of the rows. But, in order to prepare for this, it is obferved, that the operations fhould be haftened, fo as to put the foil into the fineft poflible tilth before the hoeing be finally clofed; after which time the roots muft be left at full liberty to fpread with freedom in the fine mold that had been prepared for them; and the plants will thus be made to attain the utmoft degree of perfeGtion of which they are fufceptible. This method of performing the bufinefs of horfe-hocing has been praétifed by the inventor for more than twenty years, without having recourfe to any other, and afforded the moft full and complete fatisfa€tion. It has likewife been em- ployed by others, to whom it had been recommended by the author, with the moft complete fuccefs; and, in confequence, been confidered as a very great improvement in the mechanical department of agriculture. It has alfo been Ct y7 7 ma$. Mi-~ pra hp eae stip Fins 137) 79 503 Cultivation OF... 4 91 6 5 Beans 3 q's.§ bufhels 4-17,"6 6 Wheat. 3 qrs. 1 bufhel. G-15. 0 26,2. 4.9 Perannum 3-£. 4° 9 12 ° Value JES Oe 4 2 9 Tae 6 55 eo E1igt=O Sit SEO? fad: 2 2513-< 3 4§ 62 The able experimenter has thrown out many nfeful obfervations on the different courfes, which we fhall prefent to the reader in as concife a manner as poflible. The effects of the above rotations-lead to different conclufions; in the firft, in which there are four green fallow crops to two of the white or grain kind, little ad- vantage is fhewn except in the leaving of the land in fine tilth, and perfeétly clean. Nothing of fuperiority is fhewn, it is obferved, by the quantities of produce for Jands newly broken up. It 1s, however, well remarked, that the turnips, by being drawn and removed from the. land, were not favourable, as wheat on turnip ground is not generally good, except well trodden by feeding. Potatoes appear to exhauft; and the experimenter fuggefts, that, eftimating thirty tons of yard neral conclufions;—the turnips at 4s. a ton, carted of; cabbages at 5s.; wheat 5s. a buthel; barley a8. Od.; oats as. 3d; beans 3s.; potatoes 6d.: any other value may however be put upon them ace cording to cicumftances. 512 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Effe&s of different Modes of Cropping. oe fo) compoft, the proportion employed, at any imaginable rote, the courfe cannot be advifable; the lofs on the potatoe crop would not, he thinks, be lefs than five pounds, nor would the turnips pay fo as to leave a profit equal to the expences of newly broken up land for the firft fix years*. The fecond is ftated as a more profitable courfe from the great charge of the potatoes not being incurred: and it fhews, that though cabbages cannot be grown to any great advantage on fuch foils without manure, they may be of much uti- lity by the pulverifation and cleannefs which they afford. The goodnefs of the grain crops evinces, it is fuppofed, that they exhauft but little, and that it is of great importance to have few white crops in rotations. And the third explains the neceflity of manuring for potatoes on all foils, except fuch as are rich and dry; with only two white crops in fix years, the land feems rather, it is ob- ferved, to improve notwithftanding the potatoe crop. The goodnefs of the lat crop of wheat, in comparifon with the firft, proves the fuperiority of cabbage and bean crops over thofe of beans and potatoes, in cleaning and rendering the ground mellow and fit for the growth of wheat. Rotation IV. Rotation V. Courfe. Produce. Value. Courfe, Produce. Value. $s. a. a 1. Beaus©.(¢'qrs. 1¢ bufiel~~. 4 1 Beans. 34q1S. 2 bufhels a Aaa IG LS 3 5 2 2 ° 2 Beans. 4qrs. 2 bufhels: 2 Barley. 3,41. 1 peck.: io 7 ° 9 [e) 3 Wheat.. 2 qrstgt buthels<.<1 5°49 26 3 Wheat. 24qIs. 2 bufhels:° 4 Cabbages 63 tons._. I 6 fe) ° A 12 4 Barley. 2qrs. 2pecks. eae g: Beans.- 4. qrs; 0.£085 6 BBCanS sj vy 2 GS met, tes ek 18 o 6 Wheat. 3qrs. rbufhel.. 6 15 6 Wheat.. qt. 7bufhelss.. 4 5 9 28 18 9 92-13:-0 Perannum.£. 4 16 63 Perannum. g- 315 6 ee Rotation VI. Courfe. Produce. Value. Aa ee x Beans,. 3 qrs. ibuih. ti peck 4 26.4 2 Wheat. 2qrs. 7 bufliels i 6 750 ZW heat. tqr. O-bulhels’> 29 4'70...0 4 Wheat. 2qrs.. GS 626 15:(OTS 4§Beans;!< oar. buthelsisc oc g 2084 0 6. Wheat,.... 1. qr. abufhels..... 3.10..9 Oe Pere [Per annum.) 3.°.45:.4. 6.0 1 ® Young’s Annals, vol. XXIII. Cultivation of Arable Land—Ejfeais of different Modes of Cropping.$13 The refults of thefe courfes are highly interefting and important; by the fir the utility of repeated bean crops in cleaning land, and when combined with cabbages in preferving the fertility of fuch as is newly broken up, is clearly fhewn. When compared with the firft rotation, which ends in the fame, way, its advantages alfo appear great in different other refpe€is. By the two laft the difadvantages attending fucceffive crops of corn are particularly brought to view. It is well remarked by the intelligent experimenter, that they alfo fhew that any fort of corn crops will fucceed to a certain extent on lands re- cently broken up from the ftate of old grafs; and that for the firft two or three years they may afford a produce proportionate to the fort of crop that is fown. But that the three laft years, on being compared with the three firft, the whole ftill in corn, the produét was in the proportion of g/. 14s. sd. to 14/, 185. 7d. or a decreafe of more than s/.; while, in the preceding courfes, with better rotations, the produ€ts have fomewhat increafed. The difference, he fays, is therefore enormous. The decline in the barley, and even the wheat crops, notwithftanding the intervention of beans in the latter cafe, is very great. Befides, they leave the land in a bad condition, being in the fourth and fixth years fuch a bed of weeds as could not be half deftroyed by the hoeing of the beans. In thefe inftances the land not being left worth eleven fhillings an acre, while in fome of the preceding it was left of the value of fixteen. Thefe, it is well obferved, are the prejudicial effe€ts of adopting bad rotations of cropping, from the circumftance of old grafs lands being capable of affording a good produce for a time. The fame confequences may likewife take place even upon foils of a much better quality, by fuch methods of cropping. It is evident that they fhould, therefore, be avoided as much as poffible on all defcriptions of foil by the corre&t agricultor.. The laft courfe not only difplays the badnefs of the pratice of taking fucceflive grain crops, but that beans, by the aid of the hoeing culture, cannot afford a produce, even on newly broken up land, that will repay the trouble and expence of the cultivator. Roration VII, Courfe. Produce. Value, Lee 1 Beans.. 3 qrs.. 4. 2 8 z Turnips 4 tons iL« Bie Io 3 Beans. 5 rs. 2 buthels at” BE: Bo 4 Potatoes 234 bufhels; 2)& 19 SO 5 Beans. 3 Grs.+ A” FAR ae Ho 6 Wheat.» 3qrs. 4bufhels=. 7 10 0 Peranuum. f. 417 6 i sda A eon 514 Cultivation of Arable Land—Effects of different Modes of Cropping. Roration VIII,' Rotation IX. Courfe. Produce. Value. Courfe: Produce. Value. ; d. pee. 1 Beans. 3qrs. 1 bufhel. Rien Prpcans=<" o) iqrar ss. 2a ee ee 2 8G a Capoases 6 t6ns Get e. EOI® 2 Potatoes 147 bufhels... 3 13@ a-Beans. ovit 7.Qrs..2isGaiet: seesOL Io 40= Beans.»+ eA Gla«1% 66@ ig Cabwades 62 pies es poms; Ey TO 4 Cabbares+02[008 oo yet cunt eect ia 2 ae 5s Beans. 4qrs. 2 bufhels ta. 0 5 Beans. 4q18. 2 buthels oy os Gear ey 6 Wheat. 3qrs. 6 buthels Sgro!<6 oWheat. 3 qts. 5 bufhels.° 1g 6 : a Per.annum 9° fe Aor og Perannunm? gy 49ng tir The produce of the firft of thefe courfes, though there is only one grain crop in the fix years, is, it is obferved, fo confiderable as to fhew the difadvantage of deteriorating rotations, efpecially as the circumftances under which they are put in, are fuppofed by fome to be unfavourable, on account of the land, after iur- nips and potatoes, from the tillage which is required for fuch crops, being left in: too light a ftate for the growth of beans. It has the advantage alfo of leaving the land perfeétly clean, and in a fertile condition. And likewife proves,.in the writer’s opinion, that great attention may be had to the keeping of land clean, and in heart, by gentle modes of cropping, without the danger of immediate injury being fuftained by it. It is further fuppofed that if beans or wheat had been the crop of the fourth year upon the manure in place of the potatoes, the profit on the whole would have been more, without the ground being left in a lefs rich condition. The two laft courfes demonftrate, that from there being but one grain crop in fix years, though cabbages, by being removed from the land, exhauft; three crops of beans are fufficient to preferve the land for a good wheat crop, befides leaving it in a good ftate. They are, therefore, profitable courfes, and fuch as are fuited to the obtaining of perfeét cleanne(s of culture. In the latter courfe, the profit is, however, lefs, from the circumftance of potatoes being introduced. Rorarion Xo / Courfe. Produce. Value: foo. ae r Beans«. 3°QiSs+++ ie ad Oe aiBeans<4 GES eet eee oe oO 3. Beans. 4qrs. Gbufhels. 6 4© 4 Gabbages Sitons...«.# 2 6 8 Beans’. 4.Geet cues es ich AO 6 Wheat. 4qrs. 1 bufhel. 8.15 90 g3. 16. 6 Perannum£.§ 5 11 Cultivation of- Arable Land—-Effeds of different Modes of Cropping. 515 ee Rotation XI,* Rotation XII. Courfe. Produce, Value, Courfe. Produce. Value. ee? de a 1 Beans.» 3qrs. 7 pecks Kuz TS vBeams 0." 3 rs. ,< Fae Asi, 2: Lo 2 Barley. 4 qrs. 7 bufhels San 6 2 Wheat. 2 qrs. 62 bufhels"6 02 6 BE a=~ 3 Beans.<4eqts.2 oe. ta oe Zo) 3 Beans 3 qrs. 25 bufhels 4 1900 4 Barley. 5 qrs. 4 bufhels POLI 4 Wheat. 3 qrs. 33 bufhels 7 lowes biel) S Beansé.:*4 qts:/1buthelt?&....eiagtla 5 Beans 2 arsine A aszaho 6 Wheat..*3 qrs. tbufhel—.. 622g o Gs Witeat<..*.3 qrsix 620570 Bai 7D

{+°°: 2°10) 6 1 Potatoes. 100 buthels 210 6 2Turnips. 4tons. ie GO© 2. Cabbages.acgstonisa Io) i564 ho te Scie S Sarips.© tone." 2s 2 a Bote ¢ Pursips.,.@ 00S gece ida. Ora& 4 Potatoes.“388 Duthels=."a go 4 Cabbages. 4 tons oS et eee ee eee 5 Beans|. i',-aaGrs. ee) a ee ff Deals.+, Lares ee Se Go ee a © What, 2-grs.7puihels.* 6 2 0 6 Wheat 2 qrs.6puihels,- 69 6 a Per annum,.£. 3.12 10 ee or Pet anntmo. 2. 9.12.0%: Rotarion XXXII. Courfe. Produce. Value. Le P64 xy Potatoes. 100 bnthels a Oe SO 2 Potatoes. 4112 buthels 3 2 16 6 3 Turnips. 4 tons.£28-@ B16 i 4 Cabbagess 45 fons.. 9. 3. CO 2 Gs 5 Beans.. 2qrs. 5 bufhels a 30s oS 6 Wheat. rqr.3bufels. 5 5© 1 2 6 Perannum.£.2 13 9 The profit of the firft of thefe courfes is too trifling to recommend‘it; and. the produéts of the fifth and fixth years’ crops are fuggefted to be lefs than they ought to be, from the circumftance of manure being applied in the fourth, and there being only one grain crop in the courfe. Therefore potatoes, even when. manured for, leave the foil in no very advantageous fituation for the growth of wheat, though aflifted by the cleaning and improving qualities of beans. The fecond and third courfes are equally decifive in thewing the exhaufting effets both of potatoe and cabbage crops, when not confumed on the land, and that they are courfes.that fhould feldom be employed where they cannot be mas nured for and fed off upon the ground.. we 4. ee oe ee —r Cultivation of Arable Land==Effeds of different Modes of Cropping. 523 Rotation XXXIV. Rotation XXXV. Courfe. Produce. Value. Courfe, Produce. Value. £. sd ete Soa r.Rotatees 98 buihels..«aw? 9-0 t Potatoes. roobufhels.. 2810© 2 Beans.. 3 qrs.t peck;« 4.2 9G 2 Barley. 4 qrs. 6 buth. 3 pks. 5 6°59 Be munmips®"<4. tong 4.° 8° 16 oO 3-lurnips. 4 tons)“fee! 9Ss. GFi6) M5 4 Cabbages. 51 tons S Fa 78.6 4Barleyr> 4 qrt DS 549, thio 5 Beans,..... 3.qs: usin oi pops? 70§ Beans:. 3-qts: es 44:2: 0 6 Wheat. 2qrs.6bufhels. 6 0 0 6 Wheat. 3qW1s. ti. pecke£0 G0 VS. 17.33 23 I4 Io Per annunr’~.°-£2'3°''2"10 Perannum. 4.3 19 1 Rotation XXXVI. Courfe. Produce. Value. Sug Suid 1 Potatoes«. 100 bufhels.-.. ¢ 16-6 2 Wheat. 2 qrs. 6 buthels’ Me 6‘5 o 3: Purmips*.° 4 tos 2 Gg Fe Oe 4 Wheat. 2qrs.7bufh.2ipks. 6 8 o 5 Beans.. 2qrs.6bufhels. 3/46- 0 6 Wheat. 2qrs.6bufhels. 6 0 0 2ETO'~O Perannum-£.4 5 0 The firft of the above rotations exhibits the effects of potatoes and cabbages till further. The fecond courfe alfo fhews, that while the turf of newly broke up foils is in a ftate of decay, fpring corn fucceeds well after potatoe crops. It likewife proves, that three grain crops may be grown in fix years without the foil being greatly exhaufted, when proper attention is paid to the nature of the intervening crops. The injurious confequences of cropping land with grain, and other forts of crops, that exhauft in a high degree, may probably be prevented in the bet manner on the more ftiff and retentive forts of land, whether of the clayey or loamy kinds, by the interpofing of bean and clover, or tare crops, between them, as the experiments detailed above have fhewn the former to poffefs the power of ameliorating the condition of fuch foils; and the latter fecws not Jefs calculated for the fame purpofe, as it is known to grow well on thefe forts of land: and on thofe of a more light and dry quality, whether fandy eee ene ae SSS SSeS Sees= 2—-=—:= 2S ieee ET ee,-=~ ee aes> Ss=——> vi ee a es 524_ Cultivation of Arable Land—Arrangemenis of Crops. or of a gravelly nature, the intermixing of turnip, pea, and other crops of the fame fort, with thofe of corn, may be equally fuccefsful. In many cafes, efpecially on the more heavy kinds of foil, it may be neceffary and highly bene» ficial to take two green crops for one of grain. This is a pra€tice, that the re- fults of the trials juft detailed place in an advantageous point of view, and which has extended itfelf over a confiderable tra€t of land with great fuccefs in the county of Middlefex; and by which, from the cleannefs of the cultiva- tion, and the great vigour of the land, in confequence of the few corn crops, the grain is found of a fuperior quality. It is indeed remarked by a writer of confiderable experience, that land under common circumftances will not even bear, without injury, a corn crop every two years. This is fully fhewn, he con- ceives, by the turnip crops in Norfolk being uniformly found to be not only lefs certain, but much lighter than formerly, as well as from the fame remark being applicable to the clover, and probably to the corn crops. Such diminutions in the quantity of produce, he fuppofes, demonftrate that the valuable and fae vourite rotation of that diftri€t, as turnips, barley, clover, wheat, is fomewhat more than the ground can fuftain, as it appears to be gradually finking under too much exhauftion. With the aid of extenfive fheep-walks, he thinks the foil not even able to fupport the depreflion of the prefent courfe of crops, efpecially when a five-years’ courfe, by introducing barley after wheat, is inju- dicioufly had recourfe to*, On inclofed lands, of different kinds, the fame author recommends the follow- ing courfes as the moft proper: For the beft forts of Jand, alternate green and white crops; for fuch as are of a full medium quality, three green crops for two of the grain or white kind; for ordinary land, two green for one of the corn fort; and for the worft, or that which is the moft exhaufted, as downs and fheep-walks, three green crops to one of the white or grain kind. Cropping in thefe methods and proportions would, it is fuppofed, keep the lands perfeétly free from weeds, and ina ftate of high culture, and,“ under fuch management, might be continued in perpetual aration, with a conftant fucce/- fion of large produéist.” Lefides, the farmer, it is imagined, by adopting fuch a fyftem, would not be idly flattered“ by a promifing feed-time, and miferably difappointed by a fcanty harvef?, as is frequently the cafe; but, on the contrary, be fure(at leaft as far as depends on human means) of reaping a plentiful re- turn for all his labour and expence.”’ * Middleton’s Report of the Agriculture of Middlefex, p. 158.+ Tbid. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Arrangements of Crops. 528 Various arrangements of crops, comprehending different numbers of the green kind to thofe of grain, may be formed. The following are judicioully recommended by Mr. Middleton, and are in the proportions of from two to five of the former, to one of the latter: rft. Two green crops to one of corn, 2d. Three green crops to one of corn. Corn;(or) Peas; i Corn;(or) Corn; Clover; Beans; Clover; Clover; Peas: Corn. Tares; Peas; Turnips: Beans. Which is four crops in three years. 3d. Four green crops to one of corn. 4th, Five green crops to oné of corn, Tares; Peas; Potatoes, or cole, for fheep feed; Beans; Turnips; Corn; Corn; Clover; Clover, Tares; Making five crops in four years. Turnips. Making fix crops in five years. By inculcating and adopting fuch methods of cropping as the above, the danger of exhaufting the fertility of the foil will not only be completely pre- vented, but the injurious confequences of weeds be guarded againft, which cannot be the cafe where repeated grain crops are grown in fucceflion, as the experiments detailed above fufficiently prove, and which are ftill further con- firmed by the reports of different counties, that have been lately publithed under the dire€tions of the Board of Agriculture. The following has been fuggefted as a courfe well adapted to newly broken up lands, of the heavier and more wet kinds, from the profit of beans being confi- derable in all cafes where the foil has not been exhaufted, and from the cir- cumftance of oats being a much more produétive crop than either barley or wheat, while the grafly material of the old fward is in a ftate of decay, as is fully demonftrated in the preceding details. The clover reftoring the dimi- nifhed fertility caufed by the alternate bean and oat crop, which the beans in the eighth year would have no tendency to leffen, while the wheat, after two fuch ameliorating crops, could fcarcely avoid being an abundant crop: 1, beans; 2, oats; 3,beans; 4, oats; 5, beans; 6, oats; 7, clover; 8, beans; 9, wheat*.. * Young’s Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXIL. 526 Cultivation of Arable Land—=Courfes of Crops on heavy Soils. ft is evident, however, that fuch repeated cropping with grain crops, although ameliorating ones may be interpofed, muft foon confiderably reduce the fertie lity of the land, and of courfe can only be had recourfe to while there js a large portion of vegetable matter undergoing decompofition in the foil. And it is recommended as an improvement in the cropping of uninclofed Jands, where, from the circumftance of turnip and clover crops not being capable of being much grown, no perfect fyftem of hufbandry can be pur- fued, to adopt the following courfe: firft year, barley; fecond year, clover, on as much as manure can be applied over to preferve the plants from fuftaining injury by the clofenefs of the bite of fheep; the remainder in peas in the dri'l method, which fhould be twice hoed, being earthed up at the latter operation; third year, wheat; fourth, potatoes, or fpring tares. When pota- ‘toes, they fhould be planted at fo early a period, as that they may admit of being taken up about the time cattle are to be turned in*. Where the foil is good, and fufficiently light, the early fort might probably be the moft pro- per in fuch cafes, efpecially in fituations near large towns, where there is great demand for them. It has been found, by the experience of different cultivators, that fuch lands as have had their fertility greatly reduced by injudicious modes of cropping with grain in too frequent fucceffion, and which are thereby become foul, and in a bad condition, may often be reftored by cropping for three or four years in fuch courfes as that what are termed green crops may enter In very Jarge proportion with more profit, and as little difficulty, as by being laid to the ftate of pafture. In this view the crops may be clover for two years; then cole, tares, or turnips, the land being previoufly manured; afterwards beans or peas, the crops being kept perfectly clean by repeated hoeing; and laftly barley, or in fome cafes, perhaps, wheat, with fuch grafs feeds as may be adapted to the nature of the foil. That this may be accomplithed with great advantage in this way, there can fearcely be a doubt; fince it has been proved by the experience of the moft corre& agricultors, that any determinate quan- tity of land when cropped with clover, tares, turnips, or other fimilar crops, will preduce twice as much food as when in the ftate of grafs t. In the common methods of cropping, on ftrong, wet, clayey, or ftiff loamy foils, where it appears probable, as has been already feen, that the prac- tice of a naked fallow may fometimes be required, it is the moft improved * Middleton’s Report of Middlefex. ¢ Cartwright, in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. HII: Cultivation of Arable Land.—Courfes of Crops on light Soils, 57 euftom to make it the preparation for the firft grain crop, depending upon fome fort of green one for thofe that follow, without repeating it; asin this way: 1, fallow; 2, barley; 3, clover; 4,,wheat.. Or where manure iS an abundance, a preferable courfe in fach cafes may be: 1, fallow; 2, wheat; 3, beans; 4, barley;. 5, Clover; 6,.wheat. But evenon this defcription of foils if may be more advantageous. to crop in this manner: 1, cabbages, beans, or peas; 2, barley or oats; 3, Clover; 4, wheat: or 1, cabbages; 2, oats; 35 beans; 4, wheat: or to begin with 1, beans; 2, wheat; 3, cabbages.; 4, bar- ley;§, clover; 6, Wheat: And éven in particular cafes, where there js good culture; 1, turnips; 2, oats; 3, vetches; 4, wheat,| In breaking up. thefe foils from grafs by paring. and burning, the courfe may. be.:,2, cole;. 2,. beans; 3, wheat;. 4, beans; 5, wheat. Tares, though properly objeéted to by fome cultivators, as coming too late in the{pring on fuch foils, may fometimes be beneficially introduced for the purpofe of being eaten off by fheep, or mown green for horfes, milch cows, young ftock, and hogs*. By thefe modes of cropping, with proper attention to the eating. the green crops: off, where it can be done without injury, or the removing- of them to be confumed in the farm-yards, or other places, in order to the ma- nure being afterwards applied, the land may not only be improved by being rendered more friable, rich, and mellow, but be kept clean and free from weeds. But on the richer defcriptions: of loamy foils, as well as thofe of the fandy Kind, it feems to be the praftice of the moft improved arable diftri€s to make turnips the preparation for the barley crop, and clover that for wheat, in this way: 1, turnips; 2, barley; 3, clover; 4, wheat. In this courfe oats may fometimes be fubftituted for the barley; and, inftead of the clover, tares, chicory, or fome other fort of artificial grafs feeds. When foils of this kind: are broken up from the ftate of grafs, and the procets of paring and burning adopted, the courfe fhould be; 1, turnips; 2, barley; 3, clover; 4, wheat; 5, turnips; 6, barley; 7, Clover;. 8, wheat; g, turnips; 10, barley. If the ground is to be kept. in tillage only.a fhort time, the moft proper courfe may be: 1, turnips; 2, barley.;. 3, clover; 4, wheat; 5, turnips; 6, barley; with grafs feeds. But where the praétice of paring and burning is not adopted, which is by * Cartwright, in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol, IIT, 528 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Courfes of Crops on heathy Soiis. no means fo common, it may be the beft method to begin by beans or peas dibbled, and then proceed in the fame manner as above. In thefe cafes the turnip and clover crops are always to be eaten off by fheep, or fome other kind of ftock. In the more dry and light kinds of foils of this nature, pea crops may be introduced, efpecially thofe of the white fort dibbled as a firft crop, then pro- ceeding with the other crops in the above manner. Where potatoes are be- gun with, more of the replenifhing crops will be required, on account of their greater deteriorating qualities. On the merely fandy foils, in fome diftriéts, turnips are made the prepara- tion for grafs, as well as grain: and it is found that there are none of thefe foils fo light, as that they will not afford fuch acrop. The courfe is commonly, I, turnips; 2, barley; 3, grafs feeds. The grafles in thefe cafes are to be cul- tivated with a view to the feeding of fheep, confequently fhould be fuch as will ftand for fome length of time, as it is by no means a good praétice to break up again too foon; the flocks fed upon the turnips during the winter feafon not being provided with a due quantity of food on fuch new layers for their fummer fupport. It is remarked that in Suffolk, on the better lands of this fort, the layers are often planted with peas, by dibbling, to much advantage, after being broken up, without being fed with fleep in the fummer. The fucceeding crop of wheat being in fuch methods much larger, the following courfe is faid to be an excellent one for fuch foils: 1, turnips; 2, barley; 3, trefoil and ray grafs; 4, peas dibbled; 5, barley*. Where foils of this fort are poor, or partake of the nature of heaths or fheep walks, it may be the beft pra€tice, in bringing them into arable cultiva- tion, to, 1, pare and burn for turnips; 2, turnips; g, barley, with grafs feeds. if they are intended to be kept under the plough longer than this courfe, the turnip and barley, and grafs crops, may be alternately repeated until the fifth or feventh year, or even longer, if it be thought neceflary. And as we have feen that potatoes exhauft in a confiderable degree, where they are adopted asthe firft crop; in breaking up fuch foils, they muft be fuc- ceeded by ameliorating crops, fuch as turnips and grafs, as in the preceding courfes+. Where thefe foils are poor, and of the light blowing kind, their * Young’s Report of the County of Suffolk. + Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. III. p. 136. Cultivation of Arable Land.——Courfes on Gravelly and Chalky Soils. 529 tenacity muft be increafed by the application of clay in fuitable proportions, and the reeding off the crops by theep. But where thefe means cannot be adopted, the courfe recommended above will be the moft proper. The gravelly and flinty foils, when of the lighter kinds, fhould be cropped in fuch a manner as may be the moft effectual in preventing their moifture from being diffipated, and their fertility from being impaired. In thefe views two or more green crops may often be neceflary for one of grain in the way that has been defcribed above; or 1, turnips; 2, barley; 3, clover; 4, wheat; 5, tur- nips; 6, barley, with grafs feeds. Peafe, tares, and cole, may alfo be introduced with great propriety in courfes for thefe foils. Where flints abound, as hoeing cannot be pra€tifed with facility, it has been recommended by an experienced cultivator to fow the turnips thinly, and mix a portion of cole-feed with them, by which means an abundance of theep food may be produced*., The grain crops, efpecially thofe of the{pring kind, fhould always on fuch forts of fol], where fufficiently dry, be fown early, that they may cover the ground well before the hot feafen commences. On the heavier deferiptions of thefe foils, beans or peas may, however, fre- quently be made the preparatory crops for barley, or even wheat, in this way: 1, beans or peas; 2, barley; 3, Clover; 4, wheat; and which may be ftill fur- ther varied by tares and turnips, according to the particular ftate of the land. On the thinner kinds of chalky foils, and fuch old down lands as are become fo unproduétive of herbage as not to be capable of being continued in the fate of fheep patfture, it may be the moft advantageous method of cropping when brought into tillage to make turnips or fome other luxuriant green crop, which, while it keeps the land clean, and produces a large proportion of green food for the fupport of fheep or other animals, is beneficial by preferving the moifture, which in fuch forts of foil is liable to be diflipated too quickly, the preparation for grain. In thefe intentions the courfe may be, 1, turnips; 2, barley; 3, clo- ver; 4, wheat; or in fome cafes, as where feed weeds are liable to prevail much, two crops of turnips may be taken before any grain crop with utility and advan- tage. If it be intended to keep fuch lands longer in the ftate of tillage, two crops of turnips may be again grown after the Wheat, which will leave the foil in a high ftate of preparation for barley, then faintfoin may be introduced, as affording an excellent pafture for fheep for feveral years.. In thefe cafes the turnip and clover crops mutt conftantly be fed off by fheep, which fliould not be removed from the land during the whole of the time the crops are in con- * Boys in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. III, 3°f 5s Cultivation of Arable Landu—Courfes on Peaty and Fenny Soils, By thefe means the foil will be left in the beft poffible ftate for the growing of barley, without the trouble and expence that muft otherwife be in- curred for manure. In fome inftances, as where the land is fufficiently mellow and friable, the mode of cropping may be, 1, peas; 2, oats; 3, turnips; 4, barley, with grafs feeds; or if it be the intention of the cultivator to continue the courfe, he may proceed with turnips or peas as before, clofing the rotation with faintfoin, as a pafiure jor fheep for feveral years. By attention in cropping and lands of this nature, in the manner that has been juft defcribed, Sreat improvements may be made, not only in rendering them capable of af- tording valuable grain crops, but as producing a much larger proportion of green food for the ufe of fheep and other animals. In the cropping of peaty, moory, and fenny foils, after draining them of their injurious moifture, fome difference muft be made according as they are deep, or only poffefs a flight covering of the peaty matter. Where they are of the deeper kinds, it may be the moft judicious prattice to make turnips, potatoes, cabbages, cole, or fuch forts of crops as produce much fhade, and by preferving the moifture in the more fuperficial parts of the foil, promote its decompofttion and decay, the preparation for grain. In this view the crops may be, 4, tur- nips, cabbages or cole; 2, oats; 3, turnips, cabbages or cole, as before; 4, oats; 5, clover; 6, wheat; 7, turnips,&c. as above; 8, oats, with grafs feeds. ‘rom the great exhaufting property of potatoe crops, they have been ob- jected to by fome agricultors; but on foils of this kind, experience feems to thew them to be highly ufeful. When they are employed the courfe may be, I, potatoes; 2, oats; 3, turnips, cole or cabbage; 4, the fame; 5, oats, with grafs feeds. In the northern parts of Scotland, on foils of this kind, the em- ploying of potatoes as a firft crop has been found to be by much the moft cer- tain and advantageous mode, the fucceeding crops of oats being not only more certain, but greatly more abundant*. But on the thinner defcriptions of thefe foils, as thofe of a moory and fenny nature, and where the fubfoil is of the ftiff and retentive kind, it may be the moft proper practice to begin with cole, and make it the preparation for grain crops i, tis. way; 1, cole; 2, oats,;}.9, cale«, asoats 5 fo1,.1,cole;..2,,Gats,; 3, beans with dung; 4, potatoes; 5, wheat; 6, cole; 7, oats. But in this laft method, * Modern Agriculture, vol.[Ve p. 65. “al RATA,° Aynh}e i Wei WARTAN I Bin ATAITIOA? eR rhYS 7 A| y oy Cultivation of Arable Land.—Courfes under Convertible Hufbandry. 