, h, S — y.. . 40 unn 1d Jo Ru d! Been et oS AG RLS UL& URE AND Rag RAT Agi FAT Kio. THE SECOND EDITION, WITH CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS. BY JAMES ANDERSON, LLD. F.R.S. FeA.Ss Se Honorary Member of the Society of Arts, Agriculture, d&c. at Bath; of the Philofophical Society, Manchefter; of the Agricultural Society, Altringham; of the Society for'promoting Natural Wiftory, London; of the Academy of Arts, Sciences, and Belles Lettres, Dijon> of the Royal Society of Agriculture, Peterfburgb; of the Philofophical Society, Phiiadelphia> of the Royal Economical So- ciety, Berlin; Correfpondent Member of the Royal Society of Agriculture Paris, and Author of feyeral Performances. VOLUME THIRD. And be gave it for bis opinion, that whoever could make two ears of corn, or two blades of grass, te grow upon afpot of ground where only one grew before, would deferve'better of mankind, and do more 4/- Sential fervice to his country, than the whole race of Poilticians put together. SWIFT. LONDON: PRINTED FOR ROBINSONS, PATERNOSTER-ROW, AND FOR BELL AND BRADFUTE PARDIAMENT-SQUARE, EDINBURGH. 1798. Sr ayers OHS ID beri GO 7« ‘ SaeIEcEeeae ee Slavic |[ [. TO GEORGE DEMPSTER, ES2. WHOSE EXERTIONS IN THE BRITISH PARLIAMENT, FOR UP» WARDS OF THIRTY YEARS, IN SUPFORT OF THE CLAIMS OF JUSTICE AND HUMANITY; WILL RENDER HIS NAME DEAR TO SUCCEEDING AGES, THIS VOLUME OF ESSAYS WITH THE MOST CORDIAL ESTEEM, RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, THE AUTHOR. Co NE an on a ee ! | | INTRODUCTION. Tue effays which compofe the prefent volume were written at the requeft of the prefident of the board of agriculture, and were intended, with fome variations, to form a part of the general report propofed to be laid before parliament by that board; but wére withdrawn by the author, and publifhed in their prefent form, from the fol- lowing confiderations. When the fubje€t was rar et ATM ARs|) Aa x oem xn srf{trn, ye| ER ope Be BS firft mentioned to him, he underftood that it wa +1, he intention of the board to have every part of ~ lil that report drawn up by men who had actually qh ca Va practifed agriculture as a bufine/s, each indivi- dual being defired to write fach-pat$ of it only as he had had occafion to be particularly acquainted with, in the courfe of his own prattice, leaving the other parts to be drawn up by fuch men as had had more experience in thefe departments. As this plan appeared to be better calculated to obtain authentic pra€tical information in agricul- ture, than any other the author had ever feen; and as he conceived a work of this kind to be much wanted, he readily agreed to lend every affiftance MOE..1TY b re“s eee* hi aa Be—— vul UN ER OD AU-C-EEON: in his power to forward the undertaking; and fet himfelf with alacrity to write out fuch parts of it as his’ own experience beft enabled him to do. When he had made a confiderable progrefs in this tafk, he learnt, with concern, that he had to- tally mifunderftood the meaning of the board of agriculture, in regard to the propofed report; and that, inftead of proceeding, as above ftated, and allowing every paper on thefe{ubjeéts to be ys 12 eee Pe Bele a JOU OF“EME WEEE, lubject to {uch limitations and correétions only as the board printed under the eve fhould fuggeft, and he approve of,—it was in- tended that thefe papers fhould be firft circulated among a number of gentlemen, who were to be feverally authorifed to alter, cancel, or add what- ever they thought fit; and then the work, thus altered, without either the kn wledge or the con- fent of the original writer, was to be publithed. No fooner was this under{tood by the author tite GUIs than he made hafte to inform the prefident of the board, that, underftanding fuch was the propofed plan of publication, he begged leave to decline having any hand in that work. On being prefled to give his reafons for thus declining, he candidly {tated, that as he had never written one line in his life with a view to publication, efpecially on agricultural fubjeéts, which he could not with Kae as OT ETE—a ae— ae".= ar ence a ee IE N-ER:©-D:0-C:TE: I Ow: ix truth affert had been ferioufly intended to com- municate fome information that he deemed ufe- ful to the reader, he could by no means confent that any of his agricultural writings fhould be al- tered before publication, unlefs fuch alterations fhould be firft feen and approved by himfelf. He knows well, that much harm has been done by theoretical notions having been publifhed un- der the form of practical dire€tions in agriculture; and had he fubmitted to the plan propofed, he might have eventu: 2) eb) liy become a fort of acceffary iar mifleading the unwary, inftead of guarding them from error, which he hath ever ftudied to do, with the moft cautious circumfpeétion; and from which plan of conduét no confideration on earth fhall ever induce him to depart. He may himfelf, doubtlefs, like every other man, fall into error, and will be thankful to any one who fhall point out fuch errors, that they may be correét- ed; but he ever fhall ftudy, as he hitherto has done, not only to avoid them himfelf, but to ; guard others alfo again{t error, as much as is in his power. The effays thus written were allowed to lie by him for fome time, without any thoughts of pub- lication. But when the prices of corn had rifen to the alarming height they have now attained, Db 2 eR| TAO a ara Rese x INTRODUCTON. his attention was turned once more towards them. And as in thefe eflays many of the cir- cumitances, that operate towards diminifhing the amount of the agricultural produce of the coun- try, are developed with much_ precifion, he thought no time could be more proper than the prefent for fuch a publication: and that indeed the circumftances of the times demanded it. The author, who now withes rather to with- draw himfelf from the bufy fcenes of life, than ta puth himfelf forward in the world, having no pre- tenfions to the chara€ter of a fine writer, nor am- bition to acquire a reputation of that fort, would make an apology for the language in thefe effays, if he thought the fubje& required it; but in mat- ters of this fort refinement of language will not be expefted. As his obje&t has ever been ra- ther to inform, than to entertain, his attention has been direéted rather to the matter than the form. His chief ftudy has been to acquire fo much perfpicuity, as that his meaning could not be in any cafe mifunderftood; and to write in fuch 3 manner, as tended to induce the reader to attend to facts, and draw the neceffary conclufions from them him/elf, as they incidentally may in future occur, rather than implicitly to rely on{uch ca- fual{tatements as may fall in his way: and fome 3 ——e INTRODUCTFON. xi peculiarities of manner will be found referable to this Head. Indeed, as the chief inducement to his writing at all, was a defire to render fome truths, which his own experience hath taught him the importance of, more generally known and adverted to, than they feem hitherto to have been, he fometimes preffes thefe with a degree of carneftnefs that may lead him, like the Abbe de Saint Pierre, to recur to thefe fubjeéts oftener than the faftidioufnefs of modern criticifm might judge allowable: like the good Abbé, too, while he is willing to admit, that, if literary fame had been his chief objet, the criticifm may be Jjuft; yet with him, alfo, the author will be entirely fatisfied, if, at the price of reputed inelegance, he fhall be able to draw thefe objects into notice: for as he now looks with a comparative degree of indifference on that kind of literary fame which fo much attraéts the attention of younger men, and is neither anxious for wealth, nor future ag- grandifement, he proceeds in thefe difquifitions with a fteady earneftnefs, which to thofe who are accuftomed to the writings of men who are a€tuated by other views, may at times affume fomewhat of a harfh and ungracious afpett. He is not confcious, however, of being aétuated by the flighteft unkind propenfity towards any human b3 a nl wo j i Xi PNT R ODUCT ION. being; and he hopes that, when duly confidered, a ferious defire to promote the welfare of thofe who have not adverted fo much as he himfelf has done to the fubjeéts treated, will be found to be the prevailing charatteriftic of the work. He has ftated what he deems uaeaneiee truths with the greater freedom and. precifion, becaufe he be- lieves that, fhould he neglect to do it, few others would feel themfelves inclined to do fo. From this laft confideration, he is perhaps better pleaf- ed that the publication is in it’s prefent form, than if it had been given to the public as was origi- nally intended: for feveral facts are here ftated with lefs referve than he fears the board of agri- culture would have been willing to allow, if the work had been publifhed under their patronage. He begs that the reader may underftand that the facts alluded to in the fol lowing letters, had no fhare whatever in his determination to with- draw thefe effays from the board: for it is a truth, that he had intimated fuch intention to the board, with the reafons for it, before he had any know- ledge of the fats which gave rife to the fecond letter. Thefe letters are here reprinted, merely with a view to vindicate the charaéter of the au- thor from the flur that was apparently thrown upon it by the conduét of the gentleman to whom i - poses Ses ioe oma eS Re ee ee “ wae a= PE AERC ae Ree se a5 a. a ne i salar eB INTRODUCTION.i 1} es 4 than twenty years ago, and that Mr.: Blkingtén has never till this hour publifhed his, but has been going on from imperfett beginnings, gradually im-: proving as he went on, it 1s not fo clear that he may not have borrowed fome hints to direct his pr acti either directly from my treatife, which has nace pretty generally read, in Lancafhire, or 4 ¢ Ww REE p's) Vigne pat Re. Sapte! 1 Ms Mecae ie OW(reat Woe pene ery pte eras ee Le from tne converiation of iome permons who had read it.— From thefe confiderations, if the princi- eer yer ne Ba sete 2 SES esses sd Speen al Boas ple be the fame,.it will be difficult for the dent of the board of agriculture to[clear him- felf from the imputation of a marked partiality in the paflages above quoted; efpecially after my | A having pointed out to him, in my y former letter, XXxil INTRODUCTION. the paflages in my effays that dire@ed the fame method of praétice fo long ago as has been al- ready fpecified. If, on the other hand, the prac- tice followed by Mr. Elkington differs in princi- ple from that which I had fo long ago explain- ed; in that cafe the prefident of the board of agriculture may be with reafon accufed of in- juftice to the public, by having delayed fo long to explain the principle of that ufeful difcovery; for, as the public have already paid for the dif covery, they have a right to demand that it fhould be made more generally known for the benefit of the whole community; in the fame manner as Mr. Forfyth’s receipt for recovering de- brs cayed trees was publifhed, on receiving his pre- mium.[f underftand that I have been here mif- informed—a_ part only of that premium having been as yet paid, April 15, 1798.| 1 therefore, in the name of the public, demand of you, Sir, who have taken the lead in this tranfaction, to publith this fecret, that all the world may be enabled to know it, and to avail themfelves of it, if they in- cline, without being obliged to have recourfe to Mr. Elkington himfelf, who, in this inftance, like the venders of quack medicines, carefully con- ceals his fecret, that he may be enabled to profit by the credulity of the public. And{hall the NIFRODUGTION. xxii prefident of the board of agriculture demean himfelf fo far as to give countenance to fuch tranf- attions!!!—I will not fuppofe that fuch can be the cafe.- Yet appearances are againit you—In- advertence may have led you'to adopt a language that is fairly fufceptible of that interpretation; and you_cannot take, too early an opportunity of doing it away.| It will be the eafieft thing imaginable for Sir John Sinclair to clear himfelf from oe charge, and fettle the matter,—fimply by pul lifhing the principles on which Mr. Elk kington’s ee of draining is founded. This can be attende with little trouble:—For as Sir John mut fully underftand the principle himfelf,(otherwife it would be an infult-to fuppofe he could have ufed a language fo ftrong and decifive as he has done) —he can find little difficulty in explaining it, a a fupplement to one of thofe publications that are every day iffuing from the prefs, at the ex- pence of the board of agriculture. Such a publication j is likewife neceffary on Mr. Elkington’s account, if he means to free himfelf &from the imputation of quackery; which idea, the manner in which he has been introduced- public notice by the board of agriculture, has a ftrong tendency to countenafice. This ought to VOL. Tir. C XXIV INET ROD CLLON. be done away, if he withes to gain that refpeCta- bility of charaéter to which fuperior talents fhould naturally entitle him. With fuch men, candour is ever a leading charatteriftic feature; for, how- ever far concealment and deception may lead to emolument in certain cafeg, it never can be ac- counted honourable. Now, if Mr. Elkington e fenfible that he underftands the principles upon whichh is pra¢tice is grounded, fo completely as to be able to explain it in fuch a fatisfa€tory man- ner,as to fet at defiance the critiques ee cal inveftigators, he can have no objeétion to publith it... fe has received a price for it; and not only honour calls for it, but jufiice requires it at his hand.» If neither the prefident, nor any a member of the board of agriculture, nor . Elkington_ himfelf, malt after being thus called upon, publifh the fecret that he has fold, the public will be difpofed to believe that Mr. Elkineton cannot do it, and that he has availed hinielf of the influence of fome great man, to :mpofe upon the prefident and the board of agri- culture; who have thus, in their turn, been in- duced to lend their aid to enable him to difpofe he beft advantage. From thefe afiderations, it alike behoves the prefident, the board of agriculture,«and Mr. Rides, him-~ SR INTRODUCTION. xX felf, to lofe no time in publifhing his fecret. Among other good effects that will refult from this meafure, it will totally preclude all farther altercation refpecling the merit of this difcovery, between him and myfelf, or others. Tul fuch publication appears, it may not be improper in me to obferve, that another body. of men, who have had good opportunities of infor- mation, have thought proper to adopt a conduét re{pecting this particular, very different from that of the prefident of the board of agriculture. The gentlemen who compofe the fociety of agricul- ture at Altringham, near Manchefter, in the county of Lancafter, having determined to en- courage the draining of land by means of tap- ping, Judged that a refpect for their charaéter required them, in this cafe, to a&t with the ftri€- eft impartiality: and thinking it would be of ufe to thofe who were to attempt it, to know the principle on which fuccefs depended, as well as the mechanical| practice of the art, the fociety offered a premium to thofe who drained the greateft quantity of land according to the prac- tice followed by Mr. El lkington, on the prince ip é S explained by Dr.-Anderfon, in a book called e _fays relating to agriculture and rural ae xxvi EN ER OD CLEC WN: The following is Mr. Elkington’s own account of the way in which he was firft led into the train of difcovering this mode of draining by means of tapping, as it was told to me by a gentleman of great veracity, who had it from Mr. Elkington himfelf; and it appears to be fo natural, as fully convinces me that it is ftri@ly the truth. Mr. Elkington’s father having died about the year 1763, left him in poffeffion of a{mall farm of wet four land. He found that no good could be made of it without previous draining. He ac- cordingly fet to work to drain itin the ufual Way; but after having laid out as much money as his narrow funds could afford, he had the mortifica- tion to find that no benefit had refulted from his labour; which tended very much to difcourage him. While he was ina ftate of defpondency on this account, he, by accident, dug a little deeper than ufual in one of his drains, and found, to his great furprife, that a copious fpring of water burft forth from the hole, which continued to flow with a plentiful ftream for a very long period of time. He dug deeper in feveral other places with the fame effect, though the ftreams were lefs copious than the firft. In confequence of thefe openings, he had the fatisfa€tion to perceive that his fields gradually became drier and drier, 2 ov INTRODUC TFIGN; XXVil till they at laft were perfectly freed by it from all the fuperfluous moifture. And not only were his own fields thus drained, but the contiguous land, for a-confiderable diftance all round, was made ‘drier alfo by the operation. This circumftance led him to fufpect, that in other cafes, where the furface-appearance of wet land was fomewhat fimi- lar to his own, they might be drained by making openings refembling thofe above named. Suc- cefs attended his operations in many cafes; and he gradually went on in his prattice, corre€ting his firft errors by experience, and improving upon it till the prefent time. From this account, it would feem that the dif. covery was, as to him, merely accidental; nor does it appear, from the above, that he had any clear idea of the manner in which the draining is thus effected, or the principles on which it de- pends, fo as to be able to diftinguith, a priori, thofe cafes in which that mode of draining could be of no ufe, from thofe where it muft of necef- fity prove efficacious. As to myfelf, the difcovery of that mode of draining was made in the following manner:| had a field of wet land that lay very flat, but fo furrounded by ditches, that no furface water could come to it from higher ground any where, 9 Co AS penal, Sipe or>= A ell ——— XXV1il INF ROD CC TTON: and poffetiing at the fame time fuch a level as to prevent any water from neceffarily ftagnating upon it. The field was fo wet, that in many places it was a me e hobbling bog, over which a man could acca pafs during the drieft weather infurnmer. This wasa very unprofita- ble as well as difguftful objeét; and, in the be- ginning of the year 1764, I fet about ferioufly to have it drained. Omi confidering the ciream- {tances of the cafe with attention, I foon perceiv- ed, that as no /urface water Shae come upon it from the higher ground; and as the rain that fell upon the field itfelf was fuffered freely to run off, the water that drowned it mutt rife up from be- fow. But as the weight of the atmofphere a€ted on this field as well as on thofe around, the water could not be made to afcend, as ina pump,, by means of fuction: it muft, then, be forced to take that direétion in confequence of fome powerful preflure from below ground, acting fo ftrongly as to overcome it’s natural gravity. This preffure, 1 it was Se could only be in confequence of the water flowing from Higher ground, under the Surface, through a firatum of pervious matter, being pent in near the bottom by a ftratum of lay placed above it, and thus forced to rife to 2 higher level than the low ground, in this a Te a ee ET AT ET See SRL ke LN TR ODE CTO N. XIX kind of fubterraneous canal, fo as, by the natural power of gravity, to be fqueezed forcibly through fmall fffures in, the fuperior ftratum of clay. If fo, it would neceflarily follow, that fhould a hole be dug through the fuperincumbent ftratum of clay, fo as to reach the bed of the refervoir, the water would be allowed to iffue freely through that opening, and to run off the ground by it’s natu- ral level; and thus would the accumulated water, whff@h occafioned the preflure, be gradually ait charged, after which it could no longer be forced up through the fmall fiffures in the clay; and, of 5 9 0 the wetnefs, that had arifen folely fron m courle, | fr 1] rene 9 rya-+4 that caufe, muft be gradually removed. Gi this reafoning, which feemed perfeétly conclufive, and which was confirmed by obferving that the fubfoil of that field was every i a very fig ry fH oe mixed with{mall ftones, the dry weather was no fooner fet in, than[ put a.man to dig a pit as near to the edge or the{waggle as he could ap- 7© Seated L° proach, ordering nim to penetrate dire ly down- vards. making the pit Nee Bee ee= wards, Masing the pit no larger than was fufh- cient to allow him to work, and to proceed with- VIL out‘interruption, until he fhould perceive that ‘on makine his Fy Ira it} suid fo: 1 21a { Naini 1A Bis LER ORGS,{ INEUIC Und’ as if 1¢ were fomewhat hollow' below. On_ obfervi ae BS eee eee tao’ WANs Cae Se La loll,: this, he was defired immediately to defiftt. until cy Cc 4 SK[IN TRODU€EEON. he called me and received farther orders, The la- bourer accordingly fell to work; but he found the ground fo hard, that, in the courfe of two days, he had only penetrated to the depth of akout five feet. During that time I frequently vifited “the work, to examine appearances. Nothing remarkable occurred, fave that little peering {prings often were difcovered, through which the water iffued; but the quantity of water that came from them was not fuch as to interrupt the work... On the morning of the third day, about breakfaft time, the labourer called on me, and faid, that as his ftroke gave a douf found, (that was his phrafe,) he had called me according to my defire. I went immediately with him to the Place, and having made him go down into the pit, I defired him to fhow me in what manner he could come out of it. He then pointed out to me a kind of fteps he had made into the clay on one fide; and having lent him my hand to affift him, tore he could get out very quickly. J then ordered him to take a kind of fharp pointed iron crow, with a crofs handle and foot to iE; which he had found a very ufeful tool in loofen- ing the clay, and elve a ftroke of that with all his force upon the bottom, which he did.—On this, to his great furpr ife, the tool penetrated a thin . o—-. a ee Pe eiictien ees: a SN ee + ATL Es= hee ee a a a cata a INTRODU 6G ELON: XENI cruft, and then fell down from one to two feet, as in a vacuity, Through the opening thus made, a ftrong jet of water rufhed inftantly with great impetuofity; but I, being aware of it, and at hand to affift the man in mounting, he got very quickly to the furface, and out of all danger, though not a little terrified at what had happen- ed, The{tream was at firft fo large, as might, I fuppofe, have filled a pipe of from 6 to 12 inches diameter; and rofe as a jet d’eau, to the height of fix feet, at leaft, above the furface of the ground. The labourer, who had no idea of fuch a pheno- menon, looked upon it with an overpowering aftonifhment, which would have furnifhed a fine fubje€t for the painter. The ftream continued to flow, and to rife-above the furface of the ground for about a week; but gradually abated in height, till it arofe not above the furface of the ground, and continued ftill to flow; but the quan- tity of water gradually diminifhed, till it at laft fettled into a perennial{prin to run till the prefent day. g, which continues The confequence of this operation was, that during the courfe of the enfuing fummier, the water gradually drained“off from the boggy -ground; the fwaggle flowly acquired a firm fur~ ‘face, fo as to admit of being ploughed at any fea~ XKXH INTRODUCTION, fon; and about twenty acres of ground were thereby drained, which, before that time, had been in a great meafure ufelefs for every agricul- tural purpofe. Ten years afterwards, being about to publifh an effay, containing directions for draining all the different kind ds of wet grounds that occafion- y ally prove detrimental to the armer, I naturally fpecified this variety of wet ground among the others, and gavea plate explanatory of the caufe of that phenomenon, as I had done of the others, in order that every perfon, who chofe it, might be enabled to diftin ng uifh the cafe, and a pply the re- nedy himfelf, if he fo inclined. The efiay has hae now in the hands of the public above ce ty years, and will fpeak.for itfelf; fo that mo eos not be faid here on that head, further Ron that all thefe faéts could be proved, were it thought neceflary to do fo. I may add, however, at prefent, when I find that a difpofition is manifefted, on fome occafions, to withhold honour from thofe to whom honour is due, that though I did not think it proper, in a work that profeffedly treated of agricultural con- cerns only, to fpecify all the ufeful corcllaries that might be drawn from the phyfical appear- ance above explained, I may now, without any 2 eo Se ee ms oS TENET ONES tf PN teRO DUE LON: XXX impropriety, barely mention, that from the ap- plication of this principle, many phenomena may be explained in a very fatisfa€tory manner, which have been hitherto reckoned cafes of great difficul- ty. Some of thefe,(particularly in the ae of a well that was funk at Tilbury Porton the—lhames, as narrated in the Phil. Tran. Vol. in which an abundant{pring of fresh water was found, at a great depth below the furface. of the fea, after two fprings of /alé water had been] afled through above it,) I pointed out, in a letter I did myfeif the honour to write, feveral months ago, to Leigh Philips, Efq. of Manchefter, who had been kind enough to fay that the eflay referred to was what he conceived to be a compleat fyflem of draining. This expreffion induced me to fhow him it could not be deemed compleat; as feveral cafes were omitted, which I then fpecified to him: among others, it: was fhown that deep. lakes,— fur- rounded by mountains of great height on all fides, may, on fome octafions, be entirely drained, by boring, or finking fhafts downwards, fometimes : to a moderate depth: that alfo wet land may > 7 on fome occafions, be more eafily drained, by opening an outlet for the water benéath the re- fervoir which Oc cafions the Vet tha in by b br rins- 5 ing it up tothe fu‘face. And that, among moun- XXXIV INTRODUCTION. tains, it may frequently be much cheaper to carry off fuperfluous water from mines, by penetrating downwards, than by driving a horizontal level to the furface of the ground, which is in many cafes attended with a ruinous expéence. Thefe corol- laries are indeed fo obvious, when the principle is once explained, that it mut appear aftonifh- ing to any confiderate mind they have not been made, and very generally applied in practical cafes, long before the prefent period; and I here {pecify them, merely to direét the attention of men toan object from which much praétical good may be derived, in a variety of cafes, which it would be tirefome in me here to enumerate. I have farther to add on this head, that there is one variety of wet ground which had totally efcaped my notice in that effay, and which has not, that I know of, been treated of by any writer on agriculture; though it is, perhaps, more uni- verfally hurtful to the farmer, than any other kind of wet land whatever. This I have occafion particularly to explain, in the fecond effay of the prefent work, on the improvement of wafte lands, From the fats that were{tated in the commit- tee of the board of agriculture, in favour of Mr. Elkington’s mode of draining, as publithed in _—-= eo ws sete pe ——ADs INTRODUCTION. MXXV their repor¢, dated June 15th, 1795, there feems to be reafon to fufpeét, that Mr. Elkineton himfelf, even at that period, was not fully aware ofall the circumftances that were effential to the practice of draining ground, in the moft economical manner, by means of tapping;—as the labour and ex- pences incurred in many of the cafes there fpeci- fied, feem to be much greater than that mode of draining, judicioufly applied, could poffibly have required. But as thefe cafes are ftated by gen- tlemen who did not themfelves fully underftand this method, they may poflibly have been done with fome degree of inaccuracy. When Mr. Elk- ington himfelf fhall publhith his own method, that doubt will be removed; and every individual will then be able to judge for himfelf as to this particular. If his practicé be as good as it is faid to be, it cannot be too foon or too generally made known. If it fhall be defective in any re- fpect, thefe defects cannot be too foon pointed out and reétified; which would probably not be long delayed after the publication required. I fhall be forry, if, in confequence of the pre- cipitate conduét of Mr. Elkington’s friends, I have been obliged, for the purpofe of obtaining impartial juftice,-to fay any thing here that may tend to prove in the fmalleft degree detri- 5, 4 / Rocio Msaa ee ME WSO Te XXXVI IN. RO-D-U C-E1LON: mental to that gentleman. I look upon him as a very worthy member of fociety; and I believe him: to be an honeft man. I have not a doubt that his practice has already been of much na- tional utility, and will be of{till more, the wider It is diffufed; even although it fhould not be car- ried on in the moft perfect manner of which it will be found to be ultimately fufceptible; and Ican affure that gentleman, with much. fince- rity, that there is not a man in-the land, not the prefident of the board of agriculture himfelf, nor his ftill more powerful patrop, who will re- joice more in his profperity than myfelf; or who would more gladly lend his aid to the extending his practice as wide, and the rendering it as per- feét, as poffible.— It is perhaps unfortunate, when a plain man finds himfelf forced to come forward. in the genteel circle,—efpecially where fuch per- fon may, by the ill judging partiality of ignorant friends, be induced, from the hope. of benefiting his family, to acquiefce in ftatements that he him- felf would never, perhaps, have made,—even though he be backed by thofe who have the mot powerful influence. For it is not in‘ this nation thatinfluence can altogether fupprefs the voice of reafon, or ward off entirely the feyerity of repri- * res 3 fident of the board of agriculture, in February ENJER ODUCITON. XXXVii mand, when the infolence of fuppofed power pro- vokes a fcrutinifing enquiry. I have now, Sir, done with the bufinefs of Mr. Elkington, but am forry that, in juftice to myfe 6 I am not yet at liberty to put an end to this, t fear, ungracious epiftle. It appears, to, me very ftrange, that I fhonld have occafion, at one time, to complain of having been ill ufed in éwo refpetts, by Sir John Sinclair, as I am not confcious of ever having merited’ any thing of that fort at his hand, but much the re- verfe. It unluckily happens to be fo, however, at prefent. The trefpafs, too, is of fuch a kind, as to require that notice fhould be taken of jt in the public manner I now do, in‘order that 1 may remove, in part at leaft, the injury that, by his improper conduct, muft have been done to my character.: fhall briefly ftate the facts, for the juftnefs of which ftatement 1 appeal to your- felf. Immediately on receiving a letter from the pre- laft, requefting that I would favour the board with any information I could give ref{petting the cul- ture and ufes of potatoes; I fat down, and great hafte put upon paper fuch obfervations as occurred tome at the moment. Thefe obferva- XXXVI INTRODUCTION. tions, without revifal or corrections, were jn- {tantly forwarded to the board, under cover, ad- dreffed to the prefident, and were accompanied. by a letter, ftating that I had loft no time in com- plying with the withes of the board re{pecting the fubjeét of potatoes, and that the papers which accompanied that letter, contained what appeared neceflary for me to. fay on that head. But I added, that thefe remarks were intended folely for the ufe of the members of the board itfelf, and“were not intended to be publifed.” This I forbade in the moft pofitive manner; and even requefted that the board would be fo kind as not to mention my name in any publication- they might think proper to make on that fubjedt; defiring that the papers might be returned to me after the members of the board had fatisfied them- felves with regard to them. So anxious was| that this requifition fhould not be forgotten, that I mentioned it no lefs than three times, in as many different letters I had afterwards occa. fion to write to Sir John Sinclair; and as the franks had been reduced in weight before the laft letter was written, I defired him, with a view to avoid the trouble of addrefling fo many covers as it would then require, to fend the M. S. to my fon in London, who would take care to get it — iN TROD U C EION; KXXIX forwarded to me. After all this the reader will judge of my furprife, when I read thefe words in a letter from Sir John:“ The board has at length “ finifhed it’s publication on the fubject of po- “ tatoes; and as you have been a contributer to “* et, you are entitled to a copy of it.” In what manner[ had become a contributer to that work, I could not well conceive; for I did not then Imagine that ever he could think of publithing what I had fo pofitively forbidden: but as fome obfervations of mine on potatoes had been print- ed in other publications, I thought fomething might have been extracted from thefe works, to which this paflage might allude. I took the earlieft opportunity that offered, to confult that work for my own fatisfaGtion. My aftonifhment at feeing the obfervations printed entire, with all their faults, and others fuperadded, thus forced upon the public notice,“ unanointed, unanel- led;” and the indignation I felt at this unexpeét- ed infult, may be eafier conceived than expreffed. [ call it an infult, becaufe I conceive that no one, a€ting in the charaéter of a gentleman, can have a right to publith the writings of another, even without his confent, far lefs, if contrary to his ex- prefs injunftions, clearly announced, and repeat- edly inforced. You, Sir John, have it in your VOL. IY. d x] INTRODUCTION. power, by publifhing my letter, to correé&t me if I mifreprefent the fact. If I have ftated it juftly, it is incumbent upon you to make fuch an apo- logy as one gentleman ought to give, and another to receive. What adds zmjury to the zn/ult, on the prefent occafion, is, that-from the whole tenor of the writing, it was obvioufly intended for private in- formation only, and not at all for the public ufe; and if you had taken the trouble to read, with an ordinary degree of attention, the firft fentence C 7 1 4a only, you could not have failed to perceive it, You need fcarcely be told it may be extremely proper to exprefs in a particular way, what was obvioufly calculated for the private perufal of a few gentlemen only, who were about to judge of matters that were not within the fphere of their obfervation, though it would be exceedingly prepofterous to make ufe of the fame expreffions, when intended to be laid before the beft informed profeffional men in the Soy The obferva- tions which, in the one cafe, would only be cal- culated to induce that cautious circumfpeCtion which men of profeflional knowledge in any line, are in fome meafure required to ufe, when called upon to affift thofe of lefs experience, whofe fitua- tion in life incidentally may bring them to dé- é PNT RODS FLoeN‘cl cide in matters refpecting that profeffion; but, ‘in the other cafe, as being. addreffed to profef- fional men, many of whom may be fuppofed to be equally well informed as the writer himfelf, could be confidered as little better than an infult, and would indicate an overweening the writer, that could only excite difguft and con- prefumption in tempt. Such, in fa€t, is precifely the cafe in the prefent inftance; and the words of the introdue- tory paragraph to that effay, if they were fup- pofed to be intended for publication, can only be calculated to make an impreflion on the mind of every reader that is very little in favour of the I writer; and what I conceive to be extremely dif- ferent from what my own charaéter, if not ob- fcured under fuch an humiliating difguife, ought naturally to produce. I feel, at leaft, that if any other perfon had written fuch a paragraph, in- tending it to be publifhed, as this has been,] fhould have defpifed him as an impudent cox- comb, whom it would be a merit to humble. Sir John Sinclair is as ca pable as any man of judg- ing of the irrefiftible effe&s of fuch impreffions §[ on the public mind: nor would there have been ‘any thing extraordinary in it, if he had, on re- ceiving fuch a paragraph for publication, from a man with whom he’ was in habits of intir nacy, d 2 ree i a le cer TP, SOOT mL ree xlu EN. TROD GU:C-E10 Ni requefted him to reconfider it, to fee how far he thought it proper for the public eye, on the fup- pofition that it had efcaped his notice through inadvertency. But to publifh it in that imper- fet ftate, though contrary to the exprefs orders of the writer, repeatedly inforced, without giving him even a hint of fuch an intention, was ufing a freedom which no man, whatever his fituation in life may be, has a right to take with another. The law has provided a punifhment for him who injures his neighbour’s good name. The injury may be as great when it is done in this Way as any other, though it has, perhaps, hitherto efcap- ed the notice of legiflators. With thofe who fhall read this letter, perhaps@ part of the i injury may be done away; but Sir John ought to con- fider that thoufands may have feen the publica- tion alluded to, who may never haye an Oppor- tunity of reading this, and that the writer muft continue to be defpifed by them till the end of time. Befides the circumftance above alluded to, there are other blameable particulars originating from the publication of that performance by the board of agriculture, that muft affeét the charac- ter of the writer; for fo little attention has been paid to the printing, that, from the incorreétnefs ——————EEEEOEOwwe iN ODUCTION: xl | of the prefs, he muft, in fome cafes, appear to write in a manner altogether unintelligibly, and in others, he is made to fpeak perfect nonefenfe*. I will not fay that thefe things were intend- ed: but is it fit that one perfon fhould fuffer a material injury, through the carelefinefs of ano- ther; efpecially when that is produced, not in the ordinary courfe of bufinefs, but is occafioned en- tirely by the culpable forwardnefs of that per- fon? fam happy at being now come nearly to the clofe of a letter, the writing of which has been to me a very unpleafing tafk; for I mean not to bring forward any other complaints againft you at this time; and hope I never fhall be forced to do fo, at any future period. I do not take plea- fure in finding fault; and in few cafes could it prove more irkfome to me than. the prefent. Anxious as I have been, through the whole courfe of my life, to fee the profperity of this country * Exampces, I had faid,‘ But nowsthat fre/h kinds aré ob- ¢ tained from feeds,’ which is printed,‘ But now che freth kinds ¢ are obtained from reds.’[ had faid,‘ Nor are thofe kinds that ‘ fend their bulbs deep in the ground, fo defirable as thofe that rife ‘ upwards,’ which is printed,‘ So durable as thofe that rife up- ¢ wards.’ I had faid, that‘in a rich mellow foil the roots would ¢ be able to{trike with eafe, and fd abundant nourifhment;’ it js printed,« And fend abundant nourifhment.’ BS —— xliy INTRODUCTON. augmented, by promoting the peaceful exertions of rural induftry, and thus preferveing the morals of the people untainted, the only fure bafis.of national welfare, I cannot but feel a fenfible re- gret at any degradation of the charaéter of a man who has taken the lead, for the prefent, that laudable undertaking. Undoubtedly no- thing tends fo much to exalt a man’s chara€ter, and to give him fuperior weight on all occafions among his equals, as that unbiaffed integrity, which, rifing‘above thofe partialities and preju- dices that are Pigeons from little minds, preffes fteadily forward in it’s courfe, without wavering, however affailed by the tempting! fures that may be held out to it, on either hand by the artful and defigning. It was this that raifed Ariftides, the Athenian, to that exalted pre-emi- nence that fupprefled even competition itfelf, and gave him fingly the power of adjufting the claims of rival ftates, Such a charaéer com- mands refpeét, even where talents are rather de- fective; and willynake érrors themfelves be over- looked by moft men: but where this divine at- tribute is wanting, the moft brilliant talents dif. play their luftre in vain; and even the moft ufe- ful purfuits, by fuch men, are fruftrated.‘I have been hurt, Sir John, at the obvious partiality of INTRODUCAIGN. xIv your conduct towards myfelf, and the apparent de- fign, unfairly, to leffen my chara¢tter with the pub- lic. Should a fimilar weaknefs, to ufe the mild- eft expreflion, be perceived in regard to others, the influence of the board of agriculture mutt foon be loft with the public. It will only be then viewed as one of thofe tiny inftitutions that are calculated to foothe the vanity, or to augment the political influence of certain individuals forthe time.’ I moft anxioufly wifh that this may never be the cafe; and fhall only add, that if any thing I have here faid, fhall, by inducing a little more circumfpection, where the reputation or the inte- reft of others may be affected by any cafual ine attention on his part, tend to render the character of Sir John Sinclair{till more refpectable than it has hitherto been, it will add to the pleafure and happinefs of, SIR, Your very fincere well-wither, JAMES AN DERSON. d 4 xvi INTRODUCTION. fis ; re one A that Appiti0n made to the fecond edition of this volume of the effays,|| : or 00 “pril, 1798., wntte ¥6:?, fan Since the former edition of this volume was printed, a publi- cation by the board of agriculture has appeared, faid to contain an explanation of the principles of Mr. Elkington’s mode of draining, which is inferted in the frit volume(page 20) of the ite 4th edition of thefe reader is referred. eflays, with remarks upon it, to which the oo Dr. Axperson thinks himfelf fingularly unfortunate in hay- ye ing occafion to complain of fuch repeated ads of injufyice done to him by Sir John Sinclair. He fhould not, however, have troubled the public in confequence of this injury he is now about bi to ftate, had it refpected himfelf alone; but as it tends to affeé the memory of a man to whom he lies under the greate(t obliga.| tions, and for whofe memory he bears the moft refpeéful venera- tion, no confideration whatever can prevail with him to become as it were a filent accomplice to a deed which tends to wound his. reputation in the moft infidious manner. Thefe confiderations induced him to publith the following ady ertifement in the Morn- ing Chronicle, for March 25th 1797; to which he has not as yet feen any anfwer, Ro 4(0 He now reprints it, to give it the greater de- gree of publicity, till he fhould more deliberately determine what: farther fteps will be neceflary compleatly to effe& the purpofe of‘ refcuing the memory of Dr. Cullen from the injury it has thus at fuftained. Ani ‘ matic ADVERTISEMENT.‘ “* We are authorifed by Dr. Anderfon,‘to inform the public, Doa that a paper which has been printed and circulated by the board MN of agriculture, purporting to be written by the late Dr. Cullen, of i INTRODUCTION. xh Edinburgh, and commented upon as a genuine performance of that eminent man, is not a work of Dr. Cullen, who never wrote or corrected one fyllable of it; that every word of that paper was written by Dr. James Anderfon, being the fubftance of very imper- feét notes taken by him, while yet a boy of little more than fifteen years of age, from the extempore difcourfes of Dr. Cullen, which was his firft attempt to take notes of any kind. Confcious of the extreme inaccuracy of thefe notes, the pupil took care not only to mark the particular in the very title, by the words, errores{unt “ difcipuli,” but alfo to ftate it more clearly in a fhort advertifement prefixed,(all of which have been fuppreffed in the printed copy) warni#f every perfon into whofe hands it might fall, not ta fuffer the errors of the pupil to injure the character of the preceptor 3 - but he farthér took care never fince to allow the MS. to be out of his poffeflion, unlefs to two of Dr. Cullen’s fons alone, to whom he lent it under the ftriéteft injunétions, not to allow it to be feen or copied by any perfon whatever, Sir John Sinclair having heard that this MS. was in the poffeffion of Mr, Cullen (now Lord Cullen) applied to that gentleman, through various channels, for permiflion to take. a copy of it, which he pofitively refufed to do, or to giye his confent to its being publifhed, could a copy of it be even obtained. Sir John afterwards, however, found means(which it is fuppofed he does not defire to have publicly developed) to obtain a copy of that MS. and imme- diately publifhed it, to the no fmall aftonifhment of Mr. Cullen, as well as to that of the owner of the MS. No fooner did Mr. Anderfon fee a copy of that publication, and came to an expla- nation with Mr. Cullen on the fubject, than he ftated his claim to the MS. ina letter to Sir John Sinclair, and foon after to the board of agriculture alfo, requiring that a farther publication of it might be{topped, as being his own private property; and alfo, with a view to do juftice to the character of Dr. Cullen, requefted “x xIvili INTRO DUG@ITON. that the board would be pleafed to make fome public intimation of the miftake it had inadvertently fallen into in afcribing it to him. This the board at laft declined to do, in confequence of which this fhort{tatement of faéts is made public, inthe mean time, till more effectual means for obtaining redrefs be adopted. It was once intended to have noticed, among the obftructions to agriculture, in the firtt effay, the fpeculations of literary men, and the attempts of men of great wealth and property, to practife agriculture; as alfo books of agriculture, of a certain defcription: but to free thefe propofi- tions from the appearance of paradox, would have required fo many explanations, and ex- ceptions, that it was judged more expedient to omit them entirely, They are mentioned here muft often appear to be great and evident ob- ftruttions, may fee they were not entirely over- looked by the author. ANALYTICAT : TABLE OF CONTENTS. ESSAVePIRGY. ON THE OBSTACLES TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN ENGLAND, AND THE MEANS OF REMOVING THEM. Pavcé. § I. Commonable lands confidered as an obftruGion to. agriculture— Srey” II. Commons—_—— 2 ees 21 III. The minute divifion of property— 46 IV. Intermixture of property— a ro yy. Mills——, 53 T hirlage. en 60 VI. Farms, of a fize inadequate to the circumftances in which they are placed 2 aS 62 VII, Inadequate fecurity of tenure, improper conditions under which that tenure has been granted, and re{trictive claufes in leafes— a ot Lord Kaims’s leafes— ee 86 VIII. Want of capital among farmers— 96 IX. Inclofures injudicioufly made——_—_— 106 X. Church lands, lands in mortmain and entails 113 XI. Indefinite claims upon land——_—_ Iz1 T ithes, confidered as they affed ——1 The farmer—_—_—_ 123 ———2. Proprietor re 130 a we tener J CONTENTS. Page. —— 3, Tithe owner and impropriator 133 —-4. The publie——$<$$__—— 139 Plan for commuting the tithes— 140 Poors rates— 152 XII. Want of eafy means of communication— 167 XIII. Want of markets, as affecting iff, a corn farm———» 168 ——or, 2d, a grafs farm ae 174 XIV. Injudicious fifcal regulations—_—— 176 The falt laws wasters—— 176 Laws of parifh fettlements———— 181 Woal laws aa a 18r Corn laws. vide Poft{cript XV. Want of means of circulating agricultural knowledge among farmers— 182 ESSAY SECOND. ON WASTE LANDS, AND THE MEANS OF THEIR IMPROVEs MENT 195 PART FIRST. ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF WASTE LANDS BY MEANS OF CUL- TURE 2. 195 § I. Preliminary obfervations on the circumftances that require to be adverted to before the cultivation of waite lands fhould be attempted—_ 196 The neighbourhood of great towns peculiarly favour. able for the improvement of waftes_-_— 203 CON TEN TS. di Page. , No expence fhould be incurred but that which tends to remove phyfical obftructions only— 204 No fhare of the profit arifing from the improvement of 7 wattes fhould be abftraéted from the undertaker 2c6 Agricultural enterprifes in England lefs profitable than: thofein trade or manufatures—— 208 Difference between Egland and Scotland in regard to agricultural enterprifes_—— 209 The cultivation of waftes a fort of bufinefs of Scotland S14 Illuftrated by a practical example-= 212 Land to be appropriated in lieu of tithes confidered 215 The improvement of wafte lands fhould be conduéted by actual farmers——— 217 Apathy of farmers, circumftances which occafion it 218 Infecurity of tenure ftops the improvement of waftes 219 Inclofed lands may fometimes be called waftes— 222 Neceflity of adverting to the foregoing circumftances 223 ¢ 1I.Practical directions for bringing wafte lands into cul-* tivation 225 aft, As conneéted with a cultivated farm—— eat£25 How to bring wafte lands as foon as poffible into the ftate of profitable grafs lands—= 227 The neceflity of not attempting to do too much incul- cated——_——_ 238 Lime the moft univerfal manure for unproductive land 229 Dung ought not to be conjoined with lime— 23% Newly broke up land fhould be kept under tillage 232 Summer fallowing, ufes of it—— 233 Deep ftirring of the foil, importance of_- 234 Trenching, its utility— pn re 234 : The miner, an implement fo called, its ufes'— 235 A particular kind of wet foils, how to drain and cultivate 236 Deep ploughing on ordinary occafions, not neceflary 24t Lime ought to be fpread while in a dry powdery ftate 242 Turnip a proper crop for unmellowed foils— 243 Turnips fhould be fown early—~~ 244 Two crops of turnips may be taken in’ fucceflion 245 Peafe of vetches may be fown on fliff foils— 245 ) eg A a—s= 4“ we=> os+ ai~ ——————— gre SS ee ee mF hit CONTENTS. Pace: Oats fucceed wel] On crude foils se~~ 246 Grafs feeds fhould be fown with the fir corn crop 247 Rye-graffes recommended—— 249 Burn-beaking, cafes in which jt may be fuccefsfully adopted 250 Burning does not confume the{oil—_ 25% The furface only may be burned, though the foil be deep ploughed—_ 253 Burning old corn land May prove hurtful— 254 Burning moffy foil a dangerous practice— 256 Stiff clayey foils difficult to be brought into cultivation 258 The expence of cultivating fuch foils often prove ruinous 258 ad, On the cultivation of wafte land as not connefed witha farm 261 Temporary meafure aeceflary to be adopted at the be- ginning of fuch Operations—= a 261 The natural produce of walte lands confumed by fheep 263 The dung of thefe fheep a fource of improvement 264 Lime fhould be conjoined with it— 267) Folding of fheep, mode of condudtiy g it— 269 Permanent inclofures not here neceffary———— 274 Divided commons often come under this clafs of waftes 275 Lime applied to the furface of grafs land, how to be managed————_ 274 Irrigations flightly‘noticed—~~ 79 Inc!ofures circumftances that render them unneceffary 280 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF WASTE LANDS, PART SECOND. TREES § I. General remarks on the different kinds of trees that may be planted on waftes———— § II. OF fir plantations in particular——— Price at which a Plantation of firs can be made in Scot- land me—' On bleak expofures, which kind thrives bet— = ae BY” PLANTING 282 ee CONTENTS litt s Paves Firs ought to be planted out while very young 292 The leaves and branches of the fir tree a wholefome food for cattle and fheep—_— 293 § III. Of the larch tree, it’s value and ufes_ 295 The value of it’s wood remarked by Vitruvius 296 it’s extreme durability remarked by Dr. Pallas 298 ——by Mr. Harte and Admiral Greig a 209 -——by M. la prefident de la tour D’ Aigues— go2 ——by a gentleman from Switzerland_ 303 ——by Mr. Ritchie, Britif; conful at Venice—_ 304 —— by Mr. Evelyn— a=— 305 ———pby a modern gentleman on the Alps— 309 ) g 3 7 WV. B. Larch trees at Dunkeld, meafurements of fe) 31 Even young larch wood very durable, feveral inftances of 313 ¢ Larch wood neither fhrinks, nor warps, nor is eaten by worms=—— ad 321 i bufti== 28 ay -—— nearly incombuitible 323 ——The fhittim wood of fcripture= bias 92.5 The larch tree is of very quick growth— 325 Meafurement of Mr. Newnham’s trees—— 326 It grows on almoft any foil—— 329 A plantation of larches will yield fome return in 6 or8 years——— a 330 Ufesto which young larch wood may he applied Z YE ps S comes 2 Hay rakes 331 Shafts for hoes, handles for brooms,{cythes,&c, 332 Chairs, hop poles, hurdles, gates— 333 Neat and durable railing, hen coops,&c_- 334 Fences for fields—_- 334 Windows, joifts, flooring, fhip-building- 335 Barrel flaves—_= 336 Hoops——~- 337: Ufes of larch brufh-wood—- 338 For filling drain~-= 389 Fuel oe—-— 339 Venice turpentine yielded by the larch tree— 342 Manne de Briangon—== 344 [9 — . —— toe—_— pen, Panag‘ ss ae AE liv CONTENTS. Pagte ' IV. Directions for rearing plantations of larch trees for profit paces pa 345 The larch fhould be planted entirely by itfelf 345 Difference between natural&TOwn woods and plantations 347 The red of wood, what—= 347 Knots in wood, how produced=— 348 Natural wood, and planted wood, the difference between them explained==== 349 Plantations fhould be made very thick— 355 The trees fhould be planted out while very young 356 fhould be planted in{quares— 357 The firft thinning, how to be made=— 358 Second thinning= ae es 35 Third thinning= pie nit 359 Fourth thinning— ts, a 360 Benefits to be derived from thefe thinnings= 360 Farther thinnings, how to be condu@ed= 361 Hints refpe@ing the profits to be derived from thefe plan- tations a~— cis 364 Sufficient fences neceflary to prote& plantations 368 Large inclofures recommended= easy 369 Stone walls— od max 369 Ditch and bank fence= os 370 Furze, its ufes in fencing— ces 37° The larix, it’s ufes in fencing—— 372 The bramble, it’s ufes in fencing see 373 The{weet briar, or elegantine, do.— 380 Conclufion— ae as 381 ESSAY THIRD. MINTS ON THE ECONOMICAL CONSUMPTION OF THE PRO- DUCE OF A FARM 383 Introdu€tory remarks-— 885 Much dung is wafted under the common practice of paf- turage———— 388 re a er = r ae i i Leese i eer S ee near CONTENTS. lv Pages The extra grafs produced by folding, from one acre of rich grafs fhould keep 3 theep—— 399 No fuch fluth of grafs is perceived, where fol Iding is not practifed— ee pase ai 392 Nor any fenfible melioration of the ground perceived 394. Grafs land is not improved by being paftured upon 395 Fold; ng, an economical practice—_— 98 Mode of conduéting that procefs—— 401 Comparative view of the advance in produétivenefs be- tween folding On grafs land, anc imply pafturing it i/t, on an unproductive pafture a 403 2d, on rich pafture land_— 407 Hard or light flocking of pafture ground confidered 410 Cutting grafs land, and confuning the produce in the houfe, beneficial, when confidered_-— 413 1/?, as tothe confumptign of the plants—_ 414 2d, the health and comfo;t of the animal itfelf— 416 34, the quantity of manure obtained— 418 4th, the quantity of herbage produced—- 413 Confirmed by eX perience. 1; as to red clover—— 420 2d, other kinds of grafs ground— 424 3¢, praétice in this refpeé in Germany a 424 Experiment propofed=—-- 427 Rich era iftantly cut, are not deteriorated 43L The q ty of the grafs improves while kept under the f_--—— 4 Hard flocking ix ves paftures, and why= 434 Sweetnefs of paftures, what co nititutes this, explained 437 The fatne weight of food, if palatable, will go much far- d ther in fattening animals, than if it were unpalatable 438 The quantity of aniraal fubfiftance may be thus greatly augmented— a~- 441 Horfes can be fed upon amuch fmaller qu ntity of food than cattle—_== 444 Condiments, their importance in domeftic economy— 447 Utility of inducing beafts to eat as much food as poffible In a giyentime o— 447 Obferved in regard to feeding of calyes— 448 nisi AD NEN alte st ls ee_—_ ee— a a ar aN Mig vic oes nw eee meas | | vi CONTENTS,| Page Pure water, it’s ufe as acondiment a= 459} Cramming of poultry= 450| Method of fattening geefe in Languedoc+ 480 ducks in ditto— ee| Receipt for feeding poultry, note—_— 455' Common falt, value of in feeding bealls—- e455| It is not in itfelf nutritious, but merely aGsas acondiment 556 i If permitted to be freely ufed, iz would augment the, food of cattle to an aftonifhing degree— 457 The duty on falt extremely pernicious— 458 Hay, the beft mode of obtaining it of a fine quality 460 Importance of having hay of a very fine quality 460 How it may be cut, and immediately put up inthe ftack, while very tender and fucculent— 464 A permanent rozxf for a hay flack, it’s utility a 466 Mode. of making hay under fuch a roof— 467 Economical mode of faving corn, if inned while freth q cut down——-— 471 On the right conftruction of farm buildings—— 478| An economical arrangement for feeding cattledefcribed 478 Noxious plants may be converted into nourifhing food 482 i Exemplified in the yew tree, which is employed as a wholefome food for beafts in the province of Hefle 482 Sheep may be ftall fed as well as cattle— 486 Objections founded on the cotting of fheep an{wered 488 On the confumption of turnips by fheep 491 Wafte incurred in hurdling off turnips by fheep 492| Turnips may be often more profitably applied in the rear- F ing of fheep, than the fattening them— 493| Swedifh turnip, or Ruta baga, it’s peculiar excellencies 497 Turnips may be employed for rearing young horfes 499| Conclufion_— oa 499 | POSTSCRIPT:| } EURSORY REMARKS ON THE CORN LAWS OF GREAT BRI- TAIN—-—_ 501 oo a acc=-—— Se ne== PY U0 WY WU MA y MMMM UY YY MMMM j YM MMU“ Md Mbt tts Phd A~ Alt. ng om z Go PA GS, 4, PH ce SLA Ye tt tj QHZ; Z ttt tht Z teers dd LLA AAA tig titctfpp 3 ALLE LLL LL Ztz###ZHH AA et fhe A Ae LZ gy i Se tLe PAE VOR Phe UD 4} ey) —————__--~soannenamatnictinmeetnee oom aaa AS AR naa ee Z ee 7 4 ————_-—_——=—_—e zie f | a) A i] EPR RaAc PA; Pacem vs cine a 70% to es ive) n | qh) eee 2b. Eee Peep ebamemar a i 0 eNES ee intercommongae, read intercommonage that than common fo common, fe commom common each each; permited—— permitted at— as perfent—— prefent prevade-——- pervade proprieror-—— proprietor npon upon event extent lansurt Qo his from. from quality difhulties to rather an particlar quatities are are pears 1S was 1235 J- Bayley to many 1,074,516 fyften languet this from quantity difficulties at rather than an particular are years was 1285 T. B. Bayley too many 1,074,616 fyftem». eee ss —— qualities ae es ee a+ a ESSAY FIRST OBSTACLES TO AG RICULTURE, MEANS OF REMOVING THEM. SSS m r Se arr Se 'f i y a} Ppgfte 4/ faut gagner tes ceurs, Ee—_ of ef faire LYOUVEr AUX hommes tage dans les chofes, ouPon veut fe fervir de leur induftrie leur avans FENELOnN. si: — ee—— — a.