534 as it is probable that by potatoes and wheat coming together there may be danger of the land being too much exhautfted, it may be better to omit the potatoes and introduce beans in their ftead, which we have feen to be an im- proving crop, in this way: 1, cole; 2, cats, the land, being dunged; 3, beans; 4, wheat; 5, cole; 6, oats. It would feem-alfo that on fome of thefe foils clo- ver might be introduced with advantage as a preparation for the wheat crops. It is a matter of great confequence on fuch foils as thefe to have recourfe to judicious modes of cropping, as the improvements made on lands of this kind by fuch means are, in general, much greater than in other cafes. In almoft all the heavier forts of land, where they are broken up from the ftate of old fward, it will be found that beans are by much the beft crop to be- gin with, though oats are moftly fown, as the decay of the turfy or grafly mat- ter is fo favourable to their growth, that they feldom fail in fuch cafes of afford- ing an abundant crop. Befides, the bean crops in this way contribute to render the fucceeding tillage more effe¢tual, by the roots penetrating fo deeply into the foil, and thus in many inftances become an excellent preparation for wheat. On the lighter forts of foil, peas might likewife in many cafes be the moft advantageous crop to begin with. And as in lands that have remained a great length of time in the ftate of fward, there may be danger of the firft crops, after their being broken up, being injured by the ravages of worms and grubs, which are often found to exift in great abundance in them, it may be advifable, where they are much fu- {fpetted, to adopt the prattice of paring and burning, or of turning the grafly furface completely under, to fome depth, by means of the trench-plough. The former is, however, by much the beft practice, though the latter may be highly ufeful where the grafs is coarfe and cannot be eafily removed*. But where neither of thefe methods is thought advifable, as beans are not fo liable to be attacked, it may be proper to repeat them. It has alfo been fuggefted, that ad- vantage may be gained in this view, by keeping fuch grafs lands as are to be brought into tillage, as bare and clofely fed by fheep and other animals as pofli- ble during the latter fummer months, as by that means the fy may not be{fo much invited to depofit its ova, as where the grafs is left of greater length f. Where the nature of the farm admits of the ground being cultivated under the alternate fyftem of grafs and corn, or in what is moftly termed convertible * Dr. Wilkinfon, in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. III. p. 240. + Reverend Mr. Young, ibid. 139. =e See Cea $82 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Courfes under Convertible HH, ufoandr ye hufbandry, which, when every circumftance 1 fully confidered, is certainly a very advantageous method, it will be neceffary in dire€ting the courfe of crops not only to have regard to the particular quality of the land, but to the growing of fuch forts of roots, plants, or other produétions, as may, while they contribute to clean, improve, and prepare the foil for the produétion of abundant grafs crops, be the beft adapted to the feeding, rearing, and maintaining of thofe kinds of live ftock that are to be kept, and that may afford the moft abundant and regular fupplies at the different feafons when they are moft wanted. In this way the loamy, as well as the gravelly, fenny, and the thinner kinds of peaty foils, may be managed to great profit; as by their having many of the green crops fed off upon the land, much amelioration and improvement muft be pro- duced while in the ftate of tillage, that muft be favourable for the produétion of grafs, and by being occafionally laid to grafs for a few years, and then thickly {ftocked with fheep or other animals, they muft undergo an excellent preparation for being again brought into tillage. This fort of hufbandry appears to be praétifed with great advantage in North- umberland, it having been found that, on the fandy and dry light loamy foils, excellent grain crops, efpecially oats, may be grown by the lands’ remaining three years under grafs, clofely eaten with fheep, which could never be done while they were managed according to their old method of praétice*. Under this alternate fyftem of hufbandry, on the wetter and more ftiff kinds of loamy foil, and where there is confiderable fertility, the courfe may be, after breaking up, 1, beans or oats; 2, turnips; 3, barley; 4, clover, and fome- times winter tares, according to circumftances; 5, wheat; 6, turnip; 7, bar- ley; 8, grafs feeds, to remain in the ftate of pafture for three, four, or more years, as may be found the moft fuitable; or break up for, 1, oats; 2, beans; 3, wheat; 4, fallow and grafs for four or five years. But on thofe of the drier defcription, it may be more beneficial to begin with, 1, peas or tur- nips; 2, barley; 3, clover; 4, wheat;§, turnips; 6, barley, with grafs feeds, to continue in the ftate of pafture for not lefs than three years; or, in fome cafes, the cultivator may begin with oats, then turnips, and afterwards barley with feeds, to remain in the ftate of grafs for three or more years. It may likewife be ufeful where much green food is required, or there is an appre- henfion of danger from the wire-worm or grubs, to begin with turnips or cab- bages, as fuch crops moftly fucceed well in fuch cafes when the turf is well * Bailey and Culley’s corrected Agricultural Report. Culivoation of Arable Land.—Courfes under Convertible EH. ufbandry. 533 reduced and broken down by repeated harrowing, though not brought to a fine{tate of mold*. In a well-cultivated diftriQ in the northern part of the kingdom, different modes of cropping are faid to have been attempted in this view; and that of 1, turnips; 2; barley; 3, clover; 4, wheat, has been tried till there has been an evident falling off in the crops, efpecially in thofe of the green kind; the only means of recovering the lands in fuch cafes being that of letting them remain, after their being three years under the plough, an equal length of time in the ftate of grafs;“by this mode,” it is obferved,“ nature has time to prepare a fufficient fea clod, which, being turned up for the turnip fallow, will infure a vigorous crop of turnips, as it is well known they always flourith upon frefh land, or where they find the remains of a lea clod to Vegetate int,” And it is added, that the portion of ground“ that is kept in erafs for three years, breeds and fattens fuch a number of fheep, as leave a confiderable pro- fit, probably equal to, if not more than, the arable crops ¢.”’ Thefe, as well as many other facts of the fame kind, fhew, in the moft clear manner, the great benefits that may be derived from the cultivating of lands under the convertible method of farming. But in order that the agricultor may draw from it the greateft poflible advantage, he fhould be well acquainted with the nature and management of different forts of live ftock, with the bef means of combining them with arable cultivation, and the moft ready and convenient methods of breeding, rearing, and fattening them, under fuch a conneéted fyftem of hufbandry. It has been fuggefted to the cultivators of the lighter and more friable kinds of foils, or fuch as are proper for the growing of barley, that where the keep- ing of live ftock is the principal objeét, the following crops, in nearly the order * Reverend Mr. Young, in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. III. t+ Bailey and Culley’s correéted Report of the County of Northumberland. ¢ It is ftated by the fame writers that the yearly profit of a fheep is eftimated at not lefs than from twenty to thirty fhillings; fix or eight of which are fattened on an acre of clover, and on an acre of turnips double the number. By this fyftem, it is{uppofed, the principa! advantages of folding are ob- tained without any of itsinconveniences: for if upon an average The firft year’s clover and grafs carry 7 fheep anacre for 20 weeks, ei alia en ean- 20, 3-==== 3=- 20,5 And the turnips->~ 12:- 203 That is=--~ 27 fheep per acre for 20 weeks: which is after the rate of 540 per acre for one week, once in fix years, leaving twenty-five fhillings a-head profit. BK 534 Cultivation of Arable Lana.—C Our}€ 2s under Conver tible{fifoandry. in which they fland, may be capable of fupplying a continued fucceffion of green food, of the beft quality, in. abundance all the year round: namely; water-meadows—ryc-grafs—rye, cut green—winter tares—clover, the firft crop —{pring tares—clover, the fecond crop—after-grafs of meadows; clovers and 1 feeds of all‘forts—turr nips-—cabbages—potatoes——cole—Swedith turnips—tur- nip-rooted cabbage “Whoever,” fays the intelligent writer,“ will attend to the raifin g of the fore- going crops, on a fcale proportioned to the fize of his farm and the number of his dive fiock, need not be ftrai ee from want of food for them at any time or feafon of the year. It is evident,’’ he thinks,“on a bare infpeétion of the lift, that, confidering the properties Ke the different plants, and the feafons when each of them is: the moft fit for ufe, or complete the circle of the year. It may,” fays he,“ perhaps be ftarted as an objeCtion, that many farms are without water-meadow:—very true; but then cole, Swedifh turnip, and turnip-rooted cabbage, might be produced in fuch quantity as to be fufficient for confump- tion in March and April, during which months, and part of May, they are in the highett ftate of perfection. Thefe might be affifted, or even fuperfeded, by turnips, potatoes, carrots, parfnips, and even cabbages, all of which being: ga- thered while in the greateft perfection, might be laid up in ftore-pies, both with or without froft or fnow, for fpring ufe. Water-meadows,” continues he,“ afford a vaft deal of food from the middle of March; rye-grafs from the 1ft of April; rye . from the beginning of May; winter-tares foon follow; then comes clover, the firft crop; fpring tares; clover, the fecond crop; and the after-grafs of natural meadows, clover,&c.; which will continue in perfection for ee cattle till early fown turnips are ready. Later fown turnips and cabbages will be fufficient till the end of February, without ftoring; about which time the cole, Swedifh turnip, and turnip-rooted cabbage, will come in, and continue good through March and April, and even May, if needful*.” Where lands are to be reftored to the ftate of crafs after fome time, if the hoeing fyftem be praétifed in fuch a manner as that the different crops may be kept in a perfe€ily clean condition; and where the green kinds, fuch as thofe of turnips, peafe, and beans, are put in on three-feet ridges, in double rows, and thofe of the cabbage fort on fimilar ridges, but in fingle rows; the following rotations have been Teerene by an experienced cultivator t, as the moft fuited for any length of time to different forts of foil. * Middleton’s Report of the Agriculture of Middlefexe + Clofe, in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. IIT. ee} Cultivation of Arable Land—N ecefary Regulations in C ropping, ‘nips or Beans and Curni|| Sen itey Clay: 3 Hees Pele Oats ae‘ AC Wheat Turnips or Oats Beans ieee ats ;|\Cabbages Clover Cabbages| etches| ae 'Turnips or Turnips or|, a Clayey loams_-; Oats|Clover[Wheat; 23 Theat avey loam Cabbages eee Cabbages Barley|Beans Whea (Turnips and}| Ears' fa eel Guleon a ; Barley|Clover|Whe Bez nate NV heat Richlosne ee Paice,{ j at{Beans[Barley Peafe 1Wheat Sandy loams_= Beans([Barley|Peafe Wheat For any length of time Turnips Barley|Clover[Wheat|Potatoes Barley{Peafe| W heat Peatencen sac) ae Turnips Barley(Clover|Wheat|Potatoes Barley|Peate[Whear = 7 er(Aha th eee ae De SS Chalky fubftratum Turnips Barley(Clover|Wheat|Potatues[Barley Peate| Wheat out on this foil ten acres in every hundred fhould be laid with faintfoin for 8 or 10 years. Gravels--|Turnips Barley[Clover|Wheat|Potatoes[Barley|Peafe pea ;:) 3|Clover&|Clover@\Clover'and| Wheat orl. gt- ri Barley Bee Light lands Turnips’[Rye-grafs|Rye-grafs Rye-grafs ee Rye me On the whole, though no invariable rules can perhaps be laid down for the cropping of land, as much mutt conftantly depend on foil, fituation, and other lefs important circumftances, the chief objects to be aimed at in this bufinefs would feem to be thote of well adapting the crops to. the nature of the Jands and kinds of hufbandry that are to be purfued, and that of alternating the green and root kinds with thofe of corn, in fuch a way as that tl climate, 1e foil, while it emains the leaft poffible time in an unproductive ftate, may be the leaft robbed of its fertility. In this manner the culture of the field may approach that of the garden, and the deteriorating effects of fucceffive grain crops be gu againft, at the fame time that more abundant fupplies of both|] cattle food are produced. arded l1uman and From the whole of what has been advanced in r2{pect to the nature of cropping lands, it muft be fufficiently obvious that the cuftom of refiricling tenants to par- ticular modes or courfes of cropping their farms, is not only difadvantageous in preventing the introduction of ufeful improvements, but in leflening the quantity of produce that may be obtained, without injuring the foil in any improper degree. The only circumftances that would feem neceffary to be particularly attended to by land-owners, are thofe of preventing the too frequent fucceffions of grain crops, efpecially thofe of the more deteriorating kinds, and which have a great tendency to render the land foul from being repeated at too fhort intervals; while at the fame time the manure that is raifed from fuch crops, as well as ao that formed from the confumption of thofe of the green kind, be carefully re- ftored to the Jand. Where regulations of this nature are ftri€tly enforced, it appears almoft impoffible that land fhould be much injured by any modes of q = 1 rh ted cropping that may be adopted. » Ss u 536 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Difiribution of Crops. However defirable it may be, it is unqueftionably a matter of much difficulty to point out fuch proportions of crops of different kinds as may be generally ap- plicable to arable farms of different defcriptions, as it is obvious that in every cafe a great deal muft depend not only on foil, climate, and fituation, in refpe& to markets, but on the kind of hufbandry that is pra€tifed, as well as various other circumfiances of a local nature. It would feem, however, that the leading principles in this bufinefs fhould be, that the extent of land in the ftate of na- tural and artificial grafs be fully adequate to the fupport of fuch a number of live ftock of different kinds as may be fufficient to fupply fuch a proportion of manure as is neceflary for keeping the portion of ground under grain, root, green, or other crops, in the moft perfe&t heart and order._ Hence the fpace of ground, to be conducted under grain, root, green, and other arable crops, mutt conftantly be proportioned to the quantity of manure that can be raifed by the keeping of different forts of domeftic animals, while the number of the laft muft be regu- lated by the amount of the food that can be procured from the grafs and green cattle crops, which can be cultivated and preferved for their ufe during the win- ter feafon. Without confiderable attention to thefe different circumftances, it muft be impoflible, except near large towns, where manures can be obtained at a reafonable rate, to cultivate land to the moft advantage. Where the convertible fyftem of hufbandry is practifed, and the ground con- tinued for only three years in tillage, and then laid down to grafs for one, two, or more years, according to the circumftances of the cafe, the following may be a fuitable and proportionate diftribution of crops for a farm of about two hundred acres. In ftates of grafs- 2-.--- 110 acres. Under fallow crops----- z: Se In grain crops---..-- 60 260 The annual diftribution of which may be in this way; In the ftate of old fward=-==-- 20 acres. Under artificial graffes, as clover, faintfoin, lucern,&c.- Io In the ftate of irrigation or preferved grafs_-=: 5 Under different fallow crops*-;-- 30 Under wheat and barley, in fucceflion to the fallow crops 30 Firft year’s crops of different grafles---° 25 Second ditto--- 2“--. 25 Third ditto--:-=--- 25 In oat and other grain crops after breaking up the grafs 30 200 Cultvoation of Arable LandDifiribution of Crops. 537 ft is not to be fuppofed that the above method can be exaltly followed in every cafe; as circumftances may fometimes require a larger proportion of the land to be under grain, and at others under grafs or green cattle crops, accord- ing to the facility with which manure can be obtained, or as live-ftock is more the objeét of the cultivator. In the well-cultivated parts of Yorkthire, the proportionate diftribution of crops is thus ftated*. On a farm confifting of 150 acres, fixty of which were a dry turnip foil, and the remainder a mixed clayey gravel on a wet bottom. Annual W heat~ Barley Oats~ Meadow: grafs Red clover- Patture° Summer fallow and tu diftribution of Crops. =-$0--acres. : 20 1 4. ~ 7 S J 4 we~ 45 nips° 20 {50 On a red greet, and water fhaken foi], incumbent on clay. Extent 200 ftatute Annual 43 acres, wheat being 15 15 13 i6 10 id 70 acres. diftribution of Crops. acres after fallow. acres after clover lea. acres after oats. acres barley after fallow. acres oats. acres beans and peas. acres pafture and meadow. acres clover. } § acres fummer fal OW .eport of the Weft-Riding of I es 538 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Grain Crops, On a farm, extent 78 ftatute acres, reftrifted to ploughing more than 4o acres, | which is a dry gravelly foil. Annual diftribution of Crops, 18 acres wheat. 8 acres potatoes 6 acres of oats. 8 acres of peas, cabbages,&c. 27 acres pafture grafs. 1I acres meadow loam. 78 On a farm where the foil was lime-ftone, clay, and moor. Extent 139 ftatute acres, Annual diftribution of Crops. Wheat»*’- 23 acres. Barley->«~ 9 Oats- 2-- 22 Beans=--- S Meadow- 2°- 12 Fallow---- 20 Pafture*> 2- 47 539 Grain Crops.~In the cultivation of moft forts of corn crops, it is effentially neceffary that the foil fhould be reduced to a confiderable degree of finenefs, or what by writers on hufbandry is termed tilth, as where this is not the cafe they can neither be fo well provided with nourifhment nor be kept fufficiently clean from weeds. There are alfo other reafons that demand the fuperficial parts of foils to be ina fine condition for the reception of grain crops, which are thofe of the tender roots of the young plants being thus rendered more capable of eftablifhing themfelves perfectly in the mold, and of drawing from it a more re- gular fupply of food from the more equal diffufion of moifture that muft take place. Befides, it is favourable in other ways; the feed is not only more per- feétly but more equally covered, in confequence of which the vegetation of the grain is more equal and expeditious*. * Section on Fallowing of Land. ————— Cultivation of Arable Land.—IW heat. 539 But, independent of the ftate of the foil in regard to tilth, it fhould be in a faitable fituation in refpeét to drynefs; as where the feed is put in where there js too great a degree of moifture in the foil, it may fuftain injury by becoming rotten before the vegetative procefs commences, as frequently happens to pea and other garden crops when put in during the winter months; and where the land is in too dry a ftate at the period of fowing the grain, injury may be faf- tained by the want of that degree of moifture which is neceflary for perfect yege- tation. Befides, under this laft circumftance it may be more liable to be deftroyed by worms, grubs, or other infeéts. In thefe views the agricultor fhould there- fore be equally attentive to the preparation of the land, and the flate or con- dition in which it may be cropped with the greateft chance of fuccefs. Wheat.~—This is a fort of crop which, from its being capable of fuftaining the feverity of winter in moft cafes without much injury, muf be confidered of a hardy nature. Of this kind of grain there are two diftin&{pecies cultivated in this coun- try; the{mooth or polled wheat, and that which has a rough or bearded ear. The firft fort, of which there are many varieties, is by much the moft cultivated, as it affords the fineft kind of flour; but the latter, which is frequently termed rivet wheat, from its being capable of yielding a large produce on the more ftiff and wet clayey fort of foil, as well as from its being lefs liable to difeafe, and injury from wet when cut, is not unfrequently grown where fuch forts of land prevail. The common wheat is moft adapted to the dry and mellow kinds of foil, but may be cultivated on others where proper care is taken to keep the moifture from ftagnating too much on the land*. * It is obferved by Mr. Boys, an intelligent cultivator in the county of Kent, that the number of forts of this grain is annually increafing, by importation from foreign countries. And that the old forts, are the brown and yellow fammas, the white fraw, Fulham, and the white or eggshell. The brown fammas was the fort chiefly cultivated in that county, till within thefe twenty or thirty years; but it has now given way toa variety of new kinds, as well as fome of the other old forts. He found it from experiment the leaft productive of the feveral kinds. It is, he fays, the common brown-ftrawed wheat, that grows with a long jointed ear, the chaff of a dark brown colour, the ftraw long and apt to fall, the hull or bran thin, the flour very white, and the corn mellow in grinding, for which reafon it is efteemed by the millers as the beft of the old forts for their ufe. The yellow lammas refembles the brown in every refpect, except that the colour of the grain is of a yellow hue, and the chaff of a fomewhat lighter colour. The white-firawed wheat takes its name, he obferves, from the colour of its ear: and in other coun- ties bears the appellation of the Kenti/h white-fraw. It fends out a greater number of ftems from the ftoo! or plant than the other forts, and by that means is often a very thick crop on the land. The ftraw is generally fomewhat fhorter than that of many other forts, and not quite fo liable to fallin rainy feafons. t+ 540 Cultivation of Arabie Land.—IV heat. The bearded or rivet kind is likewife faid, by fome cultivators, to be the moft fuited to fuch kinds of rich land as have been newly broken up, where there may be danger of the crop lodging from too great luxuriance,. as it poffeffes the property of a greater firmnefs of ftraw. Among the numerous varieties of the fmooth or polled kind of wheat, the white and the red are the moft efteemed in general; the former affording the whiteft flour, while the latter has the greater produce. There is likewife another fort of this grain that may probably be cultivated to advantage in particular cafes, as where the turnip fyftem is much prattifed, It is on thefe accounts much fown in the eaftern part of that county; but, from its dull colour, its having a thick bran, and often grinding very fteely, is not much approved of by the millers. The Fulham, it is alfo obferved, produces a white ftraw, which grows fhort and coarfe: it is very produttive, efpecially on poor land; but the grain is very coarfe, and the bran thick: from which cir- cumftances it is the leaft valuable to the millers of any of the above kinds. The white, or egg-shell wheat, is known by its producing a white ftraw, a fmooth white chaff, and very white grain; the bran of which is fomewhat thick, but the flour remarkably white. It works mellow in grinding, is very early ripe, and fo free in the ear as to blow out in windy weather. The xew forts of wheat in that county are the hoary white, the nonpareil, the pilbeam, the fquare-ear, and the hoary brown. The hoary white, by fome called the velvet-eared, is by far the moft valuable, be- caufe it is very productive, and the beft for the millers’ ufe. The ftraw is white and fhort, the chaff covered with a thick fine down, fomewhat of a brownith hue; the grain remarkably fmall, and of a dull white colour; the bran very thin, fo that fome grains are almoft traniparent when held up to the light. It grinds very mellow, and makes a beautiful fine white flour, From the quantity of down upon the chaff, and its fmall ears binding up very clofe in the fheaf, in a rainy feafon it is apt to vege- tate very freely in the field; on which account it is not fo proper to cultivate in a moift climate, and in {mall inclofures that are not open to the winds and fun. The nonpareil is a fort feid to be brought into this country from America; it has a bright ftraw with a brown ear; and the grain is very white, large, and plump. It is very productive on all foils, thrafhes very free, and yields, in that operation, the greater part of its chaff; thereby producing a great quan- tity of horfe-meat. It grinds very mellow, and is well efteemed by the millers. The pilbeam is a brown wheat, growing very ftiff, and is generally thick onthe land. The grain is fmall and plump, fomewhat of ayellow brown. It is faid to be very productive on rich lands, and is a valuable kind to mix with others, but will not of itfelf make good bread, from its not working pro-= perly in the act of fermentation. The /quare-eared wheat is a very produtive kinds but is apt to drop out in the field before it is ripe, and in gales of wind, from whichit is not much cultivated. Fhe hoary brown is but lately introduced, and therefore little known. There are two forts of rivet wheat, the white and brown; neither of which are much cultivated in Kent. They both ripen late in the feafon, andare fo coarfe and{teely as to be unfit for making bread, unlefs mixed with a large proportion of a better fort of flour. They, however, produce very abund- ant crops on ftrong wet lands. Cultivation of Arable Land—=IW heat. 54] or other forts of green vegetables produced on an extenfive{cale for the winter fupport of animals, and where the fituation is warm and early. This is the kind known to farmers by the name of /pring wheat, from the circumftance of its being put into the ground at that period. The culture of this fort has, how- ever, hitherto been introduced only in a partial manner. T’bis kind of grain is found from experience to fucceed in general to moft ad- vantage on fuch foils as are of the more deep, ftrong, and fertile nature, but where the fuperficial parts are not fo ftiff or adhefive as to be incapable of falling down or breaking into a fine ftate. It may however be grown on the lighter defcrip- tions of land, and in many inftances afford good crops, though it has been well remarked by a pra€tical writer, that, when introduced on fuch foils as are very light, whether of the fandy, gravelly, or chalky kind, a pra&tice too common in moft diftriéts where they prevail, great lofs muft be fuftained in a national point of view from fuch lands being more adapted to the produétion of other forts of crops*. Wheat is the fort of grain moft generally fown where the land has received the preparation of a complete fummer fallowing; but it is probable that, except in particular kinds of land, as thofe of the ftiff clayey nature, and under particu- lar circumftances, as where they are moift, and have much tendency to the throwing up of weeds+, it may be grown to equal, if not more advantage, after many different kinds of green root and other crops. In this way it may be fown after clover, tares, peas, beans, turnips, potatoes, and many fimilar crops, according to the quality and ftate of the land. In diftri€ts where the flax and hemp culture is praftifed, it may likewife in fome cafes be put in after fuch crops. But in whatever method, or after whatever kind of crop, this fort of grain may be cultivated, the foil fhould conftantly undergo that degree of preparation that may be fufficient, according to the particular cireumftances of the land, to bring it into a ftate of confiderable pulverifation and mellownefs, efpecially in the more fuperficial parts, as well as to prevent as much as poflible the rifing of weeds; for, whoever has attended to the progrefs of this fort of crop in fuch lands as have been well broken down and reduced, and in fuch as have been left ina lumpy crude ftate at the time of fowing, will have found the difference to be very confiderable, When this kind of crop is taken after clover, the land feldom undergoes more than one ploughing, which is moftly given immediately before * Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture, p. 277. t Section on Fallowing of Land. 549 Cultivation of Arable Land ie—IV heat. the feed is fown. But asthe grafly matter in many cafes, where this mode is adopted, is extremely apt to rife and injure the crops in the more early ftages of their growth, it may be better to follow the prattice adopted in fome diftricts of ufing a kim-coultered plough*, as by this contrivance the remains of the clover weeds and grafly material on the fi irface may be cut or fkimmed off, and turned into the eee of the furrow, where eve are immediately covered with the loofe mold from below, to fuch a depth that little or no inconvenience can be fuftained from them, while the land is thus rendered more clean and capa- ble of being harrowed in a more perfe¢t manner than where the common plough only is employed. Befides, perhaps a better bed of mold is turned up in this way for the feed to vegetate in, provided the furrow is not made.of too great a depth and breadth, and remain fome time before it be fown, which fhould con- {tantly be attended to by the agricultor in pre eparing this fort of ground for wheat crops. But it is the cuftom of fome p placest where the land is often continued for nearly two feafons in the ftate of clover, to break them up about the latter end of June, in the fecond, giving them two and fometimes three ploughings. Where the fituation is favourable, and the weather turns out fuit- able for reducing the foil to a proper ftate of tilth, this may be an advantageous practice, as by fuch means great| benefit may be obtained by cutting the grafs.in the beginning of the feafon in which it is to be ploughed up; but where circum- @ances of fo favourable a nature do not occur, fuch a method of. preparation muft be lefs beneficial than that of giving only one ploughing. It has been juftly remarked, by an agricultor of confiderable experience, that m cafes where the clover crops have been{uch as to Jeave the land in a foul cone dition in refpe&t to weeds, it would be highly improper to fow them with this fort of grain, as from its remaining for fuch a great length of time upon the ground, they may be liable to have their feeds Caeal y evolved and brought into the ftate of vegetation. In fuch cafes he fuggefts it as more advantageous to have recourfe to fuch forts of crops as may.require the frequent operation of hoeing during their growth f. Wheat crops fometimes fucceed thofe of the pea kind; but this is a prattice that may probably be purfued with.the moft propriety and fuccefs in thofe diftricis -#*‘This purpofe may be effected by any common plough, to the coulter of which an iron fin or plate is attached by means of a{crew or rivet, at the diftance of about four inches from the point. + This isthe practice in the counties of Norfolk and Warwick, according to the author of Modern Agriculture. + Middleton, in eorrefted Report of Middlefex. mS) if e ‘nh Cultivation of Arable Land IV heat, HA3 n os) & that are from the nature of their fituation fufficiently early to admit of the land being fully cleaned and prepared by repeated ploughing and harrowing after fuch crops have been removed, before the proper time of fowing fuch grain, But where they are fo late as only to allow of the land being prepared by one ploughing before the period of fowing, it is fuppofed by fome to be an exe tremely hazardous pra€tice to attempt the culture of wheat after fuch crops, as, unlefs the ground be in a high ftate of tilth, there is little chance of a good crop being produced*, It is the regular praétice of fome counties to cultivate beans and wheat alter. nately on the fame land for fome time. This is the cafe on the ftronger kinds of foil in the county of Kent, on which it is found to an{wer in a very beneft- cial manner. And where wheat is only occafionally fown after fuch crops, as is the cafe in many diftrits, it is alfo frequently found an ufeful practice; but in all fuch cafes the beans fhould be cultivated in drills at from twenty to thirty inches diftance, in order that they may admit of being hand and horfe hoed in the moft perfe&t manner. If this method has been followed, and the bufinefs of hoeing during the growth of the crops effectually performed, the land may be fufficiently prepared for the fucceeding wheat crops by once ploughing, as the foul, from being thus kept clean, and in high tilth, can fcarcely fail of affording a good produce. In the more early diftri€ts, and where the lands are preferved in good order by judicious modes of cropping, wheat may alfo be grown after beans, whether cultivated in the drill or broadcaft fyftem, with fuccefs, as there may be fufficient time to give the neceflary preparation before the period of fowing, which can- not be the cafe, as has been feen, where they are late, and there is only time for once ploughing fF. In other places it is however found advantageous when this fort of crop is to be grown after either peas, beans, or tares, to plough the land in as light or fhal- low a manner as poffible, and then harrow and rake out the roots and weeds, fo as that they may be confumed on the ground in heaps; the field being after this formed into proper ridges for the reception of the feed by ploughing again a few inches deeper than at the firft. And in fome cafes it is even har- rowed after the fecond ploughing, and ploughed a third time f. Wheat is occafionally cultivated after turnip crops; and which may in many cafes be praftifed to advantage on the heavier turnip foils, efpecially where they * Modern Agriculture, vol. II. p. 273. ¢ Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture, vol. II. } Middleton’s Report of the Agriculture of Middlefex, p. 766, 544 Cultivation of Arable Land.—IlV heat. have been kept clean from weeds by repeated hoeing, and confumed upon the jand at fuch early periods as to admit of the ground being prepared by once ploughing in a light manner. The late crops on the lighter forts of land may be more properly managed by fowing them with fpring wheat, or leaving them for barley, for either of which they may be prepared by two or three fhallow ploughings. Spring wheat in this mode of preparation has, in fome cafes, been found to approach that of the autumnal fowing. Where the turnip crops are late, and cannot be confumed in fufficient time for the land to be prepared fo as that the feed may be put in before December, it is probably the moft fafe method to let it remain to be fown in the fpring, as by fuch means there will be an opportunity of getting the ground into a proper ftate of preparation for the reception of the feed, which could not otherwife be the cafe. And under fuch circumftances it is undoubtedly the moft advantageous plan to employ that fort of wheat which is ufually known by the name of /pring wheat, as from its early nature it is more adapted to be fown at fuch a feafon. Where this fort of crop is intended to be cultivated after potatoes, which, as they have a great tendency to lighten the foil in a very great degree, as well as to exhautt it, fhould never be the cafe on the lighter forts of land in backward fituations, or under any circumftances where a fufficient proportion of manure has not been applied for the potatoe crops, one light ploughing immediately before the feed is put in may be in moft cafes an adequate preparation, as where proper attention has been beftowed in the culture of fuch crops, the foil is ge- nerally left in a fufficiently fine condition. It has, indeed, been obferved by an intelligent cultivator, that the caufe of wheat not fucceeding well after potatoe crops in many inftances is, that, befides the land being rendered too light and porous by the growth and cultivation that are requifite for them, the wheat is more expofed to the injurious attacks of the grub, earth-worm, and other infeéts; and in fome expofed fituations, from the feed-time being too long protraéted, the praCtice becomes obvioully improper%3 In fituations where flax and hemp are grown, this kind of grain may fre- quently be cultivated to advantage after them; in which circumftances, as weeds are apt to rife, it is always proper that the land fhould be ploughed over two or three times, in order that a fine ftate of tilth may be produced.‘The cuftom of giving but one earth after fuch forts of crops can feldom or ever infure an abundant produce. F.xperience has fhewn, in the moft clear and fatisfaCtory manner, that this fort * Middleton, in Report of Middlefex. Cultivation of Arable Land.—}¥ heat. 545 of crop fhould never, where it can be avoided, be grown after other kinds of grain crops, as rye, barley, or oats» and that the manure fhould not be applied for it, but for fuch crops as may precede it*. Where the contrary praétice is adopted, the crop is not only liable to be injured by the rampant growth of weeds, but from its being more apt to be difeafed. Whatever the nature of the ground may be, or the kinds of crops that pre- cede this fort of grain, it would feem that the preparation fhould always be fuch as has a tendency to reduce the foil to a pretty high degree of pulverifation, as under fuch circumftances the vegetation of the crop is not only more perfeé and uniform, but from the evennefs of the furface, and compact ftate in which it is left, is more fit for affording fupport and protection to the roots of the plants, by allowing them to fpread and extend themfelves with greater readinefs in the fine mold thus provided, as well as by its falling down more clofely about them. It has, notwithftanding, been maintained by fome agricultors, probably without fufliciently attending to the fubjeét, that a rough or cloddy ftate of the furface is the moft proper condition for the reception of this fort of crop, as the young plants are thereby better guarded againft the effetts of the fevere cold that fre quently occurs in the winter feafon. It is probable, however, that cold is feldom hurtful in any great degree to this fort of grain, except where combined with too much moifture, or where fudden frofts and thaws have the effeét of render- ing the fuperficial parts of the foil fo light and openas to be incapable of afford- ing a proper fupport for the roots of the young plants. Lime of sowing.—The exa& periods at which this fort of grain may be put into the ground with the greateft chance of fuccefs, under different circumftances of foil and climate, have not yet, fo far as we know, been fully afcertained by experiment. In addition to the obfervations that have been already made in {peaking of fowing in general, it may, however, be ufeful to remark, that the earlier the feed of the autumnal fowings can be put into the foil, the greater chance the young plants will have of being well eftablifhed in the ground before the frofts take place, which we have juft feen to be a circumftance on which the welfare of the crop in a great meafure depends. Befides, the ftate of the land, and that of the feafon, is much more favourable for the procefs of vegetation when the crop is put in at an early period, than when it is delayed to a late one; the ftate of the weather in the latter cafe often admitting of only a very languid and imperfect growth until the fpring, by which the crop muft be ex- * Middleton’s Report of the Agriculture of Middlefex. 4A 546 Cultivation of Arable Land—IV heat, poied to much danger from various caufes. Indeed expericnce has abundantly fhewn that Jate fown wheats feldom fucceed fo well, or afford fuch plentiful crops, as thofe that are put in early. But when fown too early, there may not- withftanding be danger of the crop running too much to firaw, and confequently of the grain proving light in the ear. From the beginning of September to the middle, or even the end, of O@ober, may probably be confidered as the molt fa- vourable period for this bufinefs. This is, indeed, confirmed by the eftablithed practice of the moft corre&t farmers in almoft every diftrict of the kingdom, where this fort of grain is grown*. If fown earlier, efpecially on the heavy kinds of foil, the land is for the moft part in too hard and lumpy a ftate to al- Jow of the feed being properly covered by the harrow; and in the lighter ones in too dry a condition for the grain to vegetate in a proper manner; and, when delayed later, the ground, in one cafe, is apt to become too wet and clofe by the falling of the autumnal rains, and in the other too loofe and porous from the action of the frofts on it. It is remarked by the writer juft mentioned, that more than four-fifths of the whole of this fort of grain is fown between the middle of the firft and the end of the laft of the above months. There are, however, circumftances that nay render the times of fowing dif- ferent from the above; as where the foils are of the rich, fertile, loamy, chalky, or gravelly kinds, it may be better to defer it in many inftances to a confider- ably later period, as when fuch warm forts of land are cropped too early, they are apt, it is faid, to pufh the plants forward in fuch a rapid manner, that they become weak and fpindling in the early fpring months; and at the fame time the crops are more liable to be infefted with weeds, on account of the feafon being then more favourable to their growth t. The practice of putting in crops of this fort fo late as the latter end of No- vember and beginning of December frequently depends on the crops that pre- cede them not being capable, from the latenefs of the fituation, or other caufes, of being taken off fo early as that the land may be made ready for the wheat crop in the proper time. This is often the cafe after peas, beans, tares, turnips, and other fimilar crops. In thefe cafes, on the lighter forts of foils, and where drill culture is employed, it may often be a more advifable praétice to fow in the fpring, as by fuch a delay the ground may be brought into a more perfe& ftate of preparation than could be the cafe in fowing it fo late in the winter. When this method is adopted, that fort which is known by the name of /pring ® Modern Agriculture, vol. II. p. 275)+ Bannifter’s Synopfis of Hufbandry. Culiwation of Arable Land.—IV heat. 54% wheat may be the mot proper, though it is evinced, by the fuccefs of ex peri- ments in fowing at this feafon, that any of the white thin-fkinned forts of wheat may be employed, not only with fafety, but with the profpeét of affording a good produce*, pl Seedi-=The quantity of feed that is to be made ufe of in different cafes we have already feen to depend upon and be regulated by a variety of different cir- cumftances, but in general from two to three buthels, according to the ftate of the foil, the nature of the climate, and the period in which it is put into the ground, may be efteemed the moft fuitable proportion for foils of a medium de- gree of feriility, under the broadcaft method of hufbandry; but where the dril] fyftem of culture is praétifed, a confiderably lefs proportion may be fufticient for the purpofe, as has been explained ina more full manner in{peaking of the nature of fowing, or putting different forts of grain crops into the earth. On the rich foils of Gloucefterfhire, the quantity generally fown has been flated to be about feven pecks; while in many other diftricts, as York hire, it is from eight to twelve ¢. Where the lands are in a fuitable ftate of tillage for receiving crops of this grain, ten pecks haye been advifed by a praétical writer as the medium proportion{. Larger quantities are likewife frequently fown in the northern parts of the kingdom||; but it is obvious, that, where fuch large proportions of feed are made ufe of, the plants muft be liable to be drawn up too much, and the crops in confequence to become weak and imperfe€tly fed, as well as fmaller in the fize of the ears. There may alfo be difadvantages from making ufe of too fmall proportions of feed, from the ground not being properly covered with plants: but where care is taken in the after-culture of the crops, lefs danger is probably to be apprehended from this than the other extreme, as a great number of plants will be fupplied by the tillering or fhooting out of new ftems from the joints about the furface, in confequence of the mold being laid up againft them.-On this account the drill method of culture may be the moft proper when this fort of grain is raifed upon light foils that are in a ftate of fufS- cient cleannefs, as well as from its affording a more loofe and penetrable earth for the coronal roots to ftrike and be formed in. The broadcaft method is, however, that which is the moft commonly employed, efpecially on the heavy kinds of land,’ whether of the clayey or loamy defcriptions, the feed being caft over the fur- * Exter, in Bath Papers, vol. 1X.+ Marthall’s Rural Economy. ¢ Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture, vol, II. i Corrected Reports of Mid Lothian and Perththire, 548 Cultivation of Arable Land.—IWheat, face of the ground foon after the laf earth or ploughing has been given by the hand, and immediately harrowed in by the lighter kinds of harrows. There is, however, another practice that prevails in fome diftriéts, which is that of fowing the feed in a partial manner, one portion being turned in by the fecond or third ploughing, and the other afterwards harrowed in. This method would feem to be attended with an additional expence, without any adequate advan- tage being derived from it; and if great care be not taken to turn the feed in with a very ebb or light furrow, efpecially in wet feafons, and where the land is of a heavy and retentive quality, inconvenience may be fuftained by much of the grain being deftroyed before the procefs of germination is effeCted. Befides, there muft be great inequality in the growth of the crop, a circumftance which we have feen to be injurious to the welfare of the wheat. After the feed has been put in, the land fhould conftantly be laid as dry as pollible, by the con- ftru€ting of proper drains and water-furrows. After-culture.—The manner in which the crop has been put into the ground, the ftate of the land, and the preparation on which it was fown, may produce fome differences in the culture that is neceflary while it is growing. In every cafe it muft, however, be kept perfeétly clean and free from weeds, cither by means of the horfe or hand-hoe, as they not only injure the crop in its growth, but leffen the value of the fample at the market. But the ftirring of the mold on the fur- face among the plants may frequently be ufeful in other intentions befides that of preventing the growth of feed weeds; for, as in the heavy kinds of foil, that are moft adapted to this grain, the more fuperficial parts are liable to become fo hard and baked as not to be eafily penetrated by the new-formed or coronal roots of the plants in the early{pring months, e{pecially when they are very dry and have been preceded by much wet, the loofening of the earth, by any means whatever, muft be of confiderable utility. This effe& is generally fhewn to have taken place by the appearance and progref& of the crop, which becomes of an unhealthy yellow colour, and advances but little in its growth. In fuch cafes it has been fuggefted that harrowing once, or oftener, in a place, may be of much fervice in the early{pring months*. Where the crops are thin and of feeble growth, this operation may produce beneficial effects, by affording a fort of earthing-up to the weak plants, and thereby promote a more vigorous growth, at the fame time that a number of new fhoots are fent of from the joints thus covered, and the crop, in confequence, rendered more full and abundant; and * Middleton’s Report of Middlefex. Cultivation of Arable Land.—lW heat, 549 where the grain is too thick upon the ground, it may alfo be ufeful by drawing out and deftroying many of the plants. It has likewife been fufpeéted by an acute writer, that many of the root fibres, by being torn in the operation, may prevent the over luxuriance of the ftem and leaves, and by that means pro- mote the more early fru€tification of the plants*. Rolling the land, either without having recourfe to the harrow or after it has been employed, efpecially where the furface is cloddy, and the Operation is per- formed when the ground poffeffes a medium degree of moifture, may be of utility in the fame way, as well as by forcing the roots of the wheat into the earth, and by that means caufing new ftems to rife f. On all the light thin foils, when this fort of grain is cultivated upon them, much benefit may alfo be produced by the ufe of the roller, by the roots of the plants being thereby prevented from being fo eafily loofened and thrown out of the ground. And the fame pra€tice is re- commended as generally ufeful where clover or grafs feeds are fown with wheat crops, as a means of rendering vegetation more fecure f. The former operation may likewife be practifed with advantage, in the way of preventing the deftructive ravages of the worm|. In cafes where the land is not in a fufficient ftate of fertility or preparation to bring the crops to perfection, it may be neceffary to make ufe of top dreflings. Subftances of both the folid and fluid kinds have been made ufe of for this purpofe; the firft confift chiefly of the dung of different forts of birds after being brought into a powdery ftate, bone-duft, foot, peat, afhes, and various faline matters. The latter are principally the drainings of dung-hills and other fimilar liquid materials. The former fhould be thinly fown over the crops, with as much evennefs as poflible, as early in the fpring as horfes can be ad- mitted upon the land without injury; and if it can be done when the weather is inclined to be moift, itis the better. A roller may then be paffed over the crop with advantage. Where the latter fubftances are made ufe of, care fhould always be taken that the plants be not injured by having too large a quantity of fuch fluids applied to them. The pra€tice of tranfplanting wheat may be had recourfe to in particular cafes, probably with beneficial confequences, as where there are fome parts of fuch crops too thickly fet upon the ground, while others are too thin, irregular, or patchy; as by thinning and fetting out the plants of fuch over-abundant parts among thofe that are deficient, much fervice may be done to each of them. The * Darwin's Phytologia, p. 292.+ Ibid, p. 293. } Correéted Keport of Middlefex.\) Synopfis of Hufbandry, p. 63. 550 Cultivation of Arable Land—WVheat. firft will be rendered more capable of admitting the operation of the hoe, and thereby of fupplying more abundant nourifhment for the luxuriant vegetation of the plants; and the latter be fupplied with the proper number of plants, which could not be accomplifhed in any other way. It has been fuggefted, that, when cultivated in the garden, one acre would be capable of ailording fets for an hundred, when planted after being properly divided, at the diftance of nine inches from each other; and as the bufinefs of tran{planting is to be performed in the fpring, it is fuppofed that crops of this grain may be raifed in this manner on lands that poffefs a greater degree of moifture than is fuited to the healthy growth of wheat in general. Befides, clean crops may be produced in this way with much greater certainty, as where the ground is ploughed over juft be- fore the plants are fet out, the grain may rife much quicker from the plants than the weeds from their feeds, and the crop, in this way, overpower fuch noxious plants*, Many advantages of other kinds have been{tated by other writers as the refult of this pratice t. The feeding of wheat crops, where too forward or Juxuriant in the early {pring months, by means of theep, is a pra€tice that has been found of much be- nefit in many cafes. The good effeéts in fuch inftances are fuppofed to arife from the removal of the upright central ftems, by which means different new lateral ftems or root-fcions are fent off or brought forward with more vigour, by the acquifition of a larger proportion of nutritious matter from the joints in confe- quence, that muft otherwife have been exhautfted in fupporting the central ftems. This pra€tice has been found by experience to be the moft ufeful on fuch {trong and fertile lands as are apt to produce a larger proportion of ftraw than can be properly fupported. In thefe cafes advantage has frequently been de- rived by feeding off the blade at two or more fucceffive times; but in managing the bufinefs, great care is neceflary to fee that the whole is completed before the crop begins to fpindle, otherwife more injury than good may be produced. But, on the lighter and more poor defcriptions of foil, the practice muft be employed with great caution, as on fuch lands the growth of the crop may be fo retarded as to become weak and fpindly. Befides, on thofe lands where they are very light, and the crops thin, injury may frequently be done, by many of the plants being pulled up on account of the clofenefs of the bite of the theep. They fhould therefore never be fuffered to remain upon the crops when the weather is wet and the furface of the ground much loofened, or after fudden frofts and thaws; as in * Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 291,+ Bogle, in Bath Papers, vol. III. $ Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land—IJV heat. 5 WY 1 fuch cafes much harm may be done by the plants’ being pulled up and deftroyed., The treading of the animals may, however, be of great fervice in all the light forts of land, and where the crops are thin, as by that means the earth will not only be preffed more Clofely about the roots of the plants, but the ftems in many inftances fo forced into the ground and covered up, that new fhoots will be fent off laterally, and the crops be thus rendered more ful] on the land. But where the foils are very{tiff and adhefive, the growth of the crops may be checked and retarded by the praftice, and of courfe the fhoots thus caufed become weak, affording only fmall ears and light grain*. The obfervation and experiments of the fame writer have indeed fully convinced him that wheat ought not to be fed down with fheep, unlefs it be very rank in January, and that fuch crops fhould only be fed as were fown early. But though this pra€tice has much relation to that employed in gardening, of ftopping the growth of the main ftems of fome forts of plants, as thofe of the cucumber and melon kinds, by rubbing off or cutting away the central buds, in order to expedite their fruiting; yet, in wheat crops, where the principal ftems are eaten down, except when they are early and of very luxuriant growth, the ears of the new fhoots may not have time to perfect their feec, and of courfe become light and fhrivelled in the grain; andthe new ftems, from their weak- nefs, be more apt to fall down and be lodged. Thefe are circumftances that have been frequently obferved to occur in the feeding down of wheat crops by means of fheep+. The fame philofophical writer alfo fuggefts that, in refpect to the culture of wheat crops, the mot beneficial method is that of promoting as much as poffible the time of bloffoming, while that of ripening is protraéted ie as it is for the farinaceous refervoir of nutriment depofited in the cotyledon of the new feed, in order to fupport the growth of the corculum or freth embryon, that the plant is cultivated; which farinaceous depofition is effeéted in the in- terval between the blofloming and ripening of the corn, either before the im- pregnation of the pericarp or feed-veffels, or afterwards; and the weight and plumpnefs of the grain is thus augmented. The eating down of crops by fheep may therefore often be hurtful, by retard- ing the period of bloffoming, as well as by reftri€ting the growth of the ftems Il. But befides the advantage derived from the feeding down of wheat crops with fheep, they may fometimes be employed with benefit in other views; for * Bath Papers, vol. I. p. 66,+ Tull’s Horfe-hoeing Hufbandry, 4to. edit, > Tull’s Horfe-hoeing Hufbandry, gto. edit. P- 147.| Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 1440 SS an eect 552 Cultivation of Arable Land.—-W heat, as the coronal parts of the roots of fuch crops are liable to be Jaid bare and expofed for fome inches in length, about the furface of the earth, during fevere frofty winters, the turning in of fheep upon them in fuch circumftances, when the ground is moift, and keeping them in motion, may tend to prefs them into the loofe foil, and in that way produce new roots, as well as afford covering and protection to fuch as have been denudated. It is likewife a pra€tice with fome farmers, who contend that much advan- tage is derived from it, to turn fheep upon the crops where danger is appre- hended from worms, flugs, or other infe€ts; in order that, by keeping them con- fiantly in motion, fuch animals may either be wholly deftroyed, or fo. fixed in the furface mold as to caufe their more gradual death*. There are many infeéts that are highly injurious to wheat crops in mild and open winters, as well as during the fpring, and fometimes in the early fummer months, by eating off and deftroying the ftems at the joints about the furface of the earth, which are in fuch parts{weet and tender, from their containing a por- tion of faccharine matter, and being of young growth. In thefe cafes the blades of the wheat plants drop down and become withered, by which the crops are frequently in a great meafure deftroyed. The principal of thefe deftru@tive animals does not yet feem to have been de- fcribed with fufficient correétnefs by writers on agriculture f; it is, however, probable that there may be different varieties of the fame grub, that may be hurtful to grain crops. One kind of grub is afferted to be annually found in wet fituations in larger or fmaller quantities, according as the preceding feafon has been hot or cold: and that while it continues in the ftate of egg it cannot be injured by any feverity of weather that may occur. Even in the grub ftate it is not capable of being much injured; and when in that of the fly it is equally hardy. The only period in which it appears to be fufceptible of injury, is that of its tranfmutation from the grub to the aurelia ftate, in which ftage it is ca- pable of being deftroyed by cold and wetnefs; and as this change moftly takes place fome time about the end of May, or in the early part of June, at which times rain generally falls in abundance, the whole, except fuch as have fecured themfelves in dry hills of mold, in meadows, or the borders of ditches, are an- nually killed. On arable lands few or none are believed to efcape to effect the * Corrected Report of Middlefex. t It has been fuggefted by the author of a paper in the twenty-fifth yolume of the Annals of Agri- culture as belonging to the genus tipula, Cultivation of Arable Land.—V heat. 553 purpofe of propagating their kind, unlefs in fuch feafons as are unufually droughty during the time of their change into the aurelia ftate*. Hence the rains that fall at fuch periods are not only beneficial in promoting the crop but in deftroying this fort of infeé. Befides this, it is obferved in the fame work that there are feveral other grubs brought forth at all feafons in dry lands, which are not lefs injurious to corn crops than that juft defcribed. They equally poffefs the power of refifting the hurtful effects of the weather in every ftage but that in which they are changed into the aurelia ftate, when moifture and cold has the power of readily deftroy- ing them. The whole of the grubs that are produced on foils of the more dry kind are faid to be of the moth tribe, It is added, that the grub, when the autumn has been mild and warm, is brought into exiftence about the latter end of Oftober, and proceeds in its growth as long as vegetation continues in any degree; after which, probably from the want of food, it feems to remain at a ftand till the{pring feafon, when its ravages foon become evident. It begins to increafe in fize towards the end of February, and continues to grow till the early part of May, when it is often more than an inch in length, and one third of an inch or more in circumfer- ence. Itis faid to be then extremely deftru€tive, eating through the roots of the ftrongeft ftems of corn plants in a very quick manner. And it is ftated, that on taking one of them, and putting it into earth, confifting of a foft black loam, about mid-day, covering it well, at the root of a plant of oats that had fent out thirty-feven off-fets, and which had been well earthed up, the plant, on being examined about the fame time the fucceeding day, was found to have its leaves hanging down in a declining ftate, and the root, with the whole of the of- fets, fo injured as to be utterly incapable of recovery. In mild feafons, that are favourable for the propagation of grubs, they be- Come numerous and highly detrimental; but, as has been juft obferved, they moftly perifh annually, the race being preferved only by the depofition of ova in the borders of ditches, plantations, and coarfe fogged herbage, in which the aurelia is protected from injury by moifture. ft has been found that the grub commits its principal injury on corn crops juft after the germination or{prouting of the grain, by devouring or eating away the young fhoot before it thews itfelf above the ground. When the plants are up above the furface, and have acquired confiderable fubftance, there is much lefs danger from the ravages of thefe animals, except where they are very nu- * Farmer’s Magazine, vol. II. p. 36s. 4B 554 Cultivation of Arable Land.—IV heat. merous. During the day they are faid to be mottly found from half an inch to an inch and a half below the furface;.and they are not fuppofed to come much above the ground during the night*. Various means have been fuggefted for the purpofe of deftroying thefe ani mals, and preventing their ravages on grain crops; but hitherto probably with- out much fuccefs. The fubftances that have been chiefly employed in this in- tention are lime and faline matters+; but it is probable that neither of them are fully effectual in preventing the deftructive ravages that are often experienced from fuch animals, as it has been found by experiment that the mixing of fuch materials, efpecially the lime with earth, by which it is fuon faturated, docs not prevent them from propagating and continuing in the mold ¢, and confequently has but little effeét in preferving crops from their attacks. But though lime, when combined with the mold of foils, fo as to become perfeétly effete by the ab- forption of carbonic acid both from it and the atmofphere, may not have much power in deftroying the grub; there can be little doubt, that when applied in its cauftic or moft aétive ftate, it will prove deftru€tive to it, as well as moft other animals of the infect kind. It has indeed been remarked, that both hot lime and alkaline falts are capable of deftroying fuch noxious infeéts as feed upon the roots,{tems, and leaves of field plants, by the property they poffefs of com- bining with and reducing the organifation of their bodies||. This effet would not however feem to be produced on living animals, except where fuch fub- {tances are laid on in very large proportions, by which the crops would be in danger of being deftroyed.. It is added by the fame author, that neutral falts may often be made ufe of with fuccefs in the fame intention. Thefe are fuppofed to produce their deftruétive effects on fnails, flugs, grubs, and other fimilar animals, by caufing fuch exceflive evacuations, by their power- ful aétion, that they are incapable of withftanding them. In this view it is pro- bable that, in the neighbourhood of the fea, fuch fand as has been conftantly for a long time covered by the tides might be employed with advantage in the way of a top-drefling where wheat or other crops are injured by fuch animals. But when either cauflic lime or fea falt is laid on in the way of top-drefiing for grain crops, in order to deftroy the grub, when exifting at their roots, immediately below the furface of the ground, great care fhould be taken that they be not * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV, p. 407. + Of the latter kind are foapers’ ajhes, bleachers’ afnes, refufe pot-afh,&c. t Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. p. 406.; Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 362.3 and Farmer’s Ma- gazine, vol. II. p. 365. | Dundonald’s Connection of Agriculture with Chemiftry, p. 136. Cultivation of Arable Land.—IV heat, Cae poffeffed of fuch caufticity, or applied in fuch quantities, or fo unevenly, as to hurt the young plants by their too powerful operation on them. Soot is likewife a faline fubftance that has been. much made ufe of in differ- ent diftri€ts for fowing over young wheat and other grain crops when injured by worms, grubs, or other infe€ts that feed upon and deftroy the tender ftems, leaves, and roots of fuch plants. It is a material which,. in addition to carbo- naceous: and earthy matters, confifts of mineral or refinous oil, made capable of folution in water by the large proportion of. faline fubftance which it contains. The folution thus formed, it is-afferted,.“ is an extremely bitter, high coloured, oily liquor, which not only poifons the infeét on which it may fall, but alfo com- municatesa bitter tafte to the furface of the roots and leaves of plants, thus rendering them unfit for the food of fuch: infe&s*.” But the effets of this fubftance may be ufeful in other ways befides that of deftroying infedis; the growth of the plants may be-fo quickly promoted by the bituminous oily folu- tion formed by the faline principle of the foot,.as- to-allow. no time for. the ravages of the infeCts on them t+. It has alfo been fuggefted, that where the grub is prevalent, rolling the Jand in the early{pring months, foon in the morning, may have a tendency to crufh and’ deftroy them: and that where the fly is found to abound, and come out in the fummer-evenings on the grafs lands or fallows, it is probable that, by rolling at that time, the return of:it into-the earth, as well as the depofit of the ova, may be prevented, and the future. propagation of the infect be guarded againft f: As the ova of this.deftrulive animal is found to be chiefly depofited in the jong grafs on the fides: of hedges and ditches, it has been propofed, as a fure mode of preventing the propagation of the grub, to keep. the tops of ditches and hedge-fides perfettly clean, and free from the coarfe long herbage with which they are ufually covered||. And, on the fame principle, the keeping of clover ftubbles clofely eaten down by fheep or other animals, after the hay has been taken, till the wheat crop is nearly ready to be put in, has been found in fome meafure an effectual remedy againft the deftructive attacks of this infect§. Befides. grubs, there are other infects which fometimes commit depredations on grain crops. One of thefe, which is believed to be the thrips Phy/apus of Linnzus{, is found to attack the late bloffoming{tems on their coming into flower, on which account early fowing may be the. moft effeftual remedy. * Dundonald, on the Connection of Agriculture with Chemiftry. ¢ Tbid. p. 138. + Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 369.|| Farmer’s Magazine, vol. IT. p. 365. Annals of Agriculture, yol. XXV. q Tranfadtions of Linnean Society, vol. II! el? 556 Cultivation of Arable Land.