== Siem nf CA Res er) ARS TS RT ED ON THE OBSTACLES TO THE ADVANCEMENT ORSAGRIGCUE T URE EN ENGLAND, AND THE MEANS OF REMOVING THEM. INTRODUCTION. wae I gener Report of the Lords of the Privy Council, which was publifhed a few years ago, concerning the deficient: ftate of the agri- 7 cultural produce of this kingdom; was fo little calculated to flatter the national pride of the ne DI> na ty; oIve 9 Verv oe yaya! lito{+ Qt th> pcop Gs. as, tO Sivi ave ry senerai cuguit at le Pea Aad nel ani nerinnec fa] 7 he] Tar nd time; and many Pperions fe Lt, In thelr own minds, oa ph Se ey RY Gx Selec eT& 7S ey eae“i lf Ata faa 7 oie a trong propenuity to retute thele 2l/ grounded anertions, as they thought they could eafily prove q; r ye+ y. 7 nem to be.[his made them examine the iubB- reét rit} ar mt Aa ts aa= eat Nearear b| Oa ah yt UU Wwitn an attention It Hate vVel JCLULL VU A| SAT Fae: pi e pate m Che coniequence has been, like what im many Cales with-tne Champions | of the Roman Catholic religion againft the Re- formers, that thofe who engaged in the con: teft were finally made convergs to that very doc- BQ trine CR |} | i” if . EES tan See RE min ae 4d. Ova: PAN GE has 43k O trine which they intended to refute. Among other’ benefits that have accrued from thefe dif- cuflions, we may, perhaps, rank the inftitution of the Board of Agriculture as one, which, if its enquiries fhall be profecuted for a fufficient length of time, with due caution and energy; will be, productive of national benefits, greater than perhaps have been derived from any other political inftitution in modern times. For, al- though the money which has been expended on™ this department, when compared with» that be- {towed on any other national eftablifhment, may be confidered as nothing, yet, in confequence of its exertions, continued for the courfe of little more than one year, a body of authentic faéis, aie Me refpecing the agricultural and internal econo- my of this country, have already been laid be- fore the public, greater than was ever obtained in any other nation fince the beginning of time; on which facts the political enquirer can ground his reafonings, on many of the moft important hat can ever engage his attention, with G topics t¢ t a degree of certainty he could never have other- wife. obtained. In confequence of this, many ideal phantoms of propofed national aeerandife- t 4 ore) ment will be banifhed, and, in their ftead, plans or iubiiantial improvement will poffibly be = AGRICUL PUR. brought forward, which could not otherwife CB 5 have been adopted; becaufe the obftructions, which reprefs alike the fuggeftions of genius, and the hand of induftry, would have remained unknown, as they hitherto have been in every European nation, and, of courfe, entirely unat- tended to by thofe claffes of men who alone have power to remove them, I could not produce a more ftriking illuftra- fon of the truth of thefe affertions, than the Eflay Whigh I am now about to fubmit to public confideration; for it will confift of little more than a comprefled view of faéts that have been brought to light by the agricultural furveys of the feveral counties already printed, fome of which faéts were unknown, or never adverted to, by every perfon who{hall read this: for I prefume no one perfon in any fituation in Britain, could have otherwife had an opportunity of obferving the whole; and innumerable perfons no doubt exift, who are deeply interefted in the difcuffion,.' who never before had adverted to one of them: and who, of courfe, could never be aware of the very important confequences that flow from them, By a careful attention to thefe furveys, the prin- eipal obftruCtions to agriculture,(not to dwell on Bee im RRB ce riya 6 Ob SEA CES TO }{ ie Ae see tain pee. Se eine pa A NG thole that depend upon natural caufes, or that may be overcome by individual exertions, but / ions, or which can only be removed by the con- a thofe which owe their origin to political inftitu- t nctexertions of numerous bodies of men,) ae one or other of the following Pas which will fall to be fevera lly difcuffed. Commonable fields. Lands in mortmain and en- Commons. tails. Minute divifions of property. Indefinite claims' wpon land, par- Lntermixture of property, ticularly tithes, and poors rates. Mills, Difficulty of communication betayeen equate fize of farms. places. TALL. ae and want Want of proper markets in pariicu- of leafes. lar diftris. Want of adequate capital among Lnjudicious fifcal regulations, farmers, Want of ready means for conveying faclofures in njudicion/ly made. agricultural knowledge. Qn each of thefe heads, 1 fhall make fome re. marks. q if (( ! ( ( : 5 I i} ils qi 4 / | I } a AGRICULTURE 7 Y 3a Commonable lands confidered as an Obfiruction to A gricul ture. ‘LT noucu the very phrafe commonable lands is not known in Scotland; either becaufe the practice which gave rife to the name was not there perhaps ever in any cafe ftrictly adopted, or, if it was of old adopted, it had been diftinguifhed by another name; yet this practice fo univerfally prevails, either in a greater or fmaller degree, throughout every county in England, that‘it comes forward in each of thefe furveys in a very confpicuous manner. From the fuppofed noto- riety of the prattice, as I fuppofe, Ido not find that one perfon, among all thofe furveyors, has fo much as attempted to give a definition of the phrafe. It is not difficult, however, from the notices concerning it that are fcattered through thefe reports, to form, as I hope, a tolerably juft idea of the meaning of the phrafe. Commonable lands t underftand to mean lands generally arable, at leaft in part, which belong In property to Individuals who are known, and I 1 i» os % Ope TACT ESTO the limits of whofe property are afcertained; but which, in regard to their culture and mode of cropping, are fubject to— regulations, which cuftom, for time immemoria celiac eftablithed, fo as gradually to have acqu oe force of law,— to which rules every individual occupying fuch property muft adhere, until thefe old cuftoms fhall be abrogated, either by the unanimous con- fent of all the individuals having a right to thefe commonable fields, or by an exprefs ftatute, ob- tained with their confent, for the purpofe of an- nulling them. From a bare ftatemént 6f the cafe, it is eafy to ze rceive that regulations, which were adopted at avery diftant period, when agriculture might be faid to be but in its earlieft infancy in this nd, and which were calculated to accord with =) ae of fociety| very diffimilar to that which now prevails, muft be extremely defeétive; and in particular, that they will prove an unfurmount- able barr ler to every y kind of improvement, where- ever they are fuffered to exift. But it has been calmly tolerated, in every county in Eneland, te an enormous extent even till the prefent time, with out one national effort to remove it. In fome counties, it appears that not much lefs than one half of the whole arable lands are in this ftate; L ws ul AGRICUL TURE 9 uffhough it is evident, by the concurring teftimo- ny of the whole reporters, that, taking all thefe lands at an average, they do not afford half the produce the fame lands would do, if they were ut under the ordinary management that ap YOo-, ;, re) priated farms are fubjeéted to in their refpective diftri€ts; and not perhaps one tenth part of what they might eafily be made to afford, within a very fhort period of time, fhould all other ob- fiructions to improvement be removed. #It would be tirefome to enumerate the whole faiéts that occur in the different agricultural fur- veys, tending to point out the pernicious tenden- cy of this mode of tenure: but a few of them may be mentioned. In one place it is ftated, that a few inclofures had been made, feemingly with the concurrence of the whole parties con- cerned; but when the hedges had advanced near- ly to become a fence, one of the commonable tenants went deliberately and pulled them up by the roots, and eradicated them entirely. In ano- ther café,[Bucks, p. 29.] the parifhioners having come to an agreement to fow clover, after that practice had been univerfa ly acquiefced in for the{pace of 18 years, one of the farmers, occu- pying 16 acres of land, bought a large flock of? lean theep in the month of May, and turned them ——E—eEeEeEeEeEeEEEEE>E—eeEeEeE——————————EK Eas ~—. eo. Py f| | | | Se 10 OBSTACLES EO on the clover crops; which were nearly in bloom; and no one could hinder him. In another cafe; [zbzd, p.- dics vhere cuftom had eftablifhed the practice of havi ing one corn crop, and one fallow alternately, the occupiers of the diftrid came to an agreement to have ¢wo crops and a fallow, 1 z|| RVs a oe ao ee a RO Cp alternately; but before the expiration of’ ten c I) w , one of the farmers broke through the agree- re l ment, and turned his cattle ae he crops of beans, oats, and barley; in v 1 plan he was followed by the reft of his nei; ae ours; and the crops were, in confequence, tot ally deftroyed on that part of the field, which, agreeable to the antient cuftom, fhould have been that year in fallow. Thefe few notic while they tend to illuftrate the nature of aie shear kind of tenure here complained of, at the fame time Clearly de- monittrate its pernicious tende ency to the pub- lic; fo that it would be time mis{ pent to ad- duce a greater number of proofs of a felf evident propofition. No one who has confidered the fubjeét for a moment, but will readily admit, that it were much for the intereft of Britain that no fuch pra€tice exifted jn it- gana that, of courfe, no time fhould be loft in end ouring to eradi- Cate 1t: for were this ane ually, done, it muft i tk aS A.GRIGULT UR: 1] gppear evident, from the fatts ftated, that the total produce of the kingdom would be greatly augmented.| Yet it by no means follows, that it would be prudent in the owners of fuch property,.were it even at their abfolute difpofal, in every. cafe in- ftantly to abolifh intercommonage. No praétice can ever be univerfally eftablifhed, by a long con- currence in opinion of a numerous body of men, which is not grounded on reafon, and is calcu- lated for their mutual convenience, under the cir- a@umftances in which they were placed at the time when fuch prattice was eftablifhed. And although it may happen, that, by a gradual al- teration in the ftate of fociety, thofe prattices which were once falutary, may become no long- ‘er neceflary, but. pernicious; yet it will be in ge. neral found, that:when this laft comes to be in- conteftibly the cafe, the fame common fenfe which at firft concurred in eftablifhing the prac- tice, will, in like manner, at length concur in abo- lifhing it. From this train of reafoning, room to fufpeét, that whenever a particular cuf- there is always ‘tom is loudly: complained of by thofe who only cafually confider of it, while it is acquiefced in «without much feeming uneafinefs by thofe who 12 OBST ACRES 21O are more immediately fubjetted to its operation, i there muft probably be fome unobferved circum- {tances, which perpetually come in the way great inconveniences, whenever an attempt is made to remove the apparent evil. And if fuch inconveniences are found to arife, it will be in vain to make laws to abolifh it; for, in thefe cir- cumftances, the practice will ftill prevail in fpite of the law, however peremptory it may be, and however beneficial in its tendency it may appear i to hafty obfervers. mre any thing, for example, be apparently. et more beneficial, or at firft fight more eafy, than I to enforce an uniformity of we ights and meafures dl throughout a whole kingdom? The propofition pe appears to be fo felf-evident, that the legifla-| a8 tors of England, of Scotland, of France, and of med many other kingdoms have feparately judged, at to 1 many different times, that this might be done unt with evident adyantage to all their fubje@ts; and mu laws have been repeatedly made in all thofe na- lord tions, as fimple in their tenor as could well be ne expected, and as peremptory in their exaétments ele as can be conceived; yet in no one of thefe countries has it been ever found poflible to en- force thefe laws. The fa@ j is, that there are in-. os conveniences to which fuch a ch lange would give An An AG RLC.U-L, S.C. Raw 13 rife, and which would be fo univerfally felt by individuals, though they have been totally over- looked by legiflators, that, it requires not the gift of prophecy to fay, they will for ever ftand in the way of fuch an improvement, until thofe cir- cumftances: fhall be firft adverted to and obvi- ated. Similar in kind, there is reafon to fufpeét, mutt the inconveniences be that are in many cafes felt, when an attempt has been made to eradi- cate the practice of commonable fields: for al- thongh it be true, that the diticulty of bringing a numerous body of proprietors to be unanimous in any one. meafure is very great; and that the ex-~ pence of obtaining an act of parliament is fuch as to deter many perfons from reforting to that meafure, who would otherwife have been glad to avail themfelves of that means, for filencing unreafonable opponents fo their plans; yet there muft be many cafes, where a fingle proprietor is lord of the whole extent of commonable fields in one diftriét, who in that cafe would have nothing elfe to do, but to allow his leafes to expire; and then he has it in his power to turn out every tenant, who js not willing to accept a leafe under fuch terms as he fhall pleafe to grant it. 7 yi And where the whole of the commonable pro- an aaa,= i th OBSTA CEES TO perty belongs only to two or three p!‘oprie tors; t+ L the fame thing could be effeéted with little more difficulty than in the former x were it fo ob- vioufly beneficial to‘all parties as at firft fight it appears to be:‘but fince we a that fuch mea- {ures are not generally adopted in thefe cafes, I fee{till reafon to fufpect, that there muft be fome circumftances of general conveniency that ftand in the way;' and it becomes‘of confequencé to énquire what thefe circumftances are, in order to fee whether thefe can be firft removed, before any general law be recommended for abolifhing this kind of tenure. A perfon who is well acquainted with the tice of agriculture, can eafily form an idea of many arrangements, under: which a mutual intercommonage, at certain times of the year efpecially, and under particul ar modifications, might be not only a convenience, but even a ae u neceffary accomodation, without which, the te- nant could not farm his lands. In all fituations, for example, where the quantity of arable land occupied by one tenant is fo{mal] as that it can- not afford to maintain a fuffidient{trength of men or beatts to re and carry on the neceffary operations upon it, that tenant muit join w fome cther nei: ghbour, in fimilar circumftances, AG RLOU TAU E. 15 for mutual aid and affiftance. Wherever the produce of the fields are fo fcanty, as to require a very wide range for the beafts which pick up that produce, unlefs the occupier of the land be able to ftock fuch an extent of land, as to afford to Reep a perfon, by himfelf, to tend his own flocks, an intercommongae tenants, if fuch there fhall be on that ground, be- comes abfolutely neceffary. Wherever the num: ber of cows that can be kept by one tenant are too few to eat down the produce of any{ to avoid the neceffity of frittering it to pieces by rearing innumerable fences for very{mall inclo- fures, it will be for the mutual convenience of al] parties, to have the meadow laid open to the vhole of thefe fmall tenants, as foon as the hay can be carried off from it. I might go on to quote other particulars, in which this kind of partial intercommonage might be convenient: - Look See SSS ae as feof Gl Beye= but. thofe above ftated, are fufficient to account 5{] Xx map tl BY a Seige a aes ee|> ahs 7 Ufa| for the origin of commonable lands. and to thow oF that the practice was not only neceflary, at the time when it was firft eftablifhed; but that, unde1 the fame circumftances. it is equally neceflary He SES Hiesnen 9 p Wee sate e yaar jae pect es,: now, and muit continue to be fo tul the end of . see 2 1 ime 4{+ ¢ Nation{¢ lz time, UW the{tate of occupation on thefe lands 3 i ": : i a4}} yy fhall continue to be the fam i6 OBSTACLES TOG {oD The fa& is, a fimilar pra€tice, under whatever uk name it may be known, mutt have prevailed, and ae mutt ftill’ prevail, in every country where land“ais is parcelled out among tenants in allotments too i {mall for the ftate it is in at the time to admit of, ig under a ftriGt appropriation, In Scotland, it Was; tate and is known, with this difference between the ant practice there and in England,—that whereas in mt Scotland every man’s poffefiion is; by the law of the land, declared to be his own exclufively for the 4’ time he holds it; and that of courfe he can punith any perfon who fhall trefpafs upon it without his hr permiffion; a reliance being placed upon the— a common fenfe of men, and their mutual intereft, C as fuflicient to infure good neighbourhood, and a z voluntary interchange of mutual right; in Eng- a land it has been judged to be more for the mu:: 7 tual benefit of the parties, to infure themfelves 4 again{t any infra€tion of good neighbourhood, by iB a blifhing general regulations fot that purpofe; bs q which were to compel the reira€tory to yield vf ; the u nlimited e exercile of his own will to the ge- te t] neral fenfe of the communi y. cu , It thus appears, that if common-fleld hufband lry mm t; be an obftruftion to agriculture which noe con- a fiderate perfon will deny, this would-not be an-" ‘ nihilated mere] y by obehhi a law for its aboli« te ik -.- yee west ta SP SEE Oe ee LER E DP 2a eRe 173 tion, This evil, in faét, refolves into another, viz. the inadequate fize of fatms, which will come to be treated under the fourth head above enumerated; and, till care be taken to obviate this difhculty, there will be fo many interefts deeply affected by any propofed change in the {tate of commonadle lands, that innumerable ob- ftructions will accur, in attempting hattily to aba- lift the practice by law, without taking judicious precautions to guagd againit the difficulties that may be expected to arife. And it deferves to be particularly adverted to on this occafion, that however detrimental to the public at large, the practice of occupying com- monable lands may be; or however much the income of the owners of fuch lands muft there- by be diminifhed; it is a matter of comparatively {mall importance to the tenants, or occupiers of fuch lands: for to the tenant, efpecially if a te- nant at will, or one having a leafe renewable by fine upon lives,(under which two kinds of tenure the greateft part of commonable lands are occupied,) it is a matter of very little confe- quence, whether the land he occupies yields on an'average, ten quarters per acre, or ten bufhels only: for, under thefe circumftances, the rent that another perfon would be willing to give for VAG Id Greene) C9 he Cc —— 18 OBSTACLES TO the premifes, will always be exaétly in propor- tion to the free produce he thinks he can difpofe of from the lands. If the lands were rich, there- fore, the occupier of the land muft lay his ac- count with paying a proportionably higher rent, or quit; fo that his aétual profits may be equally great upon thefe lands in their prefent ftate, as if they were capable of yielding ten times their prefent produce. What inducement has fuch a man to make exertions in induftry? It is rather his intereft to let things continue as they are; for this will effectually prevent fpirited men, who have ftock for carrying forward agricultural im- provements, from ever thinking of interfering with him in a competition for his miferable farm. In this way, a proprietor who fhall think of mak- ing an alteration on tenures of this fort, muft fre- quently find that he meets with a body of vis in- ertieé to remove, which it is impoflible for him to overcome. It is, as if a fitherman in his boat were to ssiewriek to move the Craken of Pontip- pidon, He finds it exceeds his force, and he muft finally give over the attempt as hopelefs, But though a law, which fhould fet afide all the practice of commonable fields, could fuch a Jaw be aétually obtained, would not, of itfelf, re- move the evils complained of; yet, as there may See AGRICULTURE. 19 occur many cafes, in which the proprietors, were they at liberty to a€t with freedom, would per- ceive it was their intereft to adopt fuch meafures as fhould admit of having thefe, now common- able lands, cultivated in a proper manner, it would furely be a very defirable thing, if fome eafy mode could be devifed for giving them that freedom, when they found they could avail them- felves of it with propriety; while it fhould, at the fame time, allow others to retain the undifturbed enjoyment of their prefent commonage, until a fit occafion fhould prefent itfelf for altering it. In all cafes of this fort, it is neceffary to pro- ceed with caution; and whenever recourfe can be had to experience, in fimilar cafes, that ought to be confulted in preference to any preconceiv- ed idea, however beautiful, that never has been carried into practice: for unforfeen difficulties in every new cafe occur, which are often accom- panied with very ferious confequences. In the prefent cafe we find, that the fame evil which fubfifted in Scotland, n carly, as I fuppofe, to an equal proportional extent as it now does in Eng- land, has been gradually done away, without V10- dence or difficulty of any fort; merely by permit- ting every one who found it his intereft to aban- don the pra€tice of intercommonage, to do fo, eZ 20 OBSTACLES TO without pofitively requiring that this, in any cate, fhould be done, till fome one of the parties wifhed for it. It is true, that in this way, it would be in the power of one man, at times, to incommode his neighbours; but it is alfo true, that he cannot do this without being difquieted himfelf, unlefs his fituation be fuch as that it is much for the benefit of the community at large, that he fhould exercife this privilege; and it has been found, that in practice this privilege has fcarcely ever been claimed, but in thefe circumftances, Now, could an aét be obtained, which fhould put the whole tenants of the commonable lands in England precifely in the fame condition with lands accupied by the fame clafs of perfons in Scot- Jand, it does not appear that any other confe- quences fhould be experienced in the one cafe, than thofe that have been felt in the other. This appears to be a very eafy matter: for were it fimply enacted, that“ the pra€tice of no per- * fon occupying lands in England, fhould be € influenced by the will of any perfon whatever's unlefs it were in refpe€t to thofe things alone which a tenant fpecifically agreed to perform €¢ «e in his leafe, any law, privilege, or cuftom to the contrary, notwithftanding;” the thing 717T>| af>,~ would be at once done. In that cafe, the occu. ¢ AGRICULTURS 31 piers of commonable lands would be at perfect freedom to continue to mtercommon, as at pre- fent, if fo they fhould incline; but whenever any one among them found his fituation fuch as no Jonger rendered his praCtice beneficial to hin, he could withdraw himfelf from the affociation; without having any power to diffolve the connec- tion of the reft of the community with each other, as long as they siclined it fhould continue in force. We have, in Scotland, the experience of pres cifely fuch a law, ina cafe nearly fimilar to that here treated: During the courfe of many ages; a vaft diverfity of prattices had been there eftab- ‘lithed by cuftom, in regard to certain fervices that were wont to be performed by tenants to their lords, whith were accepted in part of rent. Thefe practices, like thofe of commonable lands in England, varied in every difirict, and path, and barony; fo that, perhaps, no two of them were alike in all refpe€ts: but every court of barony took cognifance of the old ufages eftablifhed in that barony, and all the tenants in it were bound to pay thefe fervices according to w/e and wont, With the change of manners which gradually prevailed in every part of this ifland, a change of ideas took place; and, like the commonable rights GS. ‘— SRE a RO aT LTE RR Saino SS a SS a ee ERE ets—; 5 22 OnB.S.T ALC PES 20 in England, thefe fervices, eftablifhed by w/e and wont, were generally accounted a grievance that ought to be removed. Accordingly, in the a& which took away all heritable jurifdiétions in Scotland, which was paffed in the year 1746; a claufe was introduced, declaring that all énde- Jinite ftipulations in a leafe were entirely null and void; ever fince which time, thofe vague terms of w/e and wont-have been confidered as nothing in every court of law; though fervices in kind, when particularly fPecified, are ftill as much accounted a part of the rent as any fums in money, or other preftations. The law pro- pofed, therefore, would not be without a pre- cedent, which in its execution has been found to be eafy, as in its operation falutary. With regard to the intermixture of ands which in. many cafes, take place in thefe commonable fields, to the very great detriment of agricul- ture; the fame thing took place in Scotland, under the name of run-rig; a prattice which took its rife in thofe times of anarchy, when in- dividuals were often marked out for deftru@tion by other individuals: for, by their mixing the property of one with another, every attack upon one became an attack upon the whole, which all, of courfe, were bound to defend. This in- AGRICULTURE 23 termixture of land refpected either the poffeffion by the tenants only, which was fometimes inter- mixed, while that of the different proprietors were feparated; or it refpected the property of the proprietors alfo, which were fometimes blended together in fmall detached parcels. Both thefe evils have now been remedied fo effec- tually, that fcarcely any veftiges of them are found to exift. They have been got rid of in this manner. Where the intermixture of ground was only among fhe tenants belonging to the fame lord, he ufually allowed all the leafes to expire before a renewal of any one was granted; and when the lands were thus out of leafe, he divided the whole into farms, ufually the fame number as before, and then re-let them as fepa- ‘rate farms. Where the intermixture was of feparate properties, very often thofe proprietors agreed to authorife certain perfons, named by themfelves, to make a fair and equitable divifion of the properties; afligning to each thé part ap- propriated for him, in the fituation that beft fuited him, or what was moft contiguous, if he had other adjoining property. But if one or more of the parties ftood out, and would not come to an amicable compromife; then it was competent for any one of the parties, who chofe c 4 wwe = ‘ ig y iy i hom = f Hh) 4 t ene aay ae O4 OBS TAC LES* ho it, to bring an aétion before the ftheriff of the county for a divifion, who, after nominating per- fons{killed in matters of this fort, to divide and apportion the ground in difpute, and to give in.@: report 3 and having heard parties, and viftted the ground in quettion himfelf, and feen the boundaries fixed before numerous witnefles, the fheriff proceeded to give an award, which was final, unlefs, upon appeal to a higher tri- bunal,(which was competent,) his fentence fhould be altered. In divifions of thig fort, I do not recollect ever to have heard of an appeal from the decifion of the fheriff. It is, at the fame time fo little expenfive to the parties, and fo well calcu- lated for the diftribution of material juftice, in cafes of this fort, that it is not perhaps poffible to propofe a better model for imitation. Were thefe, or fimilar regulations, adopted in England, there feems reafon to be fatisfied, that all the evils originating from the practice of com- mon field hufbandry, fo much, and with fuch rea- fon, complained of at prefent, would be effectually and imperceptibly removed; without any cenvul- fion or violent ftrugele. If alithe other obftruéctions to agriculture fhall admit of as eafy a remedy as this one, we may hope to fee the lmnprovement of the country put upon a very defirable footing, even in our own day. 3 AGRICULTURE. 25 Galle Of Commons, as an Obftruction to Agriculture. aE: commonable lands be complained of as a grievance, commons mutt juftly be accounted an evil of ftill greater magnitude: and this alfo is experienced to an aftonifhing extent in every county in England. Among the diftinguifhing charateriftics of man, the moft peculiar is the faculty of obfervation, that has been conferred upon him by the beneficent Creator of the uni- yerfe. By means of this faculty, he is enabled to compare together faéts that fall under his ob- fervation, to reafon upon thefe, and to draw con- clufions from them thatt end toaccommodate him- felf. Itis by this means he has been able to dif cover, that a foil which in its natural ftate, is per- haps incapable of producing almoft any of thofe things that are neceflary for his fubfiftence, may be fo managed as to be made to yield abun- dance of the moft delicate produéts of the earth: nor is it poffible to fet any limits to the encreafed fertility that a continued induftry, under the gwi- dance of reafon, may confer upon even the moft 26 OBSTACLES TO infertile foil. It was by means of fuch exertions, that Paleftine of old, from being one of the moft infertile regions on the globe, had become, in the{trong language of the fcriptures, a land flowing with milk and honey; and was capable of then fupporting within itfelf, a population at leaft an hundred times greater than it can do in its prefent ftate, after it has been fuffered to revert to its original condition merely by with: drawing the induftrious exertions of man. There are many inftances, in our own country, where a field has been, in the courfe of a few years, made to yield a thoufand times its original pro- duce. But in a country where commonage uni- verfally prevailed, this favoured gift, of reafoning, would, in this inftance, have been conferred on man in vain. He can then only trample under foot a forlorn waite, which, though it polleffes the capability of being made to afford him in- numerable comforts, he jis effectually barred from indulging the cheering hope of being ever permitted to enjoy. He is indeed debarred from ever being able to ameliorate the foil, and thus fo augment its produét to the ftate; but he is not prevented fo effectually from deteriorating it. While in the fate of a common,‘the furface of the ground may be broken by him in fuch a AGRICULTURE. QT way, as not to recover for ages a fward equal to that which was originally upon it. It may be caft up and funk into pits: it may be converted into wet and rotten marfhes, by cafual obftruc- tions being thrown in the way of the water, which no one finds it his intereft to remove: it may, in fhort, while a common, be abufed ina thoufand ways, by reafon of the obftinacy, indo- lence, or caprice of individuals; but it never can be benefited by the induftry of man: and not only may this be done, but thefe things actually are done, in innumerable inftances, in this land of freedom; fo that to a perfon who contemplates the lofs that the nation mutt fuftain by thefe de- plorable abufes, nothing can afford a more me- lancholy train of refleétions, than that which the frequent recurrence of thofe difgufting commons fug get to his mind, as he travels over that, other- wife delightful, country of England. When he ftops to enquire more minutely into the effets of this kind of property, upon the morals and domeftic economy of the individuals who claim a right to thefe commons; he only finds additional caufes for regret. He frequently difcovers, that the quiet and-induftrious culti« vator, having a nght upon a common, is obliged to abandon that right, becaute of the. harraff- 28 OBSTACLES TO ments to which he is fubjeéted from turbuletit fas and afluming neighbours; whos have obtained 2 Ks {mall footing there, with a predetermined refo- is lution, perhaps, to encroach much farther than sa their rights would authorife; becaufe they know ase that, towards the reftraining of thefe exceffes, agit no obvious and eafy mearis occur. Thus does i the peaceable man often find it better to relin- thelr quifh his right almoft entirely, than be fubjeéted aR to the perpetual contention that would occur in 3| th defending it. Such an enquirer frequently finds, i that in confequence of this the fmall flocks of the q poor cottager, who caxnot afford to look after it them continually himfelf, are fo tormented, by ain being chafed from place to place by thofe ma- ile rauders, that, inftead of a relief to the poor cot nal tager, thefe flocks prove only a torment to him: in his family becomes in confequence of this, a It burthen on the parifh, which is obliged to fup- thy port them: he finds, that among thofe who are Er bred up in thefe fituations, there are many at. young men who delight more in aétive plunder ne than in fober induftry; and who, tempted by vif the high prices that luxurious inhabitants of The towns offer for game, become poachers, and a and form fuch powerful confederations of deter: i mined profligates for their mutual proteétion, 4 NOR AC UL UOPRae. 29 that no one lefs determined that themfelves wil] dare to interfere with them; which enables them to carry on their depredations with impunity. He obferves, that the money thefe young men thus acquire, Is ufually fquandered in drinking and riotous excefles: the young women are Con- taminated by. their converfation, corrupted by their exceffes, and debauched; the leaft evil attending which courfes, is a great number of illegitimate children, and an extravagant poor rate. But who can eftimate the detriment that a: nation fuftains, when the morals of the country inhabitants of it become corrupted? It is like tainting the fprings of water with poifon, which, inftead of promoting health and vigour, as they naturally ought to have done, produce one univer- fal mafs of infectious difeafe. It is common to read in the hiftory of Britain, that the rof became, at times, fo prevalent in England, as to carry off many millions of fheep at once; and thefe difeafes were regarded, like the peftilence among the human{fpecies, asa terrible vifitation of heaven for the fins of a guilty land. There is great reafon to believe, that thefe fre- quent mortalities among the flocks were entirely occafioned by the numerous commons, which were in thofe times much more extenfive than at { i A : as é:& ra: x 7 ee iy au + * Ue Ee : ea : = g i oe eee wh j BN igh 4 i nh i ‘ i ia ; 13 ey 4 i ‘ Rl ett i i { ia | a SS em ma 30 OBSTACLES TO prefent: for it is ftill known, that in neglected fpots, where water is allowed to ftagnate and generate marfhes, as is often the cafe with com- mons, when the feafon proves wet, the fheep paftured upon them are, to this day, fo. much fubjeéted to the rot, as to induce many perfons rather to give up their right, than to allow their flocks to enter upon thefe unhealthy paftures. Confidered under every poffible point of view then, it appears to be undeniable, that the pre- valence of commons is a great national grievance, which ought, if poffible, to be removed; and that the Board of Agriculture cannot be more be- neficially employed, than by granting all the aid that their wifdom can devife, for removing thofe bars that at prefent tend to prevent the equi- table divifion of this kind of property. As to the extent of thefe commons in Britain, facts are ftill wanting to afcertain it with pre- cifion: nor is exaét precifion in that cafe abfo- lutely neceffary. From every one of the agri- cultural furveys yet made, it is evident, that in every county in England and Wales, there are extenfive tracts of land of this defcription,(for commons and wajtes may be confidered as nearly fynonimous terms, although it be a truth, that many of thefe commons confift of land naturally as good as any im the kingdom). The Prefident ae AGRICULTURE. 31 ‘of the Board. of Agriculture has given a flight Y view of the eftimated extent, and probable im- provement of which thefe lands would be fut ceptible, if divided. Of the extent of thefe lands, were it neceflary, a tolerably accurate knowledge might be attained; but as to the amount of improvement, it is impoffible for any perfon to form at prefent an idea of it, fhould the profperity of this country be permitted to go forward, for a confiderable track of time, in that accelerating ratio into which it would na- turally fall, if the general tranquillity of the na- tion fhall be preferved; and the other obftruc- tions to be mentioned in this eflay, which have hitherto repreffed exertions in agriculture, be removed. It is enough here to fay, that it would be an objeét of immenfe magnitude. I have al- ready had occafion to obferve, that in fome fa- vourable fituations, it is well known that land, in the courfe of a very few years, has been made a thoufand times, at leaft, more produCtive than in its original ftate. Many commons are at pre- fent lying wafte, in fituations equally favourable, as thefe: and many other fituations may become equally favourable, by an extenfion of thofe modes of facilitating intercourfe, which are now in contemplation; and are only prevented from e 32 OBST A.C VES§ admits of the cleareft proof. Let it, for exam- ple, be fuppofed,(which will fearcely be denied) that an ordinary mill-{tre am, including, on an average, the whole d iftance of run appropriated to that mill, fhould be fufficient to irrigate one hundred acres of land saitis admitted, by all thofe who are in the praétice of this mode of improve- ment, that, merely y by. this means, land which was not worth more than five fhil lings, will, in the courfe of a few years, be made worth three pounds per acre per annum. Let us for the prefent fay, that the land was meliorated to the rate of forty fhillings per acre. In this cafe, the mill-ftream would be worth to tl 1€ public, or to the owner of the land, wl nich is the fame thing, two hundred pounds per annum. But it is be- Heved that, taking all the mills in the kingdom, == eee oe SS pac oc aS ca [a Re i ae =, AGRO Int Rm aT the average rent afforded for them will not ex- ceed twenty pounds, after deduéting repairs, and every other collateral expence conjoined with them.-Thus is the public fubjeéted to a lofs of no lefs than one hundred and eighty pounds a year by this mill. ..Nor is it neceffary that the public fhould be deprived of: the benefit of the mill, even if the whole water fhould be abftra€ted from it. For, a in moft fituations, the mill could be worked by {team, nearly as cheap, and certainly with as great effect as by water. It would feem, there- fore, that in balancing the cafe between two claimants for water, one who was to employ it for the purpofe of irrigation, and the other for the ufe of a mill, there can be no reafon to he- fitate on which fide the public weal would re- quire the decifion to be made: becaufe, in the one cafe, the public is not only deprived of a be- nefit to a much greater amount than in the other; but alfo, becaufe that lofs can be made up by no other device yet known; whereas, in the other cafe, the lofs fuftained by abftraéting the water, if incurred without any abatement, is comparatively very fmall; but alfo, that lofs n ay be ecafily averted almoft entirely, by a fubftitute that can‘be put in its place. i | i 2 | Pr EM vo, AE ria aaron 58 OBS TA Cask S:£O That the public would be often more benefited, by employing fteam as a moving power, in pre- ference to water, is obvious, from this fingle con- fideration; that where water is the moving power b) the peculiarity of the fituation neceffarily induces a great expence of carriage, which might be faved by a fteam-mill being placed in the moft convenient fituation. Thofe who advert to the amazing extent of the produce of our fields that is confumed by beafts of burthen, will not think lightly of this confideration. Thefe obfervations are thrown out, merely for the confideration of the public, without any in- tention of detfiring that the plan they would fug- geft fhould be adopted. But without going thefe lengths, it is humbly fubmitted to the public, whether, from thefe and other confiderations, it ought not, among other things, to be enacted, that in every cafe where an oppolition is made, by the owner of a mill, again{t any perfon em- ploying the water for the purpofes of irrigation, or navigable canals, that he fhould have no power to ftop them, until he fhould previoufly have eftablifhed the following. faéts by the de- termination of a jury, and the fentence of a judge confequent thereon; viz. AGRHICD Lite: 59 1f. That the machinery of his mill is con- ftructed upon fuch principles as admits it to perform the greateft quantity of work pofiible, in a given time, with the leaft expenditure of water: And, 2dly. Vhat the quantity of work he has been in the ufe to perform for five years back, on an average, has been fuch, as, upon the beft ¢on- ftruétion of the mill, would have required a quan- tity of water, though no part of it had been al- lowed to run to wafte, equal to the whole that the ftream in queftion could afford. In cafe he fhould fail in thefe points, and it fhould be found that his mill, from her faulty conftruction, or im- proper pofition, required more water than was neceflary: or that he allowed it, through care- leffnefs, to run to wafte; he fhould, in thefe cafes, have the exaét quantity of water afcer- tained, that would be fufficient, with a mill properly conftructed, and where none of the water was fuffered to run to wafte, to per- form the work he had been in ufe to perform as above; which quantity of water he fhould have ‘a title to claim from thofe who diverted the ftream for the purpofes above named, and no more. Le eT E Py 3, | 5 j | | ag i Leased ——x 60 OP DIS TC IAS pO A law to this purpofe, it is humbly conceived would prove highly beneficial to the country; as It would tend to bring a great many difputed points to an amicable compromife, which muft go before parliament at prefent: for, in the cir- cumftances above ftated, neither the muller, nor the perfon claiming the water, could be certain of carrying their point if it came to be litigated; unlefs in a cafe where it was very obvious that one of the parties aGted unjuftly: but where both parties withed bona Jide to benefit them- felves only, without coing material injury to the ae they would find it their intereft each rather yield a little to what he thought the fricteft ae ought to grant him, for fear that, in the event of a difpute, he might, perhaps, be cut of with Jefs.,‘Thus: infolence on both fides would be reprefled; and that irritation of mind which fuch a condué& never fails to infpire, would not be felt; fo that the parties would come more kindly together, than when one of them thinks the law views him with a favourable pary tiality, asa t prefent, In another point of view, mills have proved a great bar to improvements in fome parts of the countr: Wherever the praatice called AGRICULTURE. 61 thirlage,(that is, a power authorized by law, to ptevent the tenants of certain diftricts from carrying their corn to be ground any where elfe but at a particular mill) prevails, it is too often ufed as an engine of oppreffion, that proves extremely galling to thofe who mui fubmit to it. Itis a monopoly of a grievous fort, which ought to be moft certainly abolifhed. This could, perhaps, be beft done by authorifing the owners of fuch lands as are reftri¢ted(or thirled) to a mill belonging to another proprietor, to buy off that reftri€tion whenever he fhould fo incline, at the rate of years purchafe, of the annual value which fhould be found by an im- partial jury of honeft men, to have been the average amount of fuch millers for years patft. 62 OBSTACLES TO § VI. farms, of a fize inadequate to the circumftances in which they are placed, confidered as an Ob- firuction to Improvements in Agriculture.“-« t Fr W queftions have been more agitated of late years than that which refpeéts the fize of farms: but thefe difputes have been carried on chiefly by perfons who were little acquainted with the practice of agriculture, and who were, of courfe, unable to judge of the circumftances in which a large or a fmall farm may become neceffary for the arrangements of a judicious economy: which circumftances have, in thefe performances, been often entirely difregarded. In general the difpu- tants have arranged themfelves into two parties, the one of which has argued in favour of large farms univerfally; while the other has infifted, with a ftill greater degree of eagernefs, that large farms have been the caufe of every evil that thefe perfons were capable of perceiving; and that no falvation remained for the country, but the fubdividing thefe farms, and reducing them once more to thofe narrow limits which, in their ima- ’ 4 at mvt lit od Vv dot hl Quay v3 Ss mn vet for Uk into a t nalaver WlldtY[0 AGRICUL LU BE: 63 gination, was the caufe of innumerable benefits to our predeceffors, that we in the prefent age are not permitted to enjoy. ft is not my intention to arrange myfelf under the banner of either of thefe parties. There are, undoubtedly, circumftances which admit of land being cultivated in the moft economical manner, for the purpofe of affording human fuftenance,_ when it is divided into very fmall allotments; there are others in which a farm can never be managed with economy, unlefs where it is of very large extent; while there are other cafes, which require an intermediate extent of bounds, of many different fizes: nor can the country be ever improved to the utmoft extent of which it is fufceptible, until thefe cafes fhall be: difcrimi- nated, and the farms univerfally apportioned near- ly to the circumftances that would fuit the cafe; but it would require a long treatife to enter mi- nutely into this inveftigation. All that can be attempted at prefent, is, merely to give an outline view of the principles that may lead the mind into a train of difcriminating the particulars ne- ceflary to be adverted to, before a judicious allot- ment can be made in cafes of this fort. In the eflay“ On the Improvement of wafe Lands,” in the prefent volume, it will be made j} | ] EIR ane & | # A ; = ———== 64 OBS TA CLS=O manifeft, that in fearcely any poffible fituation| t can thefe lands be brought into a proper degree| of culture, unlefs where they are laid out into h large farms, or annexed to fuch: and under as! the heads,“ commonable lands,” and“ com- i “mons,” in the prefent eflay, it has been fhewn,~ it that both thefe pernicious practices derive their hi exiftence from an inadequate fmallnefs of farms; fu and can never be abolifhed in a proper manner, fy till this injudicious partition of land fhall be aban-{ doned. The reader is referred to thefe places for farther fatisfa€tion as to thefe cafes. In every cafe where land is poor, and ftands s) 3 in need of lime or other extraneous manure, be- fore it can be fertilized, the farm mutt be of fuch extent as to admit of keeping a fufficient num- ita ber of beafts to labour it in a proper manner,— fore of fheep, or other domeftic animals, in fuch a, hte quantity as to allow of their being managed in a if proper and economical manner, fo as to admit'‘h of their dung being applied with effe@ for the wh produétion of future crops.‘To do all this, re- fe quires’a very large capital: and a man who tat has a large capital, has a right to expe€t, and he to muft have, a comfortable fubfiftence to himfelf‘ and family, or he will abandon that occupation. ws But fuch a fum as would be neceflary for all|( — a c ee”_— 3— ener 0 gest => ET a SS ff a: AGRPOD WT URE 65 thefe purpofes, can never be gleaned from a fmall extent of the furface of poor land. If ever fuck land is to be farmed in a /pirited manner, fo as to admit of its being rendered more produc- tive than before, or, in other words, zmproved, it muift be let out into allotments of a very con- fiderable fize: and happy may the proprietor of fuch Jands be, when he can find a tenant of {pirit, with an adequate ftock, who is willing to fit down upon them; for then; and not till then, it can be put into the train of a gradual and progreflive amelioration. If it fhall continue in{mall allotments, as it has hitherto done, the tenants muft continue a poor and difpirited race, as heretofore, and the land muft continue alfo in a hopelefs ftate of éternal unproduétivenefs> for every effort to excite a fpirit of induftry among men in thefe circumftanees, muft prove abortive. J fpecify no particular cafe of this kind as an illuftrative example; but refer to the cafes, wherever they fhall occur under this predicament; how, and at all future times, as invariab’y illuf trative of this important faét, which has been but too long difregarded in this nation(0). If poor ground, even where no natural obftruc+ tion ftands in the way of its cultivation, requires e capital and ar 4 for its mere cultivation alone, a la g VOLE. IIT; F 66 OBSTACLES: TG confiderable extent of furface. This becomes ftill more neceflary, where confiderable obftruc- tions of another fort are to be furmounted. Where large ftones require to be removed—the furface to be freed from obftruétive inequalities, and rendered even for cultivation; and where draining, at a great expence, mutt precede every other effectual improvement,—capital becomes ftill more requifite, and{pirited exertions indif- penfible. Thefe impediments, indeed, can ne- ver be removed without it. And to expect to find that the miferable holders of /mall farms of fuch land can ever be induced to make thefe ne- ceflary exertions, is nearly equally hopelefs, as it would be, to expect to gather pine-apples from thiftles, or the fruit of the bread-tree from bram: bles. Arable land, when even of a good quality, that has been at fome former period brought into good order, cannot be fo managed as to be kept in that ftate, and be made to yield nearly its greateft guantum of free produce, unlefs it be let off in allotments, though of a fmaller extent of furface than in the former cafe, and requiring a lefs extent of capital; yet they mutt{till be in the mimiate large farms. And if the amount of rent clafs that the writers above named would deno A‘'GRAS OLTVRE 67 be to be the rule of judging, perhaps thefe would require to be even larger than the ioregoing; be- caufe a much greater proportion of the produce can, in this cafe, be allowed to go to rent, than in the other. In every cafe, where economy in the management of arable land is aimed at, the farm muft be of fuch an extent as to admit of all operations being carried on like clock- work, fo as that one operation does not interfere with, or intérrupt an other; and they mutt be fo ar- ranged, if poffible, as that no variation of weather can lay the operators idle, or prevent the horfes from working, when they would not be endanger- ed by going out of doors: but this kind of ar- rangement can in no poflible circumftances be per- mitted unlefs where the range is confiderable. When the plough indeed is abandoned, and the ground is fo rich as to admit of being cultivated entirely by the fpade, the fame neceflity does not exift for having large farms; and they may, with- out inconvenience, and even with profit, be di- minifhed to a much fmaller feale. But, even in this cafe there are limits, above or below which, they cannot be permited to go, without a hurtful, influence upon economical arrangements. On the one hand, the price of labour is, in this coun- a try, perhaps too high in proportien to the price F 2% = eee——— a 68 OBS TAC hs= bo of grain, to admit of the fpade culture being adopted in any ¢ircumftances, for the produétion of corn crops: it muft, therefore, be confined to the rearing a few other articles of lefs general confumption, which never can be ded area of great aes moment; chiefly, indeed, to the es earing of efculent plants for the fupply of fami- lies 3 In towns.- courfe, fuch divifions of lands can take place toa ae te extent only in the near vicinityof towns: and they mutt be very near, indeed, if the produce can be economic: a carried to market, or the neceflary manures ¢ brought back, without the aid of one ee at leaft. lows, that the ground muft be of fuch ex- tent, at leaft, as to afford conftant en nployment. to that one horfe and a perfon to attend hin, other- wife a wafte muft be ee. 1 his may, there- fore,,be fiated.as the’ leaft economical divifion of land-admiflible.| Its maximum, when cultivatedin.this manner, cannot reach far: for unlefs the owner himfelf work with. his own hands, or be almott conitantly with his labourers himfelf, while in the fiel d,.a! want of economy in this department will foon be ex xperienced, that mufi quickly prove ruinous to the farmer, if fo he can be called. Ata ny rate, this kind of diminu- tive occupation of land mutt be very much limit- ~'e count ina national point of view; and fcarcely AGRKCU LT URE. 69 ir ed in its guantum, fo as to be o required to have been here mentioned, except tor the purpofe of illuftration. The fame thing may be faid of thofe fmali t patches. which are fometimes occupied by manu- fa€turers, as an accommodation to them in cat rying on the particular details of their bui refpectively. They are.to be accounted as mere accidental localities, that are of too{mall an ex- tent to require particular confideration. In very light dry foils, that are of a peculiarly rich quality, arable farms may be reduced to a {maller fize, with a leffer want of economy, than under any other circumftances: and there may occur fituations of this fort, where the advantages that may arife from the minute attention of the occupier, may be fuch as to counterbalance the inconveniences that arife from other circum- {tances; or that he may perhaps farm with nearly as greateconomy, if he keeps no fervants, but does the work himfelf, with the occafional affift- ance of his wife and family, as if it were let off in larger allotments: butthis is the only cafe iknow, in which what would be,-by the writers above- named, called /mall arable farms, is poflibly ad- miiible; and, thefe fituations are fg few in this Tt Q A 70 OBS TAGs TX) country, as{tilllefs to deferve confideration in a na- tional point of view, than thofe above enumerated. In the Netherlands, the foil is in general of thig defcription, and admits of being allotted into {maller farms, than any where elfe that I know of. In all other cafes, cultivable farms require to be of a confiderable fize; more or lefs as the circumftances of the cafe require; and till fuch Jands be put into fuch kind of occupation, the country can never be put into a{tate of progrefs five amelioration; or be made to yield nearly the guantum of human fuftenance, that it is naturally fufceptible of being brought to afford. The produce of rich grafs-lands can as feldom be confumed with economy, without the ad- vance of a large capital, as in almoft any other cafe; fo that there are few circumftances, except thofe alluded to above, in which fuch lands can be properly occupied, in very fmall patches, Under the dairy management, however, an over- extent may be produttive of inconveniences. In the vicinity of towns, lands of this defcription, like others, admit of being divided into fmalley portions, or made larger, than in the country; where alone, farming, in the proper fenfe of the word, can be faid to exift. And there the mz- nimum, even for the dairy, is not of fmall extent SCRECWL TU RE. 71 AVE| ¥ ¥ II. Inadequate fecurity of Tenure: Improper Con- Seay 2?