—IV heat, But, in addition to the attacks of thefe animals, wheat crops are often ex- pofed to injuries of other kinds, fuch as the mildew, blight, blatt, and fmut. The firft of thefe vegetable difeafes is frequently found to afeQ wheat and other crops, in their more advanced ftages of growth, in fuch feafons as are wei and gloomy, for fome length of time together, without much fun. The nature of this mucor mould, or mildew, feems not yet to have been fully invefti- gated by writers on hufbandry; but, from the obfervations contained in an in- genious paper in the feventeenth volume of the Annals of Agriculture, there appear to be two varieties of it, the black and the red. Various conjectures have been entertained by writers concerning the caufe of the difeafe; the moft probable of which feems to be, that it is a plant of the fungus kind, which, like others of the fame fort, is capable of proceeding in its growth in clofe fhaded fituations without much change of air, and which by its roots penetrates the veffels of the plants to which it attaches itfelf, but which were probably, how- ever, previoufly in a morbid condition. As moifture, and a confined ftate of air from fhade or other fimilar caufes, have obvioufly much effet in producing the mildew in wheat and other grain crops, it feems not improbable that the beft method of preventing or removing it would be that of not having the plants too much crowded together, but thin and open, fo that light may be fully admitted, and a free circulation of air take place among the plants. This may be the moft perfe@ly accomplifhed by the corn being fown in rows, with fufficient diftances between them. Therefore, on lands that are fubje&t tomildew, the moft advantageous method may be that of {owing the grain by means of the drill, and not too thickly in the rows. Where the difeafe is prefent, the moft advifable method, in order to its removal, may be that of thinning out the weakeft plants as much as poflible, that more air and light may be let in, and by that means the{trength and vigour of the crop be increafed, and the difeafe eradicated. It has, indeed, been lately fuggefted, that,“as the greater dampnefs of fome land fupplies one permanent caufe of mildew, as well as its being too much over- thadowed by thick foliage, the methods of prevention muft confit in properly draining the land, and ufing drier kinds of manure, as coal afhes and bone afhes*, as well as by thinning the crops.” And it may be advifable, in the fame view,“ to fow early in the feafon, for the purpofe of procuring forward crops, as this difeafe is faid more to injure late crops, owing to the greater dampnefs of the ground in autumn f.” * It would probably be better, and certainly more economical, to make ufe of bones in the fate of a coarfe powder. Syren? iwtno] 7 + Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 121. Cultwation of Arable Land.—T heat. Foie 557 The dlight* is an affe€tion of the vegetable kind that not unfrequently at. tacks wheat crops in feafons that are more than ordinarily moift. It has been found, that, in this difeafe, the green blades and ftalks are befet with cana fpots of a black or rufty colour, before the ear becomes affected; and that after the grain has begun to fhoot, and is fairly come into ear, many of the heads are often completely empty; but, in fome cafes, only empty in the upper half, the under remaining perfeétly full. In others again, the ears are found to have alternately a plump well-filled pickle and an empty hufk; and that in fome, though not quite empty, they include only fhrivelled imperfect grains, or what are termed hungry pickles by dealers. In different inftances ears are obferved, that are partly hungry and partly filled in a proper manner; and that in as large proportion, there is an hungry and well-filled grain alternately: in fhort, that various ears, that appear well filled, on opening the hufks are difcovered to be covered with{pots of a black and rufty caft. A number of the ftems are in fome inftances met with that are perfectly withered their whole length. When ripened, the crop, in particular cafes, is obferved to have a dirty{potted appearance, as if fprinkled with foot, rather than the ufual clean healthy yel low afpect; and the parts of the ftraw, or ears, that are not thus{potted, are neither white nor yellow, as is ufual, but of a colour of the dutky or ath kind Fe. Thefe appearances, which fhew themfelves in the different ftages of the blight, are f{uppofed, by the fame author, to prove the exiftence of an infe& as the caufe of this vegetable difeafe t; and that as the greateft injury is almoft in * The uredo frumenti of fome writers. + Somerville in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol.(1. p: 207. t In the paper juft mentioned, which contains much valuable obfervation refpecting the nature of the blight, an infect that produced much injury to the ears of the grain is thus defcribed. It bears,{ays the writer, a ftriking refemblance to a Jou/e, and when it is firft diftinguifhable by the eye, is of a red colour, nearly refembling that of a boiled lobfter, and fo foft and tender as to be killed by the flighteft preffure; as it increafes in fize, the colour gradually changes from red to a dirty black, when it becomes ftationary, and continues fo till it dies. During its growth, it alfo lofes this foft tender texture, and in its black ftate feels hard, and as if it were covered with a cruft or fhell upon the back. It does not appear that this is a new infe&, for moft of the farmers with whom the writer has converfed feem well acquainted with it, and all of them affert, that, if they are care- fully looked for, fome of them may be met with, even in the beft fields of wheat, every year. It ap- pears, however, that they are infinitely more numerous and deftruétive in late wet feafons, than in fuch as are earlier and more favourable. In the year 1782, for inftance, when the crop was uncom- monly late, and the feafon very wet and cold throughout, the wheat crop, he fays, almoft entirely failed from the depredations of this infe&t; and every other inftance that can be recolleSted of their mifchievous efieéts, has always taken place in the lateft and coldeft feafons. The obfervations 558 Cultivation of Arable Land.—IVheat, every cafe done to fuch crops as have not been perfeétly covered after fowing, or when the feed is very near the furface, while fuch as are depofited to a greater depth almoft wholly efcape, it is fuggefted, that, by depofiting the erain more deeply in the foil, and covering it in a more perfect manner, as by drilling or dibbling, much may be effected in the prevention of this malady. Others, however, confider the difeafe as a fungus of the linear, oblong, tawny, black kind, that attaches itfelf to the ftems of the wheat plants at the period when the grain is nearly ripe, in fuch feafons as are very moift, affording a footy appearance to the crop. It is afferted, that the{tems are apparently fplit, and the growth of the plants greatly impaired and reftritted*. The author of Phy- tologia fuppofes it io be a malady in fome meafure fimilar to the rubigo, or ruj/e; a difeafe that attacks particular plants that are previoufly in an unhealthy con: dition, and which may probably be prevented, or remedied, by the expofure of them to more light, and a greater degree of ventilation, as in the mildew or white muwcor. Some alfo affert the caufe of this affeCtion to be a vitiated ftate of the juices: of the vegetables proceeding from obftru€tion, induced by fudden alternations of heat, cold, and moifure, without fufficient fun to caufe the abforption of the latter, in confequence of which infe€ls are generated in the plants, and their growth thus injured; and, on thefe grounds, advife fimilar modes of removing it which he made a few fummeers ago confirm him in that belief: for he uniformly found’that, in propore tion as a field of wheat was early, the injury done was not only much lefs, but the number of vermin {maller; while, on the contrary, as the crop was later the mifchief was in the fame proportion greater, agd continued fo throughout the feafon. The inference he draws from thence is, that wet feafons are more favourable to the generation of thefe infe€&ts than dry ones, and that though they are bred in confiderable numbers even in the beft years, yet they come into exiftence at a period of the feafon when the crop is too far advanced to be injured by them. This laft idea was confiderably ftrength- ened by trials which he lately made, of placing the infeéts upon healthy plants at different pe- riods of their growth: when put upon plants in the flower, and while the ftalks and blades were green and tender, they adhered firmly, and completely effected the deftruction of the ear; but when put upon fuch as had made fome progrefs towards filling the blades, and the{talks of which were begins ning to harden and become tough, they not only entered upon them with more difficulty, but if the growth and filling had advanced beyond a certain period, and the blades,&c. had loft their faccha- rine tafte, they would not remain upon them;. or if they did, they died, feemingly of hunger. He tried them upon feveral hundreds of healthy ears in this way, and with the fame refult; from which he thinks.it 1s at leaft prefumable, that a certain degree of hardnefs in the ftalks and hufks of the wheat is a fufficient protection againft this infe@&; and that after the grain has paft the milky ftate, it is be- yond the reach of being injured by them. * Lambert, in Tranfactions of Linnean Society, vol. IV, + Cultwation of Arable Land—IV heat. 559 to thofe that have been mentioned above*. It is well obferved that the blights eccafioned by froft generally happen in the fpring, when cold nights fucceed to warm funny days, as the living power of the plant has then been previoufly exhaufted by the ftimulus of heat; and is therefore lefs capable of being excited mto the a€tions which are neceflary to vegetable life, by the greatly diminifhed ftimulus of a freezing atmofphere. But whether the malady originate from infeéts, the aétion of other plants, a corrupted ftate of the vegetable fluids, or fome peculiar defeé& in the vegetative procefs of the plants, it is probable the beft mode of preventing or removing it will be the expofure of the plants as much as poflible to the influence of the air, by fowing the grain with larger {paces, or thinning them out, when too thick and clofe, by the hoe, in the Jater {pring months, when the ftate of the crop is fully afcertained. That fuch me- thods may be beneficial, is clearly{hewn by the general obfervation, that hilly diftricts are much lefs expofed to the difeafe than fuch as are low, flat, and confined. The dla/ is an affection of vegetables that proceeds from lightning, or the intenfe action of the fun, when the plants are in a ftate of confiderable aptitude for the aétion of ftimuli. Itis the moit common in hot climates; but Dr. Dar- win, from having found that extenfive wood-cutters often find trees cracked on being fawn through, fuggetts lightning as a more frequent caufe of the difeafe in this country than is commonly fuppofed. The effets of thefe caufes on wheat crops have been noticed by Tull, and defcribed as occurring in blackith patches in different parts of the fields. As the vital power of the plants is moftly, in thefe cafes, either completely exhaufted by the great and fudden operation of fuch ftimuli, or their vafcular fyftem deftroyed by their expanfive action, no remedy can be of any great utility t. The uftilago, or fmut, is another vegetable difeafe to which wheat and other grain crops are often ex pofed, and in which a fort of black meal is produced in the place of feed. It has been afcribed to many different caufes by writers on agriculture. It is remarked in the Memoirs of the Bath Agricultural Society, that this is a difeafe that only occurs when the weather is wet during the period of flowering, in which the anthers may burft, and the farina be watfhed away. The difeafe is there fuppofed not to be produced by any infeétious fubftance, or the ova of infests that may adhere to the grain, as fmutty ears and found ones were found proceeding from the fame root, and, in fome inftances, both fmutty 7] arwin'’s Phytoloo} R29. * New Farmer’s Calendar, p, 408, 4 Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 332 ===——= 1— oe==== SS —_—————===-— m=—_-= = SS a area mr: Ee LT ST ee ee eS ae: ~ 3 is pe tak SS = 500 Cultivation of Arable Land.m!Vheat, and found grains to be contained in the fame ear; fome of the corns having even one end fmutty and the other found. It is therefore fuppofed to arife in| y confequence of the want of due impregnation, from the farina fecundans being faulty, and that putrefa€tion takes place on the death of the corn.. This opi- nion is fupported by the experiments of Spallanzani, who difcovered that the: feed is produeed in the plants long anterior to impregnation, which cannot be performed until the flower is open, and the duft of the anther fully ripe. On thefe grounds, it is conceived that, for want of impregnation, or the vivify- ing principle, the wheat corn may putrify, as is the cafe with the addle eggs of oviparous animals*. The enquiries of a writer who feems to have paid much attention to the fub- yet, are, however, highly in favour of the opinion, that the malady is produced by the attacks of an infeét; and that, though unqueftionably infectious, it may be prevented, or cured, by the ufe of different kinds of fteeps, fuch as have been already defcribed+. Others have likewife fuggefted that{teeps, prepared with f aloes, tobacco, and hellebore, may be ufeful for the fame purpofe, when ap- bl plied during the growth of the crop, by means of a piece of flannel immerfed in bla them, and drawn different ways of the ridges, by two perfons walking in the the furrows, fo as to touch the earst. The proper time of performing this bufinefs is when the weather is fine and dry|. unui many * Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 323- this + Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. II. p. 226. i| Ibid. glafs + The faéts and obfervations on which thefe conclufions are founded, are detailed in the following or doy manner by Mr. Somerville, in the fecond volume of Communications to the Board of Agriculture. ing ca Some years ago, he fays, he collected a quantity of fmutted ears from one field of wheat, in which out be they were very numerous, and a number of healthy well-filled ears from another field, in which there he can was no fmut, The grains were rubbed out of both, intimately mixed, and kept in a box for two the nec months, at the end of which they were rubbed between the hands in fuch a manner as to break the whole of the{mut ball. The parcel was then divided into two equal parts, one of which was three or four times wafhed with pure water, and well rubbed between the hands at each wafhing, and after- balls, and wards fown in a drill in his garden; the other half was fown in another drill without any wafhing or Difeppi preparation whatever; the foiland every other circumflance was equal. Both parcels vegetated at heat of the fame time, and for about two months thereafter there was no viGible difference in their appearance 5 complete about that period he, however, obferved that many of the plants in the drill, that had been fown without point of being wafhed, were of a darker colour than the others; thefe, when narrowly examined, were of a eVe, won dirty green. The plants in the drill that had been wafhed were all of one colour, and feemingly lat to the. healthy; as the feafon advanced, the difference in colour became more ftriking, and continued to in- As foo creafe till the grain was fairly out of the blade 5 about which time many of the dirty green ears began to exhibit fymptoms oOfdecay. As foon as the ear was fairly thot out, the whole of thofe in the un- cy jig fice(x ay/ Ts, 7 VI} Celi LUaLtON of Ara ble Lda—,) Vi aN but thoug! h thefe methods may be em ploved in order to prevent the prona- hea! UR eR ene ed ey eee ee amet aie gation as the difeafe, it is probable that it can only be effeétually euarded / Sn ee aes i zs aoaIng= 1{5 1 ieee=> suey Cnt ava i Wiite a Leaner GeO.° again{t{ en ae the feed in fuch a manner as to admit of a perrectly free cir- } J=the sane € on nee apa ed Pa Fhe roots of thefe’ différe entgrafies are not unfre- quently, in fuch lands as have been exhaufted and worn out by improper til llage, fo Pea with the foil, and in fo matted 4 condition, as to obftruét the p pro- grefs of the pl ugh. Th ey are found to be moft abundant in the igh terand more mixed kinds of foil;. Weeds of thefe kinds are only capable of being completely remove Pal and rz removed and deftroyed by having them drawn out, while the iad 3 1s under fal- low, by means of heavy harrows conftruted for the purpofe, with a greater Bee of teeth, or tines, than is neceffary for thofe of the common fort, and aced fo as to incline more forward. When brought into hear ps in this way, aie may either be confumed by fire, or reduced into a compoft, by the incor- porating of lime, in its unflaked or moft cauftic ftate, with them, and afterwards ng dung, or rich mold, in a fuitable proportion. The latter is by much the / iL: eee i RS L ty- 0 al a moft economical method when lime can be fe procured, and is not at- := ucn-trouble, as fuch co mpofts may be formed in the corners or 4 TMoaKta= Bs ray> 1b la» a bal=m rn Cr 4}> i|- other parts of the fields where the weeds are stole Phe ufual method of =>s eee eee anew eee Se eee ee I x ie co| Vary Wat AE nS+2. picking out the roots by hand labour, which is termed ¢ ouchig’, is not only‘tedi- 1 gee es fab am Co= a a 7= ous and expentive, but feldom effeétua lly performed. The wel~-known 1 ee ¢ I Wei property of thefe roots to propagate and encourage different forts of erubs, w rms , worms, or eS)? 3 ari other infeéts, affords a ftrong inducement to effe& the rae ef fuch root weeds by every poflible means, efpecially where w h eat crops are to be grown. E Befides thefe weeds, fier are others that are octet its to wheat crops in lands that have not undergone a proper preparation by tillage, and are rather ftrong and moift, fuch as the corn-crowfoot, the tare,&c.+. In grounds where the latter predominates, care fhould con{tantly be taken to deftroy it, by reducing them into a ftate of fine tilth before the wheat is put In. Coltsfoot{ is a weed that, in foils of the moift and rather heavy kinds that have been confiderably exhaufted by tillage, is liable to become troublefom and of great difadvantage to the wheat crops. As this weed begins to thew it flower towards asa and March, and foon afterwards rj Ipens its feeds, it fhould not by any means be neglected at fuch periods, as from the levity of them, and their downy nature, th hey are quickly conveyed to a diftance, by which means they foon eftablifh themfelves in different places. Repeated ploughings * The agroftes, the triticum repens, the holcus mollis, and the avena elatior of botanical authors. + The ranunculus arvenfis and croam tetra/pernam of botanifts, } The tufilago farfara of writers on botany. SSS ea “a Se as> Bike Boer‘be eee| S PAT y DOO CHulLLiVatiON 0} Arable LANG; during the fummer feafon, by rendering the foil light and mellow, may render them capable of being more readily extirpated by weeding. And as they de- light in moifture, laying the foil more dry by the forming of proper drains may alfo be of great utility. But from the roots of the plants fpreading themfelves extenfively near the furface of the land, they will conftantly require to be com- pletely extirpated. Wheat is known to be ripe and ready for the reaper, by its ftraw turning, of a yellow colour, its ears beginning to bend in the neck and hang down, their having no greennefs in the middle of them, and the grain becoming hard and plump. The quantity of wheat produced upon the acre muft vary confider- ably, according to the circumftances of foil and preparation, as well'as the ftate of the feafon; for it has been found, that fome years the yield is under twenty while in others it is upwards of thirty bufhels the acre, the foil and culture be- ing in every refpeét the fame*. The average return of this crop throughout the whole of the kingdom, ts probably not more than from three to three and a half quarters. A practical writer has, indeed, ftated it at not more than three f. In Middlefex, the greateft crop of wheat of which the author of the Report of that diftri€t has any account, is, he fays, fixty-eight bufhels per acre; the leaft about twelve. The medium between thefe extremes is forty, which, he thinks, would be the average of land highly conditioned. But the average produce of Britain does not, he fuppofes, exceed one half of this quantity, and yet, fays he, wheat is as certain a crop as any that is cultivated{.‘This, he thinks, affords a clear proof that‘ the lands of England are reduced confider- * Corrected Report of Middlefex. + Donaldfon’s Modern Agriculture, vol. II. p. 276. ¢ According to Mr. Middleton,“ the proportion which corn bears to the ftraw in that diftrict, is nearly as follows; namely, The yield of 1793 was 174 bufhels of wheat to a load of ftraw 5 of 1794 81 ditto; of 1795 11 ditto; of 1796 g2 ditto. The medium of four years 114 ditto. Straw fold during the fame period from 25s. to 40s. per load. The load confifts of 36 truffes, at 36lbs. per trufs. Two loads of wheat ftraw per acre is reckoned a tolerable crop, vy be averaged at eight pence a trufs, or 24s. a load, or 2/. 8s. per acre. In other parts of the kingdom, the ql 1€ t= Cultivation of Arable Lan d.—)f heat. tay JU/ ably below par, which,” in his opinion,“ can only have happened by a too frequent repetition of corn crops, and general bad management, which has of courfe leffened the quantity of live flock, and with that, the beft means of raif- ing manure. Let farmers,” continues he,‘be induced to fow crops to be eaten on the land by cattle, fo that they may there leave their dung and urine, and corn will then be grown in double quantity; and the live ftock, fupported by fuch green crops, be clear gain to the community.” In order to afcertain the goodnefs of a fample of wheat, it is neceffary to judge by the eye whether the berry be perfe&tly fed, or full, plump, and bright, and whether there be any adulteration proceeding from fprouted grains, fmut, or the feeds of weeds; and by the fmell, whether there be any Improper im- pregnation, and whether it has been too much heated in the mow or upon the kiln; and finally, by the feel, to determine if the grain be fufhciently dry, as when much loaded with moifture it js improper for the ufes of the miller. Where the fample handles coarfe, rough, and does not flip eafily in the hand, it may be decided not to be ina condition either for grinding or laying up in the granary. The fame means may alfo ferve to determine the weight; but con- fiderable experience is neceflary to decide with much corre@nefs. It is ob- ferved by the author of the synopfis of Hufbandry, that“ it isa good fample of wheat where the weight of a fack, at eight gallons the bufhel in meafure, arrives at four bufhels three and a quarter pecks in weight, or 2 cwt.‘or. 18lb. If,” continues he,“* a fack of this meafure weigh half bufhels and quarter, the fample is not bad, which is 2cwt. 1 qr. 41b.””. In the technical language of the farmer and miller, it is ufual, he adds,« to drop the buthels, and mention only the odd weight; thus, in the firft inftance the wheat weighed three pecks four, and in the latter half buthels four. If there are no odd pounds, it is faid to weigh half bufhels, or if from large meafure the weight comes to 2 cwt. 2 qr. then it is faid to weigh five bufhels.” Rye.—This is a{pecies of grain which probably approaches neareft to the nature of wheat of any that is at prefent in cultivation. It has two varieties, the winter and /pring rye, or what is often farther diftinguifhed into the black, and white or value of the ftraw is fuppofed equal to nearly the expence of reaping. Perhaps at an average of 308. (it has lately been as high as 32. 12s.) which is on the corn,-equal per bufhel to-£0.22. Short ftraw and chaff..-.-- O60" 7 Wheat, at an average price for many years- ale ie aaa 6 The entire produce of wheat per buthel, is full-°£08 oa The weight of the wheat grown in the firong land diftriét, is ufuaily 61 or 62lbs. per bufhel.” a ———— SS — ee 568 Cultivation of Arable Land.—TV heat. Dantzic rye. The former fort is the largeft, and the moft plump and hardy, confequently the moft frequently grown by agricultors; but the{pring kind may often be employed with fuccefs. This grain is fo capable of refifti ng th a at, when fown in the autumn, it is feldom much in effects of the. weather, th jured by the moft fevere winter. It is more early in the fpring than wheat, and, though not equally valuable, is more certain of producing a Ea, crop. This fort of grain is capable of being cultivated on moft kinds of land, but the light dry fandy foils that cannot be converted to the purpofe of wheat or barley crops, are, perhaps, the only ones on which it can be grown to advan- tage, from their being the moft adapted to it, and from few of them being fo light or poor as not to afford good crops. It can of courfe only be introduced with fuccefs on fuch lands as are incapable of producing other forts of corn to advantage, and where the improved methods of cultivating wheat crops have not been had recourfe to. Even upon fome of the pooreft forts.of fandy foil, wheat is fuppofed in fome aiftricis to be grown with moré¢ benefit to the culti- vator, the quality of the land being the fame, than this grain*. And from fowls being lefs fond of it than moft other forts of grain, it may be the moft proper to be cultivated on thofe portions of ground that are fituated clofe he farm houfes. it is a kind of crop that is moftly grown after early-fed turnips, clover, peas, ‘and other fimilar produéts, as well as after naked fallows, in particular cafes. When cultivated on the cold and heavy kinds of foil, the grain is much later in becoming ripe than on fuch as are dry and light. This crop, like that of wheat, requires the land to be in a tolerable ftate of pulverifation, and perfe&tly cleared from weeds. In many diftrifts, when in- tended to ftand for a crop, it is the cuftom to put it in upon fome fort of fal- but where it is only to be fed off by fheep, feldom more than one plough- oO = pe we ing is given, the land being broken up and fallowed for turnips immediately after the crop has been fufficiently eaten down by fheep or other animals. It is the practice in fome places to apply manure immediately for this crop; but where the foil isin a fuitable ftate of preparation, and has not pievioufly been too much deteriorated by the growth of other grain crops, it may be more advif- able, efpecially where it is not to be fed off, to defer the application of the ma- nure, in order that it may be employed for the turnip or other green crop that may fucceed it, the file of manure being apt to bring up weeds. * Young’s corrected Report of Suffolk, p. 57. pro] the; the| 4 it wil hand tentio, other g alter( Thi becom hard, g ee eE— Cultivation of Arable Land—R‘ye, 569 Time of fowing.—The periods of putting this kind of crop into the foil are, in general, pretty much the fame as thofe of wheat; but when cultivated for green food, it may be advantageous to fow early, as in Auguft and September; but it may be fown in Oétober, and during the winter months, until the beginning of March, in particular cafes, as where the early fowings have failed, or there is an intention of having a fucceflion of this fort of feed for fheep. Seed.—The general allowance of feed, where the crop is defigned to remain for grain, is in moft fituations from about two buthels to two anda half; but when the intention is to feed it off, three, or even more, may be a better pro- portion, as the plants in fuch cafes fhould ftand confiderably thicker upon the ground, in order that the largeft poflible quantity of green food may be pro-= vided. As the procefs of germination in this fort of grain is rather flow, it may be advifable to put it into the ground when it is in a tolerably dry condi- tion, otherwife much of it may perith, efpecially in wet feafons, It was formerly a prevailing cuftom to blend feveral other forts of feed with that of rye, and the pra€tice ftill continues in fome diftrias jn refpec& to wheat and winter tares; but it is by no means either judicious or ufeful, fince, in the firft cafe, the rye is in a ftate fit for reaping long before the wheat, confequently much lofs muft be fuftained; and, in the latter, it is moftly in a condition to be cut as green food fome weeks before the tares, and becomes ripe at much too early a period for them*. Where wheat is combined with rye, it is in many diftricts termed me/fin, the proportion of the Jatter to that of the former being regulated by the nature of the foil, and the judgment of the cultivator, the principle being that of giving the largeft proportion of rye to the lighteft kinds of foil t. After-culture-—W hen this fort of crop is grown for the purpofe of the grain, it will be conftantly neceffary to keep it clean in the early ftages of its growth by hand weeding and hoeing, when they may appear requifite; but where the in- tention is merely that of affording a fupply of green food for the ufe of fheep or other animals in the more early{pring months, no further culture will be wanted after the crop has been put into the ground. This fort of crop is known to be ready for the fickle by the ftraw of the ftems becoming of a yellowifh colour, the ears hanging down, and the grain feeling hard, and in a plump and full condition. * Modern Agriculture, and Corrected Report of Middlefex. t Corrected Report.of the North Riding of York hire. 4D 57 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Rye, In the poor fandy foils of Suffolk, good crops of this fort are feldom afforded, and on thofe of a better quality the produce is rarely more than from two to three quarters on the acre. But in the north riding of Yorkfhire, it is ftated by the able author of the Agricultural Report of that diftriét, to amount to from three to fix quarters. When this fort of grain is free from weeds, and cut when the weather is fine, it may be fecured in the ftack as faft as the reaping proceeds. The ftraw of this grain is fuperior to that of wheat, both for the purpofe of thatch, and for the ufe of the collar-makers. This is a kind of grain that is alfo cultivated in particular cafes, as where the ground is fufficiently light and dry, to be turned down as a manure; when this 1s the cafe, the crop fhould always be turned in while in its moft green and fuce culent ftate, and when the weather is moderately dry, in order that it may be more quickly reduced by the procefs of putrefa€tion. It is fometimes the practice of farmers, when rye is intended to ftand for a crop, to feed it with fheep in the early fpring, as in the beginning of March; but this fhould never be done except where the crop is very luxuriant, and at fo early a period as that there may not be any danger of defiroying the new- formed ear. {n the fouthern parts of the kingdom it is alfo often cultivated for the ufes of thofe engaged in the bufinefs of tanning leather; but more frequently as a green food for fheep in the fpring, before the turnip crops are ready. When grown. in this view, it is neceffary to have attention to different circumftances, in order to derive the utmoft advantage from the crops. As this grain begins to fhoot out, or fpindle, as it is termed by farmers, much earlier than wheat, care, as has. been juft obferved, fhould be taken that the feeding of it down is begun at a fuf- ficiently early period before the ear is formed in the hofe, as the latter end of February or beginning of March; otherwife the{tem or blade becomes firm and fticky, and the fucceffion of green feed, after the firft eating, extremely{mall. ¥ndeed this may be done earlier than the firft of thefe periods, in cafes where the feafon is mild and open, and perfevered in till the end of April. In all cafes it is, however, advifable to let the crop be fo advanced in its growth as ta cover the ground tolerably before the fheep are turned in. As this fort of green food is faid tohavemuch effet in promoting the flow of milk in fuchewes as have lambs, pro- bably from its fucculency, and its ftimulant properties being applied immediately after the feverity of the winter feafon, when the bodies of animal’ are known to be more capable of being excited by the a€tion of ftimuli, and when there is Cour by th neigh, Lix-toy of Ey put i Fro More ¢ tage 01 lenacig OF{uch rT Cultioation of Arable Land—Barley. 71 fcarcely any other fort of green feed that can leffen its operation by being taken along with it, the culture of it muft be the moft advantageous where fheep- hufbandry is extenfively combined with that of tillage, efpecially that depart- ment of it which relates to the feeding of lambs; as by this means, from the quantity of fucculent nutritious food that is provided, the lambs are prevented from being ftinted in their growth while young, which is a matter of the utmo importance in their future feeding. In feeding this fort of crop off by theep, it will likewife conftantly be ne- ceflary to keep the fields properly divided by means of hurdles, as in this way the lofs of food will be much lefs, and fome parts will become frefh while the others are eating down. Bariey.