§ Sa Pope ae BS EI Ie FREE ee a Ee, nan ditions under which that Tenure has been grant- ed, and reftrictive Claufes in Leases, Impedi- ments to Agriculture. ‘Lue higheft benefits that man derives from civil inftitutions, are fafety to his perfon, and fecurity ef property; and human induftry is always found to be nearly in proportion to the degree in which thefe privileges are enjoyed, in every coun- try onthe globe. In this ifland great attention has been beftowed upon this fubject; and, in moft cafes, the property of individuals is fo effectually guarded at to prompt them to vigorous exertions: but fome cafes of great moment have unfortu- nately efcaped the national attention till the per- fent hour. 3 Habit has a wonderful influence on the human mind, fo as to be able to bring it to view objects, with which it has been familiarifed from its in- fancy, with indifference, which it would have beheld with horror, had they been for the firft time obferved only when man had attained the FE 4 « Per Sain pee eera= Se j FF t % 72 OBSTACLES: TQ. full exercife of his faculties in riper years... It‘ig to this circumftance alone, we are to attribute that indifference with which men of found un- derftanding can view the condition of thofe who are engaged in agricultural employments in this country, without pe rceiving the remarkable dif- ference, between the fituations of thefe men, and that of perfons in almoft ey ery other profeilion in this kingdom,—in. regard to their fecurity of tenure, and the inducements they have to make yigorous exertions in induftry, from the hopes of benefitting themfelves and families by thefe exer- tions—For the tenure of the land they occupy fo flight, and ufually for fuch‘a fhort period of years, and they are fo much cramped by the terms on which the lands are granted, that:an unprejudiced perfon, who fhould attentively con- fider the w hole lyftem of conduét purfued by Janded proprietors, and the ideas that in general prevail in this refpe&t, would believe that agricul- ture was an employment which it was deemed to ke good policy to reprefs above all others. Yet fo far is this: from being avowedly the cafe, that he hears, from eve ery quarter, that agriculture is the moft ufeful and the moft honourable of all employments, and deferves to be encouraged above all others. a i a a eae A-GRACUEA UAc8, 73 Such a difcordancy between profeffion and practice might, by acynic, be conftrued to imply a degree of infincerity: but when we look back to the ftate of fociety in former times in. this ifland, we are enabled ta account for it on a more fatisfa€tory principle. Land was originally let off by proprietors to perfons who were in the loweft ftate of depreflion that flavery produces, fo that to allow them to aequire property of any fort, was deemed a favour: and no terms, how- ever hard, could be looked on as fevere. Though thefe ideas, in the moft rigid fenfe of the word, have been greatly moderated, yet it does not feem that they have been entirely obliterated. To this caufe I have no difficulty in referring for a folution of the contradictory cafe above{tated(c). How- ever this may be, the fact is certain, that in no other profeflion in this country, 1s a man, who pofleffes the fame amount of capital, and extent of knowledge, and who beftows an equal de- gree of attention to bufinefs,{o much dependent upon the will of others, lives, upon the whole, fo poorly, or acquires fo little money by equal exer- tions, continued for the fame length of time, as thofe who are in the profeflion of agriculture. As a proof of this, I wifh to refer every reader to the recolleétion of faéts conneéted with this 74 OBST A.C LES UTIO ‘ queftion, which he himfelf mut know. Is it, I would afk, any thing extraordinary to meet with a man in the mercantile bufinefs who fet out in life without one farthing. of capital, and who, merely by diligence and attention to bufinefs, has raifed himfelf into refpectability, lives in eafy and even affluent circumftances, educates a family ina fuperb ftile, and at latt, when he dies, be- queaths to them a fortune of many thoufand pounds’ he well knows that this is. no uncom: mon thing. The fame thing is by no means un- common among thofe who follow the profeffion of the law; or the manufacturing line of bufinefs; and even fome handicraft employments. But though it is by no means uncommon for a farmer to fet out in bufinefs witha capital of from five hundred to one thoufand pounds,—where will he find an inftance of fuch a man, either living in a ftile of as great elegance asa merchant, who began with{carcely one fhilling, or bequveathing to his children as much money as would be deem- ed a very moderate competency, ina commercial or manutacturing line of bufinefs? If this be fo(and that it is fo, every perfon who looks around him muft be fatisfied) does it not afford the cleareft proof that agriculture is forced into an unnatural degree of depreflion ~ eS AGRIEULTURE a5 which it is highly impolitic to continue? let us i now, therefore, enquire into the circum{tances that tend to produce this effect, and the eafieft means of removing them. Nor will the enquiry be attended with much difficulty, by one who has read the feveral agri- cultural furveys: for there he will find, that a great part of the lands, in every county in En- eland, are occupied by tenants at will, who may be thrown out of their pofleffion on receiving fix months notice, whenever the landlord pleafes; that in cafes where Jeafes are granted, thefe gene- rally run from five tofeven, or nine years endu- rance only; and that a very{mall proportion, not perhaps, upon the whole, one thoufandth part of the lands in England, are held under leafes of nineteen years duration; which, or twenty one years, may be confidered as the maximum. And even thofe precarious leafes are full of fuch reftri€tions, as tie up the hand of the farmer from ever attempting any effential improvement. The confequences of fuch a fyftem of manage- ment, on the community at large, are truly de- plorable. A tenant at will is not only debarred from all thoughts of making improvements that might benefit the country-—but he is doomed to a ftate of humihating abjectnefs to the will of 76 OB&eT A CLl:ES: T-O another, that degrades the dignity of the human mind: for abfolute power, while under the influ- ence even of the beft difpofitions, tends to cor- rupt the heart, and lead to abufes that could not have been otherwife thought of. What mutt it then be, when it cherithes the perverfe difpofi- tions of a mind naturally prone to domineer! ‘Fhe queftion anfwers itfelf. the weight of the rod held over the farmer, in thefe circumftances, muit be diminifhed by mean fubmiffions, and fyco- phantifh adulation: cunning muft take the place of wifdom; and the pleafures of life mu be enjoyed by ftealth, that they may not excite envy: wealth, where it can be picked up, mut be concealed under the mean garb of poverty; and a{pirit of deception and chicane, muft pre- jade the whole mafs of the people, under thefe circumftances. Deplorable, indeed, muft-be the ftate of the nation, where the country people, who, of all the claffes in the ftate, ought to be naturally the. moft virtuous and upright, are dri- ven, from neceility, to fhelter themfelves under fubterfuges that are fo deplorably degrading! Under a tenure of feven, or of nine years, the cafe is little bettered. If the tenant{hall make an attempt to render the land more produftive, it has only a tendency to bring others forward te AGRICULTURE? TT offer a higher rent, that they may be permitted ‘to reap the fruits of that enlarged crop which has been fown by another; fo that the man who ven- tures to put himfelf under fuch a predicament, muft experience a ftate of perpetual difquietude, which prudence requires him to avoid, by re- fraining from all fuch injudicious attempts: for in his fituation, afluredly, every expenditure that tends to infuré a permanent improvement, muft be accounted injudicious. On a nineteen, or twenty one years leafe, the cafe is a little, and but a very little altered. In the former cafes, no improvements can be at- tempted. In the prefent cafe, a few may be Tt gone into: but even thefe muit be carried on upon a.fyftem that is extremely uneconomical, and eminently produétive of national lofs.“It is well known by every fkilful farmer, that land, which is in a poor and exhaufted ftate, in con- fequence of improper management, cannot be put into a proper productive ftate, without the expenditure of a confiderable fum of money, and the lapfe of much time; but that when it is once put into a good and produftive ftate, it may, by a cautious condutt, and judicious mode of cropping only, be continued in that condition for any length of time, without expence. Thus, i \ Hd \ a ee 78 OBSTACLES TO the tenant, under fuch a tenure, is fubjeéted te the neceflity of making a great expenditure at’ firft, in order to bring his land into good order, which never would have been neceflary, if it had not been for the exhaufting mode of cropping that his predeceffors has adopted; and which he himfelf will affuredly adopt towards the end of his leafe, that he may get fome return for the money he was obliged to expend towards the beginning of it. By thefe manceuvres, the land is* never, even at the bett, brought nearly to the higheit degree of productivenefs of which it is fufceptible: but even that moderate degree of fertility which it does thus acquire, it is only al- lowed to poffefs for a very fhort period of the leafe; fo that the total quantum of produce, even when under this Management, is wonder- fully{hort of what it eafily might be. Under this mode of management, however, a phenomenon occurs, which is not experienced where the leafe is of thorter endurance. The landlord has an opportunity of obferving, that his ground is capable of being brought into a degree of produétivenefs of which he never could have fufpeéted it was fufceptible, under the other arrangement. And when he fees it once more brought back to its former ftate of fterility, he Pa tee Se Le ST EO ES ss zat ee ee oa a=a geken away ACER A GU ts 70 RR Ei 73 becomes alfo fenfible of a deterioration he would mot otherwile have remarked. This circum- ftance, it is to be feared, in too many cafes, prejudices him againft this kind of leafe, which puts it in the power of the tenant to operate fuch an obvious deterioration; and he is better pleafed with thofe fhorter baelae under which any thing of this kind muft be far lefs obvious. He forgets that that very fertility, which is thus ;,.was added to the land ata former period, by the exertions of the farmer:-that it only has out-run the land farted under fhort leafes, for a fhort period; and returns again‘to the fame pitch, perhaps, nearly from which the former never departed. But not fatisfied with curtailing the duration of the leafe, the landlord finds, that, to prevent the total deterioration of the land during the prevalence of that infecure tenure, it 1s neceffary to bind the tenant to cer- tain prefcribed modes of management, which the weaknefs of our predeceflors, at fome former pe- riod, or the vanity of their fucceffors,” of the pre- fent day, had made them believe were the moft perfeét that could be devifed. The confequence that, however deficient thefe regulations may prove in preventing deterioration, they are found >» be fufficiently efficacious in preventing the + TIRES REN a at es AUNT SORT EIEN 80 OBSTACLES EO introduction of thofe more perfect modes of culé ture, which the ingenuity of man, when put into proper circumiftances, would very quickly devife. While I thus trace, with a painful minutenefs, the rife and progrefs of a malady that has been produgtive of miferable confequences to this country in general, and to which it, therefore, becomes the bufinefs of every man in the com- munity to advert, yet I with, in a particular man- ner, to call the attention of gentlemen of landed property to this fubjeét; becaufe, of all others, it tends the moft immediately to affect their own particular income. ‘It muft, in the firft place, appear evident to every confiderate mind, that the flavifh depen- dence which a tenure of the nature explained above muft produce, will neceflarily drive away, from the profeflion of agriculture, every young man of fpirit, ambition, and native energy of mind; who will rather choofe to engage in fome other employment, in which there is a better profpe&t of availing himfelf of his talents and indufiry.. And that this actually does take place, is a deplorable truth, too notorious to be farther infifted on in this place. A necefiary confequence is, that thofe who re- main behind, are of a torpid languid frame of AGRLOCULTURE 81 mind, which is rather difpofed to fink into indo- lence, than to{pring forward into a@tive exer- tions; and the fituation in which they feel them- felves placed, as naturally tends to augment this torpor, as the light of the fun tends to produce a fhadow. Why then fhould we be furprifed, in thefe circumftances, to obferve, that the progrefs of agriculture is fo nearly ftationary; and that fo many among this clafs of men, fhould be con- tented with blindly following what their fathers have done before them? This furely ought to excite no wonder: but the thing which is truly wonderful is, that, under thefe circumftances, there are ftill fome men to be found, who can be brought to fubmit to the hardfhips they are doomed to fuffer in that fituation, without aban- doning it yet more than has been done; and that there are ftill fome rare individuals to be met with among them, who have made fome “faint attempts at improvement. This phenome- non can only be accounted for by that inftinétive bias which the Creator feems to have imprefled on. the human mind, in favour of agriculture, rather than any other occupation, fe emingly for the purpofe of producing food at all times for the fubfiftence of the human race; nearly of a fimilar nature to the inftinGtive appetite for fex VOL. 115 G 89 OBSTACLES-TO and for food, fo univerfally conférred on animated— beirigs, for the purpofe of: preferving the in- dividual in health, and preventing the fpecies from being annihilated; and which inftin@ive calls aré fo powerful as not to be fubduéd by any other méans'than the extin@tion-of life itfelf. It will not be alledged that’ the’ agriculture of this country has yet been carried to the higheft perfection of which it is fufceptible. It will be admitted by every one, that there is as much room for improvements in this branch of bufi- nefs,(perhaps more) as in any that can be named: it will not be denied, that there is as muich{cope for fpirited exertions here’as in any other walk: why then fhould men of fpirit be banithed from it? Money is univerfally allowed to be abfo- lutely neceflary for carrying on its operations be made to Keep the occupier’ of land poor?. rr- There is as much fcope for the exertions of a found underftanding here as in any other. profef- fion, had it room to operate with freedom; and that underftanding, if fully exercifed, would dif- cover a greater variety of refources for augment- ing individual wealth, and national treafure@, in this than perhaps in any other employment:— 1 why then fhould barriers be every where thrown AGRE UET WU RE! 83 int its way to prevent the full and frée exerc its" powers?* This miferable fyftem of regulation and re{traint, has been esis weaat long, very long, after its futility has been fully demonftratéd+ why then fhould it not be abandoned? The welfare of the public demands it; but the interetft of landed gentlemen demands it in a ftill more eminent degree: for, where the public receives a benefit from agricultural improvements in an arithmetical ratzo, the proprietor’s income will be aulgmented ina geometrical proportion nearly This affertion will: uppear paradoxical to thofe only who have not adverted to this fubject; for thofe who have adverted to it, know well that no rent whatever can be afforded from cultivated land, until the produce exceeds the expence of rearing it: and as that expence is in 4ll ee as great in poor land as it is in rich land, ally greater) it follows, that a confiderable popwtin of the crop muft, in all cafes, go to payment« the expences. Let us, for exa: iple, tat a twelve bufhels per acre is juft fufficient for th expence of cultivating, and no more. ut fo, no rent whatever can be afforded for culiivated land that vields only twelve bufhels. But ited the fertility of the Jand is increafed to thirteen bufh- els; the farmer wil] be very well pleafed to give ¢ 2 84 OBSTACLES TO half a bufhel by way of rent. Suppofe, again,, it is brought to yield twenty buthels; the farmer will be content to pay to the landlord fix bufhels by way of rent. Say it augmented to twenty-fix; the farmer will be willing to pay ten, or more, to the landlord. Here then the produce, by being only once doubled, from thirteen to twenty- fix, the rent has been augmented twenty-fold: and nearly the fame ratio will hold in every other cafe. If gentlemen were, therefore, to con- fider the cafe with attention, they would find it much more ¢he7r intereft, than perhaps even of the farmer himfelf, to promote the profperity of the farmer, and to encourage him to pufh his im- provements ftill forward without any abatement; becaufe the greater amount the produce can be brought to, the greater will be the proportion of free produce; and the greater the amount of that free produce, the greater will be the pro- portion of it that the proprietor will draw by way of rent. Thus, in the example above ftated, when the amount is thirteen bufhels, the free produce is one thirteenth; and the landlord’s rent 1s only one twenty-fixth of the total, or one half of the free produce. When, on the other hand, the whole amount of the crop is twenty-fix bufhels, AGRICULTURE. 85 the landlord’s rent is ¢e twenty-fixths of the whole produce; or about+ of the free produce; and although the tenant’s profits would, in this laft cafe, when compared with the firft, be as 8 to 1; yet the landlord’s profits would be augmented as 20tol. The profit to the public, in this in- ftance, would be as two to the tenant as eight— and to the proprietor as twenty to one. It thus appears, that, of all the parties concerned, it Is moft the intereft of the landlord to promote im- provements; for it will be found, that in every cafe where there are two fields, the produce of which are nearly as above ftated, without requiring any immediate outlay for their improvement, the farmer would willingly pay even more rent than is there fpecified, for the laft; though he could fcarcely give fo much for the firft. Yet it cannot be expected that, if the fuperior produce has been immediately occafioned» by his own outlay of capital, and exertions of induftry, he can pay nearly the fame proportion, of it as rent: but after the land has been for fome time in a permanent fate of fertility to that degree, though it even originally derived that fertility from his own induftry, he will be content to pay fuch a proportion of rent as is here fiated, ¢f no other deductions are to be taken from his free produce. G 3 56 OBSTACLES. TO It is, therefore, greatly the intereft of the pro-) prietor, that the profits of his tenant fhould be thus augmented; for, in this way, his own rents will be augmented ina much higher degree. It is upon thefe principles that I beg leave warmly to recommend to gentlemen of landed ‘property, the plan of a leafe devifed by the late Lord Kaims, which feems to me to be perfectly calculated for putting the landlord and the te- nant on fuch a footing, with regard to eachother, as is hable to no objeétion that I can fee; for, while it gives entire freedom to the exertions of genius and found underftanding, it is perfedily well calculated to excite the farmer to make continued exertions to forward his improvements, and, at the fame time, infures to the landlord the certainty of receiving an adequate rent for his land, under every poflible fituation of things. His Lordfhip propofed that the leafe fhould extend to an indefinite number of years, con- fifting of fixed periods, at the end of each of which a rife of rent fhould take place; with per- midion for the tenant, at the period of each of thefe rifes of rent, to give up his farm, if he fhall {ee proper; and granting a fimilar power to the j andlord, upon proper terms, to refume his land CS —-.—————— a an I es—_— AG RAC UL fT. GVeRak. 87 $f he fhall think At. The particulars of this ontraét, and the grounds on which they reft, are as under. Lord Kaims affumes it as a poftulatum, that a landlord and tenant are capable of forming a to- lerably juft eftimate of the value of the land in 2 queftion, for a{hort period.of years, fuch as it 1s cuftomary to grant leafes for in Scotland: fay twenty-one years. And having agreed upon thefe terms, which, for the prefent, we fhalt call 100]. rent, the tenant-expreffes a wifh to have his leafe extended to alonger period. To this the pro- prietor objects, on this ground, that itis not pof- fible to form a precife eftimate of what the value of the ground may be at the end of that period. He has already feen-that ground, for the laft twenty-one years, has encreafed much more in value than eny perfon atthe beginning of that period could eafily have conceived it woult have done; and therefore h@ cannot think.of giving it off, jut now, for a longer-period; as a fumilar rife of value may beexpetted to take place in future. This reafoning appears to be well founded; and, therefore, to give the landlord a reafonable gra- tification, he propofes it fhould be ftipulated, | that if the tenant fhould agree to give a certain G 4 a amr il tl-—— 3: sy ee“= Se tg a pe i— en a<—— y ag - ee Bs=~— SS—— we eas a Pe EE IO LEE LOE AOE BE{+ ee Ss—.=e einer’ a' 5‘i ao." 7. aon appbilline, . as 4 eR a eae at Le eS a ee Sant 4 V 112 OBSTACLES TO I to attempt to make an eftimate of the total amount of the encreafed produéts of land, that might have been produced by a judicious outlay on folid permanent agricultural improvements; of the fums that have been expended on ufelefs inclofures which have been. made in this ifland, within the{pace of two hundred years paft; the amount would be fo great as to appear to be in- eredible. For this reafon, L omit it here. My object here, is not fo much to eftimate the loffes we have already fuftained by a blind adherence to ancient cuftoms, as now, that the evils arifing from thefe caufes are felt, to direét the attention of the public to fuch circumftances as may tend to ward off fimilar evils in time to come; and I thall be happy if any thing I fhall here fay, fhall tend to make the fubject of inclofures only an objet of deliberation. In that cafe, men will foon dif: cover other facts, which I think it here unnecef: fary to bring forward, that will furnith additional arguments for hefitating with regard to their utility. As I fhall, perhaps,-have occafion to refume this fubject, where it will have occafion to be confidered under another point of view, in an effay intitled Confiderations on the mot eco« nomical mode of confuming the produce of a co) farm,;—I fhall not profecute the fubje&t farther "wa. WR AGRICULTURE— 119 in this place; but refer the reader to that eflay for farther fatisfa€tion refpe€ting fome doubts which will naturally occur to his mind on this eccafion, Here I fhall only obferve, that what- ever annihilates a confiderable proportion of the beft lands of the kingdom, as inclofures may Juftly be faid to do; and abftraéts from. the pur- pofes of produétive melioration, a large propor- tion of the capital appropriated to agricultural purpofes, as the erecting of fences undoubtedly does; ought certainly to be productive of bene- fits that are by no means problematic:. for the evils originating in this fource, are at firft fight obvious, and of great magnitude. 5X. confidered as an Objiruction to the Progre/s of Improvements. Churchelands, Lands in Morimain and Entatls; Cuvurcu Jands, and other lands in mortmain, prove a much greater obftruction to the laying off of roads and canals, or making exchanges for the mutual accommodation of parties, than lands VOL, 111; I wi ber setae as SENN; [ i SS iia; OBST A Cres PO equally circumftanced belonging to individuals; inafmuch as they are more unalterable by any perfon exifting: for though all the parties fhould be fenfible of the utility of the propofed change, and willing to agree to it; yet it is doubted, if any authority, fhort of an att of parliament, can make a change that is not liable to future chal- lenge. In other cafes, too, when a property 1S fall, it frequently happens that one or other of the proprietors who hold it, become willing to fell it in the courfe of no long traét of years; fo that the inconvenience refulting from thefe trou- blefeme holdings is gradually done away: but when fuch fmall property is in mortmain, it be- comes a perfect nuifance to the neighbourhood. It may be compared to one of thofe incurable wens that fometimes grow on the human neck, from which there is no hope of deliverance, but by death itfelf. No leafes of a proper kind for promoting induftry, can be granted upon fuch lands; and they muft remain fmall, detached, un- improveable patches for ever. [t is by no means my with, to make unnecef- cefflary encroachments:on the property of the church, or of any other individual whatever:— but where evils that affect, in a ftrong degree, the community at large, have been the refult of a AGRICULTURE, Lis a combination of circumftances that were not forefeen at the time when the inftitutions from Which they fprang were adopted; it would argue a great want of underftanding to fay, that no at- tempt fhould be made to remove thofe evils when they come to be feverely felt by the public; although, in every attempt of this fort, as much care as poflible fhould be taken, that thofe regu- lations which public conveniency call for, fhould not tend to hurt the private intereft of individuals. On that principle I would humbly beg leave to fuggeft, as a matter for confideration by the public, whether the inconvenience complained of, in regard to this particular, may be removed, and the holders of lands in queftion be at the fame time benefited, merely by a law authorifing fuch lands to be fold under proper regulations: or, if this were deemed too great an innovation, by permitting all patches of fuch lands, being disjoined property, if not exceeding in yearly value the fum of I. to be fold by public auc- tion, under due forms; and requiring that the money arifing from fuch fales, fhould be vefted in the public funds; the intereft of fuch fums to be applied, in all time coming, to the fame pur- pofes as thofe to which the rents of, thefe lands, held in mortmain, are at prefent allocated.— i 2 ecrraeen: | i | ' ii iH 116 GES TACLES£O Many would be the advantages that would thus refult to thofe having a right to thefé funds: for it is a truth well underftood, that the rents drawn for fuch lands at prefent, are, for the moft part, very much beneath their real value. And, un- der pretext of repairs, dilapidations, arrears, and 1 t charge of management, prodigious abatements muft be made from the grofs rents.“From fatts that have come to my knowledge, I think it would be a moderate eftimate to fay, that, tak- ing all the mortmain-lands of this defcription in the kingdom, the free income drawn by thofe who have aright to it, is not above one half of what the grofs rent of thefe lands would be, at the prefent moment, if they were let on leafes of a proper fort; and are lefs than one fourth part of what it might be brought to in a very fhort courfe of years, if under a judicious management. The inference I draw from this faét is, that were thefe lands fold, they would in general bring a much higher price in proportion to their prefent rent, than other lands in the vicinity: partly on account of the profit that a perfon may hope to derive from becoming owner of a{mall bit of sroperty, and partly on account of the defire that the great landed proprietors befide them would }- cr 4 have to acquire thefe lands. When that money i A*@REC U.LT.U RE, 117 was thus acquired, it would purchafe an annuity -in the funds, much higher than ever before was drawn from the lands; and the expence of managing that fund would be greatly lefs than that of landed, property.‘The following ftate- ment will fhew what the probable encreafe of in- come‘would be, to the perfons having naw a right to thefe funds. If land fells, on an average, as it does at pre- fent, at about thirty years purchafe; mortmain- lands would fell at forty years purchafe, at leaft, of the grofs rent. Lands yielding 1001. per annum, of grofs rent, at forty years purchafe, wotld bring 4000].; the neat free rent of which is at prefent, on this fup- pofition, 501,: but call it 601. This fum, if employed to purchafe three per cents, at the rate of 60]. per cent, would pur- chafe an annuity of 200].(At prefent, February 1798, the three.per cents are at 49, confeat the annuity would exceed 2401.) From which deduét for management, and this would be a very large allowance, 14. per cent, there would remain 1971.,(above 2361.) which is more than three,(nearly four times the amount of the fum at prefent drawn.) o) Io 118 Ops EX CEES TO J am myfelf convinced that the above calcula- tion will be found to be very near the truth; but fhould any one be inclined to think it erroneous in fome degree, let him deduét what he fhall I think proper. It is certain, the balance, never can be turned to the oppoflite fide of the account with the fmalleft pretenfions to truth; fo that, at allevents, the income of thofe who have a right to thefe lands muft be confiderably augmented; and they muft, of courfe, have an intereft to pro- mote, and not to retard the meafure propofed. With regard to other lands in mortmain, ap- propriated to charitable purpofes, which are ne- ceflarily put under the management of perfons who have no right to apply any part of thefe funds to their own ufe; the benefit that would re- fult to the objeéts intended to be fupported by thefe charities, would, by this means, be im- menfe. Parliament has of late had this fubjeé under confideration; but though they have dif- covered abufes to an aftonifhing extent, it does not appear that any radical meafure for preventing the like abufes in future has been adopted. It is fubmitted, whether confiderable benefits would not refult from the ordering thefe lands to be fold, and the money to be applied as above; with this exprefs injunction from parliament, that the agent A GeRiC UL LTU RE. 119 fhould iffue no payments from this fund, for the ufe of the current year, until the accounts of the money for the former year, in which all the ¢éems fhould be feverally ftated, and the vouchers tranf- mitted toa proper perfon to be appointed to act as auditor of thefe accounts, were paffed by him; efpecially if it fhould, at the fame time, be enaéted, that all perfonsin the management of thefe funds at the time, and their heirs, fhould be made liable, conjunctly and feverally, to make up,- out of their own private funds, whatever de- ficiency could be inftru¢ted to haye accrued from any mis-ftatement by them, or falfehood in thefe ac- counts; if it fhould be detefted any time within forty years of the period when the faulty tranfac- tion took place. There feems to be, indeed, no way of curing this evil, but by thus feparating the management of the mortmain property from the application of the money arifing out of it, to the purpofes prefcribed by the donator. One agent might be appointed for the manage- ment of the church funds, on whom the refpec- tive claimants fhould be impowered to draw. for their refpeétive fhares, at ftated periods; and ano- ther, if it were thought neceflary, for the other mortified funds. Thefe agents to be entitled to retain a fpecified per centage for their trouble; 1 4+ 120 ODbot ACLS FO and to find fureties to a proper extent for their intromiflions.) es With regard to entails, I do not find they are much complained of in England. But in Scot- ‘ cnet Dia pe me FRE Re Jand they operate nearly in the fame manner to the retardment of improvements, as the church-lands in England. The time is not, perhaps, as yet ar- rived, when a modification of thefe can be at- tempted. And as eftates, under this kind of te- i | nure, are ufually of confiderable extent, they come lefs in the way, as obftru€tions of other im- provements, thanthe former. But fhould a time ever come, when very fmall eftates fhall be laid under this kind of reftraint, Ican have no doubt but a meafure of the fame fort as that recom- mended above, would be found expedient as to them, Indeed it would be, for very obvious rea- fons, a much more eligible plan to grant a power by law, to entail to a certain line of heirs the an- nual rent of this kind of property, or the value of fo much corn fpecified, than that of land itfelf; as it would remove many very heavy obitruétions) to agriculture, and would provide with equal ef- fet for the prefervation of a name, and the con- tinuation of a fixed income, to a certain line of heirs(f). f To forward fuch a‘beneficial change as this q would occafion,—-might not a Jaw be paffed au-| thorifing any owner of entailed property, to fell : KGRICU-LT U-RE. 121 that property, under the authority of the Court of Seflion, if in Scotland, or other competent court if in England, whenever the proprietor fhould ap- ply, after having afcertained, under due forms, e the prefent free rent of the eftate, whether in mo- ney or in kind; the judges being authorifed and required to allocate fo much of the price, as fhould be fufficient to purchafe an annuity in the funds of the fame amount as the free rent of the eftate fold; there to remain untransferable, except to the line of heirs prefcribed by the entail; the re- mainder of the price to be at the difpofal of the vender of the lands; or, at the will of the court, to be applied as a fund for younger children. Particular regulations would, in this cafe, be ne- ceflary to be adopted, for fecuring the intereft to the true line of heirs, which it would be eafy to devife: but of which it is unneceflary to fay more in this place. § XI. Indefinite claims upon Land, confidered as an Obfruction to Agricultural Improvements To this head are referable tithes, poor’s rates, and fome other claims of lefs confequence. 122 OBS EA CLES.T.O :‘Tithes. [It appears that the drawing of tithes’ in kind, is univer/ally complained of as a grievance in England; as there is fcarcely a fingle furvey of a county, im which it is not mentioned as an evil that ought to be remedied. Nor, indeed,. is it a wonder, that this fhould be complained of as a grievance: for the drawing of tithes in kind, when it is examined with attention, willbe found to operate directly, in the ftricteft fenfe of the word, asa tax upon induftry; and to be at the fame time more vexatious in the mode of col- Ie€ting, than perhaps any tax that has ever been adopted. Andif it be alfo adverted, that the mode of colle€ting it is fo expenfive as to afford much le{s to him who receives, than it takes from him who pays, it will not be fo much a wonder that it excites univerfal difguft, as that it has not long before this time been fo modified, as to af- ford relief to the parties interefted in it: for it is certainly not beyond the powers of man to devife fome expedient, where both parties, are fufferers, to give one of the parties, at leaft, relief, if it cannot be extended to both. There are four different defcriptions of perfons, who may be affeGted more or lefs by the drawing AGRICULTURE. 193 of tithes in kind; viz. 17, the farnrer; 2d, the proprieror; 3d, the parfon or the impropriator of the tithe; and, 4th, the public at large; each of which I fhall beg leave feparately to confider. The farmer. He is more or lefs affetted by it, according to the fituation and circumitances of the land he occupies. If it bea corn farm,(and I beg that all the remarks here offered may‘be underftood as applying to this defcription of land) and if the land be of‘a rich and fertile quality, fo as to require no extraordinary expence Cerca the tivating it, nor any purchafe of manure from without; efpecially:if he has no leafe, or only-a very fhort one; the drawing the tithes in-kind can be confidered asa matter, to him, of com- paratively fmall moment;.feeing he is precluded, by other circumftances, from extraordinary exer- tions of induftry. The amount of the tithes, in this cafe, can be’as nearly afcertained as is necef- {ary to enable him to make a calculation futh- ciently accurate for his purpofe: and the tithe, as tohim, can only be confidered as apart of his rent; fo that whatever be its amount,‘he will-be able to pay a rent to the landlord, juft. that much lefs than he would have done, if that tithe had not been drawn: and he can carry on his opera- 124 OBST A CEES 1-0 tions nearly in the fame manner he would have done, if no tithe had been drawn. It only proves difagreeable to him, on account of fome vexatious interferences that may occur in regard to the drawing of the tithes, which he can fometimes convert to his own emolument. But the cafe is very different to the farmer who occupies land of an inferior quality, which ftands in need of extraneous manures, and expenfive dif- burfements before it can be made to yield abun- dant crops. His efforts might, in this cafe, be compared to thofe of a labourer, who fhould make confiderable exertions during the hours of relaxation throughout the day, in order that he might obtain a bit of fomething hot for fupper; but when he was juft preparing to enjoy his hard earned morfel, he had it taken away from him by a neighbour who had ftood by idle all day, and now came, by means of a legal authority he had obtained, as a reward for fome exertions of his predeceffors, when the ftate of fociety rendered {uch a mode of remuneration the eafieft of any that could then be devifed, to feize that which the poor man had{fo hardly gained by the fweat of his brow.‘Though the poor man is forced to give up his morfel in this cafe, it is impoffible for him to yield it without reluGtance: or ever after- ——— SS at na a oe w~ AGRICULTURE. 125 wards to view his neighbour with a favourable eye.—It provokes an invidious p rallel to be Z drawn between the two parties, which eftranges them the more from each other. The confequence is, that although, in this particular circumftance, the one gains juft as much as the other lofes; yet it, tends very little, upon the whole, to the emo- lument of the receiver; becaufe the lofer fays within himfelf, fince I cannot enjoy my own morfel myfelf, I can at leaft prevent my neigh- bour from getting it; for nobody can compel me to earn it but if I pleafe. So down he{fits in in- a Ea| dolence: and neither of them enjoy the bleffin > Sy S that might have refulted from induftry. That this is no fanciful cafe, but an exatt re- >) prefenta ion of what muft and actualy does hap- oat c SST pen every day, in regard to tithes, will appear evident from the following ftatemen Before a farmer can make any expenditure upon his land, he muft have a reafonable certainty of drawing it back; or, if he does not, his own ruin 14 ave. he cnt Wg> re cL 1264 Hitt 2d man muft be the confequence. Ii he is a{pirited man, however, and finds that by the outlay of twenty fhillings npon manures, or extra labour, or other means of improvement, he has a reafonable prof- peét of augmenting his crop to the amount of twenty-two fhillings, he may venture to go on: oC Oo BELG- ee“ 2 C ay 7;| 126 OBSTACEES. TO but with lefs than that he muft be a lofer. He accordingly lays out his money. His crop is aug: mented as far as he expected: but, when ready to be brought into the yard, the tithe-gatherer car- ries off one tenth of his produce; which is nearly to the value of two fhillings; and the profits which he had fuch a good reafon to expect, are taken entirely away: thus he muft finally abandon all attempts at improvement on this plan. Had the farmer been permitted to go on, he could have continued the prattice without lofs at leaft; and the public would have derived a be- nefit for ever, from fuch annual outlay, to the amount of two and twenty fhillings of increafed produce: and this twenty fhillings of expenditure for purchafed manures or labour, would have put in motion an immenfe mafs of induftry. This, again, by being annually returned in the fame channel, and augmented, as the moderate profits he derived from this outlay enabled the farmer to extend his efforts wider, would have gone regu- Jarly forward, till it naturally muft have at laft become a fource of a prodigious augmentation of the produce, and an infinite addition to the na- tional profperity. But all thefe things are en- tirely ftopped, at the very moment it was begin- ning to be put in motion, by this defructive AGRICULTURE. 127 regulation of police. Under this point of view, tithe-drawing in kind operates exattly like the grub which deftroys: the germ of the fprouting corn; fo that inftead of a plentiful crop of grain, which the land ought to have produced, it is al- lowed to remain a waite, covered with thiftles and other deftructive weeds. The cafe of the farmer thus circumftanced, 1s even harder than that of the poor labourer above ftated. If the labourer was not permitted to touch his well-earned meal, he was not at leaft deprived of any part of the property that had once been pofitively his own, and of which no one had a right to deprive him; but it may very often happen, that the farmer who fhould ven- ture his money as above ftated, would not only be deprived of the profit he ought to expeét, but even of his capital itfelf, by one who could have had no right to touch that capital, but in con- fequence of thefe his public fpirited exertions. Though the farmer had a reafonable profpeét of drawing twenty two fhillings inftead of his twenty of expenditure, yet he can have no certainty of it. No infurer can here be found, as in mercan- tile concerns, to guard againft rik.. He mutt run that rifk himfelf. Inftead of twenty-two, he may reap only fifteen fhillings. fo this, as to 128. CBSTACEES 7.0 the will of Heaven, he muft fubmit, in hopes that a more abundant return at another time will make up the lofs. But even in this affli€tive cafe, the tithe-man comes, and takes from his fifteen{hil- lings one fhilling and fixpence, fo as to reduce his original twenty fhillings to thirtee fhiltings and fixpence.-Is it a wonder that he fzels this deduction as a cruel hardfhip? And if the tythe oe demanded with haughty imperioufnefs, inftead of fympathetic lenity, can we be furprized if he feels fore, and deems it a burthen that is cruelly oppreflive? And can it fail that fuch an impref- fion will operate moft powerfully in checking every future attempt at expenditure, with a view to augment the produce of his farm? No man, who thinks at all, can believe it poffible thefe im- prefions will not be felt, and that very difagree- able confequences will refult from thefe feelings. Other cafes might be ftated abundantly illuftra- tive of the pernicious tendency of tithes; but I with not to enlarge on a fubjeét that is fo evident. I fhall only beg leave briefly to obferve,. that ex- perience clearly confirms the truth of thefe dedué- tions. In England, not to mention commons and waftes, much very fine land is allowed to. remaim in grafs ina very unproduttive ftate, which, with 4 very moderate degree of induftry, and outlay of AGREC US Tob Reb. 129 ent bk money upon it, might be made to yield abundant crops of corn: and the reafon univerfally affigned for this difgraceful ftate of management,(I call it difgraceful, becaufe, were it altered, even the grafs land might be eafily made twice as pro- nen as it is, by a Judicious ufe of the plough,) , that the tithe of corn-land is fo very heavy, as Ae the farmer from having recourfe to the plough: whereas in Scotland, where a corn-tithe is never drawn in kind, immenfe tracts of coun- try, which thirty years ago were covered with heath, and totally unproductive even of grafs it- felf, are now. converted into fertile fields that yield. abundant crops of corn and ag and + which, if the tithe-laws had there exifted, muft, in all probability, have continued unproduétive till the end of time. This is a contraft that is 7 a ~+1, » ENELC ery firiking to every one who trave tries; and it brings forward a practical fad oy re; e Se es which ought to outweigh a million of{pecula- tive arguments. It will not be alledged that this difference proceeds from the fuperior energy of the Scottifh nation..This is obvioufly not the cafe; for it is well known, that in mercantile and manufacturing enterprife, where no fuch checks on induftry are experienced, the Englifh clearly take the lead. In every other fpecies of exer- VOU..l1T,‘Kk 130 OD, TAC Eb. 1 tion, but in this alone, their fuperiority is ad- mitted. And even in the line of agriculture it- felf, it will not perhaps be difputed: for many of the men who have made a confpicuous figure in thefe enterprifes. in Scotland, are actually Eng- hithmen. It can be afcribed to no other caufe but the operation of the tithe-laws, and fome of ‘ the other obftru€tions to agriculture taken notice of in this eflay, which do not operate on Scot- ————ee eg een land.. The operation of the tithe-laws, then, upon the actual farmer, is undeniably pernicious. Proprietors. But if the tithe-laws are hurtful to the farmer, they are perhaps{till more fo to é ‘ i f i 5 t i the proprietor. Whatever checks the indufiry of the farmer, muft, in a dire¢ét manner, diminith the income of the landlord; and as the energy of a farmer, when once excited, is well known to augment in proportion to the advances he has made, whatever checks that energy in the bud, occafions in time a diminution of income to the proprietor, much greater than can ealily be con- ceived. It was rémarked, in a former part of this effay, that the proportion of rent which can be afforded for arable land, encreafes with the produCtivenefs of that land in a much higher degree than in the ratio of the guantum of the crop; fo that what- = meee- a AGRECULTUeRE 13% ever tends to render land permanently more pro- du€tive than before, if no dedu€tion be made from it, tends, at the fame time, to augment the in- come of the proprietor in a{till higher degree than that of its produce. But as it.is obvious, that the tithe operates as a dead bar to the commencing improvements in agriculture upon a foil of no great degree of fer- tility, fo as to prevent the beginning of that mo- tion, from the acceleration of which alone the proprietor can hope to derive confiderable en- creafe of rent; in all cafes, his rent is diminifhed in a much higher ratio than one tenth, as it might feem to do by thofe who take only a flight view of the matter. Should the proprietor of poor lands, feeing the impoflibility of the tenants improving them, a tempt to render thefe lands more permanently fertile by the outlay of ftock upon it, that he never expetted to draw back; but would con tent himfelf with a reafonable return of intereft of the capital in name of rent, he would not find the cafe much altered. He fets out, we fhall fuppofe, with this principle, that if he can fecure a permanent rent, equal to five per cent. of tha money expended upon it, he will be vety wel fatisfied with it. Let us fay, then, as before K. 2 ee a, :.= AR EMBETS T is-== ee ra— ee en Si Sa aba Berg— Se nen. eee—:~ SR .%.: a eT— ~ 132 GBS FACEES--1-O that twelve bufhels was the neat expence of cul- ture,&c. which, on an average of all forts of corn, was: valued at 4s. per bufhel; and that he had expended 201. per acre, the intereft of which, at five per cent. is twenty fhillings, or in other words, five bufhels. But before he can draw this rent free of tithe, the average produce muft be, at leaft, eighteen bufhels, out of which muft be taken one bufhel and nine tenths; fo that inftead of five, his rent will be reduced to three per cent. nearly; while the tithe-owner will be entitled to draw nearly two per cent. for ever, on the capital the improver had thus expended. It is needlefs to add, that under fuch circum- ftances it is vain to look for a general fpirit of agriculture, either among proprietors or tenants, to both of which defcriptions of men, the opera- tion of the tithe-laws are highly opprelflive. In one other refpect does the tithe become fin- gularly pernicious to proprietors of land. The importance of preferving the whole produce of the ground upon the farm where it was reared, for the purpofe of making dung, feems to be very generally underftood; as I find a claufe to that effects univerfally inferted in the leafes in every eranted at all. What punifhment would the proprietors county of England, wherever leafes are , AGRECULTU RE 138 of thefe lands deem adequate to the crime of felling off the whole produce of the farm every tenth year? Yet great as this crime would be, it would not be adequate, in point of damage, to them, to the right of drawing tithe in kind from their arable lands; becaufe the farmer who 5 fold the produce, would at leaft become pofleffed of money to replace, in fome degree, by means of extraneous manures, the lofs he had incurred by the abftraétion of the home-dung. Thofe who are intitled to draw the tithe in kind, are, in faék, by this means, vefted with a power of enriching their own private property, if they fhall fo incline, at the expence of every other propri- etor around them. In this point of view, there- fore, tithes are fingularly pernicious to-propri- etors of land, Tithe owners and impropriators of tithes.— Tithes were evidently intended folely for the benefit of the perfons of this defcription; but it has been feen above, that in the ftate of fociety which prevails at prefent, they have a more di- rect tendency, in many cafes, to prove hurtful to others, than beneficial to them. In a thinly peopled country, where lands are fertile and not fully occupied, and where every man culti- vates his own corn, and finds no ready fale for it, K 3 134. OBS TAL LES ro this-would not be the cafe, In thefe circums ftances, no expenditure could ever be made on agriculture, but merely for feed and labour; and, as the fields would be abandoned by the plough, as foon as they became in a{mall degree unpro- ductive, and other richer fields be broken up in their ftead, the expence of cultivation would bear a{mall proportion its the returns; and where corn could not be readily fold at all times, the pay- ment of a part of the produce would perhaps be the eafieft way that any kind of affeffment could be raifed upon the people. This was evidently the{tate of Europe, when tithes were firft efta- blithed; but the fituation of thin gs 1s now chang- ed, and from that chan ge the evil complained of derives its origin, Where tithes are to be drawn in kind, expence of collecting, at different times, as the crops become fit to be carried to the yard,{mall parcels of corn from a number of individuals at a contiderable diftance from each other, and from the perfon who is to receive j it, muft be ver‘y con- fiderable, and muft make a defaleation in their amount fa in ae Ses| aera reat: The trouble likewife attending this kind of collecting, muft be very great; and to a‘cler- syman of a retired difpofition, addi€ted to literary Ss — AGRICUL T URE, Pa purfuits, and ftudious of quiet, it muft prove one of the moft unpleafing tafks that can be impofed upon him: fo that, of all employments that could be devifed, it is in every refpect the moft unbe-. becoming a clerical character: more efpecially when it is confidered that, from® the| caufes, above ftated, every perfon concerned will feel himfelf difpofed to pay it with reluétance, and will throw every obftru€tion in the way, that he thinks will tend to render it difagreeable and troublefome. To avoid this heavy train of evils, moft of the fober-minded, well difpofed, worthy men among the clergy, with, at all events, to free themfelves from it. If they attempt to draw the tithe themfelves, unable to cope with thofe who are accuftomed‘to tranfa¢tions where cunning and chicanery are exercifed to their utmoft } Ba ftretch, they are impofed upon at all hands, and receive but avery fmall proportion of what they haye:a legal title to draw. If they attempt to transfer their right to another, that perfon mutt be very well paid for executing an office which as attended with fo much trouble, and fo many difagreeable interferences with their neighbours. Few, indeed, will undertake the tafk, unlefs it be perfons of a turbulent difpofition, who are difpofed to grafp at all advantages; and who will Ki 4 Se ee 136 OBS FPA CHES-T-0 not perhaps be very fcrupulous at impofing on the clergyman as readily as others. In this way, I have_reafon to believe, that a worthy clergy- man of primitive fimplicity of manners, does not, in many cafes, realize much more than one half the fum he has a legal claim to exact, To /uch men, this mode of providing a living for them is perhaps among the worlt that can be devifed. But if the perfon having aright to the tithes, be one of a turbulent difpofition; one who is eager to grafp at all advantages; one who is regardlefs ‘of the circumftances of others; one who 1s little {crupulous about the means he adopts for ob- taining an afcendency over his neighbours; and who, laying afide the decorum becoming a cle- trical charatter, engages in a perpetual buftle and wrangling, determined to exact with the utmoft rigour every zéem that the law authorifes him to levy; the living, that would be a poor one in the hands of the perfon of the former defcription, will be, to him, abundant; and he will live in af- fluence; while the family of the other is con- demned to comparative poverty. In aétting thus, however, he lofes all influence in his clerical ca- pacity. His practice belies the dottrines. he is obliged to preach. He becomes detefted and defpifed, In the performance of religious duties AGRECUDE GRE 137 he is deferted: the morals of his parifhioners are corrupted, and the fineft bands of fociety are dif- folved. He becomes, in fhort, a difgrace to the renerable body to whichhe belongs: and the whole order, becaufe of his improprieties of condutt, falls into general difrefpect. Such are the natural effects of the operation of this law on the body of clerical tithe owners; and here too it muft be confidered as-equally, perhaps more, pernicious on the public than we have: felt it on former occafions. Every law ought to be“ a terror to evil doers, and a pro- teG&tion to thofe that do well.” But this law operates in a manner directly the reverfe; for it protecis only the evil doers, but leaves thofe that do well to be pillaged at all hands(g). Mifera- ble, then, muft be the delufion of thofe who with blindly to fupport a fyftem of police, fo directly oppofite to the principles of common fenfe, fo contrary to the fpirit of the religion we profefs, and fo deftru€tive of found morals. It is furely a praife-worthy attempt, to endeavour fo to modify it, as te protect the innocent, at leaft, if not to punifh the guilty, With regard to lay impropriators, the com- > plaints againft them, when compared with the ee RR ES ue IRI OP ee 2a SS ETE 7 heey— “: Sere~=" i I i 138 OBSTACLES: TO clergy,’ are loud from every quarter: nor do I re- collett a fingle inftance to-the contrary in any of the agricultural furveys. From hence I think it fair to infer, that the clergy in general do not, ut the prefent moment, on an average, draw from the tenants, either by themfelves or fubi titutes, nearly the full amount of what the ey have atitle to exact 5 and that, of courfe, after the allowance to fubftitutes, and the expence of colle@ting, are deducted from the payments made by the oc- cupiers of land, the i that are actually paid into the hands of the c ergy will be greatly fhort of what ought to be nai by the farmers. It has been faid by a very ingenious gentle- man,(I believe Mr. Howlet,) that the clergy are in general very liberal in regard to the tithes: and that if they were rigidly to exaét what they have a title to claim they would ruin half the farmers in England. I am inclined to believe that the ftate- ment is juft; and it bri ings to light a moft alarm- ing truth: viz. that the farmers in England are in a ftate of the moft humiliat ing dependence, and are obliged, for the fake of procuring even fubfiftence for themfelves and families, to court favour of the tithe owners, by every compliance they can exaét. The more abatement they have been accuftomed to receive, the greater mutt be AiG REC. DAPI, 139 their dependence, and the more ruinous to the proprietor; becaufe whenever the tithe-owner choofes to be rigid, the farmer muft be ruined, andthe landlord muft fuffer by his cala- mity. Better were it for all the parties, that the tenant were obliged to pay the full tithe on all occafions, fo that it were but fixed in fuch a way as not to admit of being augmented in propor- tion to the degree of his induftry. The Public, With regard to the effect of drawing tithes in kind upon the public at large, enough has been faid, in the courfe of the fore- going remarks, to{hew that thefe are pernicious in the extreme; inasmuch as they put almoft an unfurmountable bar to agricultural improve- ments of every kind;—ftop, to an aftonifhing amount, the circulation of money that would be expended in. purchafing extraneous manures, and in profecuting other means of improvement i Cc diminifh the quantity of corn that would be reared, to an inconceivable amount;—and put a check, in the bud, upon thofe exertions of in- duftry, which would fpring up from innumerable 2 +7 fources that would be opened, were this great bar to improvements removed, or at leaft fo al- VUuUAO tered by judicious modifications, as to fecure the intereft of the parties for whofe behoof the 4) i i y Bs il ti { | —— ee ss I 140 GOBistAC LES-T;0 inftitution was originally made, without being produttive of the evil confequences that in its prefent ftate refult from it. With this view, I humbly beg leave to propofe a proper, if not a neceffary meafure, in the pre- fent ftate of fociety, that the tithes in England and Wales fhould be converted, fo as to make a payment in money be univerfally received in lieu of the payments in kind that are exigeable at prefent; but under fuch modifications as to pre- vent the poffibility of thofe who are entitled to draw the tithes from fuffering, by that deprecia- tion in the value of money, which we have feen for a long time paft has been going on ina regu- lar progreffion; and may be expeéted to con- tinue; or may, perhaps, as at this time in France, be funk almoft to nothing, by fome political fhock that cannot at prefent be forefeen. With thefe views, might not a law be obtain- ed, authorifing the valuation of tithes, in every cafe where either of the parties interefted in it fhould fo incline? This might be done by a fum- mons raifed againft all the parties concerned, either before the fheriff of the county where the property lay, or before any other judge that fhould be thought more proper for executing this office; who, after hearing parties, fhould ———— me,———- ae eS ee ea KE et a AGRE: U LT URE. 144 proceed to make a legal1 ing ueft to obtain a clear proof of what had been the amount of the tithes a€tually paid and drawn, for five, ten, or twenty rs paft, as fhould be judged beft, out of feveral lands in queftion; fpecifying diftincily the quantity of each denomination of grain, or other titheable produce. But as it may eafi forefeen, that it would be a matter of great dith- culty, in many’ cafes, to getat thefe facts with pre- cifion, might it not be put in the power of the judge, if the parties could not agree as to that particular, to appoint two or more perfons, of as HR good characier, in the neighbour hood, to gather up the tithes in kind themiclves, tairiy and No- neitis 3 to! f1\ e€ years fe Mio: COmce vw ith out tavour x. ha at-~ ha delivered to any per{on; the amount to be dehvered to the Al rignt to receive them, after the ly afcertained, fo per! fon having quantities had been refpective as to admit of the collectors making u count. of the whole, upon oath, to be delivered to a the judge; who, from that account fo made up, fhould caufe an average to be ftruck of the quan- tities of each particule ar article; which av rage quantities, after deduting a Jult pro} ortion fot aye?] aoe } c Nee ees PS en eS the expence of colle Ese and taxes afietting lke ees the tithe, fhould be declarea by tim 1 to be the 142 OS iA CLES mr SS ce Sa Ne gee See=——— 146 OBS FACLES TO {windler, to oppofe the laws by which he was to be reftrained in his wicked courfes, be attended to by the legiflators of this land. The farmer is the onl y defcription of perfons which could in any refpect fuffer by the change. At prefent, itis not doubted that many farmers fall upon fhifts for getting a compofition for their tithes confiderably below their real amount. This they could not hope to enjoy in future; for the agents appointed to draw the tithe in kind for the five years, would no doubt execute their duty with a ftrict impartiality, fo as to prevent any thing of this fort from taking place during that period: to him, therefore, the char nge might be immedi- ately for the worfe. But our view here is not to protect any one ina fyftem of fraud or impofition of any fort, but to do ftri€t juftice between man and man; fo that he could have no real caufe of complaint in this cafe: and for the trifling lofs he might thus, in fome cafes, fuftain, he would de- rive a power of benefiting himfelf to a much greater event, by the more dignified exertions of a manly induftry. The farmer may, in this inftance, be compared to the fmugegling manufacturer, who fometimes gains a little money by fraudulent means, but is feldom feen to-become we althy. His rifks are fo a ———— o eee— nT aot fares Den b> AG RILCU LYRE, 147 yas} pie ds]- Es es 4 Ee raid creat and the attention he is obliged to beftow - to guard againit thefe, is fuch.as to call off his at- QG Cc . 