—This is a much lefs hardy fort of grain than either of thofe that have been defcribed; but from its great utility in the compofition of malt li- quors, and in the preparation of various kinds of{pirits, it is extenfively culti- vated in fuch diftriéts as, from the nature of their foils, are adapted to its growth. It may, indeed, be confidered as the next grain in value to that of wheat. There are feveral kinds of this grain cultivated in particular parts of the kingdom; as the /pring or common barley, the long-eared barley, the /prat or batiledore barley, the bear or fquare barley, and the big barley. The firft{pecies of barley is grown pretty extenfively in the fouthern as well as the eaftern parts of the ifland; and the fecond, or long-eared fort, may frequently be met with, but trom the great length and weight of its ears, it is more apt to lodge, con-: fequently is more hazardous than that of the common or fpring kind. The {prat or battledore fort is broader in the ear than any of the others, and has at the fame time a fhorter and more tapering ftem, with ereét ears, on which ac- counts it is lefs difpofed to lodge or fall to the ground. It is often diftinguifhed by the title of Fulham barley, from its having been extenfively cultivated in the neighbourhood of that place. The dear or four-rowed barley, and the. dig or fix-rowed barley, are grown to confiderable extent in the north-weftern parts of England, as well as in Scotland.‘Thefe are winter barleys, and require to be put into the ground in the autumnal feafon, fomewhat in the manner of wheat. From the tender and delicate nature of this fort of grain, efpecially in the more early ftages of its growth, it is incapable of being cultivated with advan- tage on the ftiff, heavy, and wet deferiptions of foil, or fuch as are of a cold and tenacious quality. It is faid to grow in the moft perfect manner in a loamy fand, or fuch foils as are moderately dry and fufficiently light. The moft plump and ARBRE PA Arliss ; 579 Cultivation of Arable Land. Barley. thinneft-rinded grain is afferted to be produced on fuch lands as are dry, light, and mellow; and thefe are the qualities that are confidered as the moft eftimable. Light poor land, when dry and warm in refpe€t to foil and fituation, is even cae pable of affording barley that is much fuperior mn quality to fuch as is grown om ftrong lands, that are of a cold and moift nature. This fort of grain is cultivated after almoft-every kind of crop; but it has been: found to fuccecd to the moft advantage after thofe of the green or ameliorating kind; as turnips, potatoes, carrots, peas, tares,&c. However, from the nature of grain crops, it can feldom be cultivated to great advantage after wheat, rye;.or oats: in fuch cafes it has generally been obferved that the crops were blighted and imperfe€lly fed,even upon foils the moft adapted to this fort of grain*. Where flax, hemp, or rape, are grown, barley may fometimes be fowmafter them. When fown after any of thefe improving crops, manure is feldom neceffary;. as in many: of them the foil muft be rendered fuitable by the feeding of them off by animals, and in the others, from a large proportion of it being required for the growth of fuch crops, it muft be equally unneceffary.. If, however, a wheat or other fort of ftubble be chofen for the purpofe, manure will be requifite, which fhould always be well mixed and incorporated with the mold before the feed is put in,. and be ina confiderable{tate of redu€tion before it is applied. After whatever fort of crop this grain may be grown, as the root is ex- tremely tender, and requires much fupport during the firft ftages-of the growth of the plant, from the quick manner in which the procefs of vegetation is carried ‘on, the foil fhould conftantly be reduced into a ftate of much finenefs and pul- verifation, fo as to become properly open and porous, in order to fecure a more certain, equal, and perfe&t vegetation. This is to be effected by different flight or ebb ploughings and harrowings, as well. as by occafional. crofs-ploughing and rolling. In very wet feafons, on the heavier kinds of barley land, and. where there are land f{prings, it may be advifable to plough the ground into fmall ridglets, of about eighteen or twenty inches in width,. inftead of leaving them flat; as by fuch means the land may be kept dry in any feafon, at leaft to fuch a degree that by two or three dry days it may become in a condition for un- dergoing the operation of harrowing, in order tothe fecond ploughing; and in cafe the ftate of the weather fhould ftill continue improperly moift, the ground on this ploughing might be ridged up in a fimilar way until the period of fowing, when a few days more of fine. weather would be fufficient to render ae * Donaldfon’s Prefent State of Hufbandsy in Great Britain. a+ Cultivation of Arable Land.— Barley. 573 it proper to be reduced by the harrow or fcuffle, fo as that the feed might be put in; or when the land is ina more moift ftate than is fuitable for this crop, a third ploughing may be given before the feed is put in*. It is likewife fug- gefted in the fame work, that the ufing of the fcuffle, inflead of the plough, in the fecond earth, would not only expedite the bufinefs of preparation, but be a confiderable faving of expence. In foils that are free from weeds, it is afferted that fcuffling would be equal to a crofs-ploughing, and in fuch as are not per- fe&tly clear from root weeds, it would be ftill more advantageous by bringing them within the power of the harrow; at the fame time, that it would accom: plifh more than double the quantity of labour with an equal number of men and horfes, befides leaving the ground equally ready for the harrow and the roller, previoufly to the putting in of the feed. When this fort of crop is introduced upon green fallows, fuch as turnips,&c. it is fometimes the cuftom to prepare the land only by one ploughing; but a better pra€tice is that of giving two earths, the firft as early in the fpring as it can be done, and the fecond immediately before the feed is putin. This is the praétice moftly adopted in Norfolk, where the barley hufbandry, on turnip: fallows, is, in moft inftances, well performed, In fowing this grain after peas, or other pulfe crops, it is cuftomary in mot diftriéts to give the firft earth or ploughing in the autumn, which fhould always: be performed in fuch a manner, as. that the greateft poflible extent of furface may be expofed to the influence of the atmofphere and the ation of the frofts; the ridges being at the fame time fo laid up, as that no injury may be produced by the wetnefs that may take place during the winter feafon. The fecond earth or furrow t is moftly given about March, when the oat crop has been put into the foil. By this ploughing, two different purpofes are effeéted in many cafes; the root-weeds, fuch as thofe of couch, and other noxious plants, may be loofened, fo as to be more readily extirpated by the application of the harrews immediately afterwards, and the foil reduced’ to fo fine a tilth, as that thofe of the feed kind may be induced to vegetate freely, and in confequence be more perfectly removed by the action of the plough and harrow at-the. period of pute ting in the feed f. If this kind of. grain be introduced after wheat, or other forts of corn. crops, * Middleton’s Report of Middlefex. + This is fometimes termed the feering furrow in the northern diftriéts, $.Modern Agriculture, vol. II, p. 282, rane pampaeemapmasieneenettnceees ce eaceaeti= cele nptere eee ee ee SSS —<=— SA a SOT EN ON I RN NT AT TS igi ? r ae a ata". ———— ee=—_ = ae —— ——SEE—EEE i} 1 Bi ia H i) i | S74 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Barley. which, as has been fhewn, is by no means a prattice to be recommended, the preparation of the land is moftly conducted in the fame manner as the above. Time of fowing-—The period of putting this fort of crop into the foil muft, of courfe, vary in fome degree according to the nature and quality of the land, and its fituation in refpeét to climate. In moft of the more fouthern diftrids of the kingdom it generally commences about the beginning of March, but in the northern parts of the ifland it often begins a month or fix weeks later. The largeft quantity of feed is ufually fown from the middle of March to the latter end of April. Seed.—-The proportion of feed that may be neceflary muft be different, as the foil is of a richer or poorer quality, and as the feafon of putting it into the earth is more early or Jate. The nature of the crop after which it is cultivated may alfo render fome difference in the proportion of the feed requifite. Much lefs feed is demanded where the foil is rich and fertile, than where it is poor and exhaufted. Early fowing alfo requires lefs feed than where a late period is adopted. It has been obferved, that, on a medium foil, in proper con- dition, fown broadcaft, the proper proportion may be in March three and a half, in April four, and in May four anda half,-buthels to’ the acre,. Such is the difference of rich foils, that it is fuppofed that it can hardly be fown too thin; one bufhel and a half fown early having afforded as much as could ftand, where, if three or four had been put in, the grain would have been lodged, and of courfe greatly reduced in its value*. After turnips, and other green crops, a much lefs quantity is generally neceflary, as fuch lands are moftly in a per- feétly fuitable ftate for the reception of barley crops. As this fort of grain is apt to come up in an irregular manner, and of courfe to become ripe at different periods, by which means the fample often fuftains great injury; it is probable, that by fteeping the feed for fuch a length of time as might be fufficient to im- pregnate it with a due proportion of moifture, the procefs of vegetation might be rendered not only more regular,#ut even much more expeditious. The feed is put into the foil in different methods; being in fome cafes fown under the furrow, and in others above it. Where the firft practice 1s adopted, the feed furrow fhould be very light, otherwife the grain may be depofited to fuch a depth as to greatly retard, or even prevent, much of the feed from coming up in proper time. When fown on the furface, great care fhould be taken that the feed be well harrowed into the foil, and fo covered, as that the grain may vegetate, and erow up in as equal and regular a manner as poflible. * Correfed Report of Middlefex. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Bartey, 575 It is the pra€tice of many diftri@s to fow Clover, and other grafs feeds, with this crop; but where the foils are very rich, and of a good quality, this method of huf{bandry is improper, as much inconvenience and injury may be done to the grain by the rapid and over-luxuriant growth of fuch crops, rendering the plants weak and imperfeétly fed. On the thinner and lefs fertile foils, where the growth of fuch graffes is lefs vigorous, it may however be adopted with ad- vantage in many cates, as little injury will be done to the grain, while the ftraw may be confiderably improved in the way of fodder. Where this mode of management is had recourfe to, the fowing of the grafs feeds may be deferred for fome time after the grain has been fown 3; and when they are put in, a light harrow may be pafied over them, and the land be after. wards well rolled. The fuccefs that has attended the ufe of the drill and the fetting of grain in particular cafes, fuggefts the propriety of attempting fimilar practices in the cultivation of this fort of crop, efpecially on the richer defcriptions. of barley foils, as by fuch methods it feems probable that the quality as well as the pro- duce may be greatly improved. Though the practice of fteeping this kind of grain before it is put into the ground is not in general ufe with farmers, it is probable, as has been juit ob. ferved, that much advantage might be derived from it, efpecially as the feafon is commonly hot and dry when it is performed, from the more quick and uniform vegetation of the crop. It is likewife fuppofed by fome agricultors, that by mixing foot with fuch fteeps the danger from. infeéts may be diminifhed. In the choice of feed, attention fhould conftantly be paid to the colour and the fate of the fkin or rind of the grain; as that is efteemed the beft which has a pale lively bright appearance, without having the tails of the corn ftained in any way, and which is full and plump, or what is often termed well-bodied. It is common with praétical farmers to change the feed of barley every year or. two, from the fuppofition that the grain becomes coarfer by the repeated fowing of the fame kind of feed. The neceflity of this cuftom may, however, probably arife from the neglect of making ufe of fuch feed as is full-bodied and perfeétly fed and ripened. | After-culture.—As this fort of crop is moftly fown broadcaft, it feldom re- ceives any improvement by culture afterwards. It is obvious, however, that by eccafionally ftirring and loofening the mold about the roots of the plants, and keeping them clean and perfeétly free from weeds, much advantage. might. be obtained in many cafes in the cultivation of this fort of grain; as it may thereby e P 576 Cultivation of Arable Land.— Barley. be rendered not only more abundant upon the ground, but the fample be con- fiderably improved. When the feafon turns out dry and unkindly in the early fpring months, this fort of crop is often much injured by the attacks of the worm; which Its obvious from the fudden change in the appearance of the plants, from a healthy green to a yellow caft. On the firft appearance of this change, the ufe of the roller fhould be had recourfe to, in order that the fuperficial parts of the foil, which are proba- bly become too logfe and porous, may be effeftually preffed, and thereby ren- dered too clofe and compat to admit the worm to prey upon the tender roots of the young plants. That this effect may be produced in the moft effectual man- ner, the roller fhould be of fuch a fize, or fo loaded, as to afford a preffure equal to the draught of three or four horfes, which fhould be yoked double, in order to increafe the effe€t by their treading. It has been fuggefted, that, if by this method the injury can be counterafted until fuch time as rain falls, there need not be any apprehenfion of the crop, as the plants will foon pufh forward in fuch a manner as to become too ftrong to be in danger from this infect*. It is probable too, that top-dreflings, fuch as have been recommended for wheat, fown over the crop immediately before the ufe of the roller, might be of utility in leffening the ravages of this deftruétive worm. And it is found to be of the utmoft confequence to the fuccefs of barley crops, that the weather prove moift about the period in which the plants fhoot out into the ear; as where the contrary is the cafe, the crops are liable to fuftain much injury, from the want of that fupply of food which is neceffary for the perfe& formation of the grain. The produce of this kind of grain, like that of moft others, varies confiderably according to the ftate of the foil, climate, and the cultivation that is employed; but the average over the whole kingdom 1s probably from about twenty-feven to thirty bufhels the acre. In the county of Middlefex, according to the Report of that diftri€t, the average produce is about four quarters of grain and two loads of ftraw to the acre; and in Yorkfhire, on the turnip lands the produce is nearly the fame; but in many other diftri€ts it does not average more than three and a half. It is ftated that, in Middlefex, the ftraw generally fetches about one guinea a load when delivered in, which, together with the chaff and thin grain, is equal to one fhilling and fix pence the bufhel on the corn; and that as the corn averages three fhillings, they produce together four fhillings and fix pence the bufhel, or feven pounds four fhillings the acre. * Synopfis of Husbandry, p. 91. Cultivation of Arable Land.—Oats. 577 3 In foils where barley crops become too rank and luxuriant, as may be the cafe in very open{pring weather, on fuch lands as are in a high ftate of fertility, it may often be neceflary to reftri the over-vigorous growth of the crops, by either feeding them down with fheep, or cutting them with a fcythe as a green food for animals; the latter method is{aid to be preferable, as by it the rank fops are only removed, while in the former the whole is indifcriminately con- fumed, and particularly the ftems of the plants at the joints about the furface of the ground, where they are fweet and nutritious from the quantity of faccharine matter that is depofited in them, by which much inj ury may be doneto the future profperity of the crops*. It is probable, however, that, independent of this cir- cuinitance, barley crops can in but few inftances, from their tender nature, and the expedition with which they fhoot into ear, be fed down by fheep without injury; as by the mutilation of the new-formed ears, and their being much re- tarded in their progrefs, the maturation of the grain may be too long delayed to be effected ina perfe€t manner.’ The practice, when neceflary, can the only be had recourfe to with propriety at an early period. refore This fort of grain is fhewn to be ripe by the difappearance of the reddith caft on the ear, or what by farmers is termed red roan, by the ears beginning to droop and bend themfelves round againft the ftems, and by the ftalks becoming brittle and of a yellowifh colour. Barley fhould conftantly remain out in the field until it be perfeétly dry and free from moifture, otherwife it is liable to heat in the ftack, and the fan thereby greatly injured both for the purpofes of feed and malting. It is found by experience that the Fulham barley, which has been once fown on ftiff loamy foils, is the mo fuitable for the purpofes of malting, as the fkin is thinner, and the quantity of meal confiderably larger. From its quicke iple be - growth it is of courfe lefs expofed in the field to the effets of moifture, which is known to be highly injurious to this grain, and on which the good qualities juft mentioned may in a great meafure depend. It is the fine white clear thin- fkinned barleys that bring the higheft prices at the markets, whether they be fold for the purpofes of malting, or thofe of feed. Oats.—The cultivation of this fort of grain has of late years been confider- ably increafed, probably on account of the greater demand for them in confe- quence of the great increafe in the number of pleafure horfes that have been kept. It is a{pecies of grain of which there are many varieties in cultivation; as * Englifh Encyclopedia, Art. Hufbandrty. 4 E 578 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Oats. the white, the black, the red, the blue, and the naked oat. There are likewife other varieties of this corn which are diftinguifhed by the names of the countries from which they have been introduced; as the Poland, the Tartarian or Siberian,. and the Friefland cat. The white oat is a valuable kind, and where the foil is dry, rich, and in a good ftate of cultivation, may be grown to great advantage, as it moftly brings the beft price at the market, and yields the moft abundantly in threfhing out. It is cultivated the moft extenfively where the ufe of oat bread is general, as it affords the whiteft meal. The black oat may be grown where the land is inferior in quality: it is nearly equal in value, from its being found fo highly nutritious as a food for cattle and horfes. The red or brown oat is likewife proper for the ftronger forts of land; it is a very hardy kind, and affords a great increafe. The grain is full and heavy, on which account it is probably to be preferred for the purpofe of feeding animals to the above forts. The dlue oat is only cultivated in particular diftri€ts. It is fuggefted in Mil- ter’s DiGtionary as the fort known to farmers under the title of Scotch Greys. The naked oat is a kind that ts but little cultivated, except in particular places. It has however the property of threfhing clean out of the hufk. This fort has not, according to Ray, a hard hufk as in the common oat, but feveral thin chaffy coats. The grain is alfo fmaller, but fuller in the body, and inclining to a tawny colour. It may be cultivated on the poorer forts of land. The Poland oat has a fhort full-bodied grain; but it has yet been little intro- duced into cultivation, probably on account of the thicknefs of its ikin or rind. The ftraw is fhort, the grain fet fingle, and without awns.. The Friefland oat has a thin-fkinned grain, and a large proportion of ftraw.. The corns are for the moft part double, the larger of which is in fome cafes awned, the awn being fituated high. It is moft fuitable for the better forts of land. It is known in fome diftrifs by the title of the Dutch oat. In the Siberian or Tartarian oat the grains are thin and fmall, the largeft of which are awned, but the fmall ones without awns. The ftraw is tall and reedy, on which account it is improper for the purpofe of fodder for cattle. It may however be grown on the poorer forts of foil. This fort of grain is hardy, and may be cultivated upon almoft any kind of foil; but, as in others, it is the moft produétive on fuch as are ftrong, rich, and adhelive, and which have been newly broken up from the ftate of grafs. It is Cultivation of Arable Land—Oats. 579 fuggefted, that though this fort of grain generally fells lower than barley, yet, from its being a more certain crop, the fuperior utility of the ftraw for the food of cattle, and the increafe in the quantity of produce, it is equal to barley for medium loams. And that for itronger forts of lands, and thofe of the fen kind, it is greatly fuperior to it, though apt to leave the land in@ more foul and compa@ condition*, On the cold, tenacious, fenny and wet t b] defcriptions of foils, the oat may indeed in many cafes be fown with more advantage than any other kinds of crop, and likewife where lands cannot be put in a proper condition for barley crops. Oats fucceed well after almoft every fort of green and root crops, but fhould not be cultivated after wheat, rye, or barley, where it can poflibly be avoided, as the foil by fuch cropping would be too greatly exhaufted. It has been ob- ferved, that, in diftri&s where improved methods of hufbandry are adopted, oats are generally grown upon fuch lands as have been newly broken up from the {tate of grafs, and that the practice is fhewn to be perfectly corre@, by the abundance of the produce in fuch cafes. The cuftom of cultivating oat crops in fucceffion for feveral years is equally abfurd and improper, and fhould be generally exploded ft. In regard to the preparation for this fort of crop, it is recommended by an intelligent cultivator, that when it is Intended to be grown after cole, tares, early peas, or fuch other crops as do not come off the ground later than the beginning of June, on foils that are too wet to admit of being ploughed in the winter feafon to make a clean baftard fallow, laying the land up into ridges proper for being fown in the early fpring. Or when after fuch clean crops as come off too late to admit of baftard fallowing, to plough only once, which fhould be as early as the bufinefs of the farm will admit, into ridges proper for putting the feed in f. It is remarked by Mr. Donaldfon, in his account of the prefent ftate of huf. bandry in this country, that whatever may have been the nature of the crop that preceded this, it is but in very few cafes that more than one clean furrow is afforded. In fome diftridts it is, he afferts, the common praétice to plough the lands over that are intended for oats, in the autumn, in a particular manner, fo as to expofe as large an extent of furface to the influence of the atmofphere as poflible. This in fome places is termed by farmers rib-furrowing, and in others flob-furrow- ing; it is performed by turning over the furrows at the diftance of from twelve to * Correted Report of Middlefex, t Modern Agriculture, vol. I. 580 Cultivation of Arable Land.—Oats. eighteen inches from each other on the unbroken Jand. In this way one half of the fuperficial part of the land remains unmoved, and the furrows being thrown on it, much furface is expofed, and the foil greatly improved, at the fame time that the root weeds are deftroyed. If this procefs be accomplifhed a] in the moft perfe€t manner, and in the autumnal feafon, the foil is confiderab] ly ° 1 Gs Seok° 3 ameliorated and improved by the frofts during the winter, and by bein le ell broken down by Ae harrow in the fpring, having a cor mplete ploughing imme- diately before the feed is put in, the foil becomes in an excellent condition nit c a Ae ba a Re en Omi a| Rp a7, PL eae ie ng ae THY J: s fort of crop, even where the land is of the ftiff and heavy kind. There can indeed be little doubt but that, by r the land’s under going a more full and con iplete 4 4.= ye 1S a ry> nf~~ xa Sos 3 preparation than is ufual for thi s. crop, the quantity of produce may be se j ine sanfad 94¢ the Ghro+o{Ss t] t t iE| or at+} increaied, as the fibrous roots of th e plants are more enabled to exten em- elves in the loofe earth, and thereby to afford a more perfeét fupport to ra plants. In fome cafes, as where the land has been much reduced and exhaufted by the previous crops, or in breaking up thin poor foils where the proportion of turfy material is inconfiderable, and when the prices of other forts of grain are low, it may be advantageous to have recourfe to the ufe si 4 manure, as by fuch means it is probable that a third more produce at leaft might be grown. Time of fowing.—In this bufinefs it is neceflary to Keep in mind that the ear- lier the feed is put into the ground, the fooner in general the crop will be ready to cut. In the more fouthern parts of the kingdom, it is often the cafe to put this fort of feed into the earth towards the latter end of February, when the feafon is dry and fine; but March is in general the oat feed feafon. On fuch foils as are naturally dry and parching, it is however by much the beft practice to fow early, in order that the crop may be well eftablifhed before the hot weather commences. And befides, there may be a greater chance of the grain efcaping the ravages of the worm that often attacks fuch crops; and when this infe& is prefent, its ravages may be more eafily prevented. As this fort of crop is liable to be injured by very fevere winters, it can feldom be fafe to put it in in the autumn, efpecially in the northern parts of the ifland; but in the fouthern dif tricts it may be done with propriety in particular cafes, as where the land is of a very dry and friable nattre, large crops having been afferted to have been grown in this way in combination with tares in fome inftances*. Seed.—The proportion of feed that may be required muft differ according to the difference of the circumftances that have been already ftated; but on foils * Corrected Report of Middlefex, p. 187. Crltiovation of Arable Land.—Oats. 581 of a middling quality, four buthels may be fufficient for the more early fow. s, and. five for the later ones, where they are put into the ground in the broadcaft method, which fhould conftantly be the cafe where the firft modes of Preparation are adopted. In fome of the fouthern diftri&s the Poland out is fown at the rate of about four bufhels the acre for the fir fowines; and it has been found in practice that the earlie? fown crops conftantly afforded the moft perfe&t fample, and in general the moft abundant produce. With the oats, clover may be fown when neceflary, the feeds being covered by harrowing fuitably to the condition of the land, and where the foil is very light or mel- low, a roller thould be pafled over it as foon after as poflible, in order to prefs the mold to the feeds; but in other circumftances it may be more advifable to defer the rolling until the feafon is dry, and the crop fomewhat advanced in its growth. The practice of{owing oats under furrow, though it has been ate tempted on the lighter and more dry forts of land, is not by any means to be advifed, as in fuch a method the feed is apt to be depofited to too great a depth, and to be in danger of either being in fome meafure deftroyed, or of coming up in an irregular manner. The ufe of the drill has not been fo much prattifed with this fort of crop as to afcertain the utility of it; nor has that of dibbling been tried with that fort of attention that is neceffary to determine the pro- priety of it. As this kind of grain is fuppofed to be more liable than moft others to dege- nerate, by being too long continued on the fame land, it has been the practice of fome diftri&s to change it for fuch as has been imported from other coun- tries™. It is probable, however, that by colle€ting and fowing the beft and moft perfect of our own produce, this expenfive practice may be rendered unnecef- tary. By fimilar attention moft of the different forts of oats are alfo capable of being greatly improved both in the quality and appearance of the grain. When this fort of grain is cultivated on fuch leys as are newly broken uD, there may frequently be danger, efpecially where the land has been long in the ftate of grafs, both from the dettruétive attacks of infects, and the foil becom- ing too light, open, and porous, from the decay of the grafly material, for the fupport of the plants. The firft may probably in fome meafure be obviated, by eating fuch lands very clofely with fheep previous to their being broken up, as by fuch a method the ova of fuch infeéts may be much deftroyed, and their propagation prevented. And the treading the crops by fheep, as well as the * Corrected Report of the North Riding of Yorkfhire. 582 Cuitication of Arable Land.—Oats. UV roller, may likewife be beneficial in both refpetts. Horfes have alfo been turned in for the fame purpofe by fome cultivators*. For the above reafons, it has been fuggefted as improper to put oat crops in on newly broken up land, or even in the fecond year’s cultivation of them, or what in fome diftri&s it termed a /ea-breech t+. Peas and beans, according to the nature of the foil, are generally confidered as the moft proper forts. of crops in thefe cafes. It is moftly confidered by writers on agriculture as a better and more correét practice to fow grafs feeds with this crop than barley, as the tillage requifite for the latter may difpofe it to become rank and be lodged, by which the grafs will be drawn up weak through it, and jn that way be greatly injured; as well as the barley, by the humidity thus produced, require a longer time in the field, and in that way be expofed to more danger in cafe of a wet feafon fucceeding, while with oats there is little rifk in thefe refpetts, as the ftraw is much ftiffer and more firm. Where oat crops are thin upon the ground, they grow ftrong, and are confequently better capable of fupporting themfelves without falling on the ground. After-culture.-—The only culture that is neceffary for this fort of crop while growing, is that of keeping it as clean and free from weeds as pofiible, by means of hand-weeding, and the ufe of the forceps. It is alfo a praétice in fome places to pafs a light roller over the crop after it is advanced a few inches in height, when the ground has been flightly moiftened by rain; by which the cloddinefs of the furface is reduced, and the plants in fome meafure earthed up, and the progrefs of the crop not only much promoted, but, where thin, the plants rendered more thick upon the land by the tillering that 1s thus produced. Oat crops are.ready for the fcythe, or fickle, when the ftraw. exhibits a yel- Jowifh caft, the grain becomes hard, and the chaff opens in fuch a manner as to render it in fome degree naked. This fort of crop does not require to be fo dry when put into the{tack as thofe of either wheat or barley. It is fometimes a practice in this fort of crop, as well as that of wheat, when there is danger of its being too rank or luxuriant in its growth, to feed it down with fheep in the{pring months, This is not, however, a method that is to be adcpted, except in particular circumftances, as where there is great difficulty in procuring fheep feed: at fuch periods, or where the worm is committing its ravages upon the plants; as this fort of grain is not in general apt to be injured either by the luxuriancy of its growth, or by being lodged. * Bannifter’s Synopfis of Husbandry, pe 101. ¢ Ibid. p. 102. 1 tion growl Mon h thoug} the cul Hip. Of the Weeds YO 583 ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS TO THE FIRST VOLUME. hake To be read after Line 8, Page 5.—Ly has been fuggefied by‘an able agri- cultor, that the breaft of a plough fhould be long and narrow, making an acute angle with the beam; the length of the brea tends to preferve the fieg from breaking, the furface for its fupport being large. This is a very important confi- deration in ploughing old leys for wheat, peafe,&c., as a number of weeds are thus fmothered which would otherwife infinuate themfelves through the interftices of broken ground. The refiftance of the earth againft the breaft, is alfo obvioufly dimi- nifhed in proportion to the acute angularity of the breaft againtt the beam, To be read after Line to, Page 17.—On fome very ftiff clayey foils the ordinary cuneiform coulters have been found incapable of penetrating to a fuf- ficient depth without the affiftance of extraordinary weight and preffure. This great inconvenience has been in fome meafure overcome by adding to the extremi ties of the coulters a blade of iron to precede them, curved like an inverted fcy the, or turned up, as it were, like the toe of a fkate, thus: ab isthe a old-fathioned coulter(the groove which conducts the feed being left blank), and 4 ¢ is the curved knife now added to facilitate its infertion; de is intended to reprefent the level of the land. d. This conftruction of the coulters feems to poflefs the double advantage of faci- litating their infertion into the ground, and of affording fome refiftance to any oc- cafional obliquity of direGtion to which the machine may be urged. Implements ufed in the Cultivation of Hops. To be read after Line 10, Page 28.