1 1 oe:—~ et tention from the mode of conaucting his proper 10N8 bufinefs in the beft manner; fo that his goods are Vi7- y ft Pa RH|e| Se al yan\ le do ne a ESA ei Tat ‘bs ten OL a Dad q Uallly, Whicn rorces nun LO adopt ers unbecomin§ modes oO} putting(nem Of; and this, Hell at the fame time that 1 it gives nis mind a bias to little arts of chicanery, renders him flovenly in ies yh ae=<7 SY ne EME I(pea Deri at| the bufinefs, that cramps every exertion; fo that he _] hath noanr 1 al)j a oS) Cbs t conti Nues in gC Her al DOTH I OOFr anc{ JCC, Whicn ue would not co been the cafe, had he continued + Ay t| 1 felf fairly i+] lad and hone Gols Ae(O exerc nimieiy fairly in the Canaid and hnoneit line (e i A Se| aN Nie oe SAVES 4 est' a ae pee ae rey PrOcc GUres Nothing tends 10 much to LOW el re that:honeft blunt dignity of mind, which oucht : to form the principle reature in the character of a farmer, as that of being in the habit of‘having recourfe to little arts of deception and fraud, i ce ry)< ae A ee ES 1. 7 : Whicn the prac étice of drawing tithe Kila,) neceflarily cherifhes. Ifa man is in the habit of {Ieee fee pen eps) ae Bi=[tes] ff. q|= thinking lightly of one kind of fraud, he will : 9 es Kelelateranuloucthen| TaGdually COmMe tO Di ls LCL UPULOUS TI C(- 1 1 1= 1 wife would have been in regard to others: but § Ol x h armer 7 1, l| where 1s the farmer who thinks it a crime to de- A| Oo r> i 1 tT>= ranars traud the tithe owner? Do they not in general elory in it as ameritorious proof of their ingenui J ¥ Q'== nes+. Q pa iae payee: ai| es tax Ot t+ it ty. Thus are the morals of country men per- \y| 4} e}|} 1] it 1 verted, and their minds debafed by this injudi- are{0 LZ ‘ f “ ee te aes erat ~ aes fF eS ; f Fon — ‘3 148 OBSTACLES: 10 cious regulation of police. Can any thing be» more becoming the clerical chara¢ter than to re- move from fociety this{tumbling block which has fuch a powerful tendency to pervert the mind of unfufpecting individuals? On this account I fhould {uppofe that the whole of the clergy who have the conicientious difcharge of their duty at heart, would be, to a man, ftrenuous in their exertions to forward that commutation Ihave recommended. From what has been already faid, it is clear that none of them could poffibly be hurt by it, and that moft of them would be greatly benefited by the meafure. They themfelves, as well as their fucceflors, would be benefited yet in another way that has not been hitherto pointed at. To avoid the payment of a corn-tithe, which is found to be the heavieft of all, a praGtice has been be- gun, and prevails more and more every day, of converting tillage land into grafs. Wherever this takes placé, the tithe owner’s income mutt fuffer a confiderable diminution; nor is it in the power of the tithe owner to prevent this, as to him, pernicious alteration, by any other plan, ex- cept that of the converfion above recommended. Let them, therefore, be ftrenuous in promoting this meafure and they will thus, at the fame time, benefit themfelves and free their body from the AGRICUETURE. 149 general imputation which has been thrown upon it in confequence of the tithe laws. In the pre- fent ftate of the public mind in Britain, nothing could have fuch a falutary tendency as a conduét of this fort in the clergy. Upon the whole, I know perhaps no regula- tion of police that would have a more dire€t ten- dency to promote public tranquillity in the State,— to excite a fpirit of induftry among the great bulk of the people,—or to augment the profperity of the kingdom, than the abolition of tithes: fo that one would naturally fuppofe, that, after the public fhall have had time to confider of it, fcarces ly could any ferious oppofition be» expeéted to be made toa meafure of fuch an obvious beneficial tendency. [have above endeavoured to obviate all fuch objections as might be expeéted to originate with men who confider the fubje€&t with a candid de- fire to promote the meafure, if it can be fhown to have no tendency to prove hurtful to honett in- dividuals having intereft in it. But I am aware of a train of confiderations that will influence a variety of claffes of men to oppofe this propof- ed improvement; though thefe, as originating from fecret and finifter motives, will not be avowed: but, that they will operate as an L 3 }: ‘al i m 4, i} /| | al eo\' r' o~ em pice\w ER iY q,‘' S. A fal Cf ys S a aah AS Y Ser a Cf “44=) OQ 4) 3)@)> st Be: ape Saah he@ G ey Ch, jie ¢ ay om“ 4 A) cs ane Aji eee 9°) A) dp) om~~ C av 2) i(oxy Cc~ bes ved‘ oe|~= =a a ec co ery is am fa~ oN ord a oe— al| ~ oO- O Cc 4 S(Ss) 0 PA Naan Oo> cc ep) S i at b;— oles<| Woes A mon ay. JON. Cea‘a to ye a ve) N; ~ Piloned 0 a p a A CO)( of 0)-Ssiena ‘al A fal‘(on! n co 7)(qu) qd) 2“ 4 al pal: co (Byes@) ee aa He q) oo rosa-=< S ais om le ene- oon| ~= a)?) Ce(«)- ey t oe 4 8 See Me Bio fo 4E Efe oe =© Oh on oe S< aso an ae> om' SD) Ns— .) Set~~ rae} at"= nis at* ep)»)~ net t- KD) cg .= ee Oe) AS Spy ele 4) eG,(ca A Al Gnal ras— qv}(ol), 2: jas x oo(Cra ¢ As} i ae p ae 4 D am Co re‘ ae) f Cmmy re Aes cn— Y 4~ of la’(ot at S SN Sy~~- a 4 I>((6.27 ci wad Ce) oo ¢ OND ed rot— Ve ‘ 0 te a peat ate Re an(®) SoA/ ah 9°) eee pe ome\ a ry rea S: ia J))— a ES sive CS oF lan(qv)=. H r fl lao} y a) N A A— oS: = LD- A|; ae St er ae reel wD) I‘ Peet ae 4) = gy},— Dy) af‘ D) ae io 7g) om ap Y‘ gC= cH‘ lei@) oe‘e- 5 CH=< ae rao) Da, 2¥®)* A) Tas 2 a es rah WD) Ee x= pas 3) fac} te s ww)&— od a—=a— ae n ree Cw reaeal= x>) 4) ae C_) o A(P)© a) a) a 14 DN ae= onl } Sf?))=< o. D YY) POSE Pn a\ Cc CO bers“)&)= ea Pp, ae a)>@)_ CH une es gy— G aR A ao fast 55 PG eager Oe A Dea eta De ne O(‘= re} ort~ SK» 3)& 4<> as x awn 2 r me Dm« pee= vei loll(2) A Ges OH) 2)~ pas s, pale,‘a, od 4 ay 3 SER a Sel rR orm oo lel iF) 9) OD a Ld 4 = sl(|--~ ro us! cH Q) SE ce) Ld aed(a >=): oo 2 Ae oo“ae aR ) a—: x aoe= ng(os; 2 eq O Pond~~— a(eo)~ mad~N fed a~ =~—(e ¢£= mt ae, ~ cc w/= Cy)—" awe r- pari Gs) sec uss 19°) ip©) sips 4 ws© Cre De Sv) 52 A Sy a a 5: 7. Sac las)=— a SS ones oO~=a 1) eet nad~=>)\@) Setieork bg r Ie). aH it ad ©— et~> oo 2) Oo en St Y Sten oe de ee A: a ec cou Be = om cea 2 Ss D) ce) q@)= a Nod r= Ly ig} so) 4 pad SOS cca~=~) J)_. CO} a t Pan a) dee, ee re= bo a 4=@D TB) )=){ op)+n a)' I pa aD) YO red iG 2 a) Fp)>~~ ary_) t o— z r mq te) SS OS ed ac an C -< oo A 7] Ned-—— PF) obama cD) ras} z= fia) Jd ci & lant Cc Cc ca 1D)? r- Cal A 5 bed"\ Le aS) t~ Te) ame! vat ed 4 4) 2) Oo,~=f, 4 Carel Ga Palo. Cl q) ty i re lo CT cm(e fe|— yl KA emt ald) Gon! f‘V~ eared | 7) ye oO oo=i r‘e= oe tH~ oO(aati righ as asf ! Moe h ae an Ps ures ee( yobad CO ae S ay Ss dared A ie / eel@) a| e ra qv} Last) A~ icon) j prmaine.4 1 fee ae ae) de) Co pat aS CU AY a oo[)= a) n) om ad Gay Se€) 2. fee oO aD) Lase| aay 4 ao re ON|>- ; w, rae} cO(40)\ Ww sre a‘ 8—4 Pp) vA te as Ee aT cc— cB) k ct ea— Jd= oa=~ pm qd) nl—\ ee> Ler a a s ge]\ C4 ou denhen sc Ss tans eye 1s wae 1% St BES ee Se See; Seen(emete a a Dis eral{pet Cc Pa ort ve) ee om) S) ya, wD) a 7 W ¢ Q 5 j Voom Sy om an) ¢ o><3 4 c~— Cy poe C ey q SA NS a, SG ee Opera Sik) fo ket eS WY oO fy 2)=) eS« na~ S cD) iy~ on oa a f — a co= ae," Ld> Cea) eat be Ww) r*‘eh r om})- R co)+~ fee 5. CO-rS be ¢ ise)\ ca a) oO c aa« ca a ed — aa> noe) et— sey— a) CB) caren) mm 6 ora= ct— ne pete, VL ms Me coat A pe) sta— es- ort A be ¢ —) 4G_ ee ss om ra fh cd a oD) te 50 a peed 2) ae L id : D)=© ao S) oO me 2) ae). CO oy ea w 3)~— a GS Ld ah=) vas mo‘s—© aati Ce a t— iS 2 S,* a qt ie(ea = ms eal. Ls}= q=: 3} 7 — Senay Vn i Cc Pr D> fae@ lea ro Cs r ie&S i a 4 cD)| om MS oy- lat 4_ t co 7 am ot|> on 2, cs) 49} a reas a on tex: ¥ oe~=, 6 ae Si) fe ee=) aa; r ed+——= | Ah Soe alert 2? AWG REC UL Bhp RE. 151 exertions that ought to be made to remove it, this influence,[have no doubt, will make the very obvious means of effecting it, above developed, be entirely difregarded.‘Tithe-owners of every defcription find, that the influence this give them over a very numerous body of voters, is an engine they will not readily with to part with. And however much a few clergymen, of pure hearts, and primitive fimplicity of manners, may 1 with for the change I have propofed, yet there is nota doubt but the great dignified clergy, and their numerous connections, will all behold fuch a propofal with jealoufy, and probably reject it with contempt. It 1s eafy to perceive that thofe defcriptions of men, alfo, who exercife political fway over them, will eye it with the fame jea- loufy. Under thefe circumftances, what room have we tohope that the voice of rea/on will prevail? I expeét no fuch thing. But let it be underftood, that this is the real caufe which op- pofes the meafure, whatever fhall be the ofenfble reafons brought forward to oppofe it, if ever it fhould be brought under the confideration of the legiflature; which, from the above| confidera- tions, I have not the moft diftant hope of feeing done.' Futile attempts may be adopted, appa- rently to encourage agriculture; but, in reality L 4 152 Orb S49 A SEES“EO to give a little popular fame to individuals, while the only effeCtual incitements to it that ever could be given, will thus be entirely fet afide, Poor’s Rates. Amore ftriking example cannot be found of the limited extent of the human faculties, than what regards the law Impofing a poor’s rate in England,‘There is not perhaps to be found, in the annals of legiflation, another inftance in which fo many circumftances concurred to give perfec- tion to any inftitution, as this, The idea of it was conceived at that period of the Britith hif- tory in which was difcovered as great a ftrength in the reafoning faculties of the legiflators of this country as at any other. The object they had in view was worthy of a great and a virtuous people: they aimed at fecuring for the feeble and helplefs part of fociety, a permanent fund of fupport, which might render their lives as comfortable to them as human aid can afford. The fubjeét was confidered by the legiflators with the moft anxious attention. Their deliberations were uninfluenced by party zeal, and were calm, moderate and confiderate. They placed the fub- ject in every point of view that could occur te AGRICULTUR. 153 them; and guarded, with a cautious forefight, againft every evil that they expected would origi- nate from it. At laft they were fatisfied they had devifed a law, which would compel all thofe unworthy members of fociety, who were not en- dowed with the tender feelings of humanity, to contribute in the fame ratio, in proportion to their means, towards the fupport of the poor, as others of more generous principles; fo that, by making the load prefs equally on the whole, it could never become oppreffive to any part: they confidered it asa law, which, while it would ena- ble the induftrious perfon, who was rendered fee- ble by age, to repofe in peace under the affured certainty of a competent fupport, would afford no inducement for the licentious and debauched orders of men to‘hope for a fhare in it: they confidered it as a law, in fhort, which was to encourage a fpirit of induftry, and to promote the well-being of fociety, in fo great a variety of ways as to diftinguifh England above all others as the wifeft of nations, and to render her people the moft profperous and happy of any in the unt- verfe. Anyone who looks into the debates of parliament, and the political writings of the times, will eafily be fatisfied that the above isa fair reprefentation of the judgment that was 154 OBS TAC BES 0 formed of the operation of that law about the 43d year of Elizabeth, when it was firft ena@ed. Fxperience however has proved that all thefe high expectations were entire] ly unfounded. It is row difcovered that the mode of levying this tax is fo far from reaching all denominations of per- fons, in exatt proportion to their means, that it is in its operation more unequal than perhaps any other tax of the fam nagnitude that can be O named: it tends greatly to reprefs induftry, an immenfe variety of ways: it promotes diflipa- tion, extravagance and immorality among the lower clafles of the people, to an aftonifhing de- t’ gree; and has given rife toa fyftem of peculation, among fome of f better rank, that has degenerated into a kind of legal robbery, againit the effeéts r\ c thi>] A{» 1W9F> VEN a ial gS£ Atala hay='}© a=) TAF or which no adequate means of defence have yet been difcovered. This kind of legal pillage has at length arifen to fuch an amount, as to have at- tracted the attention of parliament; in confe- quence of whofe refearches it-has been difcovered é 1 that the evil has been of late encreafing with fuch rapid ftrides, as to threaten, ina fhort time, i;> prove the ruin of the country, unlefs fome 1 1 ee| i+f adequate means fhall be difcovered for checking its progre{s. This has at length excited a very general alarm; anc gentlemen of property, in many diftricts, have fet themfelves fe: sie to ME Rte Ona Us ed pee \+3 ped ON COR a aE ie gee ee 4 I 2 SUN(ie AVE es y irv to moderate this evil. In fome inftances, they } sa F pe a Meare(2177p SNe ya fas AB SEO 7 pa) ee ak SRT S have fo far fucceeded as to moderate It for the whether thefe meafures will prove 4 1 rt; yf a== a ie 4 bj to be a permanent cure, 01 only temporary pallia- It would lead me into too wide a field to enter minutely into the confideration of this fubjeét 5 which is the lefs neceflary, as it has been fo well done of late by feveral very able hands. My object here 1s only to fhow in what refpetts 1t 1e farmer, and thofe who are connected with landed property and its improvement. The firft point that here demands attention, is the vatt proportion of this tax which falls to nd-holders: for I believe it will be found, that nearly three-fourths of the whole amount of the tax is paid by the landed interetft alone. ry i= ae« ape ey! ANWW« ny= os lo give a clear idea of the unequal manne! : a ee eay: E We) 4 ro ees E 14 a Bee in which this tax atirects property of diferent ==i. ie£1| re~ D eee AYKaANnae a> Yrs kinds, 1t will be necetlary to arrange all the pro- perty into claffes, which, for our prefent purpoles, j - 4} Rg, 2 eee a};]= Rae Ce may be thefe three; viz. 1/, landed property, 1n- = 4° c 7 we) a cluding. farmers; 22, mercantile and manutac- turing property, which may here be confidered : E 5 a WE ol Vise BP GeaG ATE ae as one; and 3d, moneyed property. From the mode of levying the tax, which 1s Oo pee SAA PAPI CONT IOe thane 444 clear that DY a certain pe CEMLUSE OQ) Ghis LS Oe a bs Cledal Na EE”--s pe 156 OBS TACYL BS TO the value of every fhilling-worth of property be- longing to a:landed gentleman, is rated to the utmoft extent of the tax; fo that if it be at the rate of fix fhillings in the pound, a landed pro- prietor who draws an income of one thoufand pounds,(out of which is alfo to be taken, in many cafes, the land tax,) pays, of poor rates, to the amount of three hundred pounds. Property employed in merchandife or manu- fa€tures is rated to the poor in a much lighter Proportion: for I fuppofe it is no uncommon thing for a man, in either of thefe branches of bufinefs, who draws at the rate of one thoufand pounds a-year of clear income, not to pay above one hundred pounds of rent. Suppofing he pays the whole of the rates on thefe premiums, he would only be rated at thirty pounds; precifely one-tenth the rate at which the land-owner pays. of that fund! Though this be little,{till he pays fomething, But as to the money-lender, Jet him have an hundred thoufand pounds, or ten hundred thoufand in the{tocks, or at intereft “pon mortgage, he pays not one fingle farthing to the poors’ rates. This is a{triking inequality, which loudly calls for redrefs. But this is not the worft cafe that may occur, The man who is entitled to receive one thou- fand pounds a-year of land rent, may have con- AG RSE C.U-L TUF RAB: 157 tracted debts by mortgage, for the payment of younger brothers’ or fifters’ portions; or, perhaps, by his own extravagance, during the giddy years of youth, to the amount of twelve thoufand pounds, the intereft of which will amount to 6001.; fo that he has only 3001. of free rents; yet, in confequence of the money-lender being totally exempted of poors’ rate, this poor man {till pays out of his eftate 3001. per annum to the poor! Thus it appears, that inftead of being a burthen, which, by being equally divided among all claffes of people according to their means, preffes lightly upon the whole, as we muft fup- pofe the original framers of the bill intended it fhould be; and as many perfons, who obferve not things with accuracy, believe it does, and vaunt of it for this fuppofed equality, it is the moft unequal tax, I believe, that can be named in this ifland: for while it deprives one clafs of| men fometimes of half the means of their fub-. fiftence, it allows other claffes of men to wallow in wealth, without paying one fingle fhilling to the poor. It may appear to us furprifing, that a law, which has fuch an obvioufly partial influence, fiould have been paffed without adverting to this circumftance; but we have not fo much Lge eaumaedugaleimean lt ee £58 OBSTACLES-T-O Ps 1 reafon to wonder that thefe confequences fhould efcape the legiflators, as to be fur‘prifed that a fet of fenfible men fhould believe it pofiible to devife a permanent fy{tem of fettled coercion. to be limited by rules fixed by them,—or fhou not have adverted, that as there is a per change in the circumftances of| fublunary things, thofe very meafures, which are falutary at the prefent moment, may, in the courfe of time, become highly pernicious.’ At the time this law was enaéted, neither mercantile nor ma- nufacturing property bore any proportion worth naming to that of landed property; and as- A dAn Ve Cates.-Very. AMmuweNn - 23~ hamnered BE Se ea oak ee faxy wvears{j Leas Naimpcrecd. HE is OUt d icv’ Sales TGS a. I d ra Sys a f Very i yirited manufacturer in the iron branch, | = p ties ESC[~ rOUnG” Nimielt*ToO~mMuc 1 incommoded by t :: Put Sree hie; a syeo1mitanra thysa¢ tro+> wrt+ WH sead4 anys an circumitance, that he thought it neceflary to-ap- 7«<~ A : ee a A(3 I°} ply to parliament for redrefs. In his petition he : i rie 09 1-1 7 es} Va}~ at«.< 5 fet forth that he had been at a great expence in , i. erecting WOFKS( arlous iorts on the premuites that WG( A i 5 Cary ne on t mete OF aa ,, t if OT})( i) i i< i 1< 4 ta We a|+ oo e a cisaged i x k Poul I ad ats ys pee eae PRS ess he| 1 aon].% and in forel 2 8 pal CS, ifafi NUNGTLEGS OF“oe ayaa i\ Eel ey ii payee epee rie ee f, aaa The Seren te ees well{killed in their bufinefs, and brought them t] I~e af 94 x7ey ft WT rea‘»+ s Cy. mo 1]} C ing NELerad lL a. Vall3.e™ IC YI; VEC, aILe! ait, LOUMa his labour fruftrated‘by the vropriectors in the VIS about Truitracs cl i) y Lie VPIOPLIClLUILS sid Lil pS~ LER pa A" Pa| nee oe ks BS~ ees my parifh refufing to allow them to fettle in it. Wf 8 1 al yak Sr Sy Ly Pi 8 can ome offer tc RRR) ae ee MO dd thougn ne had made—OneL tO COME-uUnGer - Aj(2 at gee i ses a Rae WHEN epee Sab) ny be an obligation to free the parifh from all the fons he had fo brought from other places ever be- ear TIER eR NE NS IE OI meee 160 OBSTACLES£6 coming a burthen upon the parith, yet that this offer was rejected; the parifhioners pofitively re- fufed to admit thefe perfons to a fettlement; fo that he found himfelf in danger of being. fub- jected to vaft lofs from that caufe: and pray- ing that parliament would grant him fuch relief as to their wifdom fhould feem meet. To this it was anfwered, on the part of the land- holders, that as, by the poor law, as it at prefent ftands, the whole burthen of fupporting the poor in every parifh, refts on fixed property affording an annual rent, which is thus mort- gaged for the fupport of the poor, to any amount that might at any future period be deemed necef. fary for them, were it even at the rate of twenty fhillings in the pound,(the parifh of in Effex, I am affured upon the beft authority, is at prefent affefled at twenty three fhillings in the pound of rent!!!) it became their duty to prevent, in time, all fuch meafures that might be adopted by others for their own immediate emolument, which fhould run a rifk of deteriorating the pro- perty of land-holders to fuch an amount: that the offer made by the proprietor was by no means adequate for their fafety; becaufe, al-- though he fhould fupport the immediate emi- grants themfelves, all the defcendants of thefe €I nigrants would have a claim for their f{upport, AGRICULTURE: 16) upon the property of the parifhioners, even to the hundredth generation and more: that though it fhould be granted that the petitioner was, at pre- fent, in fuch circumftances as to enable him to {upport the whole of the perfons in queftion out att of his own funds, yet as the property of every manufacturer was of a fluctuating nature, fo that the what feemed to day as ftable as the mountains, at might to morrow be diflipated entirely, his offer ing afforded them no adequate fecurity: that were betty he even to purchafe lands for that purpofe, thefe could not be fo fecured as not to be attachable, unt in many cafes that could be ftated, fo as to be el carried off, and leave the objets of the prefent y conteft upon the parifh; and even if lands to a in certain extent could be fo fecured, who could at pretend, at this moment, to afcertain what might he be the amount of the. fum that would be wanted, ont at fome future period, for their fupport? On all ted thefe accounts, they contended, that no perfon nt ought to have a right fo to affe@ their property without their confent; and parliament found it was at not proper for them to interfere in this cafe. Thus 10 it is clearly eftablifhed, that thefe poor laws occa- (ee fion fuch a clafhing of intereft between the ma- nufatturing and the landed intereft, as to prove t highly injurious to both. And thefe mutual in- VOL.£1. M me ae siden pe—= 162 QBSTIACLES TO terefts‘muft.-continue*to prove a moft powerful bar to the profperity of the nation, fo long as they fhall beipermitted to exift. But thoughitcbe eafy to ftate thefe evils which are already felt,(and many others might be add- ed,) at is by no:means fo eafy a matter to fay how they oughtiito’ be redreffed. Indeed, it would appear to‘be‘not a little prefumptuous for a_private individual to take upon him to pre- feribe‘a! remedy: for that which has baffled the wifdom of|parliament itfelf: I fhall not therefore attempt it.«Al that:I thall add, on this fubject, is: barely to obferve, that in many diftriéts the land-owners have-already taken this fubjeét un- der? their confideration; and, by their joint ef- forts, applying ¥emedies to fuit the locality of the cafe, ithey have fucceeded in moderating the evil. But men‘of landed: property have fo many other avoeations;:andviare fo frequently called from home;) that it cannot be expected that they will beable to: fix theirfattention fo long on this fub- ject, 1as to. produce any thing like a permanent reform. But were they to grant long leafes to able and wealthy tenants, they would thus cre- ate-a phalanx,of watchful forces, who would be able to, oppofe,: with a firm and fteady effeét, exery,meafure that tended to encreafe, without AGRIC ULT WR 163 juft caufe, the amount of the poor rates. For fos being, from the nature of their employment,. al- ways upon the fpot; and being immediately and chiefly interefted in every. augmentation or dimi- nution of the poor’s rates that fhould take place during the currency of their leafes, they. would watch over every circumftance that-had an effeét that way, with a degree of attention that no it other perfon could give; and would{crutinize ay every claim, and examine every particular, with fuch a minute degree of attention, as would pre- ubjet vent, even: before they took place, every begin- Is the ning enormity. This attention being forefeen, + un would even prevent attempts at many impropri- t ef- eties of conduét in parith officers, which are fel- the dom now attended to till long after they are paft; } at which period, an attempt to correét abufes is ther much more likely to produce additional abufes, from than to remedy thofe that are already eftablithed. vil The above is one confideration which ought to. induce gentlemen of landed property to be nent defirous of granting long leafes on all their lands, 5{0 Under fhort léafes, the poor’s rate comes, al aS every renewal, to be confidered by- the tenant | be as part of his rent; fo that he deduéts precifely ott as much from the rent he would willingly give to ithout his landlord, as the rate amounts to. Jf the Jand M Pe i64 OBS TA GLES;-T.0 can afford twenty fhillings per acre rent, and no more, it is the fame thing to the tenant whether he pays the whole of that twenty fhillings to the landlord, or ten fhillings to him, and ten fhillings to the colle&tors of the rate; and he aéts accord- ingly at each renewal of his fhort leafe. The whole poor’s rate in this cafe, falls to be borne entirely by the landlord. But as the tenant under a long leafe, muft take the whole burthen of the poor’s rate upon himfelf, without having it in his power to throw any part of it upon his landlord till the leafe expires, it becomes his intereft {trongly to prevent any undue rife of the rate. The meafure above recommended, would mi- tigate the evil in counéry parifhes; and as to fowns, they are not fo properly within the ob- ject of my prefent enquiry, as to claim a feparate confideration. But the land-owners of the coun- try parts of town-parifhes, are in a fingularly un- fortunate fituation; for they muft at all times be loaded with a heavy poor rate, which they can- not mitigate; becaufe, in all queftions refpecting this fubjeét, they muft be out-voted by a number of perfons who can be but little affected by the poor’s rates, whatever they may be. At all events, a law fhould be ena€ted, requiring, un- der the fevereft penalties, that the account of the ——— a soe- aes Lae Se ne Sr rare ee RO < AGRICULTURE. 16: diftribution of the poor’s. funds in every parith fhould be printed, and a copy of thefe accounts be delivered to each houfe-holder in the parith. In thefe accounts fhould be ftated every ttem by The itfelf, without being in any cafe confounded with others. And alfo it fhould be ena&ed, that a committee of three refpetable perfons in the parifh, who have had no concern with the diftri- bution of the poor funds for that year, fhould be chofen, by a majority of votes of the heads of fa- milies at large in the parith, for the purpofe of ex- amining thefe accounts; to whom fhould be con: ficned all the vouchers, and who fhould be em- powered to examine perfons upon oath refpecting #.% any particular concerning thefe accounts. They Ob. fhould be required either to pafs the accounts, or arate to give reafons for refufing to do fo, within three oun weeks at fartheft, from the day of their nomination. \y une And let it be at the fame time enaéted, that in es De cafe of any objeftion being made to the accounts y Cal by the auditors aforefaid, the perfons who had ling been in office while the errors complained of mber took place, fhall be, 7p/o facto, prevented from y the having any fhare in touching the parifh money, t all until the matter be fettled by a legal decifion; , Uns which fhould be immediately commenced at the of the expence of the parifh, unlefs they were exonerat~ Q » M 166 OBSTAGHES“TO ed from it by a majority of votes of the heads of families in the parifh, ata meeting to be held for that purpofe. And if any concealment, wil- ful error, or falfe ftatement in the accounts, fhould be difcovered, within twenty years after the event happened, it fhould be competent for the parifh to bring a fummary a¢tion at the quar- ter feflions againft the parties concerned; who fhould all be liable, conjunétly and feverally, to make up, from their own private funds, the da- mage fuftained; together with fuch a fine, not ex- ceeding the fum of as the judge fhould fee proper to award, Were fucha law as this enaét- ed, and were it competent to bring a fummary action, in thefe cafes, before Judges in the coun- try, and at a fmall expence, many good confe- quences would refult from it, The meafures here recommended, might, in- deed, tend to mitigate the evil; but before a radical: cure could be effected, many other cir- cumftances ought to be adverted to, and cauti- oully weighed, which the limits to which I mutt here reftrict myfelf,. prevent me from enume- rating, It is a fubjeét: of vaf importance, and requires. the moft ferious confideration of every perfon in the kingdam; becaufe, unlefs fomething effectual be foon done in this refpeét, there can AGRICULTEG RE. 167 be no doubt, that before long, fome dreadful re- volution muft take place in this ifland refpecting property. It affords but.a melancholy profpect to thofe who have viewed the fubjeét in this light, to obferve the futile nature, of;mea- fures, which have of late been brought forward to public notice on this very important fubject. § XIL- Want of eafy means of Communication, confdered as a Retardment to the Progrefs of Agriculture. Wauenever the fubjeét of roads-and canals, comes to be difcuffed, this fabjeét will neceflarily be pretty fully confidered, and the importance of it will then appear.’ Little more is necef- fary, than barely to bring it under view in this place, by referring to what may be afterwards faid, that it may not be allowed to efcape notice. 1.fhall only farther add, that the importance of this fubjeét is fuch that it cannot be too often A brought under review. wa[143 a 168 OBSTACHES Ta § XIII. Want of Markets hurtful to Agriculture. Tus‘advantages of local fituation, in refpect to the conveniency of markets, is in general known; but it is by no means fufficiently under- ftood; and there are innumerable cafes in which induftry is greatly retarded in this cafe, which are{carcely ever adverted to, although, bya little attention and care, the evil might be remedied. To lead the attention into a train of inveftigat- ing this fubje&t, I thall beg leave to offer a few flight hints with that intention. To acquire difcriminative ideas on this fubje&, it will be neceflary to confider ground, 1/2, as be- ing applied to tillage, and 2d, to pafturage. Ina corn farm, accefs to market with its pro- duce mutt be obtained, either, If, by means of roads; or, 2d, canals; or, 3d, by fea. Where all the produce of a farm is to be car- ried to market by means of roads only, the ex- pence of carriage becomes fo great, when ata moderate diftance from market, as to reduce the 4 on wee AGRICULTURE: 169 farmer’s profit to fuch a degree, as to put it out of his power to cultivate corn to any confiderable extent, unlefs where the rent is very moderate in proportion to the amount of its produce. Corn can, in thefe cafes, be, in prudence, only viewed as cultivable, merely as a preparation for grafs; but as farmers are frequently inaccurate calcula- tors, it often happens that, in this kind of mixed farm, where the practice of the diftri€t has been in favour of tillage in old times, land is, on many occafions, in thefe circumftances, kept much longer under the plough than it will pay.~ But as men are now alittle more accurate in matters of this fort than formerly, they begin to diminifh the proportion of their corn lands confiderably. And this is one, among other reafons, that have concurred to render the quantity of corn raifed in this ifland fo much fhort of what it ufed to be in fome former periods. But wherever canals have been made, the car- riage of corn to market, and of manures back in return, becomes fo much more eafy than on roads, that it may be faid to bring the markets proportionally nearer to diftant places, fo as to enable the occupiers of fuch diftant corn grounds to rear much corn with advantage, where it muft before have occafioned lofs; fo that were the 170 OBSTACLES" CO tithe taken off, the augmentation of national pro- duce in corn would, from this caufe, be greatly augmented. And if ever the time fhall come, when{mall agricultural canals fhall become uni- verfal; and the modes of facilitating the inter- courfe on thefe canals,(that will fall to be enu- merated under that head, whenever it thall come to be difcuffed) fhall be univerfally adopted, the produce of this country in grain may be aug- mented to almoft any affignable degree. With regard to the tranfporting of agricultural produce by fea, it is liable to fo many variations 7 from local circumftances, that no adequate judg- ment can be formed of it, unlefs all thefe circum: {tances fhall be taken into confideration: for it is eafy to find two places, which are equally diftant from a good market, that is alike acceffible by fea, and fubjeét to fimilar hazards; in the one of which places, the market for corn is nearly as good as if the confumers were at the door; and in the other, it is little better than if no fuch mar- ket had an exiftence. For example; Lynn, in Norfolk, is nearly at an equal diftance from London as Cardigan in South Wales is from Briftol or Liverpool; both of which markets are equally acceflible by fea, and with as little MGRTCY LLURE. 171 rifk as the navigation from Lynn to London oe,, Yet it fo happens, that at Lynn, a farmer can at cy all times difpofe of his corn, in whatever quan- int tities he may choofe, let it be one quarter, or one pat thoufand quarters, and carry home the price in 7 his-pocket, if-he pleafes, with nearly the fame hall certainty as he could draw money froma banke bted on whom he had a credit. But at Cardigan, no aly fuch thing can be found. He muft wait times and feafons, and watch opportunities with care; ultural and, after all, muft often take an inadequate ations price, or fubmit to fuch ruinous deduttions, as nude: to render it abfurd in the farmer to think to rear ums corn in quantities, or to give a tolerable rent for t is land to be applied for that purpofe, on account ant of the precarioufnefs of the market. by A very little attention to the circumftances of 6 64 the two countries, will be fufiicient to explain is the caufe of this diverfity. Norfolk has been ‘ long a corn county, and merchants have, by de- bi grees, found it for their intereft to eftablifh them- felves at Lynn: to rear ware-houfes there, eftab- fy lith correfpondences in different places; and, in ° fhort, are in a condition to receive and to pay i for any quantity of grain that may be offered to i: them; and they know how to difpofe of it again to advantage in the ordinary courle of their bu- 172 OBSTACLES: TO finefs. Ships are failing from thence every day during the winter feafon, loaded with corn, for London and many other ports; and it never needs to lie upon their hands almoft an hour longer than they incline. But at Cardigan the cafe is very different. Little more corn has been in ufe to be raifed there than ferves the internal confumption;{oe that a corn merchant could not find fufficient employment to eftablith himfelf there, or to ere& the conveniencies neceflary for his bufinefs. No one can buy there but when a chance fhip fhall come in the way; and then he can purchafe only grain of a certain defcription, and in a limited quantity. The merchant is only to be found at particular times; and then he affords not a gene- ral, but merely a{pecial demand for a particular fort. The price too will be limited and low: for where there is no general competition of buyers, an adequate price can never be expected. Ft is, from thefe, and fimilar caufes, that the diftance between London and Lynn, for the corn farmer’s purpofe may be faid to be shortened almoft to nothing; while between Briftol and Cardigan it may, for his ufe, be faid to be little thort of infinite. Thus it veryfoften happens, that two things, which are alike phyfically poflible, > SR —<—e AGRICULTURE 173 are exceedingly diverfified in their attual prac- ticability. In the prefent cafe, the two places in queftion may be compared to two places inland, equally diftant from a good market, and equally fufcep- tible of an internal communication with at by means of a canal; but to one of which only a ca- nal has been already made. Though they were alike fufceptible of this improvement, one of them only has obtained it. Before the other can obtain the fame advantages, fome perfons, who are interefted in the bufinefs, and capable of compleating the undertaking, muft make the ca- nal: for then, and only then, can the farmers and others who are to ufe it, but who have nel- ther the knowledge nor the means to make it, be benefited by it. It belongs to the proprie- tors, in fhort, to create a market in all fuch places if they hope ever to derive an adequate rent for their land: and fo long as they fhall leave this object unattained, they muft content themfelves with a very{mall proportion of that rent they might otherwife eafily obtain. From what has been juft faid, it will appear, that the poflibility of bringing diftant corn farms within reach of a market, muft depend upon lo- cal fituation, It muft either be within a reafon- 174 OBS‘ PACTES FO able diftance of a fea-port; or an inland canal muft be practicable near it. In every diftant fituation differently circumftanced, it is impofti- ble that corn can ever be reared with advantage for a diftant market. The principal produce of all fuch farms muft neceflarily be grafs, which muft be confumed by live ftock, that can be car ried to market along roads that would be alto- gether impraéticable by carriages loaded with corn. It is by no means neceffary for us here to en- ter into a confideration of the different kinds of live ftock proper for particular fituations; but it may be neceflary to obferve here, alfo, as in the former cafe, that all places which are phyfically alike, are not practically alike benefited by the market. In one county, for example, proper and well frequented markets or fairs for fales of live ftock of all forts, have been long eftablithed; fo that animals of every denomination may be there difpofed of at an adequate price, for ready money, at almoft any feafon of the year, with> out difficulty; whereas, in the other, it is only beafts of a certain defcription that can be there fold, at particular times, and to a few individual perfons, upon credit; who have it in their power not only to keep down the prices, but alfo to be- MGRLC UAL TARE 175 come bankrupts, when they pleafe, and defraud the poor fellers of ftock to a very great degree. Wherever this practice prevails, it is obvious that the tenant cannot,afford to give half the rent for * 4 ground of the fame quality that he could have done in the other diftri€t, where the markets aré good.‘There are many of the diftant hilly parts of Britain, whofe profperity is much reprefled by want of markets arifing from this caufe; and it much behoves the owners of land in thofe dif- tricts, to remove an evil which diminifhes the in- come they have a juft title to expect from their land, to fuch an aftonithing degree. { might mention feveral other circumftances that tend to affect the price of live ftock, and to influence the choice of the kinds to be kept, and the modes of management of thefe, refpecting the peculiarities of market; but this would lead to too great a length. What has been faid may be enough to lead the mind into a train of obfer- vation, that may enable any one to form a foler~- able judgment of different cafes of the fort that PIAW ACL ALiLeey Nw Sr he ahh OBSTACLES TO “eMTV. # Fifcal Regulations that retard Agricultural Im- provements. Uwoen this head, as under many others, where the internal profperity of the country is an ob- ject of confideration, the falt laws ever prefent themfelves under a moft inaufpicious point‘of view. Here, to avoid repetitions, it becomes neceflary to refer to the eflay on the economical confumption of the produce of a farm, in this volume, in which it will be fhewn, that by the liberal ufe of falt in feeding of cattle and fheep, not only many difeafes of the latter might be prevented, but alfo that the fame quantity of food might be made to go much farther, by the judi- cious ufe of falt in feeding beafts, than it can do without it; fo that were the duty on falt remov- ed, and the free ufe of that condiment univerfally adopted, it might be faid to augment the quan- tity of food for beafts, I will not fay one half, but in a proportion fomewhat approaching to it, over the whole ifland; which is an article of fueh Cia aS Stoel— C—O ee AGRICULTURE 77 mmenfe magnitude, as almoft to baffle all at- tempts at calculation. Under the head manures, too, it might be fhewn what prodigious benefits might be derived from its application to that ufe, efpecially in places that are at a great diftance from other manures, and to which they are inacceffible, on account of bad roads, and difficult accefs, but into which this manure, which can be made to operate powerfully, though in{mall quantities, might eafily be brought: fo that the public would derive a very great benefit from it under this point of view alfo.° Salt would likewife prove highly beneficial, in many cafes, were it brought within reach of the farmer, by enabling him, on many occafions, to procure a market for the produce of his farm, of which he mutt for ever be deprived avithout it. This might have been equally well brought under the former head of this chapter as the pre- fent; but I referved it for this, that all the bane- ful effe€ts of the falt laws on agriculture might be brought under view at once. Were I to ex- tend this, to give a view of all the other pernicious effects on the community, it would enlarge this fection to the fize of a volume; and would, be- fides, be deemed foreign to the fubject in hand. VOL.-10e N i aa oa saga oo——~_ moi seating. ool per ae Scam ie’ ge TT—2e imate eR RRR Teme er ns me or eh iat ae— Pee whales laa AN a RE aman ae i 178 OBSTACLES. TO Bt There is fcarcely a market for fat cattle im this : ifland, that may not be greatly overftocked by the beafts that can be fattened within reach of Hy, a it, except London alone; of courfe, it may be {aid that every farmer who lies beyond the reach Va| of that market, has the value of his property di-| ij minifhed ina certain degree, from the want of| proper markets. In fome cafes, this inconvent- ence is but little felt; as there are other markets ma which, if not equally good as London, are full 4 ie confiderable: but there are other remote coun- i,| 3 ties, as in Wales, and in the Highlands and i|| A northern parts of Scotland, where the poffeffors of land can 7x no way find a market for cattle that |) ae are in a condition for being flaughtered. In thefe : * fituations, the farmers can never attempt to fatten cattle for the butcher. They mutt confine them- felves to the rearing them only for the grazier. But when it happens that grafs, im the feeding diftri€ts, fails, or the crops of turnips are dettroy- = a a BS pai Coa ed by the fly; or when the demand for fat _— Cattle from the grazier, is, from any accidental : caufe fufpended, he finds it impoflible to pur-| ; A chafe the ftock from the breeder that he ufed to| Bit ates, 5 j. chi do,‘This ftagnation in the market throws the| ri@ diftant breeder into the moft embarrafling cir- Al vad cumftances, He is not only deprived of the mo-| , ag a| ia| || 5 Ly ti AUG RILC DY 4. 7 VAR. 179 ney he had a right to expeét from the fales of his ftock, on which alone the farmer, in a breeding country, can rely for payment of his rent; but he is overloaded with a quantity of live ftock, fo much difproportioned to the winter food he has provided for them, that many of them actually die for want; and he feels himfelf reduced, in a few months, from a ftate of comfortable independ- ence, to the moft abje€t poverty. I paint not here from imagination, but from nature. In my own time, I have feen at leaft half a dozen of fea- rn re ae fons, in each of which many hundreds of families| have been reduced to the moft abject mifery front this caufe. If thofe who fhall.read this, had, like me, feen, with their own eyes, the mifery which the families of thofe poor perfons, without any fault of their own, had been m: ade to fuffer, they would not have wondered that I fhould, with fo much anxiety, embrace every opportunity that occurs, of endeavouring to obviate evils of the fame fort that ffiay be expected in future times to occur; but would heartily have lent their aid to have added force to my feeble exertions. Were the duty on falt removed, all thefe evils, with a train of others, that would fill a volume fully to enumerate, would be effeétually removed. The grazier, whenever a ftagnation of market occur- N 2 180 OBSTACLES TO red, could caufe his cattle to be flaughtered, and barrelled up for a future market. The breeder too, who has always at the end of fummer a con- Yiderable proportion of his beafts that are in good order for the butcher, could, in like manner, have them flaughtered at home in cafes of urgent ne- ceffity, and barrelled up for market. The very offals of thefe flaughtered beafts would prove a refource to the poor people, for the fubfiftence of their families in fuch difaftrous times; and much of that fecret difcontent, which is apt to provoke either civil commotions, or to awaken a fpirit of emigration, would be entirely obviated. I can- not help, therefore, recommending this fubjeét in the moft earneft manner to the ferious atten- tion of the Board of Agriculture, through whofe means the fovereign himfelf, who fo warmly in- terefts himfelf in the welfare of all his fubjeéts, but who cannot poffibly have an opportunity of obferving fcenes of this nature with his own eyes, may come to be made acquainted with them; who will, doubtlefs, in that cafe, moft gladly lend his concurrence to any plan for affording relief, that has not a tendency to involve any other de- {cription of his fubjects in fimilar diftrefs. He - will, doubtlefs, learn, with fome degree of afto- nifhment, if the perfons who ought to inform AGRICULTURE. 181 him fhall take the trouble to do it, that while Ireland is fupplied with falt and coals from Bri- tain, duty free, by which means they are enabled to carry on a very lucrative manufa€ture to a great amount, in confequence of a very extenfive trade in /muggled falt to the coafts of Britain, the Britifh fubjeéts themfelves are prohibited from the ufe of thefe articles, except when bur- dened with heavy duties; in confequence of which difference of duties, fuppofing frefh beef were to be fold at the fame price in England as in Ireland, the Irifh could afford to fell their bar- relled beef in England, full thirty per cené cheaper than Englifh beef could there be afforded!!! That this is a fact, I undertake to prove, when- ever I fhall be called upon for that purpofe: and I make that offer in this place, becaufe I am fenfible it will appear to be a fatt of fuch an aftonifhing nature, that every one who reads this, and who has had no opportunity of inveftigating the fubjeét, will be inclined to believe it utterly impoffible. But notwithftanding this“apparent impofhibility, the faét is certain and incontro- vertible. The law refpeGting parifh fettlements, the ré- gulations refpefting wool, and the corn laws, as they now ftand, are all pernicious to the interefts y No — 182 OBSTACLES TO of agriculture. But it would lead us far beyond the limits to which we muft confine ourfelves in this eflay, to enter upon the inveftigation of thefe particulars, each of which would form an ample fubje€t for a feparate differtation. 5 XV. Want of means of circulating Asricultural Know- 5S 5 : ledge. Havine thus brought under the eye of the reader, and the Board of Agriculture, a concife view of thofe obftructions, of a pofitive kind; which have, for fo many ages, operated as an irrefiftible bar to the advancement of agriculture in this ifland, I fhall conclude this chapter with fome hints for removing an inconvenience of a negative kind; which, if the former obftructions were firft removed, would accelerate the progrefs of agricultural knowledge in this ifland to an aftonifhing degree, and give an energy to prac- tical exertions that is unexampled in any other nation, SSS Ee a, AGRICULTURE 183 The ignorance and the obftinacy of farmers, 18 an inexhauftible theme of declamation,‘on which many philippics have been written im our age. With what knowledge a great deal of that 1n- veGtive has been written, a due attention to what has occurred in the foregoing feGtions of this eflay will fufficiently ,fhow. There can be no doubt, that while the obftructions above enumerated fhall continue to operate, it would be nearly with equal juftice, that we fhould revile a man for his indo- lence and averfion to work, while he was bound hand and foot fo as to render him incapable of moving, as to complain of the determined obfti- nacy of farmers, for not doing thofe things that were equally beyond their power. Let thefe obftruGions be once removed, and they will be in a condition to beftir themfelves; and there can be no doubt but they will be then feen to do it with effect. From the nature of the bufinefs he follows, 2 farmer muft be neceflarily confined pretty much to one fpot This limits the fphere of his own practical obfervation to a narrow extent. te has neither money to fpend in buying many books, nor much inclination to put reliance on direc- tions that are publithed in books, many of which he knows are written by men who have had as N 4 184 OBSTACLES: TO little knowledge of the practice of agriculture, as he has of the theories with which they bewilder him. Finding himfelf unable to difcriminate be- tween the good and the bad; and being fome- times impofed upon by a fpecious title page, to look into performances that promife much, but which he finds upon trial to be worth nothing, if not pernicious, he generally concludes that all writings on that fubject ought to be defpifed. In this way, his knowledge of the»prattical parts of agriculture neceflarily remains limited, as to him and his heirs, for ages entire, to the narrow fphere of his own obfervation nearly. It is in this way we are to account for a phenomenon that has been long obferved by intelligent men, and which is made very apparent in reading the ' furveys of the different counties laid before the Board of Agriculture; viz. that a particular and beneficial practice in agriculture may have been followed for ages in one diftri€t, while it has never fo much as been heard of during all that time in many other parts of the country, where it might be adopted to the great advantage of the parties concerned, and the community at large(h). Yo difleminate the knowledge of thefe practices univerfally among the clafs of far- mers in every diftrict of Britain, through a chan- —_-—__— ay AGRICULTURE. 