—In preparing grounds for the recep- tion of hop-vines, and in keeping them clean and free from weeds during their growth, feveral different implements are employed. The fpade and the com- mon hand-hoe are, however, in fome places the chief tools that are made ufe of though they obvioufly require much time, and confequently increafe the expenfe o the cultivator. Hop-Shim.—This implement is conftru@ed with a fr ame, fomewhat in the manner of the common wheelbarrow, and has feet or teeth which cut up and drag out fuch weeds as may be prefent at the& ame time, that they pulverize and prepare the Wie x.*4D 584 Additions and Corrections ground. Mr. Boys in his valuable Report of the Agriculture of the County of Kent, alfo obferves that this implement may be advantageoufly employed for clearing fum- , ner fallows from weeds. When well made it cofis about two guineas. n Nidget.—This tool is formed of a triangular fhape, and of different fizes, ac- cording to the diftances‘of the alleys in which it is to be made ufe of,. with crofs bars or beams, in which are fixed a number of hoes in proportion to the breadth of the intervals between the rows of hops, fo that its hinder part, which. is the wideft, may pafs without doing any mifchief to the binds on each fide. The hindermoft beam has fixed to it a pair of handles, by which the machine is directed in its opera- tion. The implement is drawn by one horfe, managed by a boy; and two acres may in this way be cleanfed ina day. Care Ree however be taken, when ufing it, that in finifhing, the alleys be all croffed in the fame direction, in order that every part of the furface, except e fpaces which the hills occupy, may be cut over. The hills are to be afterwards rendered clean by means of hand-hoeing. It will be necefary to continue the ufe of this intirument as occafion may require, until the branches of the hops are put forth in fuch a manner as to prevent the horfe from going along the alleys. By this means hop. grounds may be kept clean and in order at a much lefs expenfe than by hand-hoeing, or even digging them in the fummer. The principal circumftance to be attended to in the management of the nidget, is that of guarding againtt its damaging the binds by coming too near the poles. Hop-Harrow.—By fome hop-planters this tool is ufed after the nidget, for ren- dering the ground fill finer; it is conftrucied nearly in the form of the nidget, but with a fmall wheel in the front, in order to go round at the ends of the plantation more readily. A pairof handles are fixed on behind, by which it is guided in the alleys, and kept from bruifing the binds, by the perfon who holds them. Imple- ments of this kind, when properly made, coft from thirty to forty fhillings. Mr. Middleton, in his Report of the County of Middlefex, alfo fpeaks of an‘in- firument, in ufe by Mr. Maynard, for cleaning hop-grounds, which refembles the fnow-plough: in fhape it is an equilateral triangle, the fides of which are four feet long, and the front ones fhod with old fcythes; the whole being firongly framed in order that it may be loaded when employed. He obferves that “‘ by drawing it once in a place, in the intervals between the rows, it renders them perfeétly clean, and as fmooth as the well-rolled walk of a pleafure-ground, and earths up the rows by the fame operation, which, about ten days afterwards, are safily made into hills with fpades.” Peeler.—The peeler is made ufe of for forming holes for the hop-poles; it is a 5- tat a to the Firft Volume. 585 of iron crow, with a wooden handle acrofs at the top, and made thick and tapering, in order to remove the earth fufficiently for the infertion of the ends of the poles. Hop-Dog.—This is. akind of lever, made of a long piece of good wood, with a fixed fulcrum, to the lower end of which is fattened a{trong piece of iron with teeth, which grafp the lower end of the hop-pole firmly, and by the action of the lever wrenches up the pole, To be read after Line 10, under the Head Chaft-Cutters, Page 32.—A wheel with two knives fixed on its radii will, however, it is believed, cut more ftraw in a given time, and with a given force, than a wheel with three knives; as where there are three knives one of them is always upon the ftraw; the refiftance is, of courfe, fo great and confiant, as materially to diminith both velocity confequently power. Mr. Burrel, of Thetford, in Norfolk, we believe, has at- tached to the fide of thefe machines a crank, which, by means of a{pindle termi- nating in a:cog-wheel, much affitts the primary force. Two boys, or women, are capable of turning this wheel for many hours together. It is probable that the ap- plication of a multiplying wheel to thefe machines would much facilitate the labour of them. and momentum, and Lo be read after Line 1s, Page 52.---It is alfo of importance that ftables fhould be better lighted than they ufually are; the blindnefs fo frequent among horfes has been attributed with confiderable plaufibility to an exceffive’ fti- mulus of light on their coming out of a dark ftable, where the irritability of the or- gans of fight has been for hours accumulating, into the full glare of day. Farm ftables, during the fummer feafon, are very generally expofed to the open air;‘the door or wicket is feldom fhut but at night: In confequence of this expofure, flies, which are attraGted by the horfe-dung,&c. have free accefs. It will generally be ob- ferved, however, that, in fuch expofed fiables, cobwebs alfo are very numerous: it is unwife to difturb them; the fpider fhould be cherifhed, as he faves the horfe from the irritation of many troublefome enemies.‘The provifion is natural, and fhould be attended to. Lo be read after Line 4, Page 67.—On the mode of applying fuel in the firft inftance, and fteam in the fecond, to culinary proceffes, both on a large and {mall feale, Count Rumford’s Philofophical Effays may be confulted with much ad. vantage. To be read after Line 18, Page 75-—The: price of brick-burning in Nor- * AD 2 586 Additions and Corre&igns folk is at this time from a guinea to twenty-five fhillings.per thoufand, the brick- burner finding fuel. Perhaps it is as well for the proprietor to provide fuel for himfelf; as, when provided by the man who tzkes the job, there is great danger that the bricks will be infufficiently burnt; which is a fraud that cannot-be difcovered till it is too late to apply a remedy. To be read at the End of Seétion III, Page 97.—There is another mode of confiructing cottages that may be had recourfe to with economy and ad- vantage in particular fituations and circumftances; this is that of building in what is termed Pzsé, or fimply by compreffing well-wrought earth in moulds or cafes contrived for the purpofe. It is a method that has been long pra¢tifed in the vici- nity of Lyons, in France, with great benefit, and has been attempted in this coun- try with equal fuccefs. It is particularly recommended by the cheapnefs of the ma- terials that are made ufe of; the facility with shich they can be procured in almoft every fituation; and the vaft favingin time, carriage, and labour, that attends it; and it is faid to afford buildings that are equally neat and durable. The manner of preparing the materials, and performing the work, with repre- fentations of the different implements that are neceffary to be employed, have been deferibed, with much accuracy and correctnefs, from the publication of M. Coin- teraux, by Henry Holland, Efq. and inferted in an Appendix to the Firft Volume of Communications to the Board of Agriculture, which may be confulted on the fub. ject. Lobe read after Line 33, Page 103.—It has been fuggefted that, in making inclofures, fomething more fubftantial fhould be given to the poor cottager in exchange for his benefits, whether they be confidered real or imaginary, which he derives from his common, than the hope of participating with the whole in the general advantage which may be produced. Various claufes have been pro- vided in different a€ts of inclofures in this intention. In fome, much difpute and inconvenience has been avoided by inferting claufes for increafing the allotments of thofe owners and proprietors whofe property may be above the annual value of five pounds, and under ten, fu as not to exceed the proportions allotted to any other proprietors: whofe property may amount to the annual value of ten pounds, The fpirit of which feems to be:“ First, that every proprietor whofe property is above the annual value of five pounds, and under the annual value of ten, have an extra allotment; and Sreconpnty, that the value in this extra allotment fhall, as nearly as poffible, be inverfely proportionate to the property to which it is attached; the commiffioners confequently taking care that in. no inftance the allot- to the Firft Volume. 587 ment to the fmaller property thall exceed in value tHe allotment to the larcer.”” And in refpeé to proprietors whofe property is under the annual value oF Ke pounds, by allowing them double proportions on a certain part not.to be inclofed; or by fuffering them to have allotments in fimilar proportions, according to their properties, to thofe whofe property was above five pounds, With the view of benefiting the ttill more poor tenants, or renters of cottages, it has been fuggefted that by the providing of a claufe for the purpofe of allotting a portion of land for the convenience of building a number of folid, convenient, and. airy cottages, to be held in trufi for the parifh, many advantages might have been gained*, uerteteoe To be read after Line 6, Page 123.—The white-thorn fhould, on no con- fideration, be /es than four years old when it is planted; if younger, it is. unable to encounter the drought of the firt funmer, An intermixture of holly in white-thorn fences is at once ornamental and ufeful- the young plants fhould be carefully weeded and moulded up every{pring, for the firft three or four years. They fhould alfo be cut down the third or the fourth year, within four inches of: the bank, in order that they may throw out lateral thoots, and thus become thick at the bottom. Too much care can fcarcely be beftowed in cherifhing young fences, in preferving them againft the nibbling of ftock, againft the feverity of drought, and» the double injury which weeds commit, by choking them with their own Juxuriant growth, and by robbing them of their neceflary nourifhment. To be read after Line 20, Page 145.—It has been lately well obferved, in an able Effay on the Conftruction, Hanging, and Faftening of Gates, that, when fat pended by hinges, a gate isa lever of the fecond kind, in which the weight is placed, between the power and the fulcrum; as it is evident that the hand applied to the head of the gate is the acting power, the gate itfelf the weight to be raifed or moved, and the hinges the fulcrum or centre of motion. When the hooks or pivots upon which a gate is hung are precifely perpendicular to each other, the gate will be at reft wherever it may be placed, and the fame power which ts required to move a. gate thus fufpended through any given arc of the circle, will be exactly fufficient to: bring it back to its former pofition;” a proof of which is feen in a common door to a room with plain hinges.‘* But the fimalleft variation of the hooks from their per- pendicular line, will attach toa gate, fo fufpended, one determinate line of reft; and from any part of the circle which the gate may be made to:deferibe, it muft have a conftant tendency to fall to that line of reft. The line of reft for a gate wall always * Monthly Magazine, Vol. VII: p. 358. 4 588 Additions and Correéhions be where it approaches neareft to the ground; and from thence being moved half a circle to the right or left,. it will there attain its greateft elevation, and fupport itfelf, or, with a very flight affiftance, may be fupported in equilibrio. When agate isin its line of reft, or in its oppofite line of equilibrium, the two hooks by which it is fafpended, and the centre of the gate’s gravitation, will bein the fame vertical plane with each other; which may be eafily underftood by obferving a common gate, whofe hinges are put on inany manner, however awkward or perverfe. And when the hooks are in one perpendicular line, it can admit no doubt but that they muft always be in the fame vertical plane with the centre of the gate’s gravitation, be- canfe they will be fo with any third given point whatfoever. Thefe principles are alfo applicable toa common fwing gate, which has two or more pivots or hooks at the lower hinge, when the pofition of either one of the lower pivots is confidered ? with refpect to the upper hook*.” In explanation of thefe principles, a figure is given which is fuppofed“ the outline of a gate nine feet two inches long, from the fore part of its head to its upper point of fufpenfion, reprefented in the line of reft, as well as in the oppofite line of equilibrium; fhowing the velocity with which the gate is made to fall, from an elevation of fix inches gained at the head in attaining its line of equilibrium, eftimated from the line of reft_ by means of the pofition of the two hooks, and the proportionate extra length of the lower thimble+.” And it is con- tended that“ the line of faftening fhould be 22° 30’, or 1-fixteenth part of a circle, fhoit of cr within the line of reft, and confequently the correfponding line of equi- librium will alfo be 22° 30° fhort of the greateft extent of the gate’s opening}.” But in order‘‘ to prevent the gate being left unfhut, it is advifed that a fhort poft fhould be placed at about half the diftance between the road to be paffed and the fence ad- joining the hanging poft, that is 22° 30 within the line of equilibrium; fo that the gate{hould not open from its line of faftening more than about 135°, which will an- {wer every purpofe; and the hinges muft be fo adjutted that the gate fhall be perfectly upright at its line of faftening§.” It is ftated that a gate, fufpended in this manner, cannot be left open,(excepting in high winds) but will fhut of itfelf, though not with an uniformly accelerated motion, as might be fuppofed; its velocity being rather increafed as it paffes the middle part of its femicircular courfe, and retarded again as it approaches its line of reft, coinciding with the proportionate rife of the bead, allowing only for fuch acceleration as muft be acquired while the gate, in fall- ing with a continued motion, recedes more and more from the line of equilibrium. As the verfed fine of the angle formed by the gate with its line of reft, is to the length of the gate 110 inches, which is the made radius, fo will be the cor- * Parker's Efflay on Gates,+ Ibid.+ Ibid,§ Ibid. to the Firft Volume, 589 refponding rife of the head of the gate to 3,3,th inches, or half the whole rife of the gate’s head, at any given angle within the quadrant: and the rife in the head afterwards will be, as the co-fine of any given angle formed by the gate with its line of equilibrium in defcribing the complement of that angle, is to the length of the gate, or radius, fo will be the correfponding rife of the head of the gate to the remaining 37, inches, which co-/ixe of the angle formed by the gate, with the line of equilibrium, is equal to the fine of the complementary angle, or angle of the gate’s progrefs, from a radius at right angles to, or equi-diftant from, the lines of reft and equilibrium, in performing its fupplementary courfe. Thus it appears, that though the rife of the gate at the head in the firft 90°, or half of its femi- circular courfe, be 3,7, inches, yet in the firft and laft22° 30’ of its courfe, it will rife only r-fourth ofan inch, or exactly.%-ths and°°. ths ofa 24th in each refpectively; and rejecting the greater fractions, the rife of the gate’s head, and correfponding velocity of the gate’s fall in equal eighth parts of its femicircular courfe, is nearly in proportion to the numbers 6, 16, 26, 32, and then inverfely 32, 26, 16&6.* And in further illuftration of the above principles, a“ reprefentation is given of the horizontal fe@ion of two hooks for a right-handed gate, Opening one way, brought into one plane of obfervation; the upper hook, the lower hook, the line of fafiening, the line of reft, and the line of equilibrium. The diameter of the hooks+3ths of an inch, which is the proper fize fora common gate. The horizontal diftance of the lines falling from the two hooks being 2 or 14. inch, is the meafure adapted to hinges which are forty inches afunder, In ad- jufting the hinges, it is neceflary that the upper thimble fhould incline+ inch from its centre towards the hanging poft, and that the lower thimble fhould be{crewed into the heel of the gate+ inch out of the firaight line, inclining in the oppofite direction, that is, from inftead of towards the hanging poft, both thimbles together making a variation of the ,*, inch; and to correfpond with this variation, the upper hook fhould meafure, from the centre of the pin to the fhouldering, about half the thicknefs of the heel of the gate, as the inch inclination of the upper thimble will allow fufficiently for the gate hanging clear of the poft. The lower hook mutt be -*- inch longer than the upper hook, and muft be driven into the gate-poft 14 inch out of the perpendicular line of the perforated parts of the gate-pofi, in which the hooks are to be received, asthe lower thimble mutt alfo exceed the upper thimble in length 12 inch, fuppofing the gate to be a right-angled parallelogram, or at leatt the rail and heel to be at right angles with each other; elfe the lower thimbles muft be extended by a wafher to make up the deficiency, which, however, will not at all * Parker’s Effay on Gates, §90 Additions and Corre&ions interfere with the velocity of the gate’s fall, becaufe the hooks are the centre of motion upon which all adjuftment, as to the gate’s fall, depends, the places of the thimbles influencing only the upright pofition of the gate when faftened. The numbers of 58, rather furpafs the precife meafure of their refpeCive fides of the triangle, but are nearer to the truth in calculation than any workman could attain uy applying thefe directions; for in neither cafe do they exceed their true meafure _ fomuch as ,!, of an inch, and therefore in the one the clear fum of 4 inch is affamed _. for general purpofes; and fhould the hinges be lefs than 4o inches afunder,+ inch will be rather too much; or were they to be more than 40 inches diftant from each other,+inch, on the contrary, would be rather too little for the jufl proportion. It is certain that a fmall{pace muft be loft in hanging agate, though the hooks and thimbles be made with great exaCtnefs; for the weight of the gate will draw the upper thimble to bear upon the hind part of the upper hook, and will prefs the lower thimble again{t the fore part of the lower hook; this muft be trifling when the hinges are well fitted, and no allowance is qpede for it, becaufe the lower thimble gains as much upon the upper one by their being placed+ inch, thatis+ inch each, out of the plane of the gate’s extenfion, as appears by the difference of the fides of the triangle, numbered+24 and 1+ equal—1, inch by the meafure 43, which is aflumed, but really about= inch more, as ftated above, or on the whole equal to+ inch, which is a good general equivalent for the lofsin hanging a gate, and will ufually be fufficient to preferve the upright pofition of the gate when faft- ened, without having recourfe toa wafher at the lower thimble*.” It is remarked that the*‘ velocity as above given to the gate’s fall will be amply fufficient without any care of oiling the hinges; but the effect of wind cannot be counteracted in gates by any good confiruétion of the hinges; for were a velocity given to a gate’s fall equal to the refiftance of fo powerful an agent, the gate would foon want repair, from the confiant violence of its fhutting, and be fo much the heavier in the hands of a horfeman: befides, when a firong wind blew in the fame direétion as that of the gate’s fall, no man on horfeback would be able to withftand its force; and well con. firucted gates are moft liable to be a@ted upon by wind, from their wide extent of furface. But if paflengers are fo carelefs as to leave gates open under fuch cir- cumftances, there will be one fatisf&aQion remaining; that is, as foon as the wind ceafes, the hinges muft refume their property, and the gates fafien of themfelvest.’ Various directions are given, by which the new pofition of the hooks may be found when the hinges of gates are more or lefs than forty inches afunder. In proofof the accuracy of which,“ fuppofe a gateto be 110 inches long, and that it is in- * Parker's Effay.+ Ibid. ew Goes, tess ee fo the Firft Volume. 591 tended torife at the head 62 inches in its femicircnlar courfe, from-the line of refi to theline of equilibrium; then, as the length of the gate is to the diflance between the two hinges, fo will be 62 inches to double the horizontal diftance of two perpen- dicular lines, one falling from each of the hooks.”? Or“ take any other diftance of the hinges from each other, and the required extra length of the lower thimble may be found by placing the numbers 110 and 62 as the firft and*fecond terms of a rule of three proportion, and the new diftance of the hinges muft be the third term; the anfwer, divided by two, will be the fought-for horizontal difiance of the two perpendicular Jines falling from the haoks(adding the lof% in hanging the gate); the anfwer for the one is the meafure for the other*.” It is fuppofed that“ thefe general rules will find a tolerably accurate meafure in all cafes; for where a gate or wicket is fhort and light, the friction of the hinges will be lefs in two refpes, both by the diminifhed preffure on the hooks from the gate’s lightnefs, and the reduced diameter of the pivots, which will fupply what is wanting in the weight or momen- tum of the gate. On the other hand, when the gate is long and heavy, its increafed weight or momentum, and its length asa lever, will be oppofed to the additional friction‘of the hinges.” And“ in cafes where old hinges are badly made, with large hooks or deep thimbles, that difficulty is to be met by taking the proportion for the diftance of the two hinges from each other at five or ten inches more than it really may be, wita reference to the given table, or by adding fomething to the ufual horizontal diftance of the lines falling from the hooks. But when the thim- bles are of a long cylindrical form they are extremely apt to bind upon the hooks, and will fometimes put a dead ftop to the gate’s motion. With fuch thimbles the attempt of adding to the velocity of a gate’s fall may only increafe the binding or friction; and the remedy for this defe@, therefore, is to make the hooks much fmaller than the thimbles: in new thimbles, no form but that of annular, or ring- like, fhould be admitted.” By“ the lower thimble being furnifhed with a fcrew of equal diameter throughout its length, its extra length may be regulated to fo great a nicety as half a turn of the fcrew, and may either be let into the’ heel beyond the fhouldering, or lengthened out by a wather as circumftances require, in adapting it either for hinges, which are lefs than forty inches afunder, or the contrary, without the help of a blackfmith or any frefh forging, which is always troublefome and expenfive. And if a gate finks at the head, without any fault in the hanging-poft or hooks, the lower thimble may be lengthened out to bring the gate upright, and the hooks remain unaltered+,” * Parker’s Effay on Gates.+ Ibid.% VOL< I, at a +. { i 1 : i ii) A Hel Bil! ; } t i } : 1 i i f‘ | f t i Vas 7 7 | ql bial ]} ._ a Bi : Tah ,{ By i j q 7} ( if} 7; ;| Py! : i) 1| | { 1 hy bt vei | j : i) a eis ‘|/ q{ * 1a! in it : 4 7 ry! ;|| | lil }. q : i |} ] + i q q}{ a 4 || , | i) | |} 2| nH | j Pel i 1 | i| ’‘ aE 4| ee il lil ete £99 Additions and Correttions Gate-Pofts.—Thefe(hould“be ofa fufficient length and firength; and being fixed about eight feet nine inches afunder will be adapted for a gate nine feet long, or nine feet two inches including the thimbles: the thimbles being attached to the gate in the manner above direéted, let the gate be fupported where it is to hang and faften, and then drive in the upper hook at a convenient diftance from the ed e of p) i t| hanging-poft, fo that the upper hinee fhall not be in the way of any carriage Nn oe ling the road, but at the fame time fo near to the edge of the poft as to lofe no. pa il more room for the road than is unavoidable, by the head and heel of the gate ex- 3 J ro e € { i tending a little upon the two pofts. It is not neceflary to the gate that it fhould lap againft the hanging-poft at all; but fince the head ought to meet the falling- poft, at leaft with half its own fabflance, or from that to two inches, the hanging- poft fhould be nearly as much: covered by the heel for the fake of uniformity. When the upper hinge is fitted, the gate ought to be fupported upright, for afcer- taining’the place of the lower hook; and if the thimbles are properly put on, the pofition of the lower hook cannot be mifiaken. Both hinges being fitted, it re- mains to be found whether the hooks are in their exact places; for this purpofe take two plumbed lines, with fine threads and heavy even-fided plumbs; if the hooks are well finithed, the obfervation refpeCting their centres may be taken by faftening the plumbed lines round the hooks, and letting them fall from the outfides of fimilar parts of the hooks; forty inches being the given diftance of the hinges, the hori- zontal diftance of the two lines falling from the hooks fhould be 14 inch, and in a line which forms an angle of 22° 30%, with the gate’s line of faftening: take, there- fore, acommon two-feet rule, and, having opened the legs to the angle of 22° 30%, place one fide of it againft the plumbed lines, which ought to anfwer to the meafure of 12 inch, while the other leg of the rule fhould be parallel to the gate’s line of faftening; a flight blow or two with a hammer on one or both of the hooks, in the direCtion neceflary, will complete the adjuftment; and the gate will be found to fhut of itfelf from any line within 135° from its fafiening, and without violence, whether opened to the fmalleft, the greateft, or any intermediate angle: prefcribed by the fhort poft, which fhould be placed to meet the middle part of the gate at the angle of about 133° from the line of faftening*.” And“it might be prudent, before the{hort poft were put down, to afcertain at what line the gate will ftand open, or be poifed by the friCtion of its hinges towards the line of equilibrium, which will difcover how near the workmen may have adjufted the line of faftening to 22° 30’ fhort of the natural line of refk; * Parker's Effay on Gates. 7 5 to the Firft Volume, 593 andif the fate is found to fall properly, the thort poft may be put up accordingly, though the method defcribed may not have been minutely purfued, taking care that the fhort poft be fufficiently within the line of equilibrium, and that the gate fet off from the fhort poft with a velocity equal to overcome any increafed friCtion by-ruft on the hinges, for oil thould not be ufed at all, as its occafional aid is not to be depended on*.” It is obferved that“indifferent gate-pofts are liable to get out of their upright po- fition; the conftant weight of the gate mufi have a tendency to pull the hanging- poft inwards; the fall of the gate may make the falling-poft recede from the direc- tion of the frequent blows it receives, and heavy carriage-wheels paffing near the pots, will occafion them to open outwards; and the natural or artificial flopes of the ground adjoining gate-pofts often affe& their upright pofition, and decline them:from the higher ground,” and many other caufes produce fimilar effects, to ebviate which many contrivances have been recommended; fuch as“ mortifing the pair of gate-pofts together by crofs pieces of timber under the road; but the moft effectual preventive of the evil appears to be that of letting down the pofts very deep into the ground, which will fuperiede the expenfe of crofs timbers; and in gaining a firm hold at their bafes, they will be the better fecured both from natural and accidental difplacementt+.” Gate-pofts for common gates fhould be from eight to eight feet and a half in Jength. Care is alfo“ to be taken in hanging a gate, to choofe the belt fide for it to open; im doing which there are two circumftances to be confidered; the principal one is, that there may be plenty of room for a fervant on horfeback to hold the gate while a car- riage pafles, and the other is, to avoid its opening againft any crofs road or path: Add to which fome attention is due to the trefpafs of cattle from a common road, or otherwife; and it is thought more fecure for a gate to open againft that fide from which the trefpafs may be moft apprehended. In fome cafes it is advifable to furnith a hanging-poft with a pair of hooks on both fides of it, fo that the gate:.can be fhifted as occafion may make it convenient ft.” A key-hole and cotter may be put in the lower hook“ to fecure the gate from being taken off the hinges for idle purpofes; ora ftud rivetted to one fide of either of the hooks, with a little notch cut in the ftrongeft part of the adjoining thimble,-is a:fimple and good contrivance, whereby a gate is prevented from being taken off‘the hinges when fhut, but is eafily taken off at fome one part of its courfe when required, where the ftud comes oppofite to the notch, and admits the thimble to pafs over the ftudded hook.” And it is not uncommon fo{ee one hook * Parker's Effay on Gates.{ Ibid.{Ibid. KARE 4E2 54 Additions and Correéfions driven into the poft with its point upwards in the commen way, and the point of the other hook in the contrary diretion, which is an effectual mode of keeping the gate on its hinges; but it has the inconvenience of not permitting the gate te be removed without drawing one of the hooks. The fame principles are applied in the hanging of gates on the contrary fides, and likewife to thofe of fwing-gates; full explanations of which may be fecn in the very ufeful Eflay referred to, as well as the methods of fawing timber for gates and gate- potts. The methods of hanging and fafiening, as well as the inconveniencies of fwing- gates, are alfo explained with great ingenuity and practical accuracy; but they will be beft underftood by perufing the Effay, as they cannot be fully comprehended without the plates. Mr. Parker has likewife found, that cafi-iron may be applied with fuperior ad@- vantage to the purpofe of hanging and faftening gates, the hooks being attached to: the pofts by means of fcrews, infiead of being driven in as in the uftal mode. By this meansit is fuppofed that a faving of at leaft fifty per cent may be made. Com- plete fets of which are furnifhed by Meftrs. Deermans, Francis and Company, ‘agle Foundry, Birmingham. To be read after Line 4, Page 152.—In the above refpect it, appears that roads formed on the model of a gently-inclined plane have an obvious ad- vantage; for the very ruts which the wheels make ferve as channels to con- duct the water down the defcent; at the loweft point of which a tranfverfe groove fhould be kept open to convey it into the ditches on either fide. So extremely gentle is the xeceffary defcent, that grooves at the diftance of one hundred and fifty yards will be found in moft cafes fufficient. The water has thus feventy-five yards to run, and the elevation need not be above eighteen inches, or two feet. It is commonly to be obferved, that the convexity of a road is inverfely proportioned to. its narrownefs. Turnpike roads of the full ftatute width, unlefs unufually fhadowed by trees, receive fo much fun and air, that they are kept tolerably dry without much convexity of their farface. Narrow roads and lanes are only to be kept dry by ar- tificial means, and fometimes the convexity is fo extremely great, as to render the paffing of two loaded carriages extremely dangerous. Perhaps the gentle convex fhape is preferable for turnpikes, but the fhape of the longitudinal-inclined plane has many advantages in narrow lanes,&c. To be read after Line 6, Page1s8,.—The cafes where it would be neceffary to.carry off the water every ten or fifteen yards muft be extremely rare; perhaps there are ten ban tui¢ cum and empl their wave the c: tend of the to be f contin from 4 current In fo portion the inn¢ buttre(s, dertee of the wate pend,| oa perp beoppok In ref}| bank can Water, the to the Firft Volume. 595 few fuch cafes. It has been obferved, that“a carriage might almoft aswell be floating on a billow at fea, as toffi ng up and down on an inclined plane every ten or fifteen yards! When a road is conftru&ted on the principle of the plane, there fhould be no floping of the fides; otherwife the water is impelled by two forces at right angles with each other, and confequently tends ina diagonal line, To be read at the End of Seétion V. Embankments.