185 nel that was not liable to the fufpicion of mif- leading either through ignorance or fraud, and to bring that information to their hand, without trouble or much exertion on their part, and at fuch a moderate price as to be within the reach of every one, is as yet a defderatum; and it would probably have continued to be one till the end of time, had it not been for the inftitu- tion of the Board of Agriculture, which is in its own nature fo perfectly adapted to the purpofe, and it feems to be fo congenial to the wifhes of that Board, in as far as they have been hitherto indicated by their proceedings, that it is to be hoped that a plan for obviating this inconveni- ence will be adopted, as foon as other prelimi- nary arrangements can admit of it. What is wanted, is an agricultural journal, te be compiled under the dire€tion of a judicious man, who is well acquainted with the praCtice of agriculture himfelf; who has had a liberal education, and opportunities of obtaining a more enlarged knowledge of the practice in different places, than can fall to the fhare of moft farmers to acquire; and who is in fuch circumftances as to enable him to examine with accuracy any par- ticular about which he may be in doubt, and to fiate it with precifion; and who is, at the fame 186 OBSTACLES" FO time, fo anxious to guard againft leading the une wary into errors, as to be extremely cautious how he holds out hopes to the lower claffes of practitioners that he was not certain could never prove delufive. Under the fanétion of the Board of Agriculture, fuch a man could have accefs to every fact that it was of general importance to be known; and under that authority, fuch a body of practical knowledge could be univerfally diffufed among all the farmers in every part of this ifland, as never has been yet known in any other coun- try in the world. This would excite an univerfal {pirit of exertion, and that would give rife to new difcoveries every day. And difcoveries, if pub- lithed as they were fucceflively made in the fame journal, under the controul of the whole prac- tical farmers in the ifland, would, in the courfe of a few years, carry this art to a height of per- feCtion that has been hitherto deemed unattain- able. To render this work univerfally ufeful,- it fhould be publifhed, not gratis, for that would make it be defpifed; but at a price below what it could be afforded by a bookfeller, or other per- fon who muft look for profit from their under- taking. This profit the Board has no occafion to look for, and ought to facrifice, together per- AGRICUL EUR E& 187 haps with a fmall fum annually, for moderating . the price ftill farther; becaufe it fhould be adapt- ed to the circumftances, not of the moft wealthy farmers, many of whom ftand in little need of in- firuction; but of the inferior orders, who have had fewer opportunities of having their minds enlarged. In order to render this publication acceflible to thofe, alfo, who have the moft occafion for it, by living in remote diftriéts where literary infor- ro) B SS mation is rare, this journal ought to be permitted to be fent by poft, free, to every part of Britain; and, doubtlefs, for fuch a national benefit, where private emolument is out of the queftion, parlt- ament would have no difficulty in granting this exemption under due precautions for preventing the abufe of it. To render this exemption no- thing burthenfome to the mail, two devices might be adopted: the /ixft would be, to have this jour- nal publifhed at fhort intervals, by which the weight of the fame number of copies would be lefs, and more equally divided, than if the fame matter were put up In thicker numbers. The /econd would be, to forward it from London in fuch a way, as that it might reach the place of its deftination in every part of the ifland upon the fame day: of courfe, the parcels of the fame 188 OPS FACEES TO number would not all go by the mail in one day, but on different days, according to the dif- tance of the places from the capital: and the beft day that could be fixed on for the delivery, would be Sunday, or on the market day in a town; be- eaufe, in diftant parts, the whole packet for one parith, if fent to the parifh church, or the market town, could eafily be conveyed: from thence; and, in other places, it would, in general} be the moft convenient day for receiving it. Under thefe two regulations, no inconvenience could re- fult to the mail. The revenue could fuffer no lofs; becaufe it is very plain the work could never be publifhed fo as to gO by poft as letters. It would even prove a confiderable augmenta- tion to the revenue, by the additional duty on the paper it would confume; fo that no objection from the Revenue Board could lie again{t the meafure. If a man could be found, who was capable of keeping himfelf perfeétly independent of all par- ties; and who fhould invariably dire€ét the atten- tion of his readers fteadily towards objeéts of agricultural and georgical refearch alone, regard- lefs alike of thofe obje€ts which for a time feem to affe&t the intereft of the minifter or his Oppo nents, it would prove one of the moft valuable Pimento AGRICUL PURE. 189 performances that has appeared in any language; 4 iq 4 ‘ |i ¥ and would form an interefting epoch in the hiftory of Great Britain. But is it in Britain thet fucha man is to be found? perhaps in the prefent age it may be deemed impoilible. It may, indeed, perhaps be difficult tofind fuch aman: but I fear it will be ftill more dithcult to find a body of men of high rank in this ifland, who will take an ative hand in promoting any public undertaking, that does not feem to be cal- culated, in one way or another, to be converted into a political engine capable of forwarding the views of a party, or the private aims of individu- als. In the prefent times, it would perhaps even be a matter of fome difficulty, to find a very Jarge body of readers, who would be fo much interefted in any publication that did net enter into political difcuffions, or{candalous anecdote, who would perufe it with continued attention for fuch a length of time, as would be required fully to effect the purpofes here propofed. From thefe confiderations, I fear the plan will have too much of an Utopian perfection ever to be carried into practice; or, if ever it fhall be attempted, it will require a greater degree of fteadinefs in the con- ductor of that work, than can reafonably be ex- pected in man,—to fuppofe that, aflailed as he 190 OBSTACLES 2 tO would be by fo many tempting lures on every hand, he fhould be able to perfevere, without wavering, in the right path for any confiderable length of time. But though the utmoft degree oi perfection can never be attained in this life, nen ought not to be deterred from proceeding as far in the right path as they can. It is with this view, thatthe foregoing hints have been thrown out to the public on thefe numerous topics which have come under review in the prefent effay. The above propofal has now(Feb. 28, 1798) been before the public for the fpace of more than one year, without feeming to have attratted the notice of the prefident or any member of the Board of Agriculture;'and from the unlucky turn in politics, that the prefident of that board has lately taken, it is much to be feared that little cordial co-operation can be expetted between him and the minifter on any fubjett, fo that the efforts of that Board, if, even direCted by fuperior wifdom, muft be confiderably cramped compared to what they otherwife might have been. There is not then the moft diftant probability that ever this propofal will be carried into execution under the aufpices of the Board of Agriculture. That fuch a defirable objeét, however, may not be left wholly unattempted, I intend to make agricul- ee - Se we a ue AGRICULTURE. 191 ture a particular department of a periodical work that I have fome view of engaging in at prefent. And tho’ this muft fall greatly fhort of what might have been accomplithed, if the above plan had been carried into effect; it may ftill be of fome u fe. » THE END OF ESSAY FIRST. ON WASTE(LAND Ss. AND THE MEANS'OF THEIR. IMPROVEMENT. VOL 111.® a: we emi) i as lita ° it: fed fine lucro indufiria é Labor omnia vine — See ase oe SRE a aie 2 eee SS ESSAY SECOND. On Wasre Lanps, AND THE MEANS OF THEIR IMPROVEMENT. ‘Laps, whether private property, or commons, lying in a neglected ftate, may be denominated waftes. Thefe lands may be improved either by being brought into cultivated fields, or by being planted with trees, which will require to be fe- parately confidered. PAR Ler IR ST. On the Improvement of Wafte Lands, by means of Culture. AS I have had occafion to confider the influ- ence of the right of commonage, in the foregoing effay, my views fhall here be confined to the con- fideration of the praétical means of improving wafte lands, fuppofing the perfon who undertakes this task, to be at liberty to adopt the meafures that fhall appear to him to be moft expedient for that purpofe. ‘‘S- co. Rt = poms ltt. ee a= Pe ee oe en mall il ar Tis a? eat aan apc egeemre a 1996 ON® CULTIVATING (I. Preliminary Obfervations on the circumflances that requiré to be adverted to, before the Cul- tivationof Wafle Lands should be attempted. Tuere are very few foils that may not be con- verted into corn-fields by human exertions judi- cioufly applied; but there are many cafes in which that meélioration cannot be effected, but at a greater expence than will afford areafonable in- demnification fo the improver: 1t therefore be- hoves every one, who has fuch improvements in contemplation, cautioufly to confider all the cir- cumftances that can affect his operations; to weigh deliberately the influence that each may feparately have in his particular fituation, and, after having taken a complex view of the whole, to adopt thofe meafures only that afford a rea- fonable profpett of indemnification for the out- lay of ftock and labour upon the undertaking. The following are among the principal circum- {tances which ought to be adverted to in a cafe of this fort, as any one of them, being in favour of the undertaking, or in oppofition to it, may have the effet of turning the balance either to the profit or lofs of the account.| by WASTE: LANDS. 109 if, The nature of the foil, and fubfoil of the fubje@t in queftion. 2d, The phyfical obitru€tions that ftand in the way of cultivating that foil, as arifing from rocks or ftones, brufhwood, trees,&c.; hurtful moifture, whether arifing from fprings or furface water, whether temporary floodings, or permanent foak- ing; inequalities of furface, whether occafioned by pits dug out, or heaps raifed up, or from the “natural{well of mountains or great acclivities, that may retard the operations of agricultnre. 3d, The climature, whether refpecting the ge- neral quantity of rain that falls, or the particular feafons of the year at which‘thefe rains ufually happen; the degree of heat or cold that there prevails, and the particular modifications it ad- mits of from the peculiarity of circumftances; the quantity of fnow that falls, and the time it ufu- ally lies; the winds that chiefly prevail, and the fhelter or expofure that the form of the ground offers in that refpect. 4ih, The vicinity or the diftance of the place from towns or markets of any kind; the fize of thefe towns, and the extent and univerfality of the markets within reach. ~"5th, The kinds of extraneous manures that*can ‘be purchafed; the price at Which they can be o 3 s on- os» — bs tt 9S an ee So* a-_ a 198 ONS CULTIVATING obtained; the diftance from whence they muft be brought; the times at which they can be got, and the quantities that can be procured at once, or in a certain order of fucceffion. 6th, The nature of the roads or other means of communication, to or from the premifes; whe- ther thefe be ftcep and hilly, or level and plain; whether they be hard‘and rough, fmooth and firm, or deep and miry; whether they be equally paffable at all times of the year, or during parti- cular feafons.only; or whether, from the ftate of the country, they are in a train of amelioration or the reverfe. 7th, What-conveniencies the premifes afford for erecting houfes, rearing fences, making drains, and other. neceffary operations. _ 8th, How the premifes ftand affected refpeét- ing water; whether for the purpofe of flooding the lands at pleafure, or of fencing it off for the purpofes of amelioration; whether for family ufes, or for the conveniency of live ftock in inclofures at all feafons. 9th, The ftate of the premifes refpeéting fuel, the kind and quantity that can be commanded, and the price at which it can be afforded. 10th, The ftate of the country refpecting fer- vants and labourers; the wages and mode of en- i ae WASTE LANDS. 199 tertainment that prevails in the diftri€t refpetting fervants; the way in which they have been ac- cuftomed to work; the practices that are there eftablifhed, in regard to working hours, manage- ment of teams, carriages and home labour of every fort; the kinds of work that the cuftom of the place has rendered too fervile to be perform- ed by particular defcriptions of fervants; the manner in. which afliftance can be procured in thefe refpeéts; whether extra-labourers can be obtained for hire, in fuficient numbers, when a particular pufh happens; or whether they muft be engaged afar off, and kept in employment when not wanted, to ferve ai that particular pufh,; whether it is the cuftom to pay labourers wholly in cafh, or partly in victuals and drink, and in what proportions, denominations and quantities: whether work can be got done by the piece, or by time only, with many other items refpetting this head. 11th, The ftate of the country refpecting me- chanic arts; the facility, or the reverfe, with which labouring utenfils of all forts of a good conftru€tion can be made or repaired, and the {tile of expence that cuftom has eftablifhed in re- gard to this department.of rural economy. Oo 4 | | | f al q erene- Sa Te ee. ee wale i. 7” 656- ON(CUSAAPIMATING 12th, The nature of the tenure by which the 4 lands are held; the rent that is exacted from him,. and the nature and amount of other claims that he muft expofe himfelf to in confequence of his occupancy or operations, whether this be under the name of land-tax, tithes, poor’s rate, road- money, repairs of houfes or fences; the length of his leafe, the probability or the reverfe of his being= made toincurexpence by law-fuits, inconfequence ofarbitrary exa¢tions; and every other circtimftance that may render his tenure more precarious, or his property lefs fecure: for, in moft undertak-. ings of this fort, a man may be faid to“ caft his) « bread upon the waters, which can only return bf “ to him after many days;’ and he ought well to confider, before he throws it out, what is the rifk of its being fnatched from him or his family before it can be returned again. . Aman, who attentively confiders all thefe cir- cumftances, may be able to forma tolerable idea of the kind of improvement the fubjeét admits of, and the degree of amelioration of which it is fufceptible, on the fuppofition that he himfelf is capable of condudting the requifite operations in a proper and judicious manner; but any perfon who fets about agricultural improvements, with- out having previoufly weighed all thefe particu- lars, may be compared to that man who fhould WAIST OE: LAND 8. 201 embark on board a veffel in an unknown fea, without 2 compafs, who may land he does not know where; and ten to one if he is not wrecked upon fome unlooked for fhore. To give particular directions how to proceed under every variation of circumfiances above enumerated, would greatly exceed the bounds to which I muft here confine myfelf: nor does this feem to be abfolutely neceffary, feeing it would be the wildeft{cheme imaginable, for any man who was totally unacquainted with the practice of agriculture, to engage in an extenfive under- taking of this fort, were he even furnifhed with the moft minute and accurate directions that could be given; becaufe he would find it” im- poflible to apply thefe directions properly in all cafes... To fuch a man they would be ufelefs; and to a man who is already acquainted with the practice of agriculture, many of them would be quite unneceflary. All that can be done, then, in this cafe, with any feeming degree of propriety, is‘to mark the great outlines of prac- tice that may fafely be purfued im a few cafes that are widelv difcriminated from each other, leaving the judicious cultivator at liberty to exer- cife his jadgment, in. properly varying his prac- tice fo as to make it-apply to the mtermediate eT——————— 202 ON CULTIVATING cafes according to every gradation of circum- {tances. The neighbourhood of great towns peculiarly fa- vourable for the improvement of Wajftes—The greateft enterprifes in regard to the improvement of wafte lands, may be made with fuccefs in the near neighbourhood of a large town which, from its fituation, is cut off from having ready accefs to a fertile foil on any fide. In fuch a fitu- ation, a price fo very tempting is held forth to the perfon who fhall bring to market frefh efcu- lent produttions for the table, and fucculent food for cows, horfes, and other animals, and for other weighty productions that cannot admit of being brought from a diftance, unlefs at a great expence, as affords a ftrong allurement to men of property to rifk their capitals in agricultural im- provements, in the hope of benefiting their fami- hes by a permanent income out of the land which they thus reclaim from barrennefs, at the ex- pence of a fair purchafe price. In thefe arduous enterprifes, which can only be undertaken to their full extent, where perfonal property is fecured from the danger of cafual attacks from any quarter, which might render the permanency of that income doubtful, the very poflibility of WASTE LANDS. 203 fucceeding often depends on the one hand, upon the great quantity of manure, that can be obtain- ed from from the city, in proportion to the extent of ground that can be cultivated near it; and, on the other hand, upon the price that can be ob- tained at hand, for articles, fuch as ftone, fand, ciay, ftubs.of tree-roots,&c. which could not have been otherwife cleared off the ground with the fmalleft profpect of reimburfement. In fituations fuch as that I here defcribe, the utmoft poflible propor- tional melioration of wafte ground cannot be efti- mated with accuracy. There are few, if any foils fo bad, as that, in thefe circumftances, under a{kilful management they may not be converted into rich fields permanently produ€tive. I have certainly feen many fields thus fituated, which, in the courfe of a few years, have been put into a train of yielding an annual produce of perhaps one thoufand times the amount of what they ever could have done if left in a{tate of nature. The importance of this fact, in regard to the welfare of a ftate, deferves to be carefully advert- ed to. It brings forward, under a ftriking point of view, at the fame time the pofibility of aug- menting the fubfiftence of man to an aftonifhing degree, and the facility with which this kind of creation, if the phrafe be allowed, might for ever = a TO a AFT \| 204 ON CULTIVATING be prevented from taking place. For if all the wafte grounds in the neighbourhood of the town had been a common, no improvement could have ever taken place upon it fo long as that common re= mained. And if the perfons having intereft in that common are numerous, it will be impoffible ever to bring them to confent to an amicable divi- fion of it: and if it be attempted to be divided by the authority of Parliament, the expences that muft be incurred before it can thus be effeéted, will be very great; in confequence of which»that improvement, which without this obftru€tion could have been made with a profpect of a reafonable profit, cannot now be attempted without a certainty of lofs. For this reafon, the enterprife muft be abandoned; and the land muft be doomed to re- main for ever an unprofitable watte. No expence fhould necéffarily be incurred, bit that which tends to remove phyfical obftructions only.—Vhe fame reafoning will apply to every cafe where the improvement of wafte land, un- der any circumftances, is in contemplation. In the neighbourhood of large towns alone, the ex- pence incurred in improving the mo/t barren waties can be repaid. As you recede from thefe great marts, it 1s neceflary that the foils be of a| q ee WASTE LANDS. 205 greater degree of fertility, before the expence of cultivating them can be repaid; and ftill the far- ther you recede, and the more unfavourable the markets, and the lefs abundance of extraneous ma- nure that can be obtained,—the richer and richer mutt the natural foil be, before the expence of cul- tivating it can be repaid; and confequently, the fmaller will be the proportion of wafte land that can be brought into cultivation. In all cafes, however, whatever extraneous expence comes to be added to the fum that is required to re- move the abfolute phyfical obftructions to the cultivation of the foil, muft of neceflity make a proportional narrowing of the poflible{phere of improvement.‘This is a propofition as plain as any in Euclid; and an unavoidable corollary from it, is, that every fhilling that is laid out by individuals, in their private capacity, for pro- curing ais of parliament for the divifion of com- mons, and for removing other polttical obftruc- tions to the progrefs of agricultural improvement, is a moft impolitic diminution of the actual pro- duétions of the country,—a defalcation from the fubfiftence of the people,—a caufe of enhancing the price of provifions beyond the rate that na- ture had intended,—and of thus retarding the manufactures, the trade, the national profperity 206 ONUCULTIV.A TIN G of the country;—and, by the abftra€ting of them, producing a diminution of the population and| the revenues of the ftate. om No fhare of the profit arifing from the improve- ment of Wajies fhould be abfiracted from the un- dertaker.—The fame reafoning will‘apply to eve- ty other circumftance, under whatever form it fhall be brought forward, that tends to narrow° the fecurity, or to diminifh the profits of the ope- rator on wafte lands. It is évident, that no man can cultivate wafte lands, unlefs where he can have a full return for the outlay of his ftock and labour. In every fituation, there is one certain degree of fertility of foil, which will barely admit of a return for the money that muft be expended in removing the mere phyfical obftruétions to im- provement, and no more. In all fuch fituations,' if the undertaker has a permanent fecurity, that he fhall be allowed to reap the whole profit that he can derive from the fale of its total produce, he may proceed in that improvement; but if he knows that he will not be allowed to difpofe of that produce, he cannot proceed: and thofe foils which, in the firft inftance, might by his induftry have been converted into productive fields, mutt, in the other cafe, be doomed to remain, till cir-' cumftances alter, in the ftate of barren wattes. Wes TE LANDS: 207. On this principle, the pernicious tendency of that ill-judged tax upon induftry called tthe, comes once more in our way as an evil that is very apparent; a tax that, without producing any good in thefe circumfances to thofe who claim a right to demand it, has operated, per- haps more than all the other taxes in this coun- try, to retard the progrefs of agriculture, and to diminifh the national profperity: yet, wonderful to tell! there are men in this enlightened land, who are not afhamed to fay, that they do not conceive the drawing the tithe in kind can be accounted the fmalleft obitru€tion to agricul- ture!|! It was neceflary that I fhould thus ftate, with as much clearnefs as the brevity to which I con- fine. myfelf will permit, the circumitances that have operated, and muft for ever operate, in a moft powerful manner,{o long as they fhall be permitted to exift, towards the preventing the improvement of wafte lands. For, without tak- ing thefe circumftances into the account, to pre- {cribe rules for overcoming the mere phyfcal ob- ftruétions to the improvement of wafte lands, and to talk as if that were all that was neceflary for_ eftablifhing a general{pirit of vigorous enterprife ee. i dees: ~ in the cultivation of them, would be a fpecies of. 4 4 ' | 208 ON. CULTIVATING charlatanerie that it would be as unbecoming in the Board of Agriculture‘to countenance, as it would be unworthy of my own private character to adopt. That Britain is fufceptible of very great improvement, there can be no doubt: that it is phyfically capable of being brought to afford, to{peak in the moft moderate terms, ¢en times at leaft the amount of its prefent produce, admits of the cleareft demonftration: but that it w7J/ ad- vance in produttivenefs, while the prefent fyftem in refpect to the private management of agricul- tural concerns, and of legiflation affecting rural affairs prevails, feems to me to have not the fmal- left. degree of probability. On the contrary, it will be difcovered, at laft, that the diminution of agricultural produce, which has been fo obvi- oufly perceptible for fome time paft, will become fill more and more apparent, in proportion as men fhall withdraw their capitals and{kill from the practice of agriculture, and apply them to fome other profeflion that will render them more independent members of fociety, and afford them more adequate returns for their induftrious exer- tions. Agricultural enterprifes in England le/s pro- Jitable than thofe in trade or manufactures.—In WASTE LAN DS: 209 the foregoing eflay, I had occafion to take notice of the circumftances that chiefly obftrut the agricultural enterprifes in England, by means of which the induftry of that a€tive people is forced into another channel: fome of which not affe&- ing Scotland, it there becomes, in fome cafes, a matter of calculation, to afcertain whether it will | 4 { \ a | } 1 | be moft advifeable for an individual to apply his capital and fkill in agriculture, or in trade or manufactures. Difference between England and Scotland, in regard to agricultural improvements.—Upon thefe principles, there are many inftances of men in Scotland, vefting a /mall part of their capital in the purchafe of wafte lands, and ap- propriating the remainder of that capital towards the melioration of the fubject, with a view to fu- ture profit, as they would do in any other employ- ment; and, as might have been expected, it has been done with greater or lefs fuccefs according to circumftances. In many cafes where this has been attempted, the undertaking has been both arduous and hazardous. The original purchafe- price of the land has, in fome cafes, not amount- ed to one hundredth part of the neat expence in- curred, before the fubjeét could be let for a VOL. 411, P 210 OR"CU ery A TENG figady permanent income. A great part of the ex- pence incurred, in many inftances I have known of this kind, has been occafioned not fo much by the melioration of the foil itfelf, as by fteps that were merely preparatory to admit of thofe opera- tions which were neceflary for its a€tual meliora- tion. The clearing the ground of ftonés, in par- ticular, is a very heavy charge in moft cafes; and, in fome cafes, efpecially where large hard- bullets of whin-ftone or granite abound, which muft be blafted by gunpowder before they can be brought to a manageable fize, the unavoidable expence is exceedingly great: and as thofe ftones are often concealed beneath the furface, the amount of that expence admits of no previous accurate calcula- tion. But as thefe ftones muft all be cleared away, at whatever expence it may be, to the fill depth of a plough furrow at leaft, thofe who engage in undertakings of this fort, ufually find it moft economical, upon the whole, to trench the ground to the requifite depth, by which means alone the ftones can be accurately dif- covered at once, fo as to avoid a feries of endlefs future operations. Under this mode of improve- ment, I have feen fields cleared where the{tones were in fuch quantities, as that, finding no other mode of confuming them, but by putting them oO 2 w WAS TE‘LiA NODS: 211 al into walls reared as fences round the fields, there was a neceflity for making the walls from fix to nine feet in thicknefs, on purpofe to confume the ‘whole of the ftones, although the fields were di- vided into inclofures not exceeding two acres in each. In cafes of this fort, the undertaker never looks for a return of the capital funk on the pre- mifes by the annual produce; but is perfeé XM tly fr Lee. tisfied. with this fuccefs, if he can let the lands at S, 1 is-at a permanent rent, which fhall be equal to five *per cent. of the whole money thus expended; being either fatisfied with the legal intereft of his money, if his circumftances admit of it; or, if he requires his capital, he has only to fell the fub- ject, when he is certain of receiving from 25 to 30 years purchafe of the grofs rent,—which im- proved capital he may either a pply to another undertaking of the fame kind of{till greater ex a he tent than the former, or to anv other purpofe may incline. The cultivation of waftes a fort of bufine/s in Scotland.—In this way, the i improvement of watte land becomes a regular bufinefs, of the fame na- ture with that of trade or manufaGtures, that a man may look up to with an affured hope of pro- fit. It is in fa&t a fpecies of manufaure itfelf; p 2 212 ONOGIAET EVA EVN G and a manufa€tre too, which, being of a more beneficial tendency, deferves to be encouraged above all others. By its operations, employment is given to a great number of hands; and the perfons thus employed, inftead of being crowded into towns,®(as in moft other manufactures) where their health is injured, and their morals corrupted by the infe€tious contagion of bad example, are allowed to retain the primitive fimplicity of man- ners that the habits of a country life fo neceffarily infure; their whole exertions meanwhile are em- ployed in augmenting the quantity of human food, and in adding, in the moft direét manner, to the population and wealth of the ftate, and inter- nal profperity and ftability. Should this kind of employment be encouraged, who can fet limits either to the population, or to the productivenefs ef thefe kingdoms? Illuftrated by a practical example.—\ with to imprefs the mind of the reader with a{trong con- viction of the neceflity of adverting to the cir- cumftances which prevent fimilar exertions being made in that part of the ifland which is moft fuf- ceptible of it, when compared with thofe that often occur in that part which is lefs favourably circumftanced. In the laft fituation, it is no un- th to cons WASTE LAWN DS 213 common thing fora man to expend at the rate of fixty pounds per acre, before he can bring his lands to be let to a tenant, and the undertaker thinks himfelf abundantly repaid, if he can get three pounds of gro/srent. In Scotland there are few or no dedu¢tions to be made from rent. The land tax, in this cafe, having been fixed before the im- provement took place, when the land was worth next to nothing, is fo{mall as to be of no account: and neither tithe, nor poor’s rate, nor any other parifh taxes, are exigeable from fuch lands; fo that the whole of the grofs rent the lands can af- ford comes direétly into the pocket of the under- taker; in confequence of which he draws a free annual income of 5 per cent. for the money he has thus expended, and he is thus encouraged to proceed. In England the cafe is different. There are fo many deduétions to be made from the grofs rent the farmers pay, that the proportion of free rent which remains to the landlord, is much lefs than in the cafe above fpecified. An example will make this plain. Let us fuppofe that 60l. per acre has been expended, and that the produc- tivenefs of the improved land is equal in both cafes; taking then the ufual computation, that the rent of an arable farm fhould not exceed one P 3 ne ON CULTIVATING third part of the value of its total produce, the total value of the crop in this cafe would be nine pounds per acre; the tithe of which, if drawn in kind, will of courfe be equal to 18 fhil- lings. If the poor’s rates, and other parifh charges be equal to 6 fhillings in the pound,(and it ap- pears by the furveys that thefe rates are higher in many places,) this, upon 31. of rent, would amount alfo to 18 fhillings; in all 36 fhillings to be de- cuted from the original 31. which would leave a free rent to the undertaker in England of‘11: 48.°* only, inftead of the 31. which the tenant a€tu- ally pays, and which the improver, in Scotland, actually receives. At this rate, inftead of the five per cent. he had actually drawn for his money, he would be entitled to draw in England only two per cent: of courfe, that bufinefs which it might have been practicable to purfue, in the one cafe with a reafonable profit, would be, in the other cafe, productive of the moft certain ruin; and muft be totally abandoned: and abandoned for what? Not for the benefit of the tithe-owner; for, in this cafe, the tithe-owner can never be be- nefited by the land in queftion one fhilling; nor for the benefit of the poor, who never can de- rive any emolument from it, while it is. allowed to remain in its unproductive ftate: The power 0 SE ieee, nO Rl erg nt rg co fidered. WASTE.LAN DS. O15 therefore. conferred by law, to exaét both thefe taxes, is calculated to produce only mifchief. Doubtlefs it could never be the intention of the legiflature to authorife laws of fuch a pernicious tendency, with an intention to deftroy, in fucha direét manner, the effective induftry ot f the nation. It can only be afcribed to that kind of imperfec- tion, arifing from want of forefight, to which all human inftitutions are liable. It is experience alone that can difcover evils of this fort; but, after they are felt and pointed out, it is the pro- vince of a wife and beneficent legiflature to correét thefe overfights, and to redrefs the gries ances to which they have given rife Lands to be appropriated in lieu of tithes, con- A device has been adopted in England, in fame cafes, with a view to mitigate the evil pointed out above, refpecting tithe. Where com- mons are divided by authority of parllament, a certain proportion, ufually I think one ninth part, of the foil has béen fet apart for the tithe-owner, in lieuof tithes from the whole. This doubtlefs 1 does diminifh the evil, becaufe it at leaft allows the owners of the remaining eight ninths to proceed with their improvements in as far as re- {pects the tithe. But befides that this remedy Pp 4 Ee 216 ON CULTIVATING can only be applied in cafes where a fpecial aét of parliament is obtained for the purpofe, and therefore can never afford relief to thofe who might find a propenfity to improve their own un- difputed property, the cure itfelf produces a dif- eafe which is little lefs fatal, in many cafes, than that for which it affords a remedy: nor does that remedy afford fuch a radical national relief as a beneficent legiflature fhould aim at, Itis very plain, that if the tithe-owner be a clergyman, the portion of wafte ground allocated to him can prove of no emolument whatever. He has not the right to fell it for the trifle it would bring, in its prefent uncultivated ftate, were he even to find one who was willing to purchafe it: the laws of the church prevent that. He cannot improve it himfelf; for, had he the money at command, common fenfe would pre- vent him from finking a great capital of his own with a certainty of being able to draw perhaps not legatintereft for it during his own incumben- cy, and, at his removal or death, to deprive his heirs for ever of the capital funk on that im- provement, This portion of the wafte then is locked up from all profpe€t of melioration for ever; and neither can benefit the clergyman to WASTE LAN DS Q17 th whom it has been awarded, nor any other per- nd fon. mt All the reafoning above is on the fuppofition I- that the wafte is of the very unproduétive na- ture of the cafe adduced, and is merely illuftra- tive: but whatever be the ftate of the fubjeét in t queftion, the fame reafoning applies, in sind, a though not in degree; as that will be varied by the produétivenefs of the foil, and other circum- A P ftances. This is indeed very evident; but I think ed{ it neceffary thus to ftate 1t, to obviate the remarks or of hafty inconfiderate cavillers, who, on an in- it tricate queftion of this kind, may be expected ; to be fufficiently numerous. There are cafes of a more favourable nature, whichI need not here {pecially particularize. e|: 4 The improvement of wafte lands fhould be con- : ducted by actual farmers.—Though very fpirited 1s exertions have been made, in fome cafes, in the "4 fmproving divided commons in England, yet, from the obftructions above ftated, and others that will come under review in the fequel of this : difquifition, the influence of thefe exertions has : been much circumfcribed, in comparifon of what 4 it would have been. Every agricultural exer- {0 tion that is to be attempted by men who do not ee ee 218 ON; CGULTEIEVATING make a profeffion of that bufinefs, mutt be con- duéted with an uneconomical expenditure of capital, which would have been much diminithed, had the operations been conduéted by a profef- fional man. It were unneceffary to add, that fuch expenditure tends to diminifh the rate of profit on fuch enterprifes' confiderably below that which it otherwife might have been. This con- fideration plainly indicates, that in all cafes where the expenditure required for cultivating wafte lands is not beyond the faculties of the farmer, fuch arrangements fhould be adopted, as to throw the burthen of thefe improvements. upon him, if it be poflible. Apathy of farmers, circumfances which occa- fon i¢—But, it is a pretty general rule, that perfons, who follow the profeffion of agriculture have little more money than what is barely fuf- ficient to purchafe ftock for the farms they rent, and to carry on the ufual operations of a farm; fo that it would be vain to expect that they could afford to make the advances for the amelioration of wafte lands, that are nearly in the fame ftate ef unprodu€tivenefs with thofe above enumerated. . Their higheft views are, for the moft part, direét- ed to thofe immediate annual returns which can WAST EU LAIND&: 219 be got from their farms by means of home ma-* nures, and an economical arrangement of their domeftic management, without looking forward to thofe national benefits that might in many cafes accrue from their fpirited exertions in me- liorating wafte lands, i proper circumftances. This kind of apathy 1 am far from imputing to thefe men as an object of blame. It isa neceffary confequence of that{tate of infecurity in which the prejudices of the times has contrived to piace them. So faram I from blaming thefe men for their inactivity in this refpect, that I fhould think them highly culpable, indeed, if they did adopt another mode of conduét: but of this there is little danger to be apprehended, fo long as they fhall be kept in that{fpecies of depreflion to which they are at prefent fubjeGted; for common fenfe has wonderful power, when fupported by neceflity. Infecurity of tenure flops the improvement of Waftes—It may perhaps be deemed a tautology, but I hope to be pardoned for once more re- marking, that leafes for an uncertain period, or for a fmall number of years, clogged with injudi- cious reftrictive claufes, are productive of the fame effet upon the conduét of the farmer. They all SS 220: ON“CA LIAVATING tend to produce a fordid kind of dependence upon fuperiors, which finks the{pirits into a gro- velling depreffion that is perfectly deftruétive of that elevated ardour of mind on which every aétive purfuit muft ultimately depend. Were farmers allowed a reafonable length of tenure, and were they at the fame time freed from ill-judged reftric- tions, the cafe would be very much changed in a fhort fpace of time. They would foon perceive that, from a judicious outlay of fuch money as they could command, towards the melioration of fuch foils within their reach as were fufceptible of it, very confiderable profits might be derived: this would foon produce aftonifhing efforts;—for none but thofe who have particularly adverted to it, can conceive what energy the drawing a little profit, with the agreeable profpect of obtaining more, gives to the exertions of man. This roufes all the faculties, keeps the attention conti- nually awake to mark every little circumftance and incident, and to turn it to advantage. When once put into this train, the farmer may be fairly left to himfelf. Is he ignorant, he will foon ac- quire knowledge through a thoufand channels that he alone can difcover: and every day will add to his skill and his energy. It is impoffible not to perceive, though it is unneceffary for me to =m Bien be. WASTE L'ANDS. 50] a ftate it particularly, after what has been faid in the preceding effay, that the confequence of this energy muft redound greatly to the emolument of the proprietor, and the produétivenefs of the country. Inclofed lands may fometimes be called Wafies. —Itis not merely in regard to the improvement of thofe lands which are called wafes, in the common acceptation of the word, that the al- teration above propofed would prove a great na- tional benefit: there are many millions of acres, lying feattered throughout the different counties in England, which, though inclofed, and the property of individuals, may be fairly entitled, as I conceive, to the name of waftes; becaufe they do not, in their prefent ftate, afford one fourth part of the produce that they might eafily. be made to yield. Thefe fields, by an injudicious fyftem of management, having been laid down to grafs without being brought into a ftate of productivenefs fufficient to allow them to admit of their being meliorated by that management, are now prevented from being broken up{oas to bring them to a proper degree of fertility, and have thus degenerated into a deplorable ftate of fterility. Many of thefe fields, confifting of a ee aa. ABighnaite ————— y 292 ON, CULTEVATING poor thin hide-bound clay, produce only a very {canty quality of four ee eraffes, which no domettic animal will eat, unlefs when at the point of ftarving. Others are covered with a a full coat of fog,(mofs) that excludes almoft the very appearance of any other plant whatever; and others are fo thickly overfpread with ant hills, as fcarcely to let the appearance of the natural fward be feen in any part of the field. Under the unreftrained management of a perfon whofe knowledge was improved by a fenfe of his own immediate intereft,.all thefe crying abufes would be quickly corre€ted, and in a few years thofe fields, which are now a difgrace to the country where they are fuffered to remain, would be con- verted into a fertile ftate, affording abundance of wholefome produce both for man and beatt. Were this judicious fyftem of management univerfally adopted, the profeffion of agriculture, ry like that of manufacture or of trade, would be looked up to as an emp loyment in which a mode- rate ftock might be applied with a reafonable | i Qs| rofpect of acquiring, by induftry and good con- L oO? oO| ie 1 duct, both a comfortable fubfiftence to one’s fa- ae and a moderate competence of wealth. In that cafe, a farmer would find it ufeful in gene- 2| ral not to lay out his whole ftock on cattle’and im e| a r. meena metres es——_ .= i ee ee WASTE LANDS: 293 plements,__for feed, and fervant’s maintenance, as at prefent; but rather to referve a part of that ftock, for the purpofe of purchafing manures, making drains, embanking rivers, levelling high ridges, removing ftones, grubbing up ufelefs{tumps or brufhwood, and other fubftantial improvements that the ftate of his farm might render neceffary. He would not then be under the neceflity of ab- ftaining from fuch operations as could not make a full return to him, within the year, but would fnd himfelf enabled to reft fatisfied with fuch moderate returns as would only clear his capital to him after many years. In that cafe, there would be no need for gentlemen of great landed property try ing to inf ftruct their tenants in the pro- per mode of profecuting their own bufinefs; for they themfelves w ould fearch for 1 and obtain that knowledge ina much more eee manner than any other perfon could devife for the: = aA >_> pes Plenty would abound in every corner, if, that fuperabundant plenty, a ready accefs to mar- kets. on reafonable terms, be not prevented; and ’> P peaceful content would: be the natural refult. Necefity of“adverting to the for egoing circum- q ord! G gota Es fF ftances.—Let not thefe obfervations be accounted aie ae cae ok ee an unneceflary digreflion in this place. /4t 4s, = SS aa 224 ON(CULAR ASTI-N-G doubtlefs, the intention of the Board of Agricul- ture to point out to the public the moft effectual means of rendering the wafte grounds of this country produ€tive to the ftate. Had I proceed- ed merely to give direction how thefe wafte lands may be managed fo as to be rendered produétive, while I was confcious, at the fame time, that there are thoufands of honeft farmers in the king- dom who know that part of the bufinefs as well as myfelf, and therefore ftand in no need of fuch inftruétions, but who are prevented from acting, becaufe of the operation of the caufes above af- figned, I might thus have made a vain and idle difplay of knowledge which might have tended to imprefs a few with an advantageous idea of my own acquirements, while thefe dire€tions, like thoufands of others that have been diftributed. with a lavifh hand to the public, could have proved of very little avail. Applaufe, upon thefe terms, I fhall ever defpife. Before inftruttions can be of real utility, citcumftances muft be fuch as to render it practicable to carry them into ef- fe€t; fo that, without adverting to the circum- frances above ftated, I confider all that follows merely as words of no effective importance, which I fhould never have taken the trouble of putting upon paper, as it would be only a pain- WASTE] LANDS: 225 ful’exertion without any beneficial tendency. In hopes that’ men may be put into fuch circum- ftances‘as to be able‘to avail themfelves of the hints that follow; which are the refult of a pretty extenfive pra€tice in’ the melioration of wafte grounds, I fhall communicate’ them to the pub- lic-with pleafure; confcious, in the firft place, that they will not prove a fnare to thofe who are ig- norant; and hoping that they may, perhaps, in fome cafes prove ufeful even to thofe who are better informed. § I. Practical directions for bringing wafle lands into cultivation. PAR TH yRIRS aT Of the improvement of wafte lands as conneded with a cultivated farm. Tue moft favourable circumftance for the 1m- “provement of wafte land, by thofe exertions that are within the reach of a farmer, is that the VO Li. Q SES a a a—- SN cretion shh a ¥ fh i Eee ee eR ee rN a a A Sx ty, 1 ¥ x 226 ON CULTIVATING wafte is in the near vicinity of an arable farm, and conneéted with it. In this cafe, the farmer, by a{mall addition to the ftrength of his labouring animals, can annually cultivate a portion of the wafte Jand without much inconvenience to him- felf. Many are the advantages arifing from this arrangement: the expence of erefting new houfes is avoided; food for fuftaining his labouring cat- tle is already within his reach; which, on a com~- pleat new undertaking on waite lands, is an ob- ftru€tion that is extremely difficult to be fur- mounted; a ftrength fufficient can be{pared to labour the wafte ground that is under cultivation, or in its progrefs towards it, at once, when the proper feafon requires it, while the fervants and. horfes have employment at feafons when they could not with propriety have touched the new ground. Lime or other manures can be brought in abundance for the newly cultivated fields, at the feafon of the year when circumftances render it otherwife moft convenient; manures can be af- forded from the farm, for bringing the watfte more quickly into tilth, than in other cafes. In fhort, there are a variety of other leffer circum{tances, which all tend to fmooth the diffulties that. would otherwife be experienced in an undertak- ing of this fort. WASTE LANDS. 227 How to bring wafte lands as foon as pofible into the fate of profitable gra/s lands.—The ob- je& that an improver of wafte lands ought to have chiefly in view, fhould be, to have it laid down into profitable grafs land as foon as that can be properly accomplifhed; for the moment it is laid into grafs, in thefe circumftances, it ceafes to be a burthen upon the operator: it no longer requires manures, but rather furnifhes manure to the lefs improved fields; and affords, at the fame time, food for the beafts that are re- guired for the proper management of the land. But do not omit to obferve, that it ought not to be laid into grafs, until this can be properly done. No ground can ever be laid into grafs with a judicious attention to economy, but when itis ina ftate of great produttivenefs and high tulth. Iknow not any one branch of hufbandry in which more people err than in that which re- {peéts the laying down ground into grafs. When agriculture was in its infancy in this ifland, an idea feemed to prevail, that no ground, which ever had been under tillage, fhould be laid down to grafs, fo long as it was capable of producing a crop of grain that would pay for feed and la- bour. That notion is now pretty much explod- ed; but even, at this hour, there are only a few Q 2 per—S dd-" Se=e ate Se OE en:—=% a+i) WASTE LAN D'S; 249 Rye-grafs recommended.—I am alfo aware of the averfion that fome perfons have againft rye- erafs: but as I am fatisfied, from long experience and accurate obfervation, that there is no fuf ficient foundation for this prejudice, I fhould think I betrayed the truft repofedin me, did J al- low-it to influence me on the prefent occafion. Befides the recommendation of this grafs, from the facility of obtaining its feeds, it has fo many other valuable qualities torecommend it, that I confider every circumftance which tends to cir- cumf{cribe its ufe as a national misfortune. It is a grafs that is liked by almoft every domeftic ani- mal above all others. It fprings up very early in the feafon, furnifhes a vaft abundance of herbage, and thrives on almoft every foil. On very poor lands, indeed, it produces a much more fcanty crop than on fuch-as are richer; and on all fuch occa- fions, if it be not eaten down very clofe in the be- ginning of the feafon, it is apt to run up to feed; after which the ftalks, like the feed ftalks of every other kind of gramen I know, are difrelifhed by cattle. Under the management of a floven, then it may be allowed to run to wafie; as the beft paftures even in Romney marfh may alfo be, to the great detriment of the owner, if not adverted 2502. ON 9CORT I VALE ENG to in time; But if it be hard enough ftocked, efpecially zz the /pring, which is not a matter of great difficulty, it will continue to afford{weet and fucculent herbage throughout the whole re- maining part of the feafon: fo that he who fuffers by this neglect has only himfelf to blame, and not the plant he has injudicioufly cultivated. Some perfons will perhaps think the quantity of feeds above recommended, more than necef- fary. Certainly lefs might do; but experience has taught me that, on an average, more profit will be derived from this abundant feeding, than the reverfe, The practice of fowing all kinds of rubbifh promifcuoufly, under the name of hay /feeds, 1s now fo univerfally exploded, by all fenfible men who have had opportunities of beiag fully in- formed, as renders it unneceflary for me to fay any thing particular on that head, Burnbeaking, cafes in which it may be fucce/s- fully adopted—Where. the furface of wafte grounds to be improved is covered with a thick coat of the nardus ftricta, and other dry benty kinds of grafs, it will often prove beneficial to pare and burn that furface; and, therefore, in thefe circumftances, a good economift ought not WAST Ei-L AND S283<. 254 to overlook this mean of forwarding his opera-. tions. Lam no ftranger tothe prejudice that pre- vails among many writers of the prefent day againft this praGtice; but this, I conceive, in a great meafure, owes its origin to hafty obfervation, which does not admit of difcriminating fairly be- tween the proper ufe and the abufe of this prac- - tice, Itisan undoubted fatt, confirmed by the experience of many practical farmers, that on many poor foils, a crop may be thus obtained much more abundant than could be obtained without it. This fact, and it is an important one, isadmitted even by thofe who oppofe the prac- tice. It is well known by every pra¢tical farmer, that an abundant crop of any kind, under Judici- ous management, is one of the moft: certain means of laying the foundation for future crops; and in cultivating wafte grounds, it is a great point gained to obtain a good crop at the com- mencement of thefe operations. Burning does not confume the mold, nor change the foil of wafte grounds for the worfe.—As to the idea, which feems to influence the opinion of many of thefe writers, that this practice tends to deftroy the foilitfelf, and thus to render it thinner than it would be, it plainly originates from mifconcep- ¢ 22-ON SCULPIVAEING tion; and is direétly contradicted by experience. No kind of earth, properly fo called,[I exclude peat earth, commonly called mofs, from the clafs of earths properly fo denominated; fo that it is to be here confidered as an exception.]| is capable of being confumed by fire. All that the fire does, in the procefs of denfiring, or burn-beaking, as it is indifcriminately called, is to confume the dried vegetable fibres which were intermixed among the foil; during which procefs a fmall proportion of alkaline falt is generated, which is known to act very powerfully as a manure; and the earth that was entangled among thefe roots, in confe- quence of the incineration, is dried, and reduced toa powdery ftate, but neitheris deftroyed nor re- duced in quantity. The qualities of this earth may, indeed, by this procefs, be fometimes a little altered; but, in the circumftances here ftated that alteration, it fhould feem, could feldom be for the worfe. The kind of earth that is the moft al- tered by the action of fire, is clay. Inftead of re- maining fufceptible of being very much foftened by water, clay, by this procefs, is rendered in- capable of being thus a¢ted upon. A fmall pro- portion of powdery brick earth thus obtained, mixed with the retentive mold, has apparently a beneficial tendency to divide it, and render the Se) WASTE LANDS, 53 # foil more mellow. Thefe and other confidera- tions, make me lean to the fide of experience, in this cafe, with lefs dificulty than I otherwife mighi have done; and I fhould have no hefitation in recommending the prattice as beneficial, in the circumftances above fpecified. The gurface only may be burned, though thefoil be deep ploughed—tThe greateft objection to it, in this cafe, is the difficulty of ftirring the mold to a fufficient depth before the incineration is ef- fected; for experience univerfally confirms the propriety of giving only a very flight plowing after that procefs, before the feeds are fown. To effet both thefe purpofes at once, a fkim plough might be eafily contrived, which fhould pare off the furface where the ground was free of ftones, to a moderate thicknefs, and, by having a hort- zontal ledge projecting beyond the bottom of a part of the mold-board, thus carry the thin fwardy furface over the open furrow to the right hand fide, and lay it on the top of the earth that had been turned over beyond it, as fhall juft now be defcribed. After the furface has been thus pared off and difpofed of, another plough fhould follow in the fame traét, and turn the bot- tom earth over into the open furrow, on the right- gl Tr 054. ON CULT 1 WAT NOG hand fide, as in common plowing; and this may be deepened by the fpade,*or otherwife, to any degree thought neceflary, without burying. the fward in the f{malleft degree. By this mode of management, the fward may be dried and burnt perfectly well, and the earth be properly loofened at the fame time. If that fward be properly burned and fpread in due time, and if lime be mixed with it; and flightly plowed in for turnips, an abundant crop will thus be obtained the firft year, without any dung. This good crop of turnips will afford a great quantity of dung, while the foil will, in the mean time, be more mellowed than if it had been left undera bare fummer-fallow. If the fame field be next year dunged and fown with turnips, it will afford a ftill more abundant crop; and the foil will by this time be reduced into the moft excellent tilth for being laid into grafs with the fucceeding corn-crop; after which it muft be the farmer’s fault, if ever in future can be put out of order, It is not, however, my province here to proceed farther in the mode of management of fuch land. Burning old corn land may prove hurtful.— But although I confider the pra€tice of burning the furface of barren wafle foils, which are not of WASTE LANDS. 255 a a mofly nature, wherever the plants on the furface 4 are abundant, as exceedingly beneficial, I con- th fefs I have my doubts about the propriety of ex- of tending this practice to fuch foils as have been al- mnt ready fertilized by manures, and brought into pro- ed per tilth. All kinds of earth, though they be in ly their original ftate, when dug from a great depth, be infertile, become more fertile by degrees, on being Ips, expofed to the air on the furface, when impreg- ay nated by manures, and the gradual rotting of the p of roots of plants that grow upon them, along with while the intermixture of the remains of animals which nved die there. They are thus in time converted into a that kind of fubftance which we call vegetable WD mold. This vegetable mold, then, 1s neither a nt fimple earth, nora mixture of any number of fim- ed ple earths together. But it is fuch a mixture, im- nto pregnated with the remains of animal and vege- pich table matters united with them. Thefe remains at of organized bodies communicate fomething to the my foil of an apparently oily or mucilaginous nature. caf Along with the fertility which it is feen to acquire, thefe give it a more friable texture, and a greater facility than it. originally pofletied, of abforbing es water ina proper manner, and retaining it toa ing certain degree. Now, there feems to be little st i réafon to doubt that fire tends to alter, deftroy, or 256 ON.-CU LTIVAT IMG diffipate this mucilaginous quality which the mold derives from the fpontaneous corruption of organifed bodies. So that wherever the foil has been gradually fertilized by this procefs, there feems reafon to fear that the burning of its{ward will rather prove hurtful than beneficial. But while I thus develope, as clearly as I can, the reafons that would make me doubt of the propriety of the practice of burning, in thefe cir- cumftances, it 1s proper the reader fhould be at the fame time warned that thefe are only reafons for doubting, but by no means rules for practice. Praétical rules fhould on all occafions be deduc- ed from well authenticated fa¢ts alone; and J have had no opportunity of meeting with any facts I could rely upon, that either tend to confirm or _to refute this mode of reafoning. I give it, there- fore, as merely hypothetical, and as ferving to dire&t the attention to a proper object of experi- mental enquiry, and nothing more. Human rea- fon is by far too fallacious a guide to be relied upon in matters of this kind, as a practical direc- tor; though it is an excellent affiftant for leading the mind into a proper train of inveftigation. Burning mofy foils, a dangerous practice.— I do not fpeak with the fame referve in regard : ee_ aaenus ia. gi aa Lk TEST ES FCT TIT TT WASTE LANDS. 259 to the impropriety of burning mofy foils; of the very hurtful tendency of which I have had innu- merable practical proofs. In this cafe, it is not the plants which grow upon it, but the very fub- {tance itfelf that ferved as a foil on which the plants grew, that is totally deftroyed by mcinera- tion.- This fubftance is, by burn-beaking, amaz- ingly diminifhed in quantity; and the little that remains, inftead of foil, after this deftru€tive pro- cefs, is an inert earth, which is more unfit for the purpofes of vegetation than any other that has ever fallen under my obfervation. I therefore confider the burning of this kind of foil, as in all cafes pernicious; but particularly fo, where there is no certain means of eafily{topping the com- buftion, after a thin paring of the furface-fward has been confumed; and to ftop it juft there is; { know, a thing that is next to impracticable. For the proper means of meliorating peat, and con- verting it into fertile foil,| beg leave to refer the reader to a practical treatife on peat mofs lately publifhed by me; as it would take up too much room to recapitulate the whole precefs in this place. Itis only neceffary here to obferve, that of all the kinds of barren waftes, the improve- ment of this variety, under a judicious fyftem of VO: TrT: S 258 ON] CULTIVATING management, can be effected with perhaps lefs difficulty than that of any other. Stiff clayey foils difficult to be brought ixto cultivation.—The moft hopelefs foil for an un- lucky adventurer to begin to work upon, while it is yet in a rude and unproduttive ftate, is that of a ftiff, coherent, obdurate clay. This kind of foil, though it be phyfically capable of being ren- dered perhaps the moft produétive of any that can be found; requires, when in a poor ftate, fuch nicety of management, fuch repeated addi- tions of manures in vaft quantities, and fuch an enormous expence in the cultivation of it, as to make any man of found fenfe hefitate about en- gaging in attempting to Improve it at all, unlefs under very particular circumftances. When cir- cumitances, however, are favourable, it may be fometimes done under the care of a very fkilful operator, with great advantage. The expence of cultwating fuch foils often proves ruinous.—In every poflible combination of circumftances, where a whole farm confifts of this kind of foil, it muft be managed at a vat ex- sence, On account of the ftiffnefs of the foil, the implements of agriculture muft be firong and ee WASTE LANDS. 259 weighty, and, of courfe, the firength required to draw them muit be great. But this is not the worft evil. On account of the neceflity of catch- ing the moft favourable é/d(m) for labouring the foil, or of lofing the whole crop, the time of plow- ing is limited to a very few weeks only; fo that to perform the fame quantity of work upon this kind of foil zz@ proper manner, will require more than fen times the number of fervants and beatts of labour, that would be wanted on a farm of equal extent, confifting of light friable mold: fo that if the operator has not fome other way of employing his force in the intervals, they muft be idle; which will foon eat up the profits that can bé derived from the moft abundant crops. To diminith this expence, the unfortunate operatot fometimes finds himfelf tempted tg try to labour his ground when it is zo¢ in the mott proper cir- cumi{tances as to t7d, which infallibly diminifhes his crop to an aftonifhing degree. In this way, I have known feveral unluckv yerfons reduced to yet bankruptcy, in farming foils, that undiftinguifh- ing obfervers would call foils of the beft quality; becaufe they would fometimes fee upon them the moft. weighty crops they had ever obferved. Thefe people do not advert, that though a guinea be a very good thing, the man who is obliged to 2 Oo Sea —— \ a Stee SE aE 960 ON CULEIY ATING pay two and twenty fhillings for every one of them that he obtains, will very foon be reduced to the neceflity of purchafing no more of them. If a little of that kind of{tiff land can be joined as an appendage to a farm of confiderable extent of light friable mold, it may become a valuable addition to it; becaufe the operator will thus have employment for his fervants and: beafts at all times, and when the proper tid arrives for la- bouring his fiiff lands, he can turn his whole force upon it, fo as to labour it jut in the nick of time that is neceflary to infure a fuperabundant crop. Under thefe circumftances, fuch land, in the hands of a fkilful farmer, becomes a treafure of great value: but it is only under circumitances fimilar to this, that the full benefit can ever be derived from fuch a foil. More need not here be faid on the fubject of improving lands of this defcription by means of tillage. —— oe a ee a A—— nay pity SET- 0 hg a iil WASTE LANDS: 361 § IL. PART SECOND. On the cultivation of wafte lands, as not con- nected with a farm. Art that has been faid above refpeéis the im- provenient of wafte lands when they aré con- nected with an adjoining farm, or in other cir- cumftances where animal dung can be brought upon them from without. If no recourfe can be had but to the wafte land itfelf for animal ma- nures, its improvement becomes much more dif- ficult; and other meafures for accomplifhing it muft be adopted. Temporary meafures neceffary to be adopted at the beginning of fuch opefations—If a man were to form a deliberate plan of fetting himfelf down upon an extenfive unproduétive wafte, with a view to cultivate it, he would find himfelf under very uncomfortable circumftances for fome time at the firft, whatever were the’amount of his ec& y 2 LLL TE ON a ORT sh TOT 26 bo ON CULTIVATING funds. Houfes muft be, in the firft place, ereéted, and fome of the land muft be cultivated; but Where is he to find food for fuftaining the beafts that are neceflary for thefe operations, before his rops come in to furnifh that food? This is a very ferious confideration to which he muft advert, and which mutt be obviated before he begins his operations, otherwife he will be fubjeéted to great difficulties, befides accumulated expences and loffes, that may prove ruinous. In general, he will find it fafeft for him, and cheapeft, ta prevail upon fome of the neareft farmers to perform fome of thefe neceffary initiatory operations for hire, on fuch terms as he can engage them; and keep as few beafts of labour of his own as poflible, un- til he get fome crop to fuftain them, In this cafe he muft content himfelf at firft with doing not what he could wifh, but what he can do; fo that he may be obliged to take a crop or two, per- haps, without dunging, after liming only: but from this mode of procedure he fhould defift the moment he can find abundant fubfiftence for his working beafts; and begin as foon as poflible to put his fields into fubftantial good order, by dung- ing thofe fields that have been limed, and laying them into grafs. Whenever he has got abund- ance of food for his working beafts, his greateft os ety oye Was th LAN D's: 263 difficulty is overcome; and provided his purfe holds out, he may then go on without much dif_- culty, by adhering to the following plan of pro- cedure, The natural produce of waft lands confumed by sheep—There are very few foils fo barren but they afford fome herbage upon which animals of one fort or other may be fuftained. Sheep are the ftock that are beft fitted for the moft barren foils; and the rearing of fheep in general, is the ufe to which fuch foils are applied in their natu- ral ftate. A farm of fuch bare pafture to be ca- pable of fuftaining a flock of fheep fo large as to’ pay for the expence of a fkilful fhepherd to at- tend them, without which no fheep can ever ‘thrive, muft be of very confiderable extent. But whatever be its extent, if the dung of thefe crea- tures be properly collected, and judicioufly.ap- plied, along with lime, aided by a fkilful culture and good management, it will furnifh the means of gradually meliorating the foil, and rendering it more produétive of grafs as well as corn, than it ever could have been under the flovenly fyftem of management, which the bars to improvement already enumerated have rendered almoft uni- verfal, 2 POT rg i | i\) Al -= Sie ie ae 264, ONe CAE PAA T. IG , A flovenly practice being once introduced, it ia aa cia el aa AIR a is found that inaccurate ideas come to be fpon- taneoufly engrafted upon it. All mankind know 4 that if animal dung be laid upon any foil in fuf-| ficient quantities, and properly worked into it,) the foil will be rendered much more produétive| than it would have been without it: and if, when it is once brought into that produttive ftate,| it be then laid into grafs, that patch will continue. al, for an indifinite number of years, much more fer= tile than the adjacent ground of the very fame quality, that has not been dunged., From this faét, which every perfon in the coun- try has had an opportunity of obferving,[The little gardens made by induttrious cottagers, which are to be feen in many places, on very un- productive waftes, afford the moft fatisfattory ex- amples of the fact here ftated.| a neceflary confe- quence is, that every foil on which animals of any kind are fuftained, muft either be in a con-, tinual ftate of progreflive melioration, or the ef- feGts of the dung of' the animals muft be loft through fome unobferved kind of mifmanagement. The dung of thefe fheep a fource of improve-’ ment.—Vo render this propofition palpable, fup- pofe a fheep-farm that is capable of fupporting WASTE LAND&: 265 one thoufand fheep. It has been afcertained by repeated experience, that if the dung of that thoufand fheep be carefully colle€ted into one mafs, it will be fufiicient to manure one acre each day in a very proper manner(x): nor dof fuppofe any farmer will not be ready to admit, that, if the dung thus produced were properly mixed with the foil, and the field then immedi- ately laid down into grafs, without being ex- haufted by corn crops, the erafs upon fuch dung- ed fields would be fo much augmented in quan- tity, as to be on an average, upon fuch poor foils, capable of fuftaining one fheep at leaft per acre, nore than it could have done without that dungs ing. If this be admitted, it will follow, that as the thoufand fheep would afford dung for 365 acres in a year, the melioration of the foil in the courfe of one year, fhould be equal to the feed of 365 fheep. So that in the fecond year, it fhould, in- ftead of 1000 fheep, be capable of fupporting 1365; and, in the third year, an addition of more than 365 might be made to that; and fo on, in a progreflion approaching to a ceometrical ratio. That no fuch melioration as this takes place in practice, is very obvious: on the contrary, it is well known that many wattes can fuftain no “ee pai nad oe Se pret SNe A seme ; a ' ; | — Sarna eee a er eT, COG 266 ON: CU-L-TIVATING more beafts at prefent, than they could have done perhaps a thoufand years ago. Hence it fol- lows, that the dung which has been dropped from thefe animals during the whole of that pe- riod, has been diffipated and loft; which, if it had been judicioufly managed, might have been the means of a great amelioration during that time. I do not pretend to fay that it is praticable for any man to colleét add the dung of the fheep paftured under any circumftances, fo as to apply it in the manner above defcribed, to the imme- diate amelioration of the foil in the dire€&t manner above fpecified; and, therefore, am not fo:chi- merical as to infinuate, that an amelioration to the above degree, though phyfically poffible, is morally praéticable in any cafe. Under every fyftem of management, fome wafte muft be un- avoidably incurred, becaufe fome part of the dung muft be cafually dropped. All I with to inculcate is, that wherever dung is allowed to be dropped at random on the fields, under the cir- cumftances fpecified, it either tends not at all to meliorate the foil, or to do it in fuch a flight de- gree as not to be in the leaft perceptible:[See the following Effay on the ceeconomical confump- tion of the produéts of a farm.} Of courfe it fol. WASTE LANDS. 267 lows, that the lefs dung that is fuffered to be waited in this way, the better it muft be for the general improvement of the country, and the welfare of the community at large; and that, of courfe the neglect of this neceffary attention is highly uneconomical; though it has been{fo little adverted to, that I make no doubt but nine out of ten who fhall read this, will feel themfelves difpofed to deny the conclufion I draw, though they can neither produce a faét, nor a folid argu- ment to invalidate it. I write, however, for the information of thofe who fhall have the patience to lend an unprejudiced and attentive ear, and not with a view to obtain the approbation of the inattentive. The folding of fheep has been prattifed for many ages, and ftill is pra€tifed in many parts of Britain with much benefit to the owners of flocks, though it has not been any where that| know of attended to, with a view to the fteady and pro- greflive amelioration of wafte grounds, for the affecting of which the following dire¢tions may be found of fome utility. s Lime fhould be conjoined with it.—I fcruple not again to repeat it, for it cannot be too ftrong- ly inculcated, that lime, or other calcareous mat- m7 a ac ae .—<— ape I ar 8 nS ern ee ee SSS 268 ON CULT PV AA ENG ter, applied in large quantities, muft form the bafis of all radical improvements on wafte lands. Lime tends to fweeten the graffes produced on every foil to which it has been applied, fo as to render°them more palatable to all animals; it augments the quantum of the produce confider- ably; it thus renders the ground capable of fuftaining a greater number of beafts. Thefe, of courfe, produce more dung; te feed if applied in conjun¢tion with the lime, will pro- and that dung, duce greater and more lafting effects than it could have done without it. It would feem that Hea- ven, with a view to reward the induftry of man, and to fet no limits to the poflible melioration of the foil, had difperfed this univerfal fertilizer fo generally over our globe, as to bring it within our reach, by the exertions of human induftry, almoft every, where. Whatever,, therefore, tends to fa- cilitate the’ acquifition of this manure to any par- ticular place; whether by means of roads, canals, or any other device, muft be confidered as amoneft the moft ufeful of human exertions. Suppofing it to be thus attainable, ovr bufinefs here is to {how in what manner it can be the moft econo- mically applied for the purpofe of improving waite grounds. WASTE LANDS. 269 Folding of freep, mode of conducting tt— Where it is propofed to apply the dung of the animals which paiture upon wafte lands for the purpofe of gradual amelioration, recourfe— be had to the fold; and lime fhould in every pof- fible cafe beadopted in aid of it. Dung, as well as lime, will always produce the beft and a ickeft returns, when it is conne¢ted w ith tillage; there- fore, as much of the ground fhould He fallewed as circumfances will admit, and Jimed as dé efcrib- ed in the preceding part of this chapter. Upon thefe fallows the fheep fhould be folded, by means of hurdles, during dry weather; and thefe hurdles fhould be fo moved, as to admit of the ground being plowed over as foon after the fold- ing as poffible. The mold having been previ- oufly deepened by the means before defcribed, arid the lime applied, it fhou Id be turned over by a very ebb[fhall low] furrow(0 /. 1 the foil be pro- pet for turnips, as muc! h of it as has been. dunged before the middle of May, fhould be again plow- ed over, and inftantly fown with turnips the very day it 1s plowed, as fhortly after plowing as pof- fible: for no ftate of the foil is, in any cafe, fo fevourable for the germination of feeds in this country, as that kindly moiiture which is always found in new plowed grounds, when in. good 210: ON OU TING TING tilth. This mode of fowing fhould be univerfal; as it will more effe€tually infure a crop from miffing, than waiting for rain, which frequently burfts the feeds, and confequently lofes the crop.: From the middle of May till the middle of Auguft, the turnips fhould be fown progreflively as the ground is dunged, always plowing and fowing it as foon after dunging as poflible.— After the middle of Auguft, it will be unnecéf fary to fow any more turnips that feafon. But if the foil be good, and the dunging abundant, rye, or cole-feed for fpring food, or winter tares to fucceed them, may be fown till the month of O€tober; after which time, it will feldom be practicable to fold on the fallows. The turnips, if fed off with fheep, will afford the ground another dunging; and it will then, in general, be fo rich as to admit of its being laid) down with grafs feeds, as above direfted, along with the firft crop; from which, if it be wanted, one crop of hay may be cut, and then it may be cut and confumed green in the houfe, or paf- tured. Thus will a confiderable addition’ be made to the food of animals upon: the farm, and with it an encreafe of dung, which, if ma- naged in the fame economical manner, will aug- ment the quantity of land’ that can be annually ==%.>-~ a=—s= cs—— ee oe. a WASTE LANDS. Q71 improved, and thus accelerate the progrefs of the improvement, till in time the whole muft be compleatly gone over in this manner, and ren- dered in every part much more productive than before. After this, by beginning the fame pro- cefs afreth, in which the addition of lime is not fo neceffary, the land will be endowed with a yet higher degree of fertility. Amd thus it may be gone over fucceflively, a fecond, a third, ora twentieth time, ftill advancing in its degree of. fertility, till it has become as rich as can be de- fired. { make no attempt to eftimate the quantity of ground that may be thus improved in a given time, or the rapidity with which the progrefs may be accelerated; becaufe, in a cafe of this kind, it is obvious that the faéts on which thefe calculations would be grounded, mutt be aflumed at the pleafure of the writer. It is thus the eafieft thing imaginable to make the refult be precifely fuch as he would with it fhould be: fo that, without his intending it, every fuch calcu- lation may prove fallacious, and tend greatly to miflead the incautious reader. Befides, it is ob- vious that no calculation could be made, the. re- fult of which, as to the guantum, could be relied upon; becaufe no two cafes could be found, un- 272 ON CULTEV A FING der which, by the fame mode of management, the refult would be the fame as to the guantum; for this muft depend upon the nature of the foil, and many other indefinite circumftances. All J aim at, by this illuftration, is to fhow that, under the fyftem of management here recommended, there muft be a continued progreflive ameliora- tion in every cafe; though the rapidity of that ‘ progreflion, and the proportional expence at which it. can be effected, will greatly vary, according to the circumftances of the cafe. Neither do I enter into a minute detail of the particulars that would be neceflary to be advert- ed to under this fyftem of management, as my object here is only to illuftrate the general prin- ciple. Every intelligent farmer, who attends to it, will fee that many economical precautions muft be adopted, to enable him to derive the _ full benefit from the dung of-his fheep, without hurting the animals themfelves. He will fee, that if his grounds be of large extent, it will be convenient for him to have at leaft two folds un- der the fallow fyftem; one towards one end of his grounds, and the other towards the other. Pers haps it may be neceffary to have more folds than iwo; as his fheep fhould never be obliged to tra+ vel farther to the fold than it would be neceffary en aa WASTE] LAN DS. 973 for them to travel at any rate to fill their bellies; and when they have filled their bellies, he knows they muft lie down to reft themfelves, and chew the cud: and this they will do with lefs diftur- bance in a fold, at regular periods, than in any other circumftance. He will alfo perceive the neceflity of having folds provided for them in convenient places, upon dry grafs ground, into which they can be put in rainy weather, when it wanld hurt his fheep to go upon the fallows.— All thefe, and many other economical confidera- tions, the attentive farmer would neceflarily dif- cover of himfelf, and advert to. I may however obferve, that under this fyftem of management, fheep would be much lefs haraffed than they are according to the prac- tice adopted in almoft every folding county.— Becaufe, when they are folded on the fallows of arable farms, they are always carried off their paftures; and fometimes they muft be driven to a confiderable diftance through narrow lanes, and bad roads, which muft tend to harafs and exhautt them confiderably. None of thefe evils could be experienced under the fyftem above recommend- ed; for the folds would gradually advance from the edges towards the middle of the fields, the paftures of which would furround them on every VOLS UII: T ENTS ROK 9 Dente FHS se Ee 274 ON=:GALL PIV A LI G Gde. In thefe circumftances, under the direc tion of a careful fhepherd, fheep could perhaps be made to thrive as well, perhaps better, than under any other fyftem of management. Permanent inclofures not here neceffary.— The reader will alfo pleafe to advert, that, under the fyftem of management recommended, no permanent inclofures are neceflary; and there- fore the total expence of that fuppofed improve- ment will be faved to the undertaker. Inclo- fures, where large flocks of fheep are to be kept, are well Known to be not only not neceflary, but highly pernicious. Sheep delight in a free open expofure, and a wide range of patiure. What- ever circumferibes them in‘thefe refpects 1s hurtful to the animal. All that could be wanted on fuch lands, would be a ring of moveable hurdles round the fields that are under crop, which could be fhifted annually as the improve~ ments went forwards; leaving the grounds, both behind and before, open as at firtt. Indeed, in- clofures are, In many other cafes, rather hurt- fal than the reverfe: and fuch fences as we often fee around fields can have no beneficial tendency whatever. They feem only calculated for the purpofe of wafting ground, and facrifiaang mo- (e Ds WASTE LANDS, 278 ney at the fhrine of vanity.[I queftion not, but the money that has been expended on ufelefs inclofures in England, in the original making them and their future fupport, might, if fairly accumulated, be more than fufficient to pay off the national debt: and it would be no difficult matter to find many fields, where that expence, if it were all fairly to be counted, would be more than the fee-fimple of the fields inclofed would amount to. Divided commons often come under this clafs of waftes.—The reader will pleafe alfo to advert, that many of thofe commons which have been of late divided, are precifely in the circumftances that admit of being improved, with economy, by no other mode except that which has been above defcribed; but in confequence of each of the proprietors being obliged to inclo/e his own fhare,it has become totally impra€ticable thus to do it; and as the expence of inclofing comes to be a confiderable item, many of the under- takers become tired of the outlay as foon as that has been effected, and then leave the fields totally neglected; or, if they attempt to plough them up, having no refource for obtaining animal ma- nure, they ar¢ forced to lay them out to grafs ae to) he ge 6 6CON CULTIVATING ‘in that fhabby ftate of poverty, which is the caufe of lofs to the undertaker, and no advan- tage to the public. On the whole, the cultivation of wafte lands, where the original foil is of a tolerable quality, though it be at all times a nice operation, and in general attended with confiderable difficulties, ef pecially at the beginning, may, for the moft part, be accomplifhed with profit to the undertaker, and much benefit to the community, wherever the operator is allowed to reap the full profits to be derived from his induftry; but where he is certain that he can not, or fufpects that he will not, be allowed to do this, the very thoughts of attempting it are repreffed in his bofom; and an sndolence in this refpet, which at firft fight ap- pears to be culpable, but which upon a thorough examination will be found highly rational, is the confequence of it. If the effect is expected to ceafe, the caufe muft be removed. In all that I have written above,| have endeavoured to in- culcate the utility of that kind. of cherifhing agriculture which aims at nothing fhort of the higheft degree of produétivenefs; being confci- ous, from a long and extenfive experience, that where phyfical obfiru€tions are the only things that are to be furmounted, it by this practice WASTE LANDS. LTE alone, that profit in agriculture is to be expected. In thefe circumftances, a judicious man will never hefitate at incurring any expence that he knows will add fo much to the produétivenefs of his fields as barely to‘repay that expence; but where another perfon is permitted to come and {natch away his profits, the cafe is much altered: he then hefitates to lay out one fhilling to aug- ment his produce; and not his wafte grounds alone are fuffered to continue in the ftate of waftes, but even his cultivated lands, and other inclofures, are fuffered to remain for ages in a {tate of unproduétivenefs that might be eafily re- moved; and which is therefore highly difgufting to the fpirited cultivator to fee, and difgraceful to thofe who, having it in their power, do not exert themfelves to remove. Lime applied to the furface, how to be manag- ed.—I have not given any direétions for melio- rating ground by means of lime applied to the furface only, without being mixed with the foil; becaufe, although I know that lime, or other calcareous matters, applied to the furface of the foil, in very large quantities, will have a fenfible effect in fweetening the pile, and augmenting the quantity of produce alfo; yet, I likewife 7 33 at a! | pm a a= ** aig eo eit Sap ee a 278 O. Neu CAU-EAT V7 AT EN G know, that the effe€t of that manure would be fo much greater, if mixed with the foil, that it is in very particular fituations alone, that it can ever be an economical praétice to apply lime on the furface only; and never,| apprehend, where the foil is of a retentive nature. Where I wifhed to improve fields that were too fteep for admitting the plough, I thould advife that the ground, in all cafes, where it was im the leaft of a retentive nature, fhould be trenched by the fpade, before the lime was applied, and then to blend it with the furface-mold. As this operation has to be performed only once, and will not only have a tendency to make the lime produce a more im- mediate and ftronger effeét upon the foil, but will alfo render it, in all future periods, drier in wet weather, and confequently fweeter in the pile; and moifter in dry weather, and confequently lefs variable in its produce than it otherwife would have been, there can be no doubt but the ex- pence of trenching will, in a fhort time, be abundantly repaid. But where the foil is not retentive, and ftones are very abundant, there is not an equal necef- fity for digging it up; and in thefe circumftances lime may be fometimes applied on grafs with profit. But, in this cafe, it will always be ad- WAS FE LAND S: 279 vifeable, firft to mix the lime with fome good mold, if it can be got, in the proportions of nearly two parts of earth for one of lime, and in- corporate them well together by frequent turn- ings, during the courfe of feveral months: for, in this way, it is found that lime, applied on the fward, operates much more powerfully thus than it ever does when applied by‘itfelf. Irrigations flightly noticed.—Neither have| faid any thing about the practice of irrigation; becaufe it is only in few fituations that water in abundance for that purpofe can be command- ed. But wherever that-.can be obtained, it is the fureft, and the eafieft of all modes of improving wafte grounds. The greateft difficulty that will occur in the management of this manure,(for fo { will call it,) on fuch foils, is the frequent ine- qualities that are found upon their furface, fo as to prevent the water from being fpread evenly overthem, or the over-retentivenefs of the foil. Where thefe two obftructions are not very great, water, if thrown over the furface in a proper manner, and managed with judgment and dif- cretion, will foon bring the moft barren watte in- to a ftate of great productivenefs, either for grafs or corn; and nothing can be better adapted for 40 Gs 280 ONG LEV A LING” an alternation of management from the one ta the other: nor is there any fituation:in which water may not be made to operate as a great im- provement, from the flatteft mead to the fteepeft hill, if the land can be fo laid out as to admit of carrying the water thoroughly off from the ground, as foon as circumftances indicate the neceflity of fo doing. But this circumftance is fo very neceffary, that in regard to this manure, as well as many others, the full benefit, in many cafes, efpecially on retentive foils, cannot be ob- tained till after the mold fhall have been loofen- ed to a fufficient depth. After that has been done, and the furface fmoothed, and a good fward of grafs obtained upon it, the benefits to be derived from the proper ufe of water will be inconceivably great. Inclofures, circumfances that render them un- necefary.—Neither have I taken inclofures un- der confideration; as I do not confider thefe to be a neceffary part of the expence of improving wafte grounds; but rather I conceive that the predileétion in favour of this fuppofed improve- ment is, on many occafions, the caufe of a great| and uneconomical expenditure of valuable funds, which might be more beneficially applied. If WASTE LANDS,.&e. 2841 ground be to be kept under tillage, inclofures are, perhaps, in all cafes,(farther than a ring-fence, efpecially along way fides, or where they operate as drains,) pernicious rather than beneficial. It farther appears, from what has been faid above, that while land is under graffes, if the produce be fcanty, inclofures are always pernicious; and it will be fhown, in the following effay on the economical confumption of the produce of a farm, that they are never beneficial where the produce is abundant: fo that they become of apparent utility only when land is left in grafs, while in a middling ftate of produétivenefs only. And this is precifely the ftate in which grafs land is the leaft beneficial to the ftate: fo that every effort fhould be made to induce farmers to avoid leaving their ground in grafs, while it is in this fhabby condition. i i i yy { i . (te ( 282 OF PLANTATIONS PART SECOND. On the improvement of wafte and barren lands, by planiing trees. "Tsrovcn there are few fields which might not admit of being brought into culture, under par- ticular circumftances, there are innumerable tracts of vaft extent in this kingdom, which it will be much more profitable to the owner to plant with trees, than to attempt any other mode of improve- ment. Wherever the foil is dry and infertile;. or where its chief or only produce is heath; or where it is full of rocks and ftones rifing to the furface; or, if it be a ftiff obdurate clay, having little furface-produce; and, in general, in moft cafes where the foil is poor, if not in the very near vicinity of a town, it may be converted into plantations, if it can be freed from hurtful water, “ith greater profit than any other improvement it could admit of, unlefs in very particular cir- cumftances; even where it may admit of being brought, in ézme, into cultivable ground. Where the furface-produce is naturally{mall, perhaps ON WASTE LANDS. 283 nothing could be fo economical as, in the mean while, to fill it with trees; becaufe thefe, if judi- cioufly chofen, not only yield a greater. profit than could be drawn from any other kind of produce, and afford conveniences for houfes, and other accomodations for inhabitants and for ma- nufactures; but the ground itfelf, while the trees continue to grow upon it, undergoes, for the moft part, a gradual amelioration, which it would not have done in its natural ftate; and admits of be- ing more eafily improved when the proprietor can find leifure to overtake it, than it otherwife would have been. § I. General remarks on the different kinds of trees that may be planted on waftes. Tue kinds of trees that chiefly require our no- tice on the prefent occafion, are the oak, afh, elm, beech, birch, chefnut, fcotch fir, fpruce ditto, ftone-pine, larch, and bermudian cedar.‘Phere are many others of leffer note, that may claim our attention on particular occafions. FLOAT RT INE LAAN AIOE SE ee 284 OF PLANTATIONS ay Of thefe trees, the oak is beft calculated to Ph thrive on the ftrongeft and deepeft clays. The Ph afh loves a rich and mellow loam; and where that is the cafe, it profpers beft on rocky banks.‘The wych-elm prefers alfo a mellow foil, and fituations f moderately damp, to fuch as are drier and more arid. The beech thrives remarkably well on dry gravels, and can bear a pretty expofed fituation. The birch loves dry mellow foils, and will profper well on land that 1s very{terile. The chefnut de- P| lights in deep loam, ona ftone fhivery bottom, f. where the roots run no rifk of reaching a reten- | tive clay, or other ftratum that detains the water. {cotch fir, and fpruce,' will grow well on a light moory earth, if dry, though ever fo poor, if cold clay does not rife near to the furface, or gravel, or fand. Of the ftone-pine, and bermu- dian cedar, I have had no experience, and there- fore can fay nothing. But of all the trees that have been named, the larch profpers on the great- eft variety of foils. Ihave{carcely feen it fail on any foil where water was not permitted to ftag-| nate upon it; butit feems. to prefer a mellow loam to either of the extremes of clay or fand. And as this tree is undoubtedly the moft ufeful of the coniferous tribe, as well as the quickeft grower, and the moft ornamental of that clafs, ON WASTE LAN DS: 285 it deferves, above all others, the particular at- tention of the rural improver. 3 Moft of the trees above enumerated, though they will thrive in plantations when properly made, upon foils of the nature indicated above, require fo much care and attention while young, and fuch a perfeét kind of culture until they are fully eftablifhed, as but little fuits the. circum- ftances of owners of wafte lands in general. Hence arifes the univerfal complaint of the rapid decreafe of live oak in this kingdom; a circum- ftance which, though it has been noticed and complained of for a century paft, has not ad- mitted of any alleviation; nor feems likely to do fo in the prefent ftate of things in this country. Much might be faid on this fubject, under the idea of patriotic exertions; feeing it is, admitted on all hands, that when the britifh oak fhall fail, our navy muft fuftain an irreparable diminution in point of ftrength and durability: but as nothing that I could fay could prove of any avail to incite to enterprifes which fo many other circumftances tend to counteraét,[think it unneceffary to enter upon that fubje€t; more efpecially when I con- fider that it does not fo properly fall under notice on the prefent occafion, as the planting of fuch trees as can, with great economy, be reared in i | if i] 1] q ae, eee ct y es= He ee Seer 286 OF PLANTATIONS large plantations ata fmall expence, upon heathy moors and other barren waftes, fo as to return an abundant profit to the undertaker in the courfe of a very moderate period of years. § IT. Of fir plantations in particular. ‘Lue improvements that have been made in the northern parts of Scotland, by means of large plantations of fcotch fir, upon the bareft moors, and inthe bleakeft and moftinhofpitable fituations, are now well known; and afford the cleareft de- monftration of the utility of fuch enterprifes, when judicioufly condu€ted: and though it is ad- mitted that the fcotch fir is among the moft perifh- able, and the leaft valuable kinds of wood that can be reared, and therefore fells every where at a very moderate price; yet as the expence of rearing that tree is very trifling, the returns have been inall cafes fo abundant, as fully to fatisfy the perfons who have made thefe plantations; even when no other circumftances, but the direct income that has arifen from thefe plantations themfelves, has been taken into the account. 4 Fs si GON WAST E-LAN DS. O89 But when the collateral advantages are likewife' adverted to, the improvement occafioned by thefe. appears to be infinitely great. In the neighbour- hood of fuch plantations, houfes can be reared at fo little expence, and the roofs are fo much {traighter and better than ordinary, as to induce fettlers to make their houfes much neater and more commodious than in other places; rails, and other kinds of dead fences, canbe fo eafily ob- tained, that poor people are firft enabled to have good well fenced gardens, and then commodious inclofures of larger extent; the branches afford fuel to the fettlers, which greatly adds to the com- forts of their fituation; cutting and manufaétur- ing the wood into various kinds of utenfils, furnifh- es employment to many perfons; population is thereby augmented; and, with an increafe of population, its neceffary confequence follows, a defire for land to produce the neceffaries. of life, and a confequent encreafe of rent to the proprie- tor. Like the fettlers in America,-thefe new fetilers, in the defart waftes of Scotland, culti- vate and improve the foil, as the trees are gradu- ally cleared from it. In this way, Mr. George Dempfter, who will long be refpetted in Bri- tain, at this moment fees fields rapidly‘ convert- ing into cultivated ground on his eftate, and i, 1 SS See— pati Mire? a~ 28. OF PLANTATIONS yielding to him ten or twelve fhillings per acre rent, not only without any expence to him, but after having derived a confiderable profit from the fale of woods of his own planting, which grew upon land that five and twenty years ago was not worth, to him, above two pence per acre, and which might have remained in that ftate perhaps for ages yet to come, had it not been planted at all. It is by a judicious management of this kind that men of landed eftates, by a little forefight, and with much profit, find themfelves enabled to furnifh both employment and fubfiftence to a nu- merous people, who muft otherwife have either remained in a deftitute fituation, or have aban- doned a country which did not properly provide for their accomodation.‘This is the kind of cha- rity IT with to promote. It is an inexhauftible fund, which enriches the giver, and ennobleés and adds energy of body and mind to the receiver, inftead of debafing it, as the receiving of alms in any. fituation neceffarily muft do. One would think, that the profpect of being thus extenfively ufeful to mankind, while the intereft of one’s own family would be fo effentially promoted, would prove an irrefiftible ftimulus to every per- fon to enter upon fimilarenterprifes with fpirit and alacrity. In Scotland, this fpirit is pretty gene- ON WAS TB“LANDS: 289 rally excited; and the benefits that refult from i [rey» are every day becoming more and more apparent. In England, the hands of induftry are, in this re- Spect alfo, tied up.“Bindnions fifcal regulations continu; ll} OT ppofe every attempt at agricultural improvement; and while our Chee ith the in- confiftency of children,, talk of giving premiums with one hand for the encouragement of agri- culture, they with the other reftrain, by an irre- fiftible curb, ail attempts at expofing to the eyes of the public thofe impolitic bars, which have hitherto diminifhed the produétivenefs of this ifland to an aftonifhing degree; and muft gene to diminith it fo long as thefe bars fhall be al ed to remain, were premiums to the amount of the whole revenue of Britain to be given for en- couraging them.‘To defcribe the improvements that méght be made, is, in thefe circumftance: S.A very ungracioi us tafk; for no one takes p in reprefenting things as practicable, which he knows are not ikely to be carried into practice. While a fenfe of duty induces me to fiate, with unbiaffed candour, the eafe with which improve- ments mzght be made, where phufical obftruftion: alone are to be furmounted, I find it neceff2 iy, at the fame time, not to difguife the lefs obvious, though more powerful obftructions, ariing from Vi Oia a1 els. U sae a 290 OF PUEANTATIONS moral caufes, that mut be overcome, before ex- tenfive improvements of the nature I have al- ready mentioned, or thofe Iam now about to re- commend, can ever be carried imto effect. Price at which a plantation of firs can be made in Scotland.—A plantation of fcotch fr can be made at much lefs expence than any other kind of tree in the northern parts of Scotland; becaufe the young plants can be afforded at a{maller price than any others. In Aberdeenfhire, where plant- ing is fo general as to’have become a fort of oc- cupation, fir plants of two years old,(and above that age no experienced planter will ever buy them,) fometimes fell at the very low rate of four-pence per 1000, confifting of 12 hundred; and they feldom exceed eight-pence 5 on an aver- age, fix-pence, or one half-penny per hundred: and there are men who make a bufinefs of making plantations, who will undertake to compleat the whole inclofing and planting, at the diftance of one yard from each other, and uphold them for five years,(that is, fupply any deficiencies that maj be obferved,) at the rate of from ten to thirty fhillings per fcotch acre,[four fcotch are equal to five englifh acres nearly,| according to the fize bd ef the inclofure, and the nature of the fence. In "-: RRR. biases 2 Na FEN ia AN at ON WASTE LANDS 903 all cafes of this kind, it is fuppofed the planta- tions are of 30 or 40 acres,*or upwards: for where the inclofures are{maller, the expence of inclofing is proportionally augmented. The charge is thus not only made moderate, but the total expence a man is to incur can be afcertained : before he begins, which prevents him from being involved in unforefeen difficulties. On bleak expofures, which kinds thrive OG It is found by experience, that there is{carcely any foil fo bad, or any expofure fo bleak, where the fir tree will not live, if the plantation be of fufficient extent, and not upon the very fummit of high peaked hills, They. do‘not, indeed, bear the fea-air very well, where they are. much éx. pofed to the feverity of its blafts; nor is the wood ever of a good quality, or the tree long lived, upon clayey foils. Several perfons in the fouth of England have found that the pine-after bears the fea blaft much better than any others of the fir tribe; which isa difcovery of great importance, and will no doubt be attended to by improvers, The fpruce-fir, however, will bear a ftill more expofed fituation than the fcotch fir; and, after afew years from the time of planting, it fhoots up with ftill greater Iuxuriance. But the cones Va 299: 4° OF“PLANTATIONS not being to be had in equal abundance, and the- plants being more difficult to rear, they are fold at.a much higher price, ufually about fix fhillings per thoufand, fit for planting out. Silver fir, in a good foil, profpers well, and is a beautiful tree, on account of the depth of its fhade; but the price of the plants is too great to admit of large plantations of them being made. Firs ought to be planted out while very youns. __ Wherever the fituation is bleak, and much ex- pofed to{trong blafts of wind, the plantation mutt not only be of confiderable extent, if you expect the trees to thrive, but the trees muft be planted very clofe together,{o that each plant fiands at the diftance of from two to three feet at moft from each other; the more expofed the fituation the clofer they mutt be; for it is obferved, that until the branches intermingle, and thus ferve to give a mutual fupport. to each other, the trees never begin to advance with vigour. Where the plan- rations are thus-thick, there is a neceflity. for be- ginning to thin thefe out at a pretty early period; fo that after the tenth to the fifteenth year from the time of planting, men mutt be conftantly em- ployed in thinning thefe plantations; and there are very few fituations indeed, in which thefe i foams Sea a* pets Sa Na” OA Ba ar ors ce z= et ONT WAST Es LAN D'S.~ 993 thinnings will not fell for fuch a price as to do much more than pay for the expence of cutting them out: but where the plantations are exten- s SED five, thefe thinnings fell at a{mall price; which affords the conveniencies to fettlers in that neigh- bourhood I formerly remarked, and gives em- ployment to a multitude of perfons to drefs and carry them to more diftant markets. The leaves and branches of the fir-tree a whole- Jome food for cattle and sheep.—One advantage attending the culture of the fir-tree, is, that it has been found by fome well-authenticated experi- ments, that the leaves and young branches of the fcotch fir afford a very wholefome nourifhment to cattle and to fheep; fo that they may. be ap- plied, in cafes of neceflity, to the fuftaining of thofe ufeful animals, In hilly countries, that are ftocked with either fheep or cattle, the benefits that may be derived occafionally from them in this northern climate, where fnow fometimes lics for many weeks together, fo as to prevent the beafts from having accefs to other food, will be very great; and therefore no perfon fhould be without a plantation of firs on every farm for this very purpofe, were it to be of no other ufe what- ever. It may happen that, for many years toge- UES —————— rs Li SP sa ng APO Pree itn == Sere nm SrA pts Tien aetna eee #94, OF PLANTATIONS ther, there may be no neceflity of having recourfe to this aid; in which cafe the trees may be per- mitted to grow without moleftation. When this fupply muft be reforted to, it is only neceflary to cut down fome of the branches with leaves upon them every day, and give them to the beafts, frefh and frefh as they are wanted; on which food the creatures may be preferved in perfect health for months together, fhould it be neceflary. The larger branches left by them be- ing piled up in a heap to dry, become excellent firewood; and the trees profper as well as they could do in any other circumftances, and afford an eafy infurance to the farmer againft the heavy loffes he is fo often, without this aid, obliged to experience.’ Ido not know an improvement in agriculture that is greater than this one, or that can be afforded with fo little trouble or expence. Nothing can ftand in the way of its being uni- verfally adopted, unlefs it be the difficulty of re- conciling the intereft of the tenant and the pro- prietor. As the law at prefent ftands, the ex- pence of making the plantation muft fall upon the proprietor, feeing he is the fole owner of the wood; and the tenant ought to have permiflion to lop the branches occafionally, and be bound to preferve the plantation. It feems to be by no ON WASTE LANDS.--295 means impoflible to reconcile thefe interefts; but this would require an exertion on both fides, which, in the prefent ftate of our knowledge, in regard to things of this fort, can{carcely, I am afraid, be expected. HL. Of the larch tree, its value and ufes. Bur the larch is fo much more valuable than the fcotch fir, on all other accounts, that it is now univerfally preferred to jt for plantations of large extent, in almoft every fituation. The quatities of thistree are, indeed, fo numerous and fo excellent, that thefe require only to be known in order to make it be propogated to a greater extent than any other tree whatever, that can be reared in this climate, I dare hardly even ven- ture to mention thefe qualities, on the prefent occafion, left I fhall be accufed of exaggeration; though the proofs that afcertain them are fo firong as to be irrefiftible. As this tree has only been of late introduced into Britain, the qualities of its wood are not here as yet fufficiently under- u 4 : ort Ss SS a Rg 2 ee 296 OF PLAN TATIONS ftood; and it has been hitherto cultivated chiefly rather as an ornamental tree, than with a view to profit: for, wherever it has been introduced, it erows fo freely, on almoft every foil or fituation 5 it is fo healthy, and fo beautiful when in leaf; fo highly ornamental, when covered with its abundant pink bloffoms in the{pring; and is fo elegant in its form, that it becomes inftantly a favourite with every one who has begun to plant it, The value of its wood remarked by Vitruvius. —The larch(Pinus Larix Lin:) is a native of the fouthern parts of Europe, and eaftern parts of Afia, and there the valuable qualities of its tim- ber have been long known. Among the Ro- mans jf was employed, in nes to every other kind of wood in building, for all purpofes where ftrength and durability were required; } and Vitruvius attributes the fyddéen decay of buildings. ereéted in his time, when compared with the fuperior durability of more ancient ftruc- tures, ina great meafure to the want Of larix- wood in the neighbourhood of Rome; that kind of wood having been there exhaufted before his the, expence of bringing it trom. a diftance had become fo high, as greatly to circum- os+ 4| Tences for fields—But one of the moft exten 3~.>~ five and beneficial ufes that would be made ot 5 ea this kind of fmall wood, would be for the pur- } he. c"Tt A, ofes of inclofing.‘Thefe fpars, when the root 5 pats, a cut was thick enough to admit of it, might be flit up the middle by a faw} and cut into lengths of five or fix feet; or, where fmaller, they may 7 ON WASTE LANDS. 3% be employed whole: As they are always ftraight, and nearly of an uniform thicknefs, thefe, if driven into the ground for a few inches in a row, at a few inches diftant from each other, with the fplit fides all in one fide, and the round fides on the other, would make one of the neat- eft and moft compleat fences that can be feen: The tops of thefe wprights bemmg received intoa piece of fawed board, with bored holes in it for that purpofe; and fupported at due diftances within fide or without, by diagonal(floping) rances, reaching from the ground to the top. I have feen fome fences of this fort, made of common{cotch fir, and nothmg can be neater; but unfortunately thefe want durability, which would not be the cafe of thofe made of larch wood. Windows, jotfis, flooring, fphip-building.— Thefe are a few of the ufes to which the{mall {pires, arifing from the firit thinnings of‘thete plantations, might be applied. As they ad- vanced to a larger fize, the application of them to the various domeftic ufes are fo obvious and apparent, that it is quite unneceflary to enume- tate them. Itmay be only proper to mention, that for windows, joifts, flooring, panelling, ea Si pS Se PE i! | ) | | 336 OF PLANTATIONS couples, and every other purpofe in building, thefe, if made of larch, would be much more perfeét than any of the kinds of wood we have been hitherto obliged to employ for thefe pur- pofes; and for fhip-building, efpecially plank, it would be evidently fuperior to the oak itfelf: fo that in a few years, this ifland would be able to fupply within itfelf abundant materials for her own navy and numerous merchantmen; without being in danger of being obliged to depend upon foreign nations for thefe neceflary articles; the profpeét of which, for many years pait, has occafioned fo juft an alarm among the people of Britain. Barrel fiaves—To thefe I fhall only add, that the neceflary articles of barrel ftaves and heading might be furnifhed by ourfelves without the aid of other nations. And this, if ever the fifheries fhall be permitted to be carried on along our coafts, to the extent they neceffarily will be, if ever a Legiflature fhall be found fo enlightened as to perceive the benefits that would refult from taking off thofe fhackles that have con- demned fo many thoufands of her beft fubjetts to wretchednefs and want, for centuries paft, will be found to be a matter of much greater ON WASTE LANDS.© 337 confequence than is at prefent imagined: for the unneceflary expence of barrels, for thefe low priced articles, greatly enhances their price in foreign markets, and retards their fale, in the prefent.fituation of things. Hoops.—Of the larch alfo may be made hoops for barrels of all kinds that will be cheaper and more durable than any other that has ever yet been adopted. When the larch is new cut down it poficfles a degree of flexibility equal to the willow. If it be immediately fawed out into plank of a proper degree of thicknefs, it may be then bent into the form of a hoop of the {malleft fize with the utmoft Hexibility; and, if that plank be run down into flips of the proper breadth, it will make the neateft hoops that can be imagined, being of an uniform ftrength and thicknefs in every part. Thefe hoops, if made up into coils of a proper fize, when frefh cut up, would eafily take the fet fo as to keep it, and would only require to be fteeped for a pro- per time in water when they were to be put upon the barrels, fo as to admit of being brought to the true fize as required. Hoops of this kind would be ufeful for bar- rels of every fort; but they would be peculiarly VOL! okie 7 338 OF PEANTATLONS valuable to the Weft-India merchant, who is often fubje&ted to heavy loffes from the rotting ef the hoops on his ram puncheons on their paf- fage home, by which much leakage is incurred, and fometimes even the whole liquor is fuffered to run to wafte. From the extreme durability of larch wood, there is no room to apprehend that the fimalleft tendency to decay would be perceived on thefe hoops during this paffage. It is fearcely neceflary to add, that the bett larch plank, and that alone which is free from knots, would be proper for making hoops, fo that it will probably be many years before we can ob- tain vane timber proper for hoops in this coun- try, where no attention has hitherto been be- {towed on rearing larch wood free from knots Ujes of larch brufh-wood.—Hitherto I have only fpoken of the ufes that may be madé of the fiems of thefe trees; but there is not a branch, nor the twig of a bit of the brufh, that may not be employed, with great economy, to fome ufeful purpofe. The larger branches might be employed for fencing of various kinds, and the {maller pieces of brufh might be applied to the various ufes I fhall now fpecify. ON“WASTE-L AcN ips. 339 i ee For filling drains.—Wherevet draining is rotting wanted, which is the cafe in almoft every diftriét Mt pat in this kingdom, nothing could facilitate this o- uted, peration fo much as abundance of larch bruth. Hered All other kinds of brufh-wood are fo perifhable, bility that however defireable it may be, in other ré- ehend fpeGs, to employ thefe materials, yet the drains uld be are fo foon choaked' up by the rotting of the alae. bruth, that it has been found neceffary to refort arch to other materials, which cof a much greater n Knots, price, in place of them. Hence drains are now o that tt almoft univerfally filled with ftone or brick; but can ob- thefe articles, even where they can be obtained, 18 COU are fo exipenfive, as to have greatly retarded the en be- practice of under-draining, and, with that, di- nots. minifhed the general produce of the nation to an aftonifhing degree. A's larch bruth is nearly 1 have indeftruétible by: rotting, this inconvenience i of the would be thereby removed. 3 » branch, hat may for fuel.—tn countries, too, where fuel is 9 fone fcarce, nothing could fo well fupply the want ight be of it as the bruth of larch wood 3 and here a pe- and the culiarity occurs, that greatly diftinguifhes this 1 to the tree, in an economical fenfe, from all others. In regard to all other trees, confidered as fuel. it is the wood, and not the{mall branches, rr OP Li: ie $40 OF PLANTATIONS which forms the beft fuel; but it is quite the re- verfe with the larch, the wood of which cannot be applied to this ufe; but in return, the fmall branches of this tree are found to make a fire nearly equally well with the larger billets of other trees. This is a difcovery that was made, as moft_ others have been, by accident, in the fouth of Scotland, a few years ago, that deferves to be generally known. A gentleman, who owns a fmall eftate im Etrick foreft, where coals are at a great diftance, and fuel very fcarce, thought he could not em- ploy a confiderable part of his land to a better ufe than that of planting trees upon it, chiefly with a view. to fell them for fire wood. At the beginning, he planted{carcely any other tree ex- cept the fcotch fir; but obferving, by degrees, the fuperior luxuriance and rapidity of growth of the larix, he gradually began to plant fome of thefe, encreafing the number more and more, from year to year, as he came better to remark their fuperiority over the: others.. When his plantations had advanced fome years, he began to lop the under branches from the trees as they encroached on each other; and carrying thefe branches to a fide, he arranged them into lots of a: convenient-fizer fer Efale,.and then fold ee re———— SE as rE ON LWAs- Pb. 2LA NDS: S41, them on a fixed day, by auétion, to the higheft bidder. As his larches came forward, he treated >) tly in the fame manner; and arranging P them exaé thefe in heaps fimilar to thofe of the fir, they were fold at the fame time with the others. Soon after he began thus to prune the larches, he was not a little furprized to find, that a heap of larch brufh fold readily at double the price at leaft that the fame perfons would give for one of fir of the fame fize. On afking the reafon of this ftriking peculiarity, the purchafers inge- nuoufly told him, that when they put a faggot of fir-brufh upon the fire, it got up into a blaze, and was almoft inftantly confumed, fo as to be of little fervice, and occafion much trouble and inconvenience; but when they put a faggot of larch upon the grate, it took fire more flowly, did not burn fo fiercely, but continued, with a clear fteady heat, nearly as Jong, and with as good effe€t, as billet-wood of fir would do, Thus did experience teach them a leffon of the utmoft con- fequence in rural economy, and clearly eftablifhed the faét, that there is fcarcely a fituation in this land in which the fmalleft twig of this inefti- mable tree may not be applied to fome very ufeful purpofe in life. ~— $42 OF PLANTATIONS I{hall proceed to treat of the manner in which this tree may be reared with economy; after having mentioned one other valuable article that may be drawn from it, without either hurting the tree, or diminifhing it’s value in any re- fpect. Venice turpentine yielded by the larch tree.