—In many fituations ex- tenfive tracts of land may be gained by the jndicious conftruction of em- bankments. In improvements of this fort, the proper forming of the danks contti- tutes the principal difficulty and expenfe of the undertakings. The particular cir- cumftances of the cafe muft chiefly dire the operator in regard to the fituation, fize, and manner of conftruction, as well asthe nature of the materials which are to be employed. In general, however, the fituation of fach banks fhould be fuch as that their bafes or foundations may not be unnecefiarily expofed to the dire& aGion of waves or currents. Where the quantity of water is in fome meafure limited, as in the cafe of land floods in particular inftances, the greater the fpace it has left to ex- tend itfelf in, the lefs height and ftrength will be requifite in the bank, and the force of the current be leffened in the fame proportion. But where the courfes are liable: to be filled up by depofitions, it fhould be recolleGed that the more the water is confined the f{tronger the current will. be, and the lef the danger of their filling up. In regard to the line of an embankment it fhould always be even, and as free from irregularities as poffible, in. order to: occafion the leaft poflible reffance to the: currents of whatever kinds.. In forming the bank, the height and ftrength fhould conftantly be made in pro- portion to the depth and weight of water that it may have-to refitt, always having the inner face made to incline towards it, for the purpofe of fupport in the way of a buttrefs.‘The out-face muft be formed in a Moping direction, fo as to approach a. degree of flatnefs, in order to: obviate ref/tznce, and lefien the preffure or weight of the water. On this being properly executed its firmnefs and durability greatly de= pend. In difficult cafes, it is advifed that the outer furface thould: form an angle to a perpendicular line of from forty-five to fixty degrees, according to the force to be oppofed and the nature of the materials employed*. In refpect to the materials, where the foundation is: good, firm, and folid; and the bank can be contiructed at a fuitable time,. without much interruption from the water, the natural earth of the ground may anfwer perfectly for the body. of the * Marfhajl.on the Landed Property. of England, 596 Additions and Correétions “bank as well as the inner furface; and where the preflure of fiagnant or almoft ftili water is merely to be refifted, the outer flope may be formed of the fame. But in cafes where the force of either waves or currents operate directly upon the banks, the outer flopes fhould be well fecured againft it, with the beft materials that can be conveniently provided, and the bafes or foundations be properly fecured from being undermined; piles, timber, and mafonry being had recourfe to where the founda- tions-are- not fufficiently firm and folid. It is of the utmoft importance in thefe cafes to guard againft accidents. Befides the conftruétion of the banks, attention is alfo neceflary tothe formiug of the difcharging channels on the outfides of the embankments.‘The pofition of the mouth, or out-fall, fhould conftantly befuch as that the current of the receiving waters may not warp or fill them up, but tendo clear them out, and keep them free. They-thould likewife be fituated as low as they can be conveniently permitted be+ iow the’flood-gates of the banks, the better to induce currents, and thereby keep the flood-gates and the mouths of the channels the more free and open. In cafes of open feas or other extended waters without any difcharging channels, but where the waves extend to the foot of the banks, two flood-gates may fometimes be neceflary, one on the external fide, to refift the force of the waves, and prevent their Zlowing up the works-on the infide; the otheron the inner fide, to fecure the paflage more fully. Thus, when water is admitted by the outer flood-gate being lifted by the waves, its progrefs is effeually fiopped by the inner valve being in a serfet flate. Where the valves are liable to be choked up, from being fituated below the furface of fand or other fhifting banks through which the water forces its way, and are only capable of being kept clear by conftant trouble and expenfe, the remedy, in difficult cafes of this nature, 1s that of defending the difcharging flood- gates by covered channels carried out into the fea through the line of beach, made fufficiently firong to refilt the force of the waves, This is however an expenfive method, and fhould of courfe be avoided when poffible*.‘In all cafes where ex- ternal valves or gates are required, and liable to be filled up, great care mutt be -taken to keep them open and free, either by piles, fences, or other contrivances, ron out in fuch a manner‘from the embankments as‘not to interrapt the difcharging water, the earthy materials colle@ed by it being occafionally removed. In thefe cafes, common Dinge flood-gates may be the moft proper, or fuch as fwing outward, and fall into a rabbetted frame.‘They thould be always made of feafoned oak timber; being made double, by the different planks crofting each other, in order to prevent their warping.‘They fhould be fo contrived as to fit pretty tight, with- * Marfhall on the Landed Property of England. | | | | to the Firft Volume: 597 out being liable to ftick by fwelling. This is effected by the edges being made to flant or bevelinwards. The frame fhould likewife incline a little inward, but not fo muchas to retard the exit of the contained water. Where rivers or ftreams pafs through embanked grounds, the fides may frequently require to be raifed fuffici- ently to prevent their overflowing in times of floods. And where they are too low to be fully drained, it may be neceflary to form embanked channels or cuts for re- ceiving the water when thrown up by machinery.‘Thefe embanked channels may be converted to various ufes, fuchas irrigation,&c. in different cafes*, Embankments have been divided into three different kinds, as thofe againft the fea, againft rivers, and againft lakes, each of which fhould be formed according to the refiftances required.‘The firft, however, in general require by far the ftrongeft and moft expenfive works+. In embanking again{t the encroachments of the fea, it fhould firft.“ be confi- dered what is the greateft depth of water at the higheft fpring tides.. About two feet higher than that fhould be the fummit of the bank. Some have recommended only one foot higher, but it is beft to err on the fafe fide; for the confequences at- tending an overflow, after the whole is completed, may, in one tide, doa great deal more damage than all the expenfe of the additional foot in height. If the embankment be made at firft even three feet higher than the higheft rife of the tide, efpecially at thofe places expofed to the waves or fwell of the fea, it will be fo much the more fecure; for new works of this kind always fub- fide or fettle in fome degree after they are erected. It is a very neceflary precau- tion, particularly if the banks are large, to take the levels frequently for fome time after they are completed, left they fhould: fubfide too‘much, and thereby occafion a mifchief which it was imagined hadbeen fufficiently. guarded againft.- If the banks are but low, this precaution is not fo neceflary, for the fettling will always be more or lefs according to their height, and in low banks will be but very little. It. is hardly poflible to give one general rule refpecting the fize and dimenfions of fuch embankments. This muft be regulated according to circumftances and fituation, for which-a fkilful engineer will always make-the proper allowances. If the em- bankment to be made is to exclude the fea from a low marfhy piece of ground, over which it flows only at fpring-tides, the operation. is eafy, and may be effected atia fmall expenfe. If it is intended to reclaim a piece of land that is covered every tide, either in fome bay or creek, or onthe fides or windings of fome large river * Marfhall on the Landed Property of England. + Beatfon in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol, If. 528 Additions and Correétions in which the fide ebbs and flows, the work will be fomewhat more difficult, in pro- portion to the depth of the water and the rapidity of the current. If itis propofed to exclude the fea from fome expofed fituation, either at the mouth of a river, or in a bay or inlet uncovered every tide, the work will be the moft dificult and moft ex. penfive of all, in proportion to its expofure to prevailing winds and to the depth of water to be refitted. Each of thefe fituations require a diferent mode of manage- ment. Embanking againft the fea, if at any confiderable difiance within bigh- water-mark, is not only the moft tedious, but the mof difficult of all; for if the materials are not very good, and the work is not properly performed, the force of the water at every flowing of the tide will foon undo all that has been done, efpe- cially if the foil is of a fandy nature, as it often is in fuch fituations, If it is a firong clay, as is fometimes the cafe in marfhy places, there will be the lefs rifk of its being wafhed away. In fandy fituations it has by fome. been recommended to lay bundles of ftraw or reeds well fafiened down, or any other impediment, to pre- vent the foil being carried away by the ebbing tide. Where a fufficient quantity of good firong turf cannot be had, then expedients may be tried; but where fuch turf is 1o be got, as in moft marfhy fituations, and where the embankment required is not to exceed the height of four or five feet, it is beft to finifh the flope with good turf as expeditioufly as poflible as the embankment proceeds; that is, fuppofing a length of thirty, forty, or fifty fect, or yards, of it can be completed in a tide, it is better to finith that length to its intended height, than. to trace out or begin a greater extent than can be finifhed before the tide returns, by which a great deal of the foil might be carried away, and much of the work demolifhed, which is not fo likely to be the cafe when the flope is finifhed. Turf, containing the roots of bent or rufhes, is very good for this purpofe. The firft thing, however, to be doue in an embankment of this fort is, to{take out the intended line of it, marking the breadth at the bafe, alfothe width of the excavation, or trench, to be made in the infide, from which moft of the materials that compofe the bank are to be taken; this trench alfoferves asa drain to keep dry the grounds within. At different parts of it fhould be trunks, or fluices, to fhut of themfelves againfl any external water, and toopen, when the tide ebbs, to let out any water from within. Its width muft ke proportioned to the quantity of materials required from it for the embankment— eight, ten, or fifteen feet wide, and three or four feet deep, leaving a berme, or fpace between the edge of the trench and inner bottom of theembankment. If the foil is trong, one foot or eighteen inches will be fufficient for this derme; if it is loofe or fandy it will require at leaft three or four feet*.” * Beatfon in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. II. ~*~ to the Firft Volume. 599 » The more gradual and eafy the external flope is made, the’ refittance againft the fea will of courfe be the lef fudden, and the embankments lef liable to injury: this flope mufi therefore be made according to its expofure to the winds and tides; but nothing can be a greater error than to make it too bold or upright*.” See Plate XXXVIII. Fig. 2.“ Theinfide flope thould alfo be faced with turf, which may be laid with the green fide downwards, as in building any common fod wall. Some expert fodders can finith this kindof work extremely neat, by fetting the fod on edge, ac- cording to the flope intended to be given, and with proper mallets and beetles ram the earth hard behind, which confolidates the work as it advances, and tends very much to its durability. When the firft or lower courfe js finithed, they pare the upper edge of the fods with a tharp knife quite even by laying a rule to them; and then they goon with the fecond courfe, which they finith in the fame manner, and {0 proceed till the whole height is completed; which, when finithed properly, looks very beautiful and fmooth, not a joint between the turfs being feen. If turf is to be ufed in covering the outfide flope, it muft all be laid with the grafs uppermoft, and well beaten down with a flat fod beetle for that purpofe; and for their better fe- curity it may not be amifs to drive a fmall ftake, of about eighteen inches long or more, through every fod. The fods for this purpofe fhould at firft be carefully taken up and traced by aline, all of the fame breadth, and their edges cut as even as poflible, that they may make the clofer joints, which will tend very much to their fecurity till they grow properly together. In laying the different courfes of thefe fods, care fhould likewife be taken that the joints of the one are covered by the other, in the way that good brick-work* is made.” If it be propofed to reclaim a piece of land upon which the fea ebbs and flows every tide to a greater depth than inthe foregoing cafe, as in a creek, or on the fide of a large river, a different mode of proceeding, it is obferved, mutt be adopted ac- cording to the foil and to the materials intended to be ufed,’“ If there are plenty of fiones to be eafily had, a bulwark may be formed of thefe, with a mixture of clay, either by land-carriage, or(which in fome cafes is preferable) by carrying them in flat-bottomed boats, or punts, and throwing them overboard till a bank is accumu- lated. If fiones cannot fo eafily be had, a quantity of clay, or other materials fit for the purpofe, thrown in in the fame manner, may anfwer equally well. It is fuppofed that moft of the embankments in Holland were done in this manner, by earrying*the clay dug out of the canals in boats, and throwing it into the water. In either cafe it 1s neceflary to fix up ftrong poles before the work is begun, as guides for laying down the materials. Sluices are alfo requifite at certain places to let out * Beatfon in Communication to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. II. ie VOL. 1, 48 _ Se= peels= i SS tee Petal aeeiptinmiinnineresioe a 660 Additions and Correffions the back water when the tide ebbs; but the pofition and confiruction of thefe de- pend fo much on local circumftances, that the engineer who conducts the work ought to be the beft judge where and how to form them. A great deal depends on a fkilful engineer in works of this kind, who will contrive many ways to facilitate the work, and to overcome all difficulties in the execution of it.”* The following“ fpecies of fea-embankment is perhaps the moft important of any; for there aré few efiuaries, or mouthsof rivers, where large and valuable tracts of Jand may not be gained by fuch means. The fhoals, or flats formed at the en- france of fuch rivers, are often compofed of the richeft manures or moft fertilif- ing particles, brought down by the ftream from the towns above, or from the ad- jacent country through which the river flows. Thefe fhoals may therefore, by pro- per management, be in general very eafily converted into the moft fertile plains. Where fuch a fituation happens, the firft object is to collect the whole river into one fiream, and to prevent its overfpreading a wider extent than juft fufficient for its difcharge; or, perhaps, it may be better to alter the courfe of the river altogethers and to make it difcharge itfelf at fome other place. The principle upon which that idea is founded, is this It has been obferved, and proved by experience, that if the courfe of a river or ftream be altered in fuch a manner as to make it difcharge itfelf into the fea at a different place than it did before, the former place will in a few years, by the conftant accumulation of fand or mud brought in every tide, be fo -choked up or raifed above its former level, as to form of itfelf, in procefs of time, a bank that, witha very little affiftance, will quite exclude the fea: for as the cur- rent of the river before carried away all that fediment which the motion of the waves naturally ftirred up, the current being removed, all or moft of the muddi- nefs will not only be carried further up the old channel of the river, but a great part of it be depofited there as the tide recedes. It has even been obferved, that in {pring-tides and particular winds this fediment is depofited in greater quantities than at othér times; and Mr. Beatfon has been informed that on making a perpendicular eut inthe land fo gained, the different ftrata or layers. were fo diftinct, that thofe- made at fpring-tides could eafily be diftinguithed from the reft. This is a very curi- ous fad, and well worth the attention of all who have lands fituated at the mouths of rivers, as there may, in many fuch places, be confiderable tracts gained in this manner at a very fmallexpenfe. Although this fact may be proved by experience in feme places, neverthelefs he fhould imagine the effect would not be the fame in all fituations. Where there is a great extent of flat or muddy thores, the motion of the waves. + Beatfon in Communieations to the Board ef Agriculture, Vol. II. to the Firft Volume. GOL will no doubt ftir up the mud or fand, and carry great quantities of them along with the current on the flowing of the tide; and when the tide ebbs, although fome of the lighter particles will be carried away again, yet it is natural to{uppofe the heavier ones will be left behind. If the thores are bold and rocky, except juit near the entrance of the river, there will be the lefs of this mud; but, indeed, on fuch fhores there can be little or no occafion for embanking, unlefs, perhaps, in fome creeks, narrow at the entrance and fpreading wide aboye. From fach ereeks, if the fea were excluded, a great deal of land might probably be gained*.” It is remarked, that‘ embankments againft rivers may be divided into two forts; namely, thofe for preventing their encroaching on the adjacent lands, and for protect- ing thofe lands and the neighbouring level country from being oyerflown when the water rifes above its ordinary level. It may be obferved, that where the courfe of ariver is a ftraight line, or nearly fo, it hardly ever makes any encroachment upon its banks, unlefs, perhaps, in very large rivers, when tbey rife above their com, mon level either owing to an increafe in the waters, or to their being in fome de- gree affected by the tides. In cither cafe the waves occafioned by a firong wind, where the river is wide, will moulder away the banks on that fide upon which it blows, unlefs prevented in proper time. This may be done either by fecuring the bank properly with ftones, or by driving a row of Jong piles pretty clofe together, at a little diftance from the fhore; the piles being of fuch a length, and fo driven, that their tops may be always above the higheft rife of the water. It is furprifing the effet that piles driven in this manner have in refifting the power of waves, Some years ago, when on.duty as.an engineer at a fort near Portfmouth, built.on a point of land much expofed to the fea, the waves:made fuch‘havock that the walls on that fide were conftantly giving way although built inthe moft fubftantial man- ner, and having bulwarksiof Jarge‘heavy fione befidesto prote@ the foundation: however, all would net.do; thofe bulwarks were foon knocked to pieces, and feveral times the wall itfelf. At length it was propofed to drive a number of piles at about - forty to fifty yards from the fort. Thofe piles were twelve or fifteen inches in dia- y y¥ meter, and driven about.one diameter from each other, nearly in a ftraight line, parallel to the wall where the waves did fo much damage.‘They were driven into the ground with a pile engine‘till:perfeétly firm,:perhaps eight or nine feet deep, and about two feet of ithe top of them eft above the level.of high water mark. After this was done‘the walls received no further injury, the fpace between the piles and the fort being always perfectly finooth shawever tempeftuous the waves * Beatton in, Communications tothe Board.of Agriculture, Vol. II. SAG 2, ee ee ee _ le —s— ao ore 602 Additions and Correftions might be without. The fame fimple method might fometimes, perhaps, protect the banks of large rivers expofed to the waves when other methods fail*.” But“ the mot{t common caufe of rivers’ encroaching on their banks is, the refiftance occa- fioned by a fudden bend. In flat countries, apt fometimes to be overflown, where there are any fuch bends or windings in the rivers, it would be of great ad- vantage to ftraighten the courfe as much as poflible; for as every impediment or obfiruGtion will naturally caufe the water to rife higher than it otherwife would do, and as fuch bends have that effect, confequently in the time of a flood tne waters will overflow a greater extent of country, and toa greater depth, than if the river had a free and uninterrupted courfe ftraight forward. If the windings of the river cannot be altered, and that encroachments are making on fome part of the banks, it muft firfi be confidered whether the force of the water can be diverted to another place where no injury can be done+.” See Plate XXXVIII. Fig. 2. On the river Nith, in Dumfriefhire, it ts obferved,“a good deal has beem done in this way by Mr. Millar, of Dalfwinton. See Plate XXXVIII. Fig. 3.. As the river was encroaching moft rapidly, and feemed inclined to take a new courfe, which would have deftroyed fome very fine land, and done a great deal of mifchief in that part of the country—To prevent this, Mr. Millar made a large cut about four hundred yards in length, and threw in a great quantity of{tones quite acrof& the river to direct its courfe ina ftraight line. This had in a great meafure the de- fired effect, by totally preventing its progrefs; but now it began to encroach on its banks at another part. He at firft endeavoured to prevent this by driving in, ata confiderable expenfe, a number of piles at a little diftance from the bank, and wattled them with willows, branches,&c. thinking thereby to protect the bank. The piles were drove in with heavy mallets, apparently firm into the ground; they continued fo for fome months till a heavy fall of rain came on, which fwelled the river, undermined the piles, and carried them all away. But it is in vain to think of piles doing any good in fuch a fituation unlefs firmly driven in by a pile» engine, for it is not poffible to drive them in properly with mallets. This mu& have been the caufe of their giving way fo very foon. The piles not fucceeding, he was refolved to try another plan. Several of his adjacent fields being covered with an immenfe quantity of ftones, he ordered them to be gathered and thrown into the river, fo as to form a jutty alittle way above the injured bank. Being obliged to go from home about that time, and leave the execution of the work to fome country people, they carried out this jutty too much at right angles tothe ftream; it had * Beatfon in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol, II.- f Ibid. 2, to the Firft Volume. 603 not therefore the defired effe&t, but rather made the matter worfe than before; for if a jutty is carried out at right angles, the current will be forced to the oppofite fide of the river, and thence it will rebound more violently than it did before. But if a jutty is placed obliquely, it will force the current gradually on the other fide, in which pofition one jutty may do more good than feveral placed improperly at right angles. He was therefore under the neceflity of making other jutties in this way, and has now the fatisfaction to find that they anfwer the purpofe intended. Thofe he made laterally formed a fort of convex flope, the convexity being parallel to the current. Strong planks were alfo firmly fet on edge among the ftones, their ends pointing towards the river; fo that if ever any current came fo rapid as to move any of the ftones, it muft move them all in a body the whole length of the plank. Perhaps this pre- caution was unneceflary; for although fiones are thrown into a river loofe in this manner, the flufh, fand,&c., that come down the river, will foon fill up all the cavi- ties, and render it as firm and folid as a regular built wall*, “The next fort of embankments againft rivers are, it is obferved, thofe to prevent them overflowing their banks, and inundating large tracis of country. This may be confidered as the fipleft and eafieft of all forts of embanking if judicioufly ex. ecuted. It is therefore the more inexcufable to fee in fome places extenfive tracts of the richeft meadows completely overflown by every flood. Few ordinary-fized rivers rife more, even in the greateft floods, than five or fix feet above their common level, unlefs when they meet with fome confiderable interruption or confinement in their courfe. But if interrupted or confined, they will rife perhaps twenty feet ormore. If, forexample, a given quantity of water is fix fect deep when running over a{pace twenty feet wide, it is clear if that{pace were made only ten feet wide the water would rife to twelve feet; and if it were inade forty feet wide, the fame quan- tity of water would rife only to the height of three feet. It is therefore of great con- fequence, in preventing inundations, to give the river as much width as poffible, by widening every narrow place. All kinds of obftructions fhould alfo be removed, whether occafioned by windings, fhoals, tones, trees, buthes, or any thing elfe. In fome cafes this may even preclude the neceflity of embanking; but where embank- ing is neceffary, let the banks by all means be at a fufficient diftance from each other tocontain with eafe between them the largeft contents of the river in great floods. The diftance and height of the banks may eafily be afcertained by meafuring a fec- tion of the river when at its higheft, or when the flood-mark is vifible. Where. a fufficient diftance is allowed between the embankments, their height need not ex_ * Beatfon in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. II. 604 Additions and Correftions ceed from four to fix feet. If irremovable obftacles are in the way which caufe the river to rife higher, the banks muft be higher in proportion. In either cafe, how- exer, the flope of thefe kinds of banks on each fide may be equal to its perpendicular height, and the breadth on the top about one-third of that height; which, fuppofing the bank fix feet high, the bafe would be fourteen feet, and the breadth of the top two feet. See Plate XXXVI. Fig. 5. The materials for making thefe banks fhould be taken as much as poflible from the fides of the river, which will have the double effect of widening the river and forming the embankments; and there fhould bea treneh on the infide(from which materials may alfo be got), with fome fluices, as formerly directed, to drain off any water from within; alfo fluices to let in water from the river, if required, which would very much fertilife the mea~ dows if properly laid out for that purpofe*.” Farms fituated on the borders of rivers are often liable to injury and incort- venience from them in different ways; as from part of the foil being carried away in times of flood, from the rivers overflowing their banks, and from the rivers in times of flood flowing back into the channels of the rivulets and{treams that con- dud the water from the more elevated and diftant grounds to the rivers, whereby thefe rivulets and ftreams are made alfo to overflow their banks. The danger of the foil‘being‘carried away in time of floods is increafed or decreafed according to cir- cumftances; as the form of the banks, the nature of the foil, the rapidity of the river, and the quantity of the water that lodges on the margins of the banks or falls ‘over them into the river. Where the banks ofa river are perpendicular, if the foil be of a fandy ortich mouldering nature, the danger of part of them being carried away by floods is greater than where they flope‘gently from the farface of the field to the bed of the river, which when they do not they fhould be made fo. But if the foil and fubfoil be an entire mafs of clay or rong loam, and the current of the river do not prefs:more‘upon one part than another, a fabfiantial improvement may be effected by floping the bank fo that the declivity may be one foot in three or four from the furface of the field to the bed of the river. And where gravel mixed with fmall{tones can be conveniently procured, fpreading thefe materials on the floping bank, to the depth of eight or ten inches beyond the flowings of the river, may‘prove‘a good fecurity againft further damage; and if the bank be planted‘thickly with any fort of willow, it will ina fhort time become an impe- netrable fence, and the annual cuttings of woed foon be equal to the value of the * Beatfon in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. IT. to the Firft Volume, 605 Jand thus occupied. Where no gravel can be procured, the new floped bank fhould be immediately covered with well fwarded turf, which thould be beaten down as hard as poffible, either by the batk of the fpade or with wooden mallets. If this be done in the beginning of fummer, and willows be planted the following autumn, the improvement may be effeCiual and permanent. In order to prevent the effects' of a current againfi a particular part of the bank, a fence or bulwark of ftone in the front of the place may be neceflary; the beft way of doing which is, to drop the ftones in a carelefs manner, but fo as they may lie clofe together on the floped bank, care being taken to lay them all the way from the bed of the river, till confiderably beyond where the river flows in common. In level, or nearly level diftricts, all that is neceflary is to fecure full{cope for the rivers to overflow their ufual bounds without interruption: when that is fecured by either of the methods before mentioned, floods, unlefs very violent, feldom do any material damage to the banks of rivers in fuch fituations. It is in many cafes extremely difficult to guard rapid running rivers in fuch a manner as to prevent part of the banks from being carried away by inundations. Neither floping the banks nor{trong bul- warks made of ftone would here be effectual; the method of filling a fort of large open bafkets, placed along the bottom of the banks, with fiones, has been found: fuccefsful, and, as thefe bafkets may be made to contain two or three tons of fiones,. it can only be on few occafions, and in very particular fituations, that they can be difplaced or carried away. Much damage is often done to the banks of rivers in level diftricts, efpecially if the banks be perpendicular and of a confiderable height, by allowing the land-floods to fall over them into the rivers. As the water from the furrows approaches the bank it is frequently{topped in the furrow of the _head-ridge, which becomes for a time a kind of refervoir; the confequence of which is, that a confiderable proportion. of the water finks and filtrates through the earth, which, being thus foftened and fwelled, is more eafily undermined and carried. offby the river. Sometimes little cuts or openings are made from the furrows acrofs. the head-ridge for the purpofe of conducting the rain-water into. the rivers, the confequences. of which are equally bad; as at every one of thefe cuts or openings a little creek is formed, in confequence of the bank having been more: foftened, and by that means having become a more eafy prey to the rivers when in: flood. To prevent thefe evils, it is neceflary, befides{loping the banks, to. devote a part of the lands adjoining, to the breadth of twenty or thirty yards, either: to pafturage, or the growth of trees; and to forma drain at a proper diftance from, and parallel to, the bank for the purpofe of collecting and carrying eff the 2.-———— 666 Additions and Corretions water from the furrows. By this means, and condu@ing the water from this drain into the rivers by conduits, formed a little above their ordinary levels, much land which is annually loft would be preferved*.. Various injuries happen to the farmers in level traéts, where the banks of the rivers are low, and where the courfes are not of fufficient breadth to contain the water in time of flood. By forming mounds of earth, the fides of the drains propofed to be made for carrying off the land- water being well floped on the fides towards the rivers, the rivers would be prevented from doing injury to the adjoining lands; as by thefe mounds being placed at a diftance from the river, the force of the ftream would be much leffened, and the natural boundaries of the rivers greatly enlarged, And where injury is fuftained by the rivers during floods flowing back into the channels of the flreams that bring the waters from the more elevated grounds, the beft method is to ere¢t mounds at a diftance from the banks, and of a fize propor- tioned to the quantity of water which, from tbe caufe now mentioned, may be fup- pofed at any time to ftagnate in thefe channels. This may be done at a very trifling expenfe either in money or land. If the proprietors do not choofe to ornament the country and improve their eftates, by planting trees on the borders, the farmers may fo conftruct the mounds as that they may become fences to their arable fields, while the portion of land cut off may be devoted to pafturage+. Where the water coming from the hills or high lands are confiderable, and the courfes of the rivers extremely ferpentine, fo as to produce much injury on the flat lands below by the fiagnation that is produced, advantage may be derived in other ways, as by ftraighteningthe courfe of the rivers, and interrupting the water coming from the high lands above them, by cutting proper drains and channels along the face of the declivity as fhown in Plate XX XVII. L1G 0.5% In embanking againfi lakes, it is obferved that“as the waters fabfide greatly in the fummer feafon, and rife confiderably in winter, or when the feafon is wet, advantage may in fome cafes be taken to confine them within their fummer limits, or at leaft to cut off fome of their branches or creeks, When either of thefe is to be attempted, the principal outlet mut firfi be examined, and that fhould be enlarged and widened confiderably, which, upon the fame principle as already mentioned refpe@ing the widening of rivers, will prevent the water rifing fo high as formerly. If the levels will not admit of much depth being got, or if the ground is rocky, and would be difficult and expenfive to deepen, let the breadth be increafed as much as pothble, and * Modern Agriculture, Vol. IV.