— In the Venetian territories, where this tree has abounded for many ages, the natives have been I long in the praétice of extracting from it a femi- fluid balfam, which, from the place where it is Oey procured, has obtained the name of Ve- mice turpentine.‘There are two kinds of Venice turpentine: one of them is extracted from the t bark of the filver fir, by a peculiar procefs; this is deemed the fineft fort. The other, which is fomewhat inferior in quality is extra€ted from 7 larch tree. This refin of the larix is not found in the bark, but in the body of the tree itfelf.. It is not to be obtained in confiderable uantitics from very young trees; and when e wood begins to grow more flowly through ARES the mee entine incl dries up, till at laft it affords none at all: It‘is only after the tree has attained i ae of ten or twelve inches lrameter that it is thought worth while to ga- aa ON WAS TE LAN DS& 343 ther the turpentine; and from that time, for forty or fifty years, if it continue fo long in yigorous growth, the tree will continue to yield an annual produce of from feven to eight pounds of turpen- tine from each tree. I do not know the exact price at which this fubftance fells; but believe it is from three-pence to four-pence per pound: fup- pofe it to be no more than two-pence, and that the annual produce 1s fix pounds, that would ube at the rate of one fhilling each tree per annum. The gathering of which, though not expentive, would add to the employment of the people.— The method prattifed is this: A hole is bored by an auger into the tree near the root, flanting a little upward till it reaches near to the heart of the tree: into this is fitted a kind of cock, to conduét the balfam, which oozes out of it in a femi-fluid ftate, into a veffel ful pended at the cock for receiving it. This pro- cefs is continued from the end of May till the end of September; the operator ufually going over the wood once a day, to examine the— ceivers, and empty what is colleCted into a gene- ral receiver to be carried home. When the trees will yield no more for that feafon, the whole bal- fam that has been obtained is preffed through a zZ4 ve, B 2 Ba : naa 344 OF PEANTATLONS cloth to purify it, and is thus brought to market. It continues always in a femi-fluid ftate. An Englifh acre will contain 682 trees, at the diftance of eight feet from each other: at the rate above mentioned, the value of the produce in turpentine would be$41. 2s. per annum, per acre, on the fuppofition that the trees fhould yield as much of that fubftance in Britain, as on the borders of the Adriatic Gulf. Whether it will do fo, remains to be afcertained by expe- rience. I have never heard of a fingle trial that has been made in Britain, with a view to afcer- tain this circumftance, The produce above given, is mentioned upon the authority of M. du Hamel, whofe general charaéter for accuracy ftands high in the republic of letters, Manne de Briancon—In the fouth of France they alfo gather from this tree a fubftance which is celebrated by the authors of Dauphiné, under the name of Briancon Manna. Manne de Brian- gon. It is found in the form of a hoary powder, early in the morning. With the value and ufes of this manna I am a ftranger, having never feen any of it. It is alfo faid, that at Venice, the bark of this tree is employed for the purpofe of tanning; but as the virtues of it in this ref ect oO 3 ON WASTE LANDS 343 are not known in Britain, I put no reliance upon it. . Ve: Directions for rearing plantations of larch trees for profit. Hiruerro the larch tree has been cultivated in Britain chiefly for ornament, and it is only of late that the mode of rearing it with economy, for profit, has begun to be adverted to. It is in this laft point of view, alone, I am at prefent to confider it; fo that ornamental plantations mutt be here put out of the queftion. It has been a very general practice in this country, to mix all kinds of trees together, in making a plantation, unlefs where thefe confift entirely of the fcotch fir. Fir plantations were very univerfally adopted till of late years, efpeci- ally in the northern parts of Scotland, where young plants of fir are réared at a very low price, The larch fhould be planted entirely by it/elf— As larch plants began to become common, a 346 GE; FLA NAT LONS few of thefe were gradually interfperfed among firs or other trees; but it has been found, by ex- perience, that when this is done, in almoft every fituation or circumftances, the larch fo much outgrows the fir, and every other tree, that it foon overtops them; in which fituation, where the plants of larch are thinly fcattered, at a diftance from each other, they are expofed to the violence of the wind, without fufficient fhelter, which bends and twifts their tender top-fhoots, fo as greatly to retard its growth, and to disfigure the tree. Having obferved this to be invariably the cafe, it occurred to me, above a dozen of years ago, that no plant could be found fo proper for afford- ing fhelter to the larch as the larix itfelf, which, if planted thick enough, would foon intermix branches, and thus give and receive mutual fup- port on all occafions. With this view was made the plantation of larches fo often mentioned above, im which the young trees were at firft planted at the diftance of no more than two feet afunder. The confequence has been, that they have rufhed up with a rapidity unknown in any other fitua- tion; and the trees are fo ftraight, fo clean, and fo healthy, in all refpe€ts, as abundantly to prove that this is the proper mode of gulture to be i ( == ie: a} ON(WAS TE LAWN DS 847 4 ong Se ms adopted wherever thistree is intended to be rear- X-;‘:; ee ed with profit. On this, as a fure foundation, ery:| ; the fuperfirutture now to be defcribed may be IC an fafely raifed. on Difference between natural grown woods and ce n plantations,—It has been often remarked, that ce no wood of the fir tribe, which has been reared ch in artificial plantations, has ever equalled in quality that which is ieee ae pontaneoufly from feeds Ue fhaken by the hand of nature. On comparing the natural with planted wood, ale, the difference is found to confit in two particu- £6, lars only, where the foil has been of the fame d- fort. The natural wood is in general clofer in the hy grain, and confequently harder and deeper in IX colour; and it has alfo fewer knots in it. \- ade The reed of wood—What is called the grain, ove, or reed of wood, is formed, for the mot part, by 1 at a feries of circular rings running all round the der. heart of the tree, as is diftin€ily feen in a tranf- hed verfe feétion of the tree; each of thefe rings Ha contains a harder and fofter part, plainly diftin- 4 fo guifhable from each other, for the moft part, by rove their colour alfo, which are formed by a ferics of o be tubes of different kinds, running parallel to each ———— a I tl 548 OF PGA Nie TO NS other from the bottom towards the top of the tree, that are feparated from each other, at a lef- fer or greater diftance, by a fofter parenchyma-— tous matter. Thefe tubes, or fibres, are feen in every longitudinal feGtion of the tree, running in} parallel ftripes, and conflitute what is called the reed of the wood. And as one of thefe rings is added to the circumference of the tree each year of it’s growth, and forms the whole increment of the tree for that year, it follows, that the lefs that increment is, or, in other words, the flower the trees grow, the lefs will be the breadth of thefe rings, and, of courfe, the clofer the grain of the wood, and the harder alfo it will be: for it would feem that the number of tubes produced each year is nearly equal; but that the quantity of foft parenchymatous matter in which they are imbibed, is augmented in proportion to the quick- nefs of the growth of the tree, which makes the reed both wider, and the general texture fofter, than where it grows more flowly. Knots in wood how produced.—Thefe parallel ftripes or reed never are interrupted in coniferous trees, except where a branch fprings out from the body of the tree. In that cafe, wherever a branch intervenes, it forms an interruption to the ON& WAS EE LAN DS$49 direction of the parallel fibres, which, at that place are deflected into the pofition that the branch affumes, and forming a ring round the pith of that branch, the fibres run parallel with the pith of the branch in it’s longitudinal direc- tion. As thefe branches fpring out from the ftem, for the moft part ina direction nearly at right angles with the fiem of the tree, it follows, that when the wood is fawed into plank longitudinally, the faw, when it croffes one of thefe branches, mutt make a tranfverfe fection of it, asin the direction of the line of A. B. Fig. 17. This forms the blemifh in deal, called Anols, the appearance of which is feenin Fig. 2d[/ce the plate at the end of this effay.| In regard to thefe knots, the following particu- lars are obfervable; viz. 1/7, that the fize of thefe varies in deals cut out of the fame plank. If a deal were flit down in the direction of the line A.B. Fig: 1, the knot in that deal would con- fift of no more than four concentric rings; but if ic: had been flit in the direction F. G. it would in that place have confifted of fix rings, and fo it would turn wider and wider, as you receded from the centre of-the tree.'to.,the circumference, or as long as the branch continued to grow. 350 OF PLANTATIONS Fience, as a neceffary corrolary, we muft per- _ ceive that no large knots can ever be found nears 4 the heart of the tree, and that very large knots can only be found towards the circumference: If, by defign or accident, a branch be cut over fmooth with the furface of the tree, the branch from that moment grows nomore: but as the tree advances in growth, by the addition of a new ring each year, it gradually heals over the wound, and from that moment the ligneous fibres run over it parallel to each other, exactly as if no branch had ever been there, as in Fig. 3d; fo that all the wood which is formed beyond that cut will be perfecily free from knots of any kind.| If the amputation has been made clear over at| once, while the branch was ftill growing, the| fibres of the trunk will be joined, in continuity Cc with thofe of the knot, and it thus formsa firm| live knot, if the phrafe be admitted; but if the branch die, and be fuffered to-remain adherent to thetree, that branch receives no farther additions; and although the tree continues to advance in fizé, and furround the branch, yet it has no. far- ther connection with it than contiguity only;‘and it then forms a:dead knot.. The dead wood,’ in this cafe, when the deal is fawed acrofs it on both fides, may be taken out of it as a cork, without rent to iitions; nee 1 10 fat . and od,’ In Da] both W{ th(0) 18{ ON WASTE LANDS. 351 force, and thus leaves a hole, in place of a knot, in the deal, as is plain by infpe€tion of Fig. 4th, where the knot has continued alive till it reached the dotted line, till which time it received an annual increment, and had it’s continuity with the fibres of the wood uninterrupted; but from that period, being dead, it encreafed no more, and thus formed a hole in the deal through which it penetrated. Some corollaries, to be drawn from the phy- fical progrefs of a tree, might be here noticed, which will explain fome very common pheno- mena in the ftructure of fir wood. I fhall only ftate a few. Though every branch, as well as the ftem, re- ceives a ring of mcrement each year, yet as the branches do not encreéafe-in fize fo faft as the {ftem, it follows that thefe rings are clofer than thofe of the ftem.-And as it is found to bea rule, [ believe without exception, that the clofer thefe rings, the harder is the wood, and the rfeder the colour of it. Hence it invariably happens, that the knots are of a clofer grain, reder colour, firmer texture, and more durable quality, than that of the wood itfelf, though ufaally more brit- ile alfo, a pe ROTTS aca anenat "7% 2 ity——:..——— ni——-_ es Sey oe, Cee uae a a= 9" vy} m“ a Fill ise ail is~——= ayo ip Sgn) SH Abia 7 wee= ssi pie:-.‘i Ceo te 2 ee‘s Sc oa a Tze= a ete salle a ss ssesuadthas Lesnar ore=a 7 a—— ee Se . v8: en erpeieyee eo e)=> Sey ade pztn ae - G So Ee ey j_ be ait eee 5 g52:..@F.PLANTAREONS And as thefe qualities are augmented in pro- portion to the flownefs of the growth of the one part, when compared with the other, it mutt happen that the fmaller the knot is, if fituated at the fame diftance from the heart of the tree, the firmer, and reder, and more durable it will be. Thefe, when the circumftances are advert- ed to, are obvious corollaries. The difference between natural and planted wood explained—By keeping thefe particulars fteadily in view, it will not only be eafy to ac- count for the fuperiority of natural wood over that which has been planted; but, at the fame time, we will be led to perceive in what manner artificial plantations of coniferous trees ought to be fo managed as to approach as nearly as pof- fible to perfe€tion. In woods of coniferous trees, the progrefs, when left to nature, is this. The feeds being ftrewed very thick upon the ground, the plants, where the furface is favourable, fpring up very clofe upon each other. Being ftraitened for room, their growth is ftinted, and they hold a hard ftruggle, for fome years, which fhall get the better of the other. By degrees, the weaker plants are overtopped by the ftronger, and die; ON(WASTE LANDS)*# 956 but ftill others ftruggle for life, and maintain the conteft: and fo it goes on without interruption during the greateft part of the period of their exiftence, or at leaft till they have attained a great height,—when the boughs of the moft vi- gorous trees,{preading out above, overtop all thefe*that are near; and thus a fufficient{pace is allowed for thefe to remain unmolefted till they attain their full fize. During this long firugele for life, the progrefs is greatly retarded; fo that their growth is flow, ° and the fibres of the wood of courfe very clofe and hard. The fide branches, too, having no room to{pread abroad, are kept weak and puny, and are foon fuilocated by thofe above them, and die. In confequence of the agitation by winds, and the confiant rubbing of the trees around, thefe dead branches foon are broken of and fall to the ground, before the ftem has advanced far around the dead fiump. It is no fooner rubbed y ‘ off, than the bark begins to clofe over it. The / ftem thus becomes clear of branches and{mooth, , and all the wood that afterwards grows over it, | is fine and free from knots. Hence it is that t deal, towards the heart of the tree, is always . much fuller of knots than nearer the circumfe- ‘ rence, though thefe internal knots, for the rea- - 3} NEO i La Aa $54 Oke PLANTATIONS fons above given, will always be of a fmaller fize than thofe that reach near to the outfide of the‘tree.: In artificial plantations we follow an oppofite courfe. Anxious to admire the progrefs of our trees, no meafures are adopted for retarding their progrefs, at an early period, but rather the re- verfe: and were we even inclined to follow the 4 srogrefs of nature, the very expence of procuring and putting into the ground the plants, amount- ing to many millions on an acre, would prove a decifive bar to fuch enterprizes. The young trees are of courfe planted at a great diftance from each other, and are encouraged to grow as quickly as poflible, and thus to make the wood coarfe in the grain, and foft. The branches, too, having room to fpread wide on every fide, advance with great luxuriance, and continue to grow till they attain a large fize, and of courfe render the deal full of large and unfightly knots throughout it’s whole extent. Where utility and profit are aimed at, our attention fhould be di- re¢ted to remedy thefe evils as much as the cir- cumftances will admit. To effeét this, no method appears to me fo eafy to be reduced to practice as the following. Cre ON Wo S30 bob A Des day aller ow to make planted wood refemble natural le of grown trees:—Though we cannot afford to make our plantations as thick as nature does, we ought ofite fo approach as near it as prudence will admit; our and, I am{atisfied, that by planting Jarches at heir! two feet diftance, the benefits to be derived from Yee the prattice will do more than repay all expences the attending it. Perhaps Mj might be ftill better, if ining the plants were placed at no more than 18 inches ownt: apart; but not being certazn of this fast, I fhall. ‘Ove_ for the prefent, fuppofe, that two feet is admitted young to be the moft eligible diftance(p). tance| OW as Plantations fhould be made very thick.—At two aod feet apart, an Englith ftatute acre will contain ches, 10,890 plants.(A Scotch acre 12,960 plants, fide, which is about‘10,000, at the rate of 12{core ete per hundred.) For the conveniency of thinning, ae and the other operations to be after mentioned, y knot thefe ought all to be planted in rows; where the lity and nature of the ground will admit of it: To do : ais this, a{mall line, meafuring fixty yards in length, i ae ought to have knots tied upon it, at every length of two feet, and a feather, a coloured rag, or fo ealy other diftinguifhable objeét, ftuck into each knot. This will mark the place where the trees fhould i be put down. And if two men sete ie. Aa: 2 $56 OF PLANTATIONS after firetching the line, at a proper meafured diftance from the lait, each of the men begins at the end of the line, and putting down a planta er each mark, work till they meet near the middle, when they fhould turn back, fhift the line, and begin anew; and fo on they may advance tll the whole field be planted. The trecs frould be planted out while very young.—lt is unneceflary to enter into minute details on this head. I would only beg leave to obferve, that many advantages refult from plant- ing very fmall and young plants, in preference to thofe that are of a larger fize. Hee this requires to be particularly adverted to, where they are to be planted fo clofe as is here recommended. If the ground has been in tillage, it will be a great advantage to have it neatly plowed over, and harrowed before winter. At any rate, it ought to be laid dry, fo as that no ftagnant water re-; _mains on the furface, at any time of the year, if poffible. With this view, the water-furrows, if it be plowed, and the foil retentive, fhould be neatly cleared out after harrowing. No weed is {o deftruétive to young plantations as grafs: for where that abounds, if the trees be planted, while of a fmall fize, they will be infallibly over- uted ON WASTE LANDS? 357 ee 18 at topped by it and choaked; and if they be plant-;: at at ed large, they feldom fueceed well; many of| dle, them die; and it is long before the furvivors if and take a full growth: fo that, confidering all thefe the‘circumitances, and the expence of putting in} | fuch large plants; where the tward is tough, it - 4 eS will be more advifeable, in every fuch cafe, to ery: caufe the furface to be pared by the fpade before ave planting; and thefe parings be either carried i es wholly off the field where the thin furface paring hat. is wanted; or where that is not the cafe, by turn- # to ing it over flat upon it’s back with the grafiy ae fide undermoft; and, in this cate, 1f a little more a than half the furface be turned over, it will cover if the part upon which it is laid, fo as to prevent the grafs from growing up for fome years; but ey unlefs it wholly overlays the fward, the grafs will ae advance with great luxuriancy round the edges, naga fo as to render the paring of much lefs benefit ) a than it would have been. Where the furface is oy i fmooth, and not too fteep, or incommoded by my fiones, a plough might eafily be contrived to per- id be form this neceffary operation. eed 1S i tor Plantations mufi be compleatly inclofed and anted, planted in fquares—We thall fuppote the whole yy over field to be thus prepared and compleatly inclofed, Aa 358 OF: PLANTATIONS (for unlefs this is to be done in the moft perfeé manner, fo.as to guard agajnft all intrufions, it is wrong to attempt ever to plant trees,) the plants will ftand in regular{quares, two feet apart, as in | Fig. 5¢h.| | In this ftate they may remain fix, eight, ten, 2 F ar twelve years, according to the richnefs of the q 2 foil, or the purpofes for which the thinnings are qa wanted, when they fhould be thinned for’ the Jrfi time. The branches will in general inter- mingle with each other in the fecond or third year after planting; after which period they { will give and receive mutual fupport, and ad- vance for a time with vigour, Firft thinning, how to be made.—The firft thin- ning ought not to be too long delayed, left the tops, by growing too clofe, fhould be fo much |{mothered as to occafion a hurtful gap when the \. thinnings are taken away. 3| | At the firft thinning, one row fhould be taken clean out, fo as to leave the plants there four feet apart; and allowing three rows to remain entire, take out the fourth, as in Fig. 6th; and fo on over the whole field. By this procedure, though the row on each fide the open will lofe it’s fupport on one fide, it’s branches, being ftill GON“WASTE LANDS. 369 intermixed with thofe on the three other fides, will give it fufficient fupport. It is neceflary to cut out arow compleatly, to adinit of trailing out the long fpires together with their tops, which could not otherwife be done. The fecond thinning.—In confequence of this. open, the branches above will be permitted to grow more freely over the open; and in this ftate they fhould be fuffered to remain till they there intermingle once more, when they fhould receive the fecond thinning, by taking out the middle row that was left at the former thinning, when the plants will ftand as in Fig. 7¢h, in rows four feet apart, and two feet from each other in the rows. By this means, each tree is fupported by thofe on each fide of it zn the row, whofe branches are clofely intermingled, as well as by thofe on one fide, where firft opened; fo that full they are open only upon one fide, while they re- ceive fupport on three others. The third thinning—When the branches are clofed in the laft made open, the third thinning may be given by then cutting out every fourth row crofwife, exa€tly as was done in the oppo- Aad Pa | ; " Ch ee ea FAG BE ete ec ogee ‘Geeta ai tt PES i — 360 Os b A NAC DLON S§ fite direction in the firft thinning, when the plants will ftand as in Fig. 8th. The fourth thinning.—After a proper interval of time, the fourth thinning may be given, by tak- ing out the crofs row that was left between the two contiguous to it. And now the whole trees in the plantation are once more reduced to {quares, ftanding at 4 feet apart, as at Fig. 9¢h. There will now remain at the rate of 2722 trees per acre: fo that 8168 plants have been taken out during thefe fucceffive thinnings. Benefits to be derived from thefe thinning s.— This is the djftance at which moft people would have chofen to plant their trees at the beginning; but, m confequence of the management recom- mended, many benefits will acrue, independent of the profit to be derived from the fale of the thin- nings, which, in moft fituations, wi A be an objet worth the attending to. In the fr place, the plants, by fooner clofing upon each other, are for a fhorter time after planting diftreffed by the wind, and therefore ad- vance more kindly, and rife cleaner and ftraighter in the ftem. 3 ON(WAS TE: AN DS. 36] Secondly, The under branches, by being quick- ly fuffocated, fooner die and are rubbed off, and never attain to a fize to make large knots, as they muft infallibly do, if planted at firft fo far apart. The ftems are thus rendered to approach in fome meafure to the ftraight cleannefs of natural woods. And if attention were beftowed to prune off the under branches, as they gradually begin to de- cay, efpecially of the few trees that are intended ultimately to remain for timber, the wood would be rendered even cleaner than the greateft part of that which 1s got from natural woods: and, Lafly, by mutually checking the rank growth of each other, the wood will be rendered clofer and finer in the grain than it otherwife could have been; and this not only without any lofs, but with great profit to the owner; as, inftead of large dangling branches, which are of little ufe in any fituation, he would obtain upright fpires from the weedings, which, in every fituation, may be converted to fome ufeful purpofe. And, in many cafes, might be a fource of great emolu- ment. Farther thinnings, how to be conducted.—After a proper interval, the trees might be thinned, after the fame manner as has been defcribed, till 862 OF PLANTATIONS they were gradually reduced once more to ftand in{quares, at eight feet apart, which is perhaps the greateft diftance that ever fhould be allowed to trees of this kind: for, by being thus circum- ftanced, their{mall tops would mix and fupport each other: they would have fufficient room to grow without ftarving; and by ftinting each other in refpeét to nourifhment, though each individual tree would advance more flowly than it would do if allowed more room; yet there can be no doubt that a greater quantity of wood, upon the whale, might be obtained from the fame extent of ground in an equal length of time, than if it had been thinner; and there is reafon to believe the wood would be much finer in quality. Yet here, as in regard to the proper degree of thinning, I have had no experience of the fa€t: I reafon only upon probability, and therefore am far from fpeaking decifively. Should expe- rience fhow that a greater degree of thinning may be given to thefe plantations with fafety, doubt- lefs the eTetts of it, in an economical point of° view, fhould be tried; and that pra€tice ultimate- dy adhered to, which fhall promife, on the whole, to be moft beneficial. If thinning Is to be at all adopted at this advanced age, it will require to be done with ftill more precattions, in order to ON’ WASTE LANDS.—‘364 infure mutual fupport, than when the plants are ofa more humble growth; becaufe the wind will have much more hold upon their tops, and will at with a more powerful lever. When planta- tions of firs-have been fuffered to ftand clofea long while, and then fuddenly thinned, without, due attention to thefe circumftances, they are feen often to die, before they have attained an age at which their wood can. be applied to any very ufeful purpofe. In this point of view, thefe cautions and the gradual thinning, recommended above, to commence at a very early period, and never to be long interrupted, will be found to be highly beneficial, and ought not to be overlooked. At eight feet apart, an acre will contain 680 trees: fo that the trees cut out during the fecond procefs of thinning, have amounted to the num- ber of 2042, {f the thinning be begun from the fixth to the tenth year from the time of planting, as circum- ftances fhall indicate, the whole may be com- pleated thus far by the thirtieth or fortieth year of their growth, during which time there will have been fold 10,210 fpars from 15 to 50 feet in height, and proportional thicknefs, from each acre. If it be thought advifeable to continue the thinning farther, after this period, no whole 364 COE PAN Perron s rows ought ever to be cut out any where, but onty a fingle tree here and there, fo as not to de- prive thofe around it of fupport too much at ence. In this way, perhaps, the thinning might admit of being fafely continued for an indefinite number of years, where the fituation is not very much expofed. Tlints refpecting the profit to be derived from thefe plantations.—1 might now make a calcula- tion with a view to thew what might be the amount of the profits to be derived from this practice; but I have a great averfion. to calcula- tions of this kind: for as all the data muft be mere hypothetical aflumptions, it is the eafieft matter imaginable for the calculator, in afluming a little more or lefs of thefe data, to brmg out the refult precifely to his own with, without any ftriking obvious fallacy'on his part. It is no part of my with to miflead the reader, but merely to inform him to the beft of my power. From the facts already ftated in different parts of this difquift- tion, every reader may, if he pleafes, make out from thefe a calculation adapted to his own fitua- tion; for every perfon muft be aware that more than four times as much money may be drawn for the fame quantity of materials of this fort, in ON WASTE LANDS.— 365 one part of the country, than in another. Doubt- lefs, if I had net thought that, after making a fuf- ficient allowance for evéry unobferyed contin- gency, the profpect of advantage to be derived trom this practice, where adopted, was fufficient- ly inviting to encourage proprietors boldly to ven- ture upon it, on a pretty extenfive fcale, in moft fituations, I fhould, not have taken the trouble to enter fo fully into the inveftigation on this occa- fion. Nor fhall I add more on this head, except briefly to obferve, that if we fhall fuppofe that the fale of 10,210{pars, on an average fuppofe of 30 feet in length, from one acre, would be fuffi- cient to defray all the expences incurred on mak- i ing the plantation and upholding it, which will not,| fuppofe, be deemed an unreafonable fuppo-: fition in almoft any fituation:—and that each tree, 4 at 50 years growth, inftead of containing 360 feet of wood, as thofe at’ Dunkeld are known to do, —thefe trees fhould, at the fame age, meafure no more than 70 feet each, which is lefs than| one fifth part of the others: in that cafe the 680 trees on an acre would at fifty years of age, con- tain 47,600 cubic feet of timber, which, at one fhilling per foot, would amount to 23801., from which, if you deduct the rent, which we{hall for the prefent cafe fuppofe to be 5 fhillings per S66.. 1.0 E“Po ANep Ages O.N:S acre, which, for 50 years is 10]. and intereft fo? payment withheld, fay 15]. more, in all 251., there will remain 2355]. free profit; without taking into the account any thing at all for the article balfam, or any other contingency. The conclu- fion we are forced to draw from thefe fatts, which do not feem liable to any valid objeétion, are fufficiently inviting, were more than three fourths of the fum to be deducted for unforefeen contin- gencies, as to be a fufficient inducement, one would think, for any reafonable perfon, whofe fituation admits of it, without throwing himfelf into embarrafiing circumftances, to proceed with- out hefitation in this improvement. I furely can have no motive for inducing any perfon to at- tempt it, except the convittion that, fhould fuch plantations become general, the comforts of the lower tanks of people in this ifland would be much augmented; the general induftry of the Casi, people greatly excited; and the wealth of. indi- viduals, as well as the general profperity, receive by that means avery great addition. It 1s now about twenty-two years fince I firft endeavoured to turn the attention of my countrymen in Scot- land towards this ufeful tree, by fome obfervations in a popular work that had then a very general circulation through Scotland.[Afterwards pub- OWN WEASEL se A=N DS). 967 lithed by itfelf, in a volume, called, Letters on planting timber trees, by dgricola.] It then at- tra€ted notice, and has, I doubt not, had its ef. fet, along with other caufes, greatly to extend its culture. At that time I think it would have been then a high eftimate, to fuppofe that 50 thoufand larch trees were annually reared in Scotland. At the prefent moment, the demand: for that tree is fo much encreafed, that from the neareft eftimate I can make, one nurferyman in Edinburgh alone has raifed this feafon above five millions of larch trees; and I do not fuppofe that, taking all Scotland together, there are not fewer than twenty extenfive public, befides a grea many private nurferies, all of which are chiefly ftocked with larches.[The Duke of Athole alone has been in the praétice, for many pears paft, of rearing himfelf, and planting out from his own nurferies,' at the rate of one hundred thoufand larches per annum, on an average of years.[ myfelf have planted out above 200 thoufand Jarches on an average of the laft three years, in’ Aberdeenfhire.] This affords a happy profpect of the benefits that the northern parts of this ifland willin time derive from this article. Jam forry to obferve how comparatively few the plane: Tr }}= by 1] y A Bile 1“ tations of larches are in England; and h alio re- kes: ChE BL AN PAE LONS gret to think that, among the numerous planta- tions hitherto made in Scotland, there is fo little profpect of obtaining much fine clean wood. Thick unmixed plantations of larches are but juft beginning to come into ufe. Ato ‘ae Sufficient fences necepiary to protect planta- tions—The neceflity of protecting trees of all . kinds from the intrufion of beafts, efpecially i when young, is more generally admitted in theory than practice. I confider it, myfelf, as a fine qua non for rearing healthy trees of any kind; but in regard to the larch, it becomes fo indifpentibly neceflary, that I fhould certainly diffuade any per- i | fon from planting trees of this fort, unlefs he were I{ determined, at all events, to have the ground fo| x compleatly fenced at all times, as effectually to|| : prevent any intrufion of domeftic animals; for l ; without this preliminary, he will reap neither pleafure nor profit from the enterprife.‘The larch, though it will fometimes recover its top, when the tender twigs of it are cut over, and ad- mits of being cut in the fide by feiffars better 4 than any other coniferous: tree known in this country, yet is extremely impatient of wounds in} its bark; fo that a touch there, which would fcarcely be felt on any other tree, will make a OW WAA STE 2b Yan Ds‘s6a* Jarix perifh entirely. For this reafon it requires not only to be thoroughly fenced while young, but carefully prote€ted even after it has attained a confiderable magnitude. For this, among other reafons, I fhould prefer leaving the woods thick, even at an advanced age, to thinning them con- fiderably: for thus grafs will be prevented from growing below, and no temptation be given for putting cattle or other animals among the trees, which might injure their bark. Large inelofures recommended.—In order to diminifh the expence of plantations, the inclo: fures fhould be made as large as the circum: {tances of the cafe will admit: for the larger thefe are, the fmaller, proportionally, is the expence of the plantation. This is a propofition fo plain as to ftand in need of no illuftration. Stone walls.—The nature of the fence mut in many cafes be determined by circumftances: where ftones can be got very good, and at a fmall expence, walls may be made a very good de- fence againft cattle for a time; but light bodied Sheep will readily overleap them. Where larch {pars are already to be had in the neighbourhood, a low rail of a foot, or 15 inches in height, form- VOL. 111, Bb — ) | | O= IEE eee g70. OF PLANTATIONS ed of the top twigs ftuck into the coping, flant- ing outwards, will prove a perfeét defence for many years. Where this is wanting, the wall can never be relied upon. Ditch and bank fence.—In level fituations, where the ground can be eafily dug, a ditch and bank may be reared, as in Fig. 10, ata{mall expence. B, C, is raifed of fod four feet high, C, E, D, is a ditch four feet wide at top, three feet deep, and about nine inches wide at bottom. The earth taken from the ditch forms the bank C, B, A, the fod wall facing outward: A being the inner area for the plantation. This mound will not, in it’s prefent{tate, be an adequate fence againft fheep; nor even for any length of time againft cattle; but by adopting the following precau- tions, it will become in two years’ time a perfect defence againft both. Furze, it’s ufe in fencing.—If there be fward upon the furface of the ground D, take off.a fod from it, one foot at leaft in breadth, which may be employed in raifing the bank B; and in it’s place lay fome of the loofe earth that comes out of the ditch; lay alfo fome of that loofe earth upon the leget C, which ought to be left drom sand earth B, A, inner not, int int call- vied fward ‘2 fod. 2 may in it's es out earth f_ from ON WASTE LANDS& 9 343 6 to 9 inches broad for that purpofe, fo as to cos ver the fward there. When the bank is finifhed, draw a{mall drill with a hoe all along at D, fix inches back fromthe edge of the ditch, among the loofe earth, and another drill at C, clofe by the bottom of the bank;{fprinkle feeds of the common whin or furze,(UVler Eurpeus,) pretty thick in both thefe drills, and afterwards cover them carefully over with earth. Thefe feeds, if good, will come up readily the following{pring; but as it is of much confequence that no blanks thould be in either of thefe drills, they ought to be carefully examined along their whole length, as foon as the plants appear, and the wants fup- plied immediately with freth feeds, fo as to pre- vent gaps: another row of furze feeds fhould be {own upon the top of the bank B, and the work is compleated. The whins at C, D, and B, will puth out with vigour, fo as in moft cafes to attain the height of one foot each before autumn. In the year fol- lowing, they will advance fafter, and will effec-. tually prevent fheep from jumping over; for they dare not come near the eflge of the ditch to take their leap, and the byfhes on the top at B pre- fent a formidable fcar in their face. And as to cattle, which, if allowed to go in the ditch, would Mb: 2 $72 OF PLANTATIONS, gradually pull down the bank with their horns, if they fhould at any time get into the ditch, the two rows of furze nearly meeting upon their fides would incommode and frighten them fo much, as to induce them to get out of it as foon as poffi- ble, which they could only do by coming to the low fide D. If they once got into that fituation, they would feel it fo difagreeable, as to guard carefully againft coming there again. The lariz it{clf, it’s ufes in fencing—To pre- ferve the furze from getting open at the bottom, one of the rows ought always to be cut over clofe by the roots each year; 1, the row C, leav- ing D,and B; 2d, the row D, leaving C, and B; and 3d, B, leaving C, and D; and fo omalter- nately. In this way the fence may be kept up for the fpace of ten or twelve years. After that period, the mound willin general crumble down of itfelf, and cannot be relied on as a fufficient fence. To prepare for this evil, which may be expeCted, the row of trees next the bank fhould be carefully preferved all around, and if planted originally at no more than one foot afun- der, leaving an interval of three or four feet with- in, the trees will rife up by way of hedge, as at F, fig. 11th, which, if made of larch, may be cut i NS res ON WASTE EANDES 375 . in the fides, if thought proper, by theers, fo 2s to 1 thicken it quite down tothe bottom. This kind a of hedge may be foon made an effe€iual defence oe againft animals of any fort, by the following con- “a trivance. At the time the larches are planted, ine plant a fweetbriar between each tree. This plant oD grows freely. To make it ftill more luxuriant, mu Jet it be cut over by hedge fheers cly/é by the ground, the firft or fecond autunnn after planting, the twigs to be drawn out and laid toa fide. It aad will fend out very luxuriant fhoots next feafon, tom, which, intermingling with the larches, now meet- os ing each other, will pufh through the interval, lea¥- and by it’s prickles render them difficult to be 'B; approached. The intermingled twigs of the Iter- Jarch and eglantine may be next winter prune t UP in the fides by the hedge fheers, which will make t that them grow clofer. Let the eglantine be cut over down clofe by the ground once more, but allow the ficient shoots to retain their place; other thoots will ay be{pring up from their ftems with vigour next ee“ bank fon, and intermingle with the live larch and dead and if branches of the eglantine. The hedge may be afun- dreffed in the fame manner next winter. The with dead prickly ftems will thus be encreafed, and sat f, Clofe all crannies. Through thefe will fpring up be cut freth fhoots of eglantine, and interlace the whole Bb 3 a RAT Sonne. CR Hast mine -- > OF FPRANA ACTIONS together. By continuing this mode of dreffing, and renewing it from time to time, as occafion May require, it will become an impenetrable fence againft any animal: fo that when the bank fails, crofs rails, if neceffary, being fixed to thefe living fupports, will form a perfect fence, that tay be kept up with little expence as long as it can be wanted. This fence may be compleated at the price of two-pence per yard, in moft fituations. In fome places, it may be lefs; in others, perhaps, a little more; but, in every cafe, where the nature of the ground admits of it, it is a very cheap fence for this purpofe, and will prove effeétual. The bramble, ii’s vifes in fencing—A fence of fill greater value, and which is equally applica- ble with the above in foft foils, and to thofe that are harder in rocky and hilly countries may be thus conftructed Let a bank be raifed on the inner fide of a ditch, where it can be dug fimilar to the former, and faced with ftones, where thefe can be eafily had, of a good binding quality; or, where Hic ftones are fmall, or roundéd, or fewer in number than wanted, they may be laid in alternate rows with fods. This is a mode of-fer cing prattifed fling, ation able ank lefe that aS It ce of forme little f the é for e Of lica- that ay be of a mer, salily . the mbet rows sCrifed ~y GON WASTE LANDS 375 much about Caermarthen in Wales, and is found to form a compaét and durable facing. Or where no{tones can be had, the facing may be entirely of fod. The backing to be made of earth, dug either from the ditch, if on a level, or fcraped from without in the beft way it can be got, if upon a flope, or taken from behind where it can be ecafieft had; fo as to raife the wall with it’s ditch from four to five feet high. Upon the top of this bank, and about one foot backwards from it’s edge, plant a row of bramble plants, at about fix inches apart all around. Thefe may fome- times be picked up from the common; but, in this cafe, be fure to take none but young plants newly grown and well rooted: all others hould be rejeted: for it is of the utmoft confequence that the hedge fhould come away equally in all it’s parts, fo as not to leave a fingle gap in any place. To infure this in the moft effectual man- ner, I fhould prefer in general plants reared from feeds, to all others. And where many fences of this kind are to be made, feedlings will be not only the beft, but the cheapeft plants. For ob- taining thefe, the berries may be colleéted when ripe; the juice f{queezed out; the mark, contain- ing the feeds, dried and kept till the fpring; if then fown they will come up readily, as I fhould Bb 4 we. GE PLANTA TEONS fuppofe,.and will be of a proper fize for planting out the winter after. Great care fhould be taken to examine the plants the firft feafon after plant- ing, and to fupply every want that may be per- ceived; for if this be not done, the hedge will never afterwards be equal and uniform through- out it’s whole extent. JI am induced to take no- tice of this circumftance fo pointedly, from ob- ferving that culpable careleffnefs, in regard to this effential circumftance, is obfervable almoft univerfally, which is the chief caufe of that rag- gednefs in hedges that every where prevails. It is perhaps fearcely neceffary to obferve, that m places where the ground without rifes higher than that within the fence, it will be neceflary to rear the bank to a greater height than elfewhere; and there alfo it will be proper to plant a dead. fence of black thorns, or other bruth wood, upon the top of the fence: if that be done at the time the brambles are planted, thefe live plants may be intermixed with the dead fence without detriment to them, but rather the reverfe: if the ground rife confiderably, and if fheep abound in that neighbourhood, it will be proper alfo in thefe places to dig, or otherwife bare from grafs the furface of the ground, for three or four feet on the outfide of the ditch, and fow whin feeds upon = a a eee eS> RAFF“ oA Se ae— ee Sa ee eee ee-—— sescananininc acre acme ON WASTE AAAN DSC“94 if, which will quickly grow up, and effeftually prevent the fheep from getting there free foot- ing to leap over the fence from the higher ground. If the hedge has been planted with due care, it will come away with great luxuriance, and fend forth annually a great profufion of luxuriant fhoots, which rifing upwards, and fpreading out on both fides, forms a clofe matted coping of {fpiny plants all over, that will effectually prevent the intrufion either of men or other animals. To prevent the plants from eftablifhing themfelves at the bottom of the bank, it will be neceffary to fend a perfon each year, in the month of Auguft, round the fence, with a fharp light hedge-bill, merely to{cutch off the tops of all fuch dangling fhoots as difcover a tendency to reach near to the bottom of the bank; for if they be allowed to touch the ground with their points, thefe points, wherever they touch, will dire¢tly ftrike root, and thus eftablifh a new plant at the bottom, or in the bank itfelf, if of fod; from which others will {pread around, to the. great detriment of fheep, if they be allowed to come there, and to the hurt of the paftures, by whatever animals they are to be confumed; by this very trifling attention, this evil will be effectually obviated,[If any plants $78 OF PLANTATIONS are obferved to have ftruck roots in the fod wall, they fhould be pulled out, as obferved.| and the fences kept as neat as could be defired, at an expence next to nothing: fora man could do all that is required, nearly as foon as he could barely walk round the inclofure. The bramble refembles. the rafp-berry in the mode of 1t’s growth, which differs from that of all other plants l know. Every year it fends out a great number of fhoots from the bottom, which puth out to the whole length they ever attain dur- ing the firft year. The fhoots of this feafon con- fift of fingle unbranching ftems, unlefs where they have been accidentally cut over, when they be- come forked. The next feafon, thefe{tems fet out a great many fruit-bearing branches, along their whole length, which flower and perfeét their feeds, while a new fet of{tems are pufhing from the bottom to become feed-bearers next fea- fon. After perfe€ting their feeds, the whole ftem that bore them, with allit’s branches, dies. This is the natural and unvarying progreflion obferved in the growth of this plant: fo that a hedge of the kind J] propofe, will contain at all times three diftin€t kinds of fhoots, intermixed with and croffing each other in all direftions: viz. jfirf, the dead fhoots; /econd, thofe that carry fruit; ne ON. WASTE LAWN 10'S) 379 wal and, third, thofe that are pufhing forward in their and Jongitudinal growth; and as all of thefe are-co- at a vered with ftrong fpines, they form, upon the ) all whole, an impenetrable matting, when confined ely within proper bounds. I have never yet feen any care beftowed to ie effect this laft named purpofe, and from this cir- of all cumftance alone, the great utility of the bramble out a as a fence- ete) has never been properly advert- Which ed to. When negleéted, it rambles to fuch a de- in dur) gree,..as to become avery unfightly plant, and a n Con mere cumberer of the ground. To the qualities e they“it pofleffes in‘common with the rafp-berry, muft oy be- be added that fingular peculiarity the bramble s fet‘alone poffeffes, of a faculty to firike roots at the along point of the fhoots of one year’s growth; and erfect this tendency is fo ftrong, that wherever thefe| uihing points are allowed to lie upon the ground, they( ext{ea- will infallibly take root in a very fhort time, after a le ftem which time each of thefe becomes a new plant,| This totally unconnected with the former, unlefs by| wferred intermingling of branches; and thus they ramble sof the wide, if negleéted, and may quickly over-run a . three vaft extent of furface. But what is not a little H hy a remarkable in this cafe, is, that no other part of 7 the ftem, except the point of the fhoot alone,| : si will ftrike root, even if it were laid into the| $80 OF-P:LAN TATIONS ground: nor will any one of the fruit-bearing branches ever take root in any circumftances. Hence, then, the only thing required of the hufbandman, in this cafe, is to take care that none of the dangling young fhoots fhall ever be allowed to refi upon the ground, on the outfide of his fence; and he has nothing to fear. The light dreffing I have recommended, which, if never omitted for one year, will be the eafiett thing imaginable;(becaufe nothing but the ten- der fhoots of tha ca require to be cut}; which may be ox by the flighteft touch:) but fhould it be omitted is one feafon, not eal there be great vif that n = y young plants would by that time have Spek Wihed, wage es, but alfo the° old fhoots of the former year bei ing become tough and hardened, would be with great difficulty cut through; fo as to prove a very troublefome opera- tion. Never could the old adage, that“ a ftitch ““ in time faves nine,” be better applied than i the prefent cafe. A good fence of this kind may be reared, in moft fituations, for a price not exceeding from two pence to three pence per yard: fora facing is only required upon one fide. Sweet-briar may be fubftituted in place of the bramble in a fence of this kind, if thought proper, that t be ithde The nah eafiett of the propel) ON WASTE LANDS. 381 as it will grow very freeiy in this fituation; but this is by no means fo elegible as.the bramble: for unlefs the fweet-briar be often cut over by the roots, itis apt to get naked below, ragged, and unfightly, if without fupport from other plants; and if other plants be placed there, they grow poorly, from want ot abundant nourifhment. In expofed fituations, too, the wind gets hold of the tops of thefe fhrubs, and by aéting on thefe as a lever, 1s apt to pull down the whole bank, unlefs where it is made very ftrong. The bramble is lia- ble to none of thefe obje€tions; and it feems to be the very plant fitted by nature for forming that clofe netted prickly coping, which was wanted alike to prevent animals from tearing down this comparatively tender bank, and to preferve it from the levelling power of the air, and other ex- ternal injuries. Itis the bufinefs of inan to avail himfelf of the bleflings that nature has bounti- fully put within his reach. Other kinds of fences might be named, equally cheap and efficacious, for low and fertile fields, as thofe are for upland barren foils; but thefe re- quire not here to be fpecified. Conclufion J will not enlarge upon the ad- vantages that might be derived by private indivi- ——_—_ I$$ SO 2 A————— sis a een 382 OF PLANTATIONS duals, or the benefits that would refult to the community at large, were a large proportion of the wafte!ands of the kingdom thus appropriated; as thefe are very obvious. Whether this fhall take place, or not, I fhall at leaft have the fatis- faction, for my part, to refleét that I have not been wanting in my duty in this refpect. The cedar of Bermuda is well known to be the moft valuable wood for building light and dura- ble veflels, that have been yet built in any Euro- pean fettlenient out of India. It grows quickly in Bermuda, and, by fome experiments that were made by the late Duncan Stewart Efq. of Ard- fheil, who lived fometime in thefe iflands, the feeds were found to grow, and the tree to thrive in this country. What are the peculiarities of foil and expofure that will beft fuit that tree, have not yet been afcertained; far lefs is it known if it will grow properly in wafte and barren grounds. This ought to be fairly tried. With that view, it is my intention to order a confiderable quantity of the feeds homie; andI fhall not fail to communi- cate tothe public the refult of thefe trials, fhould lite be{pared till that fhall be known. THE END OF ESSAY SECOND. = wi e the ESSAY LHIR D. dura- Euro: a uickly f t were re if N Gs Ard. ON , the; belie THE ECONOMICAL CONSUMPTION 25 of, OF THE have a PRODUCE OF A FARM. \ it See a eee yunds, ew, It tity of mult- hould Multum adbuc reftat operis, multumque reftabit, nec ulli nato poft mille fecula precludetur occafio aliquid adjiciendi. Linnevs. - REI whe MPN ss— ESSAY THIRD. HIntTs on THE Economica ConsuMmPTiox OF THE PRopUCcE oF A Farm, No better proof can be adduced of the little Progrefs that has been as yet made in the prac- aa of tice of agriculture in Britain, than that even the title of this chapter, nor any thing of a fimilar NEUS: tendency, has never found a place in any treatife that has yet been publifhed on the fubject of rural economics: though it will be found to bea fubje&t of very primary importance. It may be admitted as a maxim, that agricul- ture can never be faid to have been carried to it’s ultimate degree of perfection, fo Jong as there is to be found one inch of ground that could be made to yield a fingle grain of greater or more valuable produce: fo long as a fingle ounce of vegetable matter is allowed to go to wafte, or that has not been applied towards the fuftenance of fome ufeful animal, in the Way in which it could produce it’s moft beneficial effe@-: and while a fingle particle of dung or other ma- VOLE. TT](EES fe 886 ON, RURAL nure is fuffered to be mifapplied, or fo employed as not’ to afford the greateft poffible refource it is capable of yielding, for the reproduétion of additional crops of the moft valuable kinds. a. That the higheft degree of poflible perfeétion | fhould, in every cafe, be attained, is not to be expected in this imperfeét ftate: but the nearer we approximate to it the better; and the more fteadily we keep thefe objeéts in view,| and the more ftrenuous our exertions are to at- tain them, we fhall doubtlefs approach the nearer to thefe defirable attainments. So far are thefe objeéts, however, frem being fteadily held in view, in the prefent age, that one who attends to general pra€tice in Britain, would be induced to believe they were fearcely ever adverted to, unlefs by a very few perfons, PEE large and in regard to a fmall number of particulars only. Economy in the expenditure of the pro- duce of a farm, like economy in the expenditure t of capital in family affairs, feems indeed to be defpifed by many men, as indicating poverty of| {pirit, rather than wifdom, and is therefore ftu- dioufly, as it fhould feem, avoided. There are,| however, a few individuals, who have fhowed~| themfelves to be above thefe prejudices, and who have not been afhamed to attempt to make $$ Se . gk SET a en me oo te — SSE>———— a a ee aS Soe mtg Sie tel ess as ee— ECONOMY.“$87 loyed fome progrefs in different departments referable ae I to this head. on of Economical arrangements, were the fubjeét to “nds be confidered in it’s utmoft extent, as affeCting ction‘the whole Management of-a farm, would take to be a much wider{weep than that to which I mean tthe to confine myfelf in the prefent difquifition; nd the which is folely meant to relate to the confump- view, tion of the crude produce of a farm by animals: .{0 ats nor can I pretend, in what follows in this eflay, > nearer to give abfolute dire€tions to the farmer what he ought to do, even on that part of the fubje@| 1 being{hall now bring under view. At the mere outfet, e, that in a bufinefs of fuch magnitude and intricacy, ritain, the perfon who firft attempts to open up the arcely view, can do little more than aQ in the humble erlons,{tation of a pioneer, who clears away a few ob- {iculars ftructions that may enable others, with lefs labour, he pio to penetrate farther than he has done: fo that yenditure what follows under this head can only be confi-| se he‘dered as an exploratory excurfion into an un-| wer of known region, from which only a very imperfeét si nig idea can be given of the fubje&t. Craving, then,| e the indulgence of the reader, for unavoidable| WN vt defects, and his friendly corre€tion of thofe in- thower voluntary errors that his fituation may enable “£8: him to difcoyer, I proceed to fuggeft fuch hints to maxt € Cc 2 ee ae— 388 ON hk ee AL, as have occurred to me on a flight view of this interefting fubjeét. Much dung is wafied under the common practice of pafiurage.