+ Ibid. { Farmer’s Magazine, Vol. II. Pp. 179. 1 the tage aft t0 ted, ened ig the is will ficult >, and ———ESE Sean to the Firft Volume. 607 every obftacle cleared away, that the water may run freely into a thallow fiream. If it is required to afcertain exactly, or to fix the future limits of the water, a fection of the greateft quantity running out during a flood fhould be taken. fection, for example, ten feet wide and four feet deep; by making it 40 feet wide, the fame quantity of water will not rife above one foot: confequently, by this means walone, three feet in height will be gained all round the lake, which, embanking it, would be a very great object*,” The fummer feafon is the beft time to carry on thefe as well as ments; but when materials are to be brought from a diftance, th Suppofe this in cale of other embank- cy may be laid down or prepared at other feafons, excepting the turf, which fhould always be ufed as foon as poffible after it is cut. The manner of confiructing embankments of this nature is the fame as in other cafes. The methods employed in making embankments againft the{ea on the eftate of Lord Galloway are reprefented in Plate XX XVIII. at figs. 7, 8, and g. They were formed to the heights of three and a half and five feet, having the breadths of fix feet and five feet at the bafes, and 20 inches at the tops. They were conftructed almot wholly of turfs or fods, vith only a little well beaten tuff in the middle of one of them; and with two finall drains, one on each fide, about two feet in depth, coft about 3d per yard. In executing all forts of embankments, the greateft care fhould be taken to make them perfectly firm and water-tight, by conftantly beating and ramming them well while they are forming. To be read after Line 22, Page 216.—It has been fuggefted that the oily particles with which the fleece of fheep is charged, exfuded without doubt from the animal, though an imperceptible, may probably be a powerful manure; when fheep lie down, this animal exfudation may be abforbed by the foil. It might be worth inveftigation, whether this fecretion be more copious in one breed of fheep than another; and whether it equally abounds in the fine thort fleece of the Norfolk breed as in the coarfer but more ample clothing of the Leicefter, South Down,&c. Lo the oilinefs of their fleeces may alfo perhaps be attributed the great injury which fheep commit on young trees, by rubbing themfelves againft the bark. To be read after Line 32, Page 290—The ordinary method of forming thefe fuper- ficial drains is to excavate channels in the form of a wedge, that is to fay, with the * Beatfon in Communications to the Board,&c. Vol. Il, VOL. I.* 4G 508 Additions and Corrections fmooth fides narrow at the bottom and diverging towards the furface-of the earth ¢ thorns and ftraw are then ftamped firmly in with the foot, and the drains are covered over with mould. Unlefs the foil be very{tiff and tenacious, the fides of the drains are very liable to be torn by. the force with which the thorns are prefléd in; and the channel, which ought to be preferved quite open at the bottom, often- times half choked by the loofe earth which crumbles in. Inftead, therefore, og forming the drains in the ordinary fhape, it 1s perhaps better to make a fhoulder for the thorns to reft on; thus, ac and dc reprefent the fmooth fides of an under-drain, as it is ufually formed:—rather than form the fides thus approaching to each other at the bottom, it is perhaps better to.cut down perpendicular the two| A 2 eee AS dotted fides ad@and Ze, leaving the fides, and the fhoulders df and ge for the thorns to refion.. Below this fhoulder the water has an uninter- rupted channel for its courfe. At the mouth of the drains, that is,. where a they difcharge themfelves into the ditches, it isadvifable to lay a fmall plank trans- verfely. Sheep in the fammer time run into ditches, and without fome fuch prefer- vative as this, they are likely to fcratch a quantity of mould into them, The advantages of draining have been exhibited with fingular effe& in the neighbourhood of Eaft Devon. Mr. Munning informs us, that at Michaelmas, 1795, Mr. Salter of Winburgh entered upon the occupation of more than eight hundred acres. of heavy land, which had been fo entirely negle€ted by his prede+ ceflor, as to be almoft altogether what it ought zo¢ to have been. Mr.Salter immediately faw, that unlefs he could get rid of the furface water all his Jabour muft be fruitlefs, and his money expended in vain; he therefore began his operations by cutting 342 rods(of 7 yards to the rod) of river through the centre of the farm, 7 feet wide and 6 feet deep perpendicularly, in order to obtain an outlet for the water to flow from his other works: he cut 2937 rods of new and old ditches, 6 fect and 5 feet deep perpendicularly; 1116 rods of open drains, of various widths and depths, from 4 to 5 feet wide, and from 31 to 41 feet deep perpendicularly; and he cut and filled up 4871 rods of under-draining, of which the leading drains were 36 inches, and the feeding drains to the fame 3o inches deep perpendicularly. The whole of this work was executed and completed in one year!) Mr, Salter has. continued to do a great deal every year fince 1795: between Michaelmas 1800 and Michaelmas 1801 he executed 4423 rods of under-draining of widths and depths as before exprefled; and he is now going on with the fpirit and the judgment ofan. experienced and an underftanding agriculturift. The effect has been, that on the a to the Firft Volume. 609 land which was fo much impoverifhed by ftagnant water, and fo much inundated by land-fprings, as not to reproduce the feed ufed upon it, his crops have been abun- dant; and while Mr. Salter reaps the benefit of his judicious exertions, he may very fairly be regarded as a public benefactor. He may almoft be confidered as producing a new creation around him, and fhould be held up, by every friend to agricultural ‘improvement, to the admiration and tle imitation of all who have to do with heavy land from which it is neceflary to remove the furface-water*. To be read after Line 31, Page 326.—Straw alone muft, however, often be ineffica- cious, as there is no foil fo tenacious as not to be liable to crumble. Froft penetrates deeper into wet lands than dry ones: evaporation is greater in the former cafe than in the latter, and heat is evolved with more facility. Many of the eftimates of the expenfes of draining, from the great rife in the price of labour, are confiderably lower than the prefent prices. To be read after Line 2, Page 368.—In Norfolk they occafionally make what is called a baftard fummer-till. If a piece of land, from which they have mown a crop of clover or any artificial grafs, appears to be not fufficiently clean for the enfuing wheat-crop, they plough it twice, and, if there is time, thrice before harveft, ufing freely both the roller(if it is neceffary) and the harrow. They fometimes even make a daftard fammer-till of a pea-{tubble, for the purpofe of cleaning it. As foon as the peas are off the land, which oftentimes happens four or five days, and fome- times a week, before the harvefimen are taken home, they harrow the haulm up and cart it off; plough the land once immediately, and let it lie till harveft is over; then give it two crofs ploughings, and a fourth preparatory for feed, which, how- ever, is oftentimes ploughed in with the laft earth. To be read after Line 5, Page 541.—The Rev. Dr. Pike has fiated, upon the con- viction of many experiments, that wheat will thrive as well, and produce as full a crop, if fown in the fpring, as if it had been committed to the ground the autumn before; and in many fituations he is of opinion(where it is fubject to much wet during the winter) the crop will be much better in quality and more abundant in quantity.‘“ Ihave frequently fown,” fays he,“in the fpring both the white and the Kentith red wheat, fometimes as Jate as the middle of March, and never had a * Munning on the Culture of Turnips. ; 7 AG 2 5 610 Additions and Correétions crop fail that was fown at that time: nor have I-ever found any confiderable dif: ference in the times when the autumnal and the{pring crops ripened.” Dr. Wilkinfon, of Enfield, an intelligent agricultor, recommends the cultivation of fpring-wheat, as a{pecies of grain which, although fown fo late as the r1th of May, he has found, by experience, to ripen with the autumnal wheat. He obferves that fpring-wheat was known to the Romans asa fpecies diftin& from the common wheat.. i Oo> and defcribed as fuch by Columella, who conceived it very acceptable to the farmer; when, on account of floods, or rains, or other caufes, he had been prevented from fow- ing the autumnal kind. And Mr. Dickfon, in his account of the Agriculture of the An- tients, took it for granted that it had never been cultivated in England, and exprefs-. eda with that the experiment might be made. He confiders it as well adapted to the wet climate of Scotland, where, owing to heavy rains, the farmers are frequently refiricted in regard to the quantity of wheat that can be fown. Common wheat, he fays, has been fown in fpring in Scotland, but has frequently failed. By Linnaus it is termed Triticum cfivum, fummer or{pring wheat. it has four flowers in the calyx, three of which moftly bear grain: the ealyxes ftand pretty diftant from each other on both fides ofa flat fmooth receptacle. The leayes of the calyx are keel-fhaped, fmooth, and they terminate with a‘thort arifta. The glumes of the fowers are{mooth and bellying, and the outer leaf of the glumes in every calyx is terminated by a long arifta; but the three inner ones are beardlefs, The grain is rather longer and thinner than the common wheat. It is fuppofed to be a native of fome part of Tartary*. Mr.Ray alfo, be fays,.clafies it as a diftin@ fpecies. It is generally fuppofed to have een introduced into this country about the year 1773, under the name of Siberian wheat, Switzerland wheat, or dled de Mars. It is however mentioned by Harrifon,; an hiftorian in the time of Elizabeth, though he fays it was known only to few huf-. bandmen. In Dofiie’s Memoirs of Agriculture and other@iconomical Arts, Vol. III. a detail, the Doctor obferves, is given of fome experimentson thecultivation of this wheat, com- municated by feveral gentlemen, to the Society of Arts. The obfervations there re- corded, he fays, agree with his own experience. Thelateft fow n, however, was the latter endofApril; the produce is ftated atthree and two quarters per acre. The experiments feem to agree in deciding, that no advantage was gained by fowing it early. Wheat fown in April ripened as early as what had been fown the beginning of March, * Bryant’s Flora Diaetetica: = ee See li to the Firft Volume.- 611 a That it does not tiller like common wheat, but fhoots up immediately from its firtt appearance above ground. That the grains are fmaller than common wheat, but increafe in fize when fown on rich land. That it is liable to the fmut. That it would fucceed in the fens and low lands, which are fubje@ to winter-floods. That it would be worth trying in the mountainous parts of Derbyfhire, York thire,&c. where httle or nowhcat is fown, the fituation being too cold for wheat fown in the autumn to fiand the feverity of winter, frofts, and rain, without perifhing. Inthe firt volume of the Tranfactions of the Society of Arts, Sir Wm. Fordyce, he remarks, gives an account of an experiment on{pring or Siberian wheat, in which two bufhels of wheat produced two quarters of grain. It was fown the beginning of April, after turnips, and was found to prove an excellent nurie of clover and rye-grafs, fown at the fame time. The turnips had been drawn, and not fed off by fheep. The(oik a mixture of gravel and clay. And in the Annals of Agriculture, Vol. VII. and X., fome important experiments on{pring wheat are recorded by Mr. Ruggles, of Clare. Seed two and three buthels per acre; the produce from two to three quar~ ters. Time of fowing the end of March. Mr. Ruggles obferves, that this wheat is apt to receive injury from froft and dry weather. That it requires a dry mouldy foil; if moift, fo much the better; but he does not conceive the crop equal to. {pring corn, unlefs the price of wheat fhould exceed the average difference be- tween that grain and barley, or when, from an uncommon quantity of rain in autumn, the wet lands may not have been fown. The weight fixty-three pounds and a quarter each buthel, containing eight gallons three pints. Mr. Ducket, the a Doctor fays, has cultivated{pritg-wheat ona large fale. He drills two bufhels per acre, about the middle of March. He has grown it on the fame land for three years fucceffively. He has reaped this wheat on the 25th of July, got in turnips, and then wheat again in fpring. And Mr. Marfhall, in his Survey of the Midland: Counties, remarks, that fpring-wheat is cultivated and approved of in that dis. firict. It was likewife ftated in the General Evening Poft of November 12th, 1800, that in an account of an experiment made that year on the genuine{pring-wheat: —A perfon at Bridgenorth fowed ten acres with the abeve wheat on the 29th and 30th of April, which produced on the average more than twenty-one: threaves, common-fized fheaf, per acre; and, from a trial made of its produce,, yielded more than fixty quarts of fine wheat per threave. Seven acres. was a two- year old clover-ley, cold clay land, ploughed more than feven months. before fowing. Four acres of the above feven were manured with four hundred buthels of lime before fowing, the other three with one hundred bufhels of foot fix weeks after.. $ as ms ee hele Is Seca i i Se eee Soe SoA Aa ot ea eels diene ec Re Ae RL Re 612 Additions and Correétions The remaining three acres were fown on rather light land after turnips. The whole fown on one ploughing, and houfed early in September. The refult of the Doctor's extenfive experience on the cultivation of{pring wheat, is as follows:—1. That it is a diftinét fpecies ef wheat, as obferved by Columella, Linneus, and Ray. He has fown it in{pring, atthe fame time, and in the fame field, with common wheat. The common wheat failed, while the fpring-wheat rofe to a crop. 2dly, That being liable to be hurt by the froft, no advantage is gained by early fowing.‘That though the proper feafon may‘be about the middle of April, yet it may be fown fo late asthe 15th ef May, ashe found by experience laft year, when, notwithfianding the unfavourable feafon, it ripened before barley fown at the fame time, and on the fame field, and was cut on the 2oth of Septem- ber, immediately after the autumn-fown wheat; the crop two quarters per acre. 3dly, That about two bufhels may be the proper quantity of feed per acre; when drilled, lefs; his has been fown broad-caft. That the average produce may be about two quarters per acre, unlefs when fown after turnips fed off by fheep, when he has gained three quarters per acre. 4thly, That the average value may be about 1s. lefs per bufhel than the common wheat. He fold this year the fpring- wheat at ros. while r1s. was given for the common fort. 5thly, That being a fmaller grain than the common wheat, it ripens earlier and with lefs fun: in a wet harveft, therefore, it dries fooner for grinding, as he experienced laft year. That it receives but little injury from a wet fummer and autumn, but will ripen earlier than barley in fuch a feafon. And, 6thly, That when harrowed in on autumn-fown wheat, in places where the crop has failed, it will ripen at the fame time without injuring the fample; which wouid not be the cafe with either barley or oats. It may therefore, he thinks, on a large farm, deferve the attention of the hufbandman, and be worth his while always to cultivate a{mall quantity, as the beft means of reftoring a thin wheat crop.—Magazan beans, when dibbled in, will anfwer the fame purpofe, but perhaps not equally well, as they may be longer in drying than the wheat*. But though Dr. Wilkinfon recommends the Triticum eftivum as beft adapted for{pring culture, Dr, Pike thinks that in fome northern parts of the ifland, where the common wheat is generally found to fail when fown in fpring, it may probably be fo: but continues his affertion that he has repeatedly fown both the common red or Kentifh wheat, and the white, iz the fpring, and had excellent crops. Dr. Pike has not, however, mentioned the nature of his land, * Monthly Magazine, Vol. IX. p. 244. | eh ee to the Firft Volume. 613 The former of the above writers has likewife given fome ufeful obfervations, the refult of his own experience, on the nature and cultivation of another kind of wheat, ufually known by the title of Figyptian or Prolific wheat, though little attended to by writers on hufbandry. He found the firt year, on three acres of moi't loam, which had been previoufly fallowed, that nine buthels of feed produced nine quarters of wheat. In the fame field, after a fimilar preparation, the fame pro- portion of white wheat, fown at the fame time, produced three quarters four buthels peracre. In both cafes the fallow was dreffed with about one hundred buthels of lime per acre, at 7d. per buthel delivered. Four buthels of the Egyptian wheat, though weighing four pounds more than the fame quantity of white wheat, yet produced twelve pounds lefs of flour, the bran being coarfer and heavier. After the month of May the growth was more rapid than that of common wheat; on which aecount, he fhould fuppofe it might be fown with advantage in fpring. The enfuing{pring will prefent a fair opportunity for the trial. The ftraw fo nearly refembles a reed, that it has been called reed wheat. Being heavy and. tough, it is cut with difficulty; on which account the reapers require an extraordinary price, Tt.is excellent for thatching, and he has employed it for this purpofe on a large hay- barn. The truffes, on account of their weight, would appear fo{mall that the ftraw would not be faleable in the London market. The ears are bearded like the cone wheat, but in fhape refemble the fquare wheat or rivet. The length of the ftraw and weight of the ear make it liable to lodge. “ On expofing it to fale, he found the millers not inclined to purchafe it. They complain that it is of too horny a nature; that it grinds hard, and obliges them te fet their ftones too clofe. The flour is coarfer and darker than that of the com- mon wheat. A miller who purchafed fome was charged by his cuftomers with grinding rivets. Great part of the crop fold at a price but little above that of good barley. As the crop, though apparently thin on the ground, had yielded three quarters per acre, he entertained hopes that the cultivation might anfwer, even at the price of barley,—ifon lighter land, and a warmer foil, he could fecure a larger produce. With this view, therefore, the following year, he fowed on a liebter loam two acres with this wheat, and the remaining fix acres of the field with the common red wheat: the whole on a clover ley. The produce of the red wheat was three quarters per acre, but of the Egyptian not above two quarters per acre; and he found great difficulty in difpofing of it even at the price of barley. He concludes, therefore, that this wheat will not anfwer in this country, where wheat of a fuperior quality can be cultivated to advantage, unlefs it can be introduced 7 q 614 dditionssand Correétious Deca A pe asa fpring corn. THe has fince met with an account.cf this grain having been fown in the fpring as Egyptian or Siberian barley, under which name it was intro- duced into this country in the year 1767*. The Rev. Dr. Pike has fown it as fpring corn in the middle of April, arid has had above four quarters per acre. It was on very good land, and kept perfe&ly clean from weeds. Ifit be truly a native of Egypt, he fhould have judged, that a light but very rich foil might have been moft proper for it: neverthelefs, he thinks he has found, that(like Englifh rivets) ftrong land fuits it beft. It gives a very bold, plump eee grain, of a good colour. He cannot think that it is the fame as the Siberian wheat(or barley, as fome have called-it). The grains do not anfwer the defeription which fome authors give of that fpecies. That was, he fays, introduced into this country about the year’ which Dr. Wilkinfon mentions; but this wa known here at leaft above 120 years before; for he has founda fhort lobes and a tolerably good figure, of it in Parkinfon, page 1120, under the name of Triticum multiplics gic In the figure, its very remarkable difiinction from all i other forts is well expreffed, by a number of fhort ears growing out of the fides fthe chief ears: Ile calls it in Englifh double-eared wheat, and fays that it - grows about Lyovs in Francef. -e - To be read after Line 25, Page 541.—In Norfolk, wheat is feldom fown after the preparation of acomplete fummer fallowing; there, wheats almoft invariably fucceed clover, unlefs a pea or bean crop be ae BOill, and the land is fcarcely ever fallowed for it, except-in the cafe mentioned in note on daflard fummer-tills. Ce aadion To be read after Line8, Page 343.—In Norfolk, however,they arein theconftant habit of fetting ee upon a pea-ftubble with a fingle ploughing, and confider it very fafe and excellent hufbandry: the pea-crop ought to have been kept ciean, and, after it is harvefted, the haulm harrowed off. They never plough a bean-ftubble more than once. To be read after Line 15, Page 550.-—An intelligent farmer in Norfolk had, in * the year 1800, a piece of drilled wheat, confifting of nearly eight acres and a half, unfeeded by the carelefsnefs of his man.‘The vacant places were dibbled, but to no purpofe; the vegetation was fo languid, that, in the courfe of * Monthly Magaz'ne, Vol. XVI. p. 132.+ Ibid. i anata eee _ftick break the edges of the holes, that the mould might cover tl "was purpofely felected for the occafion; but it proved fo w L5\, tpl y, fo the Firft Volume. OLS the winter, ail the young fprouts died, or were eaten up by vermin.- On the fecond of March, 1801, fome women were hired to take up with a bricklayer’s = c wy ae Vth° yr 5 trowel plants of wheat from another field, where the crop was very luxuriant. _Thefe were planted into the vacant fpaces by children, large holes for them being i RARE PS:: é previouily made by the handle of a fpade, pointed at its end. The children were watched very attentively, making them arrange the roots of the plants, and witha yem. Wet weather et, that they were delayed 10le of which time two or three wheelbarrows full of plants were lying expofed on the tumbril ready for infertion. Thefe plants were ufed, not without fome apprehenfion. for more than a week; during the wl The tranfplanting was not concluded till the 21 ft of the month(March). At harveft-time it would have been impoflible to have diftinguithed the tranfplanted from the drilled wheat, but that the plants of the former were placed confiderably wider from each other. It is imagined, from recollection only, that the plants, on an average, formed fquares of from twelve to fourteen inches with each other. They branched abundantly, and bore well; the ears were as numerous and as heavy as the drilled wheat. There were certainly four acres tranfplanted. The expenfe of the bufinefs cannot be well eftimated, becaufe of its irregularity in this particular cafe. At the time it was tran{planted, wheat fold at about fixty-five fhillings percoomb. Two bufhelsan acre would have been inferted, and the fetting, on account of the irregularity, would certainly have been twelve fhillings per acre.? Saved Setting four acres, at 125.*- a Seo) Two coombs of feed, at 65s.°~ 6110./0 § 18.9 7 an It is not believed that the expenfe of the undertaking much exceeded a fourth part of this. It is fuppofed that the whole bufinefs of tranfplanting might be done for thirteen or fourteen fhillings an acre; and one acre of feed plants would fuffice for a great many acres. When the plants are taken froma crop which is intended to remain, the holes which the trowel makes fhould be preffed down with the foot, in order that they may be filled with earth, and not expofed to drought or too much wet. In trying experiments of this fort, it is be{t not to venture on too large a fcale at firfi. 616 Additions an2t Correfions To be read after Line 18, Page§73-—Ploughing but once for fummer cora hag however been advifed by fome: this praCtice, it has-been obferved by. an intelligent farmer, though certainly not general in the county of Norfolk, is yet by no means His crop of barley was never more abundant than it was laft year ngle ploughing.«He has now béiween forty and fifty acres, which have the appearance of being very productive at the enfuing harveft, not one acre of which has becn ploughed twice. This practice certainly faves-expenfe, fives time, and is-very fimple. He doesnot, however, mean to recommend it merely becaufe he adopts it himfelf; every man muft be guided by circumftances: if his land is foul he muti clean it, and frequent ploughing is at once the cheapeft and moft effectual method he can purfue. If, however, the land be thoroughly cleaned by the ufual laborious preparation for turnips, it cannot be very foul for barley or oats, one of which is mofily the fucceeding crop; and he fufpects the neceflity of ‘frequent ploughings for fummer corn is generally attributable to the flovenly injudicious manner in which the fummer leys for turnips have been managed*. Without venturing to recommend the practice, a Norfolk farmer ftates a fad: In the year 1800, he fowed between forty and fifty acres of barley upon turnip Jand ploughed only once, and thrafhed fomewhat more than eleven coombs:—three buthels per acre. This was in the year of fearcity. In i801, he grew only twenty- four acres of barley; about half of which was drilled, the land having been.pre- vioufly pulverized by repeated ploughings, the other half oxce ploughed only, after the turnips were off. Yherefult was much in favour of the broad-caft barley: but it fhould be ebferved, that‘the drill did not deliver the‘feed with fufficient regu- larity:—he grew eight coombs:—two buthels round. The year following he fowed forty-two acres of barley broad-catt: wanting to bring his land upon fmaller ridges, -he worked it about: the crop of barley was very great. He has already thrafhed about ten coombs per acre, and calculates that he has between two and three coombs per acre yet in the ftraw. By his advice, his tenant has this year fown almoft-his whole barley crop with a fingle ploughing; his turnip-land being clean, with the exception of one piece, which he was advifed to plough feveral times.‘The weather having continued remarkably dry was the reafon of the recommendation. By ploughing land two or three times and harrowing it as often in dry weather, whatever moifture there is muft evaporate. Corn depofited in land in this.fituation comes up at two different times; the fuperficial corn, that which being lightly buried feels the influence of * Monthly Magazine, Vol. X. p, 132, 1d SSS leg to the Firft Volume 617 ews, and fprouts up: that which lies deeper will not germinate till a fhower of ‘rain comes. At harveft time one half of the farmer’s crop would be thelled before the other would be ripe. The year before, the feed-time was dropping as the farmers call it, or he fhould not haye worked his land fo much about. Lo be read after Line 31, Page 575-—In oppofition to an opinion ftated by Mr. icerrich, that* out of a coomb of difcoloured barley, more than two buthels will not in moft inftances work on the malting floor;” and that he is of opinion, it cannot ‘be relied upon for feed,* as the feeds do not vegetate better in the ground than they do upon the floor: an intelligent Norfolk farmer determined to try the vege- tative powers of barley in different tints of difcoloration; and found, as he expected, that the mere circumftance of difcoloration had nothing to do with germination when the feed is committed to the ground. If the corculum, the {peck of vitality, be not injured, the feed, he believes, will invariably germinate: the cotyledons are merely organs of nutrition, which convey the oily: farinaceous matter of which they are compofed, to the infant plant: if the nutritious fubftance be liberally communicated, which we{uppofe to be the cafe when the cotyledons are large, plump and firm, the plant, it is obvious, will thrive better and more rapidly, than when the cotyledons, fhrunk and fhrivelled, difiribute a parfimonious mucilage. Still, however, the deficiency of natural nourifhment in this latter cafe may, he is perfuaded, be in a great meafure fupplied by imparting an additional fecundity to the foil. He feleGed from a heap of barley, which lay in his barn, twenty kernels, the moft thin and meagre which he could find; this was during the fevereft part of winter. He planted them in fome very rich mould, and kept the pot in his filudy; where every one of them germinated, tardily indeed at firft, but the radical fibres foon foread, and the plants grew luxuriantly. In his garden he afterwards planted fome of the blackeft barley he could find, a large proportion of which grew, and was healthy: the corculum of fome few kernels had been injured, probably rotted by exceflive rains, and thofe kernels made no effort to germinate. In contradiction of the fecond pofition, he picked from the floor of a neighbour- ing maltfter fixty kernels of barley, which having been in the heap(as he was aflured by him) for nineteen days, had refufed to malt. He told him. perha the procefs of ps truly, that thofe kernels would certainly not vegetate, however long they remained cn his floor. He planted them in his garden: and out of fixty, forty-five grew as rapidly and vigoroufly as he ever faw barley in his life. In fhort, it is evident that warmth and moifture, however cflential to germination, are not of themfelves fufficient to a fice SRE ieee a eae Pe ie 7 RSG iH jai * | | 7 i .| gi t 618 Additions and Corretiions to the Firft Volume. induce it. Is it not probable, fays the experimenter, that the corculum of thefe kernels which refufed to germinate on the floor, was ftimulated into'aion by. the larger proportion of oxygen which the mould of the garden contained? If fo, and the fa@ is very eafily afcertained, the maltiter is not fo much at the mercy of the feafons as Mr. Kerrich would lead us to imagine: he may furely contrive to impart a portion of oxygen to his malt-heap without much difficulty, and without much expence. Encouraged by the fuccefs of his little experiments on the growth of difcoloured barley, hefold his brighteft corn, and trufted his whole crop to the moft ordinary afd the darkeft feed he had. And the prefent appearance of his crop, confifting of more than forty acres, gives him reafon to expect an abundant produce. Although barley will grow in the ground after having received confiderable difcoloration, nay after an incipient germination has taken place in'the ear as it has lain on the ground, yet it certainly may be fo injured as to be very unfafe for feed. He agrees, therefore, with Mr. Kerrich in earneftly recommending to thofe, who at any future feafon may be difpofed to fow dark barley,“ firft to try a fmall quantity of what they may re- ferve for feed, that they may afcertain whether it will grow or not, before they fow their general crop*.” * Monthly Magazine, Vol. X. p. 132. TEND OF THE FIRST YOLUME, R. Taylor and Co, Printers, Black-Horse Court, Fleet Street. Page 32 182 206 225 362 Line ie tees ERRATA. 1, for Cor read Cort 4,— fully read full: 9,— is read are 18,— the same error 15,—+ put};(in which cases the references willle right, and:the note+.1bid. will regard the note*) 30, for is read are 19, from bottom, the same error 17, for+ place t 9, from bottom, for prevent read preventing last but 2, for salt read sand 23, for tomil dew-read to mildew 11,— and that in as read only and ina 9,— tuta read ruta note*, for Dancus read Daucus 25, for crops have read crop has 5, note, for closes read clauses 23, for craw read crow 14,— grass, husbandry read grass-husbandry. ..——————————————— 1————— ——y—————— 8—————— V —————————— 5 5 3.=—————— ——=————— 2 3 —— ‿ 5. 4 — 3 Soiour& Grey Sortroſ Chart 33s Blue Cyan Green Vellow Hed Magenta Wnite Grey 1 Grey 2 GSrey 3 Grey 4 Black —