—It is ftated, in the agricultural fur- vey of Gloucefterfhire, that one acre of rye-grafs, which had been faved from Michaelmas to May, kept nine ewes and lambs one month. We may fafely fay that the produce of the fame field, from May till Michaelmas, would have been double to that it yielded during year; confequently it could have fuftained eigh- teen ewes and lambs one month. At this rate the acre of ground, taking the whole year round, would have afforded food for twenty-feven ewes and lambs for oxe month. Thefe are large fheep, averaging about 25 pounds per quarter. It is ftated, in the furvey of Wiltfhire, that 500 fuch ewes and lambs are fufficient to dung an acre each day when folded upon it: at that rate, 27 of them fhould dung an acre in a little Jefs than nineteen days; confequently, in thirty days, fomewhat better than half an acre more. (gq) Hence it follows, that if none of this dung were fuffered to go to wafte, an acre of good land laid down to grafs, in high order, fhould afford as much dung as would be fuffi- > the winter half i —— ECONOMY. 389 t \ a cient to drefs an acre and a half of other land each year. Again,—It is ftated in the agricultural account utes of Suffolk, that the rich marth lands there keep fur at the rate of fix fheep for feven fummer months, . and four for the five winter months, per acre; that Lo is, a little more than five fheep on an average per Heb acre throughout the whole year. Thefe are very neld, large fheep, of which 800 would be equal to pet the 500 ewes and lambs above mentioned, and ttt confequently would be fufficient to dung an acre elgh-: in one day. But 5 times 365 makes 1825, the ele number of fheep kept for one day. At this und, rate, one acre of thefe rich grafs lands would WES afford as much dung, in the courfe of one year, ees as fhould be fufficient to dung fomewhat more than ¢wo acres and a quarter each year, if huf- , that banded with due economy. dung As the fheep in neither of thefe cafes are it that folded, the dung is fuffered. to drop in a fcat-| a little tered manner over the paftures, throughout the| thirty whole year. In this manner, the influence of| more. the dung muft either be nothing, or it muft pro- F this duce certain effe€ts upon the grafs, If the laft,: cre of what will thefe effects be? i order It is well known that when fheep are folded| xe fill upon grafs ground, fo as to depofit their dung, e CPC.3 ee 390 ON RURAL upon it in confiderable quantities all about one t¢me, as in folding, the effeét is, that a fluth of grafs is quickly produced over it’s whole furface, which is much more luxurjant and abundant than it would have been, had it not-re- ceived this dreffing. But it is equally well known, that the animals, whofe dung has oc- cafioned that flufh of grafs, naufeate it; nor can they be brought to tafte it, unlefs they be com- pelled through hunger to do fo; although ani- mals of another kind are feen to eat that kind of grafs,[called in fome places go/k, in other places toth,| not only without relu€tance, but even with avidity. The extra fluth of grafs raifed on the two acres and a quarter, that might be thus manured by the fheep fed on one acre, would be fuff- cient, on a moderate computation, to(keep at the rate of two fheep per acre. By confe- quence, the extra grafs produced by the dung of the fheep kept on one acre of this rich grafs Jand, would be fufficient to keep four fheep and ahalf. But to keep within bounds, fay three theep only could be kept by the grafs produced from the dung of the fheep fed on one acre. If the dung be fuppofed to have the fame ef- fect in producing extra grafs, when dropped ECONOMY. am from the animals as they pafture on the field, ih o as it has when laid upon ground clofely, by lace, means of folding, it muft follow from thefe pre- dant mifes, that as much grafs will grow from that is dung upon each acre as would feed three fheep. well But as the fheep will not eat this kind of grafs S 0C- without conftraint, the ground muft either be fo r Can hard ftocked as to compel them, through hunger, com to eat that naufeous food, or that portion of the 1 an: grafs which is produced by the dung, will be t kind fuffered to run to wafte; fo that, in either cafe, a other confiderable lofs muft be fuftained by the owner. . but This lofs may indeed be avoided, in as far as refpects the confuming of the grafs only, by a mixing different kinds of{tock on the fame field, ured while in pafture. For if thefe animals can be pice made to aflociate together, fo as not to difturb ep at each other in the field, the one fet of animals conte: will eat up the rank grafs produced from the eat dung of the others, and thus the whole will be om eaten up without wafte. This pra€tice is indeed a fometimes adopted in Suffolk to a certain degree, ae where the farmers are in ufe to put among their es fheep a certain proportion of calves or horfes, ne which, in fome meafure, anfwer this end. But as ie the general pra€tice there is to ftock with fheep ame cr only, the lofs to’ the ftock itfelf, which mut dropped cca within the utmoft ftretch of the memory of man, or the rent that e been paid for them,[the al- teration in the value of money being adverted to,| be confidered as the ftandard,. I myfelf Me 1 Ne- poor which out in- ch dif: ration oduce man, he al- verted my(elf ECONOMY. 897 know many fields which, under certain circum- ftances, have ,grown evidently lefs produétiy than before, though perpetually paftured upon. But as thefe cafes are not perhaps fo common in England as in Scotland, I fhall not farther infift upon them here. The foreft of Dartmoor in Devonfhire, and other fuch extenfive moors of a barren nature, in many other parts of Eng- land, though every year ftocked in fummer with more beafts than the produce can properly fuf- tain, do the y difcover the fmalleft tendency to melioration even till this hour? But there can be no doubt, that if all the dung which has been dropped upon thefe waftes had been pro- perly hufbanded, a great and fenfible melioration on them muft have been effeéted many ages ago, as I fhall have occafion to fhow in the fequel. Again, taking the converfe of the propofition the dung which above ftated,—were it true, that is dropped upon paftures tended fenfibly to me- liorate them, it muft follow that thofe paftures from which the dung is conftantly abftracted by folding, as on Marlborough downs in Wiltfhire, nd many other places, muft either have grown worfe in the courfe of ages, even where it had not been touched by the plough; or at leaft muft have advanced much more flowly in their SC ——— 398 OWN RRA FE, than other grafs lands, equally untouched by the plough, from which no dung has been abftracted. Is this the cafe? IT have not met with a fingle faét which tends to fhow that the prefent produce of the parts of thofe fields which have never been lowed, when compared with that of former p’ I os ES = nes, differs in any refpeét from that of other fields of a fimilar nature, from which no dung has ever been carried away by folding. Thus am I forced to conclude, that in all cafes where animals are allowed to feed on paftures of any fort, the dung which is dropped from them is, Ina great meafure, loft as a manure; and a rigid economy would require that meafures fhould be adopted for preventing this wafte, if it can be done without occafioning evils greater than that which it is intended to correét. folding economical.—The remedy which firft prefents itfelf in this cafe, is that of folding; and if properly managed, there are perhaps few cafes in which it might not be put in praétice, not only without detriment to the ftock, but even perhaps in fome cafes to their advantage. This was hinted at in the foregoing effay; but it is neceflary I fhould be here a little more parti- one ue OR oe cular on this head. other dung cafes ites of them and a ould nbe that hh firtt Iding; ps few ractice, k, but ntage. but it ; patti- ECONOMY. 399 All animals, but efpecially thofe that ruminate, choofe to feed and reft by turns. Ruminating animals require much time for reft, and the more quiet they are allowed to be during that period, the better they will thrive. If thefe, then, are withdrawn from their paftures after they have properly filled their belly, and when they be- come neceflarily difpofed to ruminate, they can fuftain no damage from being then put into a place where they can have no accefs to food. And if they be only as long detained there as till they have rechewed the food they had fwallowed, and begin to feel an inclination to eat more, they will be even benefited by this confinement, rather than otherwife. For, in thefe circumftances, the creatures will thus be induced to feed and to reft all at the fame time, fo that when they are at re{t, they are allowed to be wholly fo, and can fuffer no difturbance from one another, nor from any other caufe; whereas if they be left at liberty to range over the whole field at large, at all times, they are not determined, as men are from habit, all to enjoy their meal at the fame time, and thus to feed and reft as it were in. concert; but each individual is left at random to feed or to ruminate as chance fhall direct. Thus it hap- pens that they feldom are feen all at reft at the a=——" 5=a=, i 400 ON RURAL fame time. While fome individuals are difpofed to ruminate, others are inclined to feed; and as they move about while feeding, the feeders. dif- turb thofe who are at reft: for being all of them gregarious animals, while one who ruminates lies ftil, the others are moving forward; fo that all fuch feeing themfelves in danger of being left behind, are forced to rife and follow the reft, that they may regain thofe which are feeding. Thus it is, that though apparently left at freedom to teft when they pleafe, they are a€tually put under a kind of conftraint, and are forced to move about when they wifh to lie ftill; whereas by an attentive mode of penning, all this difturb- ance will be entirely avoided, and they will be fuffered to enjoy a repofe as uninterrupted as their hearts could with. That penning, however, under injudicious management, may tend to retard the feeding of the animals fubjected to it, cannot admit of a doubt. If the creatures be driven to a great diftance from their paftures to the pen, it mutt fubject them to a hurtful degree of fatigue; and this will be encreafed if they muft be made to pafs through narrow lanes, where they may be crouded and incommoded by paffengers; or where they cannot avoid being at times mired in ECONOMY:| 401 { ‘ dirt; or drenched in wet: or if they be negleét- " ed too long in the pen, or put up at improper a times;&c. In fome cafes, owing to thefe cir- p cumftances, it may admit of doubt whether the ies ftock itfelf does not fuffer more damage from : penning, than the benefit that refults from the ket collecting of the dung: but from the abufe of a that beneficial practice, we muft not reafon againtt hus the proper ufe of it. nto To derive the full benefit from folding of put which it is fufceptible, it would feem, that d to where the paftures are of great extent, there 648 ought to be two or more folds placed clofe by urb- the pafture, at convenient diftances from each be other; fo that the flocks being gently conduéted as from one towards the other, feeding all the way, might find themfelves, when full, juft at the jous place into which they might retire for reft.— ding There they fhould be fuffered to remain juft fo tof a long as is found by experience to be neceflary to great compleat their ruminating procefs, and to pre- wnat pare them for feeding afrefh: they fhould then md be fuffered to rife and ftretch themfelves, when Pg they naturally void their dung and urine on the i iy{pot. Thus will the dung be preferved, and the “e paftures be kept clean and fweet. They ought ee then to be Jed gently to the frefh pafture which VOd onieE. pd 402 ON RURAL they had not lately breathed upon, or trampled with their feet, and which of courfe will be to them{weet and inviting: they fhould thus be flowly condutted to their next reiting place, feeding all the way; and fo on till they go over the whole in a regular progreflion. If experience fhall difcover that difeafes are produced by fut- fering the animals to eat their food when cover- ed with hoar fraft, or dew, or mildew, or at cer- tain times of the day or night, when fnails or other creatures are abroad, which they may {wallow with their food: in all thefe cafes, when obferved, the evil may, by an attentive economift, be avoided by means of a judicious ufe of the fold. He may, alfo, by the fame con- trivance, withdraw the creatures from the paf- tures at thofe times when they become reftlefs and refufe to feed. In fhort, a judicious econo- mift, by having folds properly fituated, refpecting the circumftances of fhelter, coolnefs, water, and other conveniencies, may avail himfelf of thefe or greatly promoting the health and enjoyment of the animals, and thus accelerating their feed- ing; fo that, independent of the benefits he fhall derive from their dung, he will in other refpects derive confiderable emolument. But where is the man who thinks of thefe things in the pre- ita GOTT ES ECONOMY. 403 mpl Tent day? They are defpifed, and therefore be to unknown., us be In order to obtain fome idea of the benefits ace, that might be derived from penning, under a over judicious fyftem of management, when compared ence with fuffering the produce to be confumed by y tut animals which are allowed to pafture at large,— -OVEr- let us put the cafe, that two farms, each farm it Cer confifting of two fields of equal extent and alike alls or inal refpeéts; the one farm confifting of bare y may pafture, and the other of rich grafs land; each cales, field of the fame farm being ftocked with the tentive fame number of fheep,—were put, the one under Hicious the folding fyftem of Management, and the other con under that of the unlimited patturage fyftem, and . pat continued for a number of years,—and_ obferve oftlefs the refult. cae Say then, firft, that the pafture was naturally fo vein pees as, at the outfet, in both cafes, to be fit to ao fuftain no more than at the rate of half a fheep per acre; and at that proportion was of extent spina fufficient to nourifh one thoufand head of fheep, feed: confequently of 2000 acres extent. a fhall We have already feen, that where the beafts efpeds are allowed to Pulse at large, fuch a field wil} baie continue for ages without the{malleft augmen- he pt tation of it’s produce; and that, of courfe, if it 404 ON“RVR AL began with a thoufand head of fheep, however long the experiment were continued, that farm, the produce of which was fo confumed, would continue to the end to keep only the fame thou- fand head of theep. In regard to the farm where folding is prac- Oo oO tifed, let it be admitted that the extra flufh of grafs produced on+an acre, upon which one thoufand fheep had been penned for one day, would be fufficient to fuftain one fheep more the firft year after folding, than it could have done without it; half a fheep the fecond year, anda quarter of a fheep the third year, beyond it’s ori- ginal proportion; and that, after the third year, the extra produce fhould be counted at the rate of+ of a fheep per acre for many years. Moft perfons will fuppofe this an under-ftatement: fome may fuppofe it an over-ratio; but all will admit that the encreafe muft be fomething. I {tate it thus merely to fhow the general refult, not the precife amount of that refult; fo that every individual may alter the ratio till it fuits his own fancy. The general conclufion will not pe altered by that circumitance. On thefe data the thoufand head of fheep ought to dung in one year 565 acres: but to make allowance for bad weather, and other. con- ever arm, ould 10U- ECONOMY. 405 tingencies, let us deduét from that 165 days; and fay that only 200 acres were dunged to a fuficient degree by that number of fheep in a year. By tracing the progrefs, the annual ac- count will ftand thus. Pirft year. No. of Acres. No. of fheep kept. No. of Acres dunged. 2000 at half a fheep per acre 1000 200. Second year. 200 1f year after dung 1+ do. per acre a 300 1800 do. original at+ do. per do.. 900 20G0 ‘Total this year 1200 240 Third year. 200 2d year at 1 fheep per acre» 200 240 1ft year at 14 do per do. 360 1560 original at 4 do. per do 780 2000 Total this year 1340 258 It is unneceflary to carry this calculation any farther.~The gradual melioration is, in this.cafe, pd 3 406 ON RURAL eftablifhed beyond a doubt, which, if continued for a great number of years, muft produce a fen- fible improvement in every part of the country, I beg leave, however, once more to obferve, that I do nat contend to have attained any abfolute accuracy in the guantum of the melioration above ftated: all I contend for IS, that by a management firnilar to the above, a progreflive meloration would be unavoidable, the ratio of which might be in fome cafes greater, and in others lefs than here ftated; but that in every cafe it muft be fen- fibly perceptible in the courfe of a great number of years. As no fuch melioration, however, Is perceptible in fields fubjeéted to pafturage alone, that practice muft be deemed highly unecono- mical. Neither let it be underftood as if 1 recom- mended the mode of penning, above ftated, as the beft mode that could be devifed of applying the dung. It was feleéted merely for the fake of fimplicity, for the purpofe of illuftration.— What is the moft econamical mode of apply- ing dung for the purpofe of agriculture at large, may come to be afterwards confidered: at pre- fent it could tend only to embarrafs the fubjeét in hand, which is the economical confumption of the produce of grafs land: thefe few hints being Sart Sed segsstnta DST 7 com ed, as plying re fake t0— apply- -arge, at pre- fubjett plion of xs dell ECONOMY: 407 only a digreflion, to fhow-in what manner the farmer may prevent his lands from being fouled without inconvenience, and even with profit to himfelf. Let us now confider the cafe of rich pafture fields: and, with a view to avoid the dilemma that might accrue from the fuppofition that 1 very rich land derives little or no benefit from dung, we thall put the cafe, that the dung of the fold, in conjunction with lime, and fuch culture as the nature of the foil may require, can be ap- plied to fome poor ground of little value in the neighbourhood, to be put under corn. Suppofe in this cafe, ayain, that the rich grafs field is capable of fuftaining alfo one thoufand head of fheep; and let us for the prefent take it for granted, till we can overtake it, that the pro- duce will not be diminithed by abftracting the dung of thefe fheep from it. In this cafe, on the foregoing data, the dung of the fheep would be fufficient to manure 365 acres; which, as in the former cafe, we fhall moderate to 200. Let us fuppofe that the encreafed crop, in confequence of- the dunging for the fir/ year, is equal to two quarters of barley per-acre.| The pide: 408 ON RURAL Jecond year, white and yellow clover with rye grafs, equal to the feed of 3 fheep per acre.— The third year, equal to 2% fheep; and every year after that it fhould be equal to 2 fheep per acre. The firft year would be Sheep kept, beads. Acres dunged. 1000———— 200 Second year. 1000 head on the original field as before— 200 200 acres of barley at 2 quarters, 400 quarters at 24 fhillings—. 480 Total L. 480 200 Third year. 1000 fheep as above== 200 600 more on the 200 acres dunged grafs land firft year, at 3 head of fheep per acre, which would dung—— 120 200 acres of barley as before L. 480 1600: Total L. 480© 320 | ECONOMY, 409 : Fourth year. Sheep kept, heads. Acres dunged. 1000 head of fheep, as at the begin- : ning— cae—— 200 500 do. on 200 acres of grafs the fe- cond’ year, at 22 head peacre“'—~ 100 600 do. on 200 acres of grafs the| hir{t year at 3 per acre——- 120 820 acres of barley, at 2 quar- : ters per acre, 640 quarters as before——— 41.768 ar ee 2100‘Total E768©4290 200 It is unneceflary to proceed farther in this en-- quiry; for the progreffive improvement here is great and obvious, let what deductions you pleafe be made for errors or exaggeration.— Every one may reduce this to the ftandard that 200 pleafes himfelf beft; the fame conclufion is un- avoidable. I confider it then as a truth undeniably efta- blifhed, that dung, dropped upon a field in paf- 120 ture, either produces no effect whatever, or an effeét far lefs confiderable than it might be made — to afford under a more judicious fyftem of ma- 320 nagement; and that, if it has any effect at‘all 410 ON RURAL upon the pafture, it muft be that of rendering the food yielded by thefe paftures lefs palatable, and Jefs nourifhing to the animals that feed upon it, than it otherwife might have been. To obviate this evil, which is every where felt by attentive farmers, efpeciallye upon rich paftures, different perfons have adopted different devices, all of which are liable to ftrong objeétions in point of economy. Hard or light flocking of pafure ground.— Some perfons contend, that the paftures ought to be ftocked very lightly; alledging, that al- though much of the produce is thus allowed to run to feed, which the beafts will not eat, and which of courfe is trodden underfoot, and rot- ted by rain, and thus wafted; yet, experience, they fay, proves, that a greater profit will be thus derived from it, upon the whole, than by any other practice, on account of the fuperior thriv- ing of the animals. Others pretend, on the contrary, that light ftocking of grafs land is a pra€tice highly to be condemned; as it tends not only gradually to diminifh it’s produce, but alfo to encourage the growth of coarfe and unprofitable graffes, which greatly deteriorate the paftures; and that hard oneness, Kn ECONOMY. 411 Me itocking of grafs lands, efpecially thofe of arich | quality, isan indifpenfible requifite of good ma- It nagement. te Theie two opinions, fo diametrically oppofite to re each other, and which are equally maintained by nt| feniible men, clearly proves the embarraffment df to which they are fubjetted, in confequence of tof their not.having adverted to the circumftances itated above, and many other particulars that re- / quire ftill to be developed, as aifeéting the eco- d— nomical confumption of the produce of grafs ught lands., t al: A third party, who approach perhaps nearer 1 to to the truth than either of the above, advife that and a mixed ftock fhould be always kept upon the rot: fame field: and were the confumption of the nce, foul grafs produced by the dung of the ani- us mals, the only article to be adverted to, it might any be, doubtlefs, fo managed as to correct this. eval: Kae but there are fo many other circumftances to be adverted to, that it is not eafy, by this mean, light to get them all remedied.| ibe In every field, a variety of plants fpontaneoufly sly to fpring up, fome of which are difrelifhed by one . the clafs of animals, while they are eaten by fome aghich others; and fome of which plants, though eaten al readily by fome animals at a particular period \a 3 412 ON RWR, APE of their growth, are rejected by them entirely at another age. Thus it becomes neceflary, not only to have a vat variety of animals in the fame pafture; but alfo a very particular attention is required to augment or to. diminith the pro- portion of fome of thefe claffes of animals, at particular feafons of’ the year, otherwife fome part of the produce will be allowed to run to wafte, unlefs it be hard ftocked to fuch a de- gree as to retard their thriving. But if a great variety of animals be allowed to go at large in the fame pafture, they are never fuffered to feed with that tranquillity which is neceffary to infure thriving in the higheft degree. One clafs of thefe wifhes to feed, or to play, while the others would incline to reft. They thus mutually difturb and teaze each other: and this mconvenience is greatly augmented, if pen- ning of any fort be attempted. From thefe con- fiderations, the practice of intermixing various kinds of ftock very much together, is found to be produétive of evils, in many cafes, greater than thofe which refult from the wafte of food this prattice was intended to prevent. And though there can be no doubt that by hard {tocking the grafs will be kept fhorter, and con- fequently will be more palatable in general to ECONO MY: 4.18 the animals who eat it, than if it were allowed to run to a great length, and that thus even unpleafing patches may be confumed; yet as animals, which are to be fatted, muft have not only fweet food, but an abundant bite at all times, to bring them forward in a kindly manner, it feems to be nearly impoffible to obtain both. thefe advantages together in the practice of paf- turage. Cutting, and confuming the produce in the houfe.—Might not thefe evils be greatly dimi- nifhed, if not entirely remedied, in many cafes, by having the produce cut by the fcythe, and given to the animals frefh in the houfe; rather than to fuffer them to go at large and eat the produce on the field, even under any fyftem of management whatever? Many arguments tend to fhow, that this prac- tice would be, in general, highly economical. This fubject may be confidered under the fol- lowing points of view: Firji—The g that would thus be confumed, and confequently reater or lefs variety of plants° Second.—Whether ftall feedin tend moft to promote the health and comfort of the animal. 414 ON RURAL Third.—The proportional quantity of manute obtained by the one or the other praétice. Fourth.—The quantity of herbage. that will be afforded from the fame field, under the cut- ting or grazing fyftem. Under head the fr. If the confumption of the plants be the objeét principally attended to, it is plain the benefits will be great: for experience has clearly proved, that there are many plants which are greedily confumed by beafts, if cut and given to them in the houfe, which never would be touched by them when growing in the field. Of. this nature is the dock, cow- parfley,(Cherophyllum Sylvefre) thifles, net- tles, and many other plants. Upon what prin- ciple it fhould happen that thefe plants thould be fo readily eat, when thus given, while they are totally rejefted when in the field; I cannot fay: but that they are thus eaten, without reluc- tance, even when the animal is not hurtfully hungry, is evident from this circumftance, that the beafts often fall greedily to thefe at the mo- ment they are brought in from the field, even before they have had time to become hungry after they had come in.. Thus fewer plants will be rejected or fuffered to go to walic. ECONOMY. 415 In the fecond place. It is well known that many of even the beft kinds of grafles, which, when young, form the moft pallatable food for thefe creatures, if once fuffered to get into ear, are difrelifhed fo much as never to be tafted by them,“unlefs to prevent ftarvation; and as, in moft pafture fields, many of thefe grafles get into ear from various caufes, all the produce of thefe plants is inevitably loft to the farmer. But, if cut down by the feythe, in proper time, not one of thefe is ever fuffered to get into that naufeating ftate; and confequently no watte is fuftained from this caufe. Thirdly.—When animals are fuffered to ch upon the feld, many of the plants are trodder under foot by the beafts, and bruifed or, in part, buried in the earth; in which ftate they are greatly difrelifhed by animals, and are fuffered to Tun to wafte; which never‘could take place were the praétice of cutting adopted. And, Lajily, on thishead. Thofe few plants w aah are totally difrelifhed by one clafs of animals, fo as to be rejefted by them even in the nk will not, from this circumffance, become lefs acceptable to others, but much the reverfe. Food that an animal has breathed upon, for any confiderable time, becomes unpleafant to other 416 ON RURAL animals of the fame clafs; but not fo to thofe of another fpecies: it feems indeed thus to ac- quire for them a higher relifh. Even greater de- filement by one animal, feems to render food more acceptable to others: for ftraw, that in it’s clean ftate has been reje€ted by cattle, if em- ployed as litter for horfes, acquires a relifh for cattle that they fearch for with avidity. Hence it happens, that the fweeping of the ftalls from one animal, furnifhes a dainty repaft for thofe of another kind; which can eafily be fhifted from one to the other, if the plants are confumed in the houfe, but which muft have been loft in the field. We fhall foon have occafion to fhow that this peculiarity may be employed to anfwer another ufeful purpofe. Under head the fecond. If the health and the comfort of the animal be chiefly adverted to, the balance will be clearly in favour of the cut- ting fyftem, when compared with that of paftur- ing. It is well known that when animals are expofed to the fun, in the open air, they are not only greatly incommoded on many occafions by the heat, but alfo are annoyed by fwarms of flies, gnats, and hornets, as well as the terrible gad-fly, which drives them into a ftate. of perturba- tion little thort of furiofity, which muft obvioutly a ' ECON OM Y 4.17 ace they are hurt by chilling blafts, or drenched by tend to retard their thriving. At other times , 2) cheerlefs rain, which renders their fituation very ood unpleafing, and greatly retards their fe eding, as It’s is well known: Under proper PS mie in mM r a well conftructed: ftall, all thefe e vils would be for alike removed, and they would be eet perpe- nce tually in a proper ftate of coolnefs, tranquillity, rom and eafe, fo as to make the fame quantity of hofe food go farther in nourithi; ng them than it other- ifted wife could have done: They would alfo be pre- imed vented from licking up fnails, vorms; and other ft in nOX1ous creatures, among their food, which by Hea pafturing they are apt to do, when they feed at <8. thofe times of the day, or night, when thefe crea- tures crawl abroad: This would be entirely the avoided by cutting the grafs at thofe times of ae the day when none of thefe are to be found ; Thus lingering difeafes might often be ee which aly ways retard the thriving, and often yaftur- | prove totally the deftru€tion of the animal. ils are And 4 Railis lajily, by giving an opportunity of adminifter- sid ing dry and nourifhing food, along spits the foft :‘ and fueculent, where circumftances require it, i‘ in any requifite proportions; and by varying the mible taftes, fo as to provoke an appetite, not only the hutba- health, but the thriving of the creatures, would vioully VOL? Ii— —————— Se la Need - PA ceed two inches in length, was in their opinion equ oi red clover, when advanced to be Jin full al to that obtained at one cutting of a field flower; and my own opinion coincided with theirs. This experiment firft fuggefted doubts in my mind, as to the propriety. of confuming rich grafs lands by patturage; and every obferva- tion I have fince made, has tended fo ftrongly to add to my conviction, that I have now not a doubt remaining upon this head; and I conceive that the lofs which is annually fuftained by the nation at large, from an inattention to this cir- reat as, in fome meafure, to call cumftance, is fo blifh thefe remarks, with a view to direct the attention of others to inveftigate the fubject with greater care than it has hitherto ob- tained: for, however inattentive men may be for ent, to thefe hints, a time will come, if they are made public, when they will claim the inveftigation of fome confiderate mind. When hat time comes, my objeét will be attained. Since the former edition of this work was printed,[ have met with a publication by Dr. haer, phyfician of the Eleétoral court of Hano- iin the firft volume of Commy- ECONOMY. 4.25 alned; Siaaee : necations to the Board of Agriculture,&c. po sie, t GX.°. 1 :: in which I am happy to find, that the conclufions NON [ have drawn above, by reafoning from the few Ald s field facts that have fallen under my own obfervations AA Sy tull have been confirmed by experience of Baron de with Bulow and others; which have proved, as Dr. oubts Thaer fays, that the following faéts are incontro- ming vertible. ierVae“ If, A{pot of ground, which, when paftured gly to upon, will yield fufficient food for only one head, not a will abundantly maintain four head of cattle in ceive the ftable, if the vegetables be mowed at a pro- by the per time, and given to the cattle in a proper IS CIr- order. 0 call“« 2d, The ftall feeding yields, at leaft, double view the quantity of manure from the fame number of e the cattle[hence ez¢ht times the quantity of manure £9 ob- from the produce of the fame field]; for the beft be fot and moft efficacious fummer manure is produced ome, if in the ftable, and carried to the fields at the moft m the proper period of it’s fermentation; whereas, when When{pread on the meadow, and exhaufted by the air 1 and fun, it’s power is entirely wafted. L was“« 3d, The cattle ufed to ftall feeding will yield 5 Dr. amuch greater quantity of milk, and encreafe Hanios fafter in weight, when fattening, than when they ‘omni; go to the field. a—e= pai se oe= a———— ce SEN ro, > a 426 ON RURAL «4th, They are lefs fubje@ to accidents, do not fuffer by the heat, by flies and infects, are not af- fected by the baneful fogs that are frequent in Germany, and bring on inflammations; on the contrary, if every thing be properly managed, they remain ina conftant ftate of health and vi- gour.” Dr. Thaer believes that the ftall fyftem of feed- ing on grcen herbage has never been adverted to by the farmers or agricultural writers of Great Britain. It appears that he, in this refpeét, labours under a miftake; yet it cannot fail to prove very fatis- factory to me, to find a practice[have fo warmly recommended to the attention of my countrymen, fo ftrongly fupported by the experience of prac- tical men in Germany. It deferves, however, to be noticed, that the obfervations of Dr. Thaer feem to refpect broad clover alone, and not any culniferous graffes, although I am fatisfied from my own experience and obfervations, that the economy in the confumption of thefe laft kind of graffes, green in the houfe, will be much greater than that which will refult from the confumption of broad clover in this way. Hence I cannot help warmly recommending the following experiment to the notice of the Britifh farmer, in hopes that fome perfan of enterprize and accuracy will fee == 2 OO IP en RE LOR SR T=" op Cp ECONOMY. 427 i it carefully performed. I regret that my prefent itd fituation does not admit of it’s being done by the myfelf. sed,= i\ Experiment propofed—To afiitt fuch well in- tentioned inveftigators, it may perhaps be proper fed. for me here to ftate what I fhould conceive to be the moft economical mode of confuming the pro- yy duce of rich grafs lands, that it may be fubjected to aes the fair teft of accurate experiments, conducted ee* more at large than the circumftances of my farm alls permitted me to make. varily If two fields of rich grafs land can be found ee of exaétly the fame extent and quality, the expe- prec- riment can be fairly made, by ftocking the one et, t0 with cattle, allowing them to pafture upon it, Thaer and referving the other to be cut and given to ot any cattle of the fame kind, by hand, properly kept from in the houfe; the difference of the profit drawn hat the from each clafs of beafts, will thus afcertain the kind of comparative value of the two modes of manage- greatet ment: mmption I need fcarcely obferve, that in order to make ot help the experiment fairly, the two fields fliould be 8 oriment much alike in all refpetts as pofiible 5 and, in ey particular, that the furface of the land intended ‘ail fet to be cut fhould be fmooth and even, fo as to ad- 428 ON RG BAT, mit of being rolled frequently: for which pur- pofe, the flatter the ground is in general the better. Let the field that is to be cut be carefully fhut up from cattle, efpecially during wet weather; and let it be rolled with a weighty roller in the {pring, as foon as it is firm enough to bear the tread of the beafts without hurting the furface, firft in one dire€tion, and then in the direction acrofs it. If it be twice rolled in that manner, it will be an advantage rather thana detriment, for it is of the utmoft confequence, under the mode of management propofed, that the feythe thould cut very clofe, without taking up any earth; one quarter of an inch at the bottom is as much asa whole inch at the top; fo that, on account of the quantity of grafs to be obtained, clofe cutting| is of the greateft ufe. It tends, alfo, greatly to pro- mote the quick{pringing up of the fucceeding crop, as I have often obferved; and by this praét ice, no dead leaves are left, which is unavoidable in rough cutting. Frequent rolling, with a weighty roller, while the ground is a little foft, is abfo- lutely neceflary for this purpofe; and is ule on other accounts, as wil ticed, alfo of ] afterwards be no- ECONOMY. 429 pur The field fhould begin to be cut when the al the longeft piles of grafs on it have attained the height | of two inches at moft, and proceed regularly, day » thut by day, cutting as faft as the beafts confume it, ther- fo as to go over the whole in three or four weeks, y n the as the weather is warm or cold; when that which at the is was firft cut will be ready to be cut a fecond ce, fri time, and fo on; never omitting to roll it when ;) naar the weather is moift, and not too wet. The wil grafs fhould be carried off in a light fparred or te wicker cart, drawn by one{mall horfe; this cart tomove upon three broad low wheels, placed two node of thould on one axle, and one on another, below the body ee of the cart, fo as to act as a roller when’ go- y Ul: ing over the ground: acart, or rather barrow hasa aus oe:: rts of of this’ conftruction, I had made, and found it a unt 0::; ; moft convenient implement. In this manner the utting;;=; work will proceed regularly, and without trouble {0 pro- Bea: P throughout the whole feafon: the beafts fhould be 1g C10: 4 Ps regularly fed; getting only a{mall quantity at a tice, no::: ce 2 time, but frequently, frefh and frefh; giving them ;: © in~~ able weet water when necefflary, and as much grafs as Talo’ ig°°°(oe ore veight they will eat, allowing them proper time for reift. ; ablo- Nothing fhould be leftin their ftalls, at thefe times, if F allo of to be breathed upon, and thus rendered difguft- be n0-' ful to them; and if the houfe be fo conftructed-as that the beafts can be eafily kept cool to a pro- 430 ON RURAL per degree, quiet and clean, they will thrive abundantly. From the refult of this experiment, when fairly made, and often enough repeated, fo as to guard againft the effe¢ts of accidental unobferved pecu- liarities, many corollaries may be drawn, that will be found of high importance, in regard to rural economics. In making this experiunent, however, the full refult of it cannot be clearly perceived, unlefs it fhall be continued for feveral years; for, in the courfe of time, many important changes may be expected to follow, both in regard to the quan- tum of the produce of the two fields kept under thefe two modes of management, as in regard to it qualities. The experiment of one year can do little more than afcertain whatis the refult while the produce is nearly of the fame quantity and kind; but as changes in both thefe refpeéts may be ex- pected, the comparifon between the real bene- fits to be derived from the one or the other mode of management might be very fallacious, were it not continued for feveral years; and to do juf tice to the experiment, the whole dung made by the beafts in the houfe, fhould be returned to the field which produced their food. peer meats ECONOMY. 431 Grafs lands, if conftantly cut, are not deteri- orated—What the changes would be, both in regard to the quantity and the nature of the pro- duce from the fame field, if annually cut, and the produce carried off, as above mentioned, or if confumed by fuffering beafts to pafture upon it, cannot at prefent be told with certainty; but there are not wanting facts that may enable us to have fome idea of the probable refult. It has been rendered probable, at leaft, from fa€ts already ftated in this eflay, that dung, when dropped upon land by cattle pafturing upon it, does not tend to enrich it perhaps at all; or if it does fo, itis only to a very fmall degree. Whether rich grafs land, if conftantly cut, and the produce carried off from it, without returning g, willthus, in time, come to pro- duce crops lefs abundant than the fame land any of the dun would have done, if kept under pafturage, will not, with many perfons, feem to admit a doubt: there are confiderations which fo ftrongly operate upon my mind for doubting if this be the cafe, that nothing fhort of a€tual experiment can remove thofe doubts. I have often feen lawns © und gentlemen’s houfes that have been kept ar under a courfe of continued fhaving for time im- morial, that difcovered no fymptoms of exhauf- 432 ON RURAL tion, nor any fenfible diminution of luxuriance of of verdure, though no manures of any fort had ever been laid upon them. This faét ftruck me as an important one; and that I might not be miftaken with regard: to it,-] applied for infor- mation refpe€ting this particular, to a gardener who had had charge of very extenfive lawns of this fort, belonging toa gentleman of large pro- perty: he affured me, that’ for the fpace of up- wards of thirty years, that he had had the care of thefe lawns, fome parts of them which had been laid down long before he knew them, and were originally, as he fuppofed, of a rich quality, had never received, during all that time, the {malleft quantity of manure of any fort; and that the lawn continued to be equally clofe in the pul, equally verdant at all feafons in the year, and required to Le as often cut as ever; and that, in fhort, he had no reafon to apprehend that the quantity of it’s produce had diminifhed in the {malleft degree. This feems to me a{trong pre- fumptive proof that grafs land, when once of a rich quality, may be continued for an indefinite leneth of time under the{cythe, without being at all deteriorated, even where it gets no return of dung that is annually made for the produce of it ind as we have already feen that rich grafs Jand, 1ce of rt had k me ot be nfor= lener ms of € pro- if up- le Care ch had m, and quality; ne, the id that in the at, and that, in) hat the tn the ng pre- ce of a definite aino At eing tum of ce of It 1 Co Vand, US Laue ECONOMY: 433 tindet pafturage, produces as much dung as ought to manure each year more than double it’s own extent of furface; it follows; that if the fame quantity of grais land will only nourifh as many beafts in the houfe, as if it wer paftured upon, (and there are ftrong reafons for thinking it will do much more,) there can be annually obtained from each acte of land Kept under the{cythe, as much dung as might manure two acres more, which might be abftraéted from that grafs land without deteriorating it. Of courfe, if the land be fuch as that it can admit of being made richer, a drefling of that dung, now and then returned upon itfelf, would give it the richnefs wanted, without any extraneous aid. In this point of view, then, it feems to be impoffible to deny, that rich land, if kept under the feythe, can ne- ver become poorer, if none of the dung made by the beafts fed upon it be abftraéted from it; but that, on the contrary, it can thus be made to af. ford a large annual fupply of dung for the purpofe of enriching poorer land, while it{till continues to be equally fertile itfelf, In regard to the other effects of the practice recommended, there feems to be no doubt that the quality of the grafs muft continue to improve while under the fcythe, much more than while under VOLT Ti, Roy 434 ONGEURAL pafturage. Every perfon who has beftowed the fmalleft attention to objeéts of this fort, muft have remarked that the worft kinds of grafles grow moft freely upon thofe parts of rich grafs lands that are the moft open and fpungy in their tex- ture; and that they are in general much{weetened in the pile, where they chance to be much trod upon. Hence the fineft graffes, on fuch fields, are always found to abound moft upon thofe paths which are moderately trod upon; white clover and the fweeteft grafles being feen there in abundance, while they are lefs frequent in the {pungy parts of the field. But frequent rolling tends to produce this effeét more univerfally and equally, than any kind of.treading by beafts(a praétice frequently recommended by the bet far- mers,) ever can do. Again.—It has been frequently remarked, by intelligent farmers, that the hard ftocking of land| tends much to improve the quality of the paftures, as well as it’s quantity. On this fubjeét as well as many others, the obfervations of Mr. Davies, of Longleat, in his account of the agriculture of Wiltfhire, deferve to be particularly adverted to. He obferves, p. 18. that“ the fweetnefs of the ‘© feed depends much more on it’s being kept clofe, and eaten as fafi as it fhoots, than on any ECONOMY. 435 ; he“ pecubar good quality of the grafs itfelf: for it have“there are many downs that, when clofe fed, , a“* appear to be a very fweet pafture, but which, lands“ if fuffered to run a year or two without a full fad““ ftock on them, will become fo coarfe, that an will almoft as foon flarve as eat the erafs: ae“and even in thofe parts of the downs where eh“ the finer and fweeter graffes abound, the foil * paths‘is frequently fo loofe and porous, that nothing Clover* but conftant treading will prevent them from- .;*¢ dying out, or being choaked by the larger and eu“ coarfer graffes.” And again, p. 23:« They | ye“* alfo fay, that this new kind of fheep being fo ily and* much nicer in their food, and rejecting the ae i* feed of the downs, on which the chief depend- ell far*“ ance for fheep food is, have fuffered the her- “ bage to grow gradually coarfer and coarfer; ced, by““ and that the farmers, in attempting to remedy. of land* this evil, by fhortening their ftock of fheep, paltures“* have made it worfe; it being a well known fact, as well** that the clofer the downs are fed, the more Davies, flock they will keep.” He farther remarks, ylture 01 that in confequence of too light{tocking, heath, orted tO. in fome cafes, comes in the place of the better ; of the grafles. But it is very evident that all the pur- ng kept pofes of hard ftocking, that is, keeping the grafs on aby fhort, and in a continual ftate of vegetation, and Fr 2 ep=< Seager fee sete é ne es; oe 436 ON RURAL confequently fweet, and preventing the coarfer grafles from running up to ftalk and overpower- ing the others, together with the confolidating of the ground by treading, would be obtained with much greater certainty by the practice of mow- ing; while the animals that confumed the pro- duce could in no cafe be fubjeéted to a ftint of food, which they neceffarily muft fometimes be, where reliance is had upon hard ftocking alone . for preventing this evil. From thefe confiderations, there feems to be good reafon to believe, that not only would an equal quantity of produce go farther, if cut and given green to beafts in the houfe, than if it were paftured upon, but that, by a continuation of this practice for years, the ground kept under the fcythe would gradually improve, fo as to pro- duce a greater quantity of food; and that alfo of a richer quality, than if it had been kept under a courfe of pafturage; while, at the fame time, a great quantity of dung might thus be acquired for the purpofe of fertilizing other foils of a poorer quality. The reader, however, will pleafe ne- ver to forget, that though this reafoning be very probable, it amounts not as yet toa certainty; nor can it ever do fo, until fome decifive ex- periments fhall be made to afcertain with pre- ECONOMY. 437 power cifion the faéts that are as yet but imperfe Ctly ating of known. ed with ick;| =e Sweetne/s of pafures, what.—The term, /weet- eas nefs of paftures, ufed above, and fweet kinds of 2 abee grafs, frequently occur in agricultural writings: fice yet, it is doubtful if ever they have been’ properly defined, fo as to,convey a precife and accurate ng alone: meaning to the reader, or been fo much adverted to as their importance deferves. I fhall here at- ems to be would a tempt to fupply thefe defects. if cut an if it were Thofe paftures pee animals choofe to feed upon, in preference to others, and which in ge- LATA neral are eaten down clofe to the ground, are jon of this faid to be fweet paftures, in contradiftinétion from inder the ‘§ to pro- hat alfo of thofe where the grafs, being difrelifhed, is fuf- fered to grow toa greater length, and often to wither in part, without being touched, which are pt under a, ie Bea called coar/e, or, if tending to dampnefs, /our e tine, a‘id paftures cat Without entering here into a difquifition s af a poorer,: orap concerning the circumftances that tend to pro- pleale ne- duce this fweetnefs of pafturage, which are va- ne be very 0 rious, I fhall only obferve, that from whatever certainty caufe it originates, it is, in as far as I know, an jecifive& univerfal rule, that in every cafe the younger the Nt with pit grafs is, the fweeter and more palatable it will —-: e-—=_— a EPO IIE I wht WO SAEIO. ie z 438 OAV? RAGE& I be to beafts of every fort; and that the fame weight of food will go much farther in nourtfhing or fattening an animal, if it be very pleafing to the palate of the animal to which it 1s given, than if it had been lefs toothfome. As this is a fact that has not been fo much adverted to as it deferves, it requires to be here particularly in- veftigated.| It is here neceflary to advert, that a certain quantity of food is required for the mere fufte- nance of every animal, and if that quantity be daily adminiftered to it, and no more, the crea- ‘ture will barely fubfift, and neither grow better| nor worfe, if fattening alone is confidered; and: of courfe will never return, in the way of fat- tening, any profit to the farmer for that portion of it’s food, however long it may be continued ppon it. But if the beaft fhall get a greater quantity of food than this portion which is barely neceffary for fubfiftence, that furplus food then goes to augment the fize, and to fatten the animal, and of courfe yields a profit to the \ farmer, in proportion to it’s quantity. If this fact be admitted, it will neceffarily fol- low, that the greater the proportion of this fur- < ey Res ree plus food the creature can be induced to eat, in a given time, the more quickly it will be fat- 1e fame urithing fing to given, hls Is a to asit larly ine certain re tutte: antity be the crea w better ed; and y of fat- portion ntinued , greater which 1s plus food to fatten ‘t to the arily fol this fut- 4 to eat, ill be fat ECONOMY. 4.39 tened, and, of courfe, the greater will be the profit of the farmer. For example,—if it be {uppofed that ten pounds of forage be the exaét quantity of food required each day for the /w/e- nance of the animal, there would be confumed by its in the courfe of one year, 3650 pounds of food, without any profit at all as a fatting beatt.. If, again, it be fuppofed, that by the addition of one pound of food each day, the animal got fo forward, as in the courfe of one year to be fattened and advanced in it’s value to the amount of 50 per cent. of it’s original price, the account would ftand thus: Cafe jirf. Ibs. For fuftenance for$65 days--= 2 3650 For fattening$65 days at 1lb,---- 365 In all 4015 Cafe second. But if the beaft were allowed two pounds extra each day, it would confume 365 pounds, (which, in this cafe, we are to fuppofe will fatten the beaft as much as in the former Ef 4 440 ON RURAL cafe,) in fix months, or 1822 days, fay 183. The account would, in this cafe, ftand thus: For fuftenance 182 days at 10lb.-- 1820 Vor fattening 2-.+ se=+ 2k Bes In all 2185 Cafe third. 3 If the beaft be allowed four pounds extra each day, it would confume 365 Ib. in three months, pr 92 days. The account would in this cafe be For fuftenance 92 days at 10lb.--- 920 Por fattening:="- 2-792 Fs eee In all 1235 Cafe fourth. If the beaft could be induced to eat eight pounds extra per day, it would confume 365 lb. in fix weeks, or 46 days, in which cafe the account would ftand thus:: For fuftenance 46 days at 10lb.--- 460 Ponttttenitte: ei ee 2 ee es In all 825 Iv ¥ ECONOMY. 44) From hence it appears, that if the beaft were fattened in the following periods, it would confume If fed for one year-=-==-= 4015 Ifhalfa year-=--===+= 2185 So that the faving in this cafe willbe 1830 if fed for three months, it would con- fume only+-----=== 12985 Which deduéted from-----= 4015 a Gives a faving of 2730 _ If fed for fix weeks, it would confume- 825 ‘Which deduféted from------ 4015 Gives a faving of 3190 So that the fame quantity of food, which would fuftain no more than one beaft, if it were fo {fparingly adminiftered as to require a whole year to fatten it, would be more than fufficient to fatten four, if they could be induced to take it in fuch quantity as to fatten in fix weeks only. But as it is hunger alone that can induce any ‘animal to eat fuch kinds of food as are unpala- table to that creature, it 1s impoflible to get the 449 ON RURAL animal to eat more of coarfe unpalatable kinds of grafs than what is neceffary for bare fubfitt- ence only; fo that fuch fields muft be appro- priated to breeding only, becaufe, in the way of feeding, they can return no profit whatever to the farmer, by a kind of ftock which difrelifhes that food. If it be a little fweeter, they may get on a little; but the profit, in this cafe, will be very fmall. Render the grafs more fweet and palatable, they will fatten the more quickly, and the farmer’s profit be thus augmented: and fo on almoft in a geometrical ratio, in propor- tion to it’s augmented fweetnefs. Under this point of view, whatever tends to render the produce of fields more fweet and palatable to the animals which feed upon it, is a very great national improvement; becaufe it anfwers the fame purpofe that a large augmentation in the quantity of the produce would do. But if the quahty can be improved at the fame time that the quantity can be augmented, it will be a two- fold gain, and the greateft national benefit will thus be obtained. But as it has been already fhown that every kind of grafs will be rendered as pa- Jatable as it is poflible to be, by being cut and given to them in the houfe, while the quantity of it’s produce will, at the fame time, be there- * pe MrOpor er this er the ble to great 5 the in the if the e that a[W0- ft wil fhown as pa it and yantity .{here- ECONO MY. 443 by augmented, it feems to be impoffible to doubt that the practice muft be highlv econo- mical.| Allow me here to point out one other obvious inference from the reafoning above, that has been hitherto but too little adverted to. It is well known that very rich land in general pro- duces the fweeteft pile of grafs, and that calca~ reous manures, In particular, have been remarked as being peculiarly calculated for producing this effect: it hence follows, that it is the beft eco- nomy to Jay lands down to grafs while they are in the moft fertile ftate, before they have been exhaufted by frequent corn crops, efpecially after liming. Land may certainly be made too rich for corn crops; but I do not know if that can be the cafe with grafs land, under a proper ma- nagement, I cannot too often warn the reader to take no- tice that the foregoing, and every other zluflra- tive calculation that occurs in thefe effays, 1s not to be confidered as accurate in regard to the guantum, but merely in refpect to the tendency: for I am by no means in poffeflion as yet of faéts upon which accurate calculations, in regard to the precife degree of profit or lofs, in cafes of this kind, could be determined. I know of 444 ON RURAL no fact that has been yet brought forward, which clearly afcertains whether the degree of melioration is exaétly in proportion to the /urplus food of any fort that an animal can be brought. to eat in a given time, though the probabilities are greatly on that fide, Neither do I know if it be an univerfal rule, when artimals of different kinds are compared with each other, that thofe kinds which can be made to eat, in a given time, the greateft quan- tity of food, can be the fooneft fattened.’ The fubje€t has never as yet, that I know of, been adverted to. Under this head it deferves to be remarked, that when horfes and cattle are fed upon the fame kind of grafs, it is univerfally admitted that the horfe, if of the fame weight, confumes more grafs in a given time than the ox; and it is alfo a certain faét that the horfe will be- come fat in much lefs time than the ox. It is generally, I think, allowed that a horfe, living upon rich pafture, may be made as fat in one month, as a bullock upon the fame pafture could be made in three. What is the exact proportion of food that would be confumed by thefe creatures, in the fame{pace of time, has not, as yet, that I know of, been accurately af- ‘ ee ECONOMY. 445 rward, certained; but the generdl eftimate that has Tee of been made, from the experience of former urls times, is, that two horfes confume as much food ought as three cows or bullocks.in the fame time: and ities they are fo paid for in pafture fields, where they are both taken in upon time. If both thefe facts | rule, are fo, it would appear that a horfe could be npared fatted on lefs food than an ox. For, ah be Three oxen at 12]b. would confume 36 Ib. t quan: each day; which, in 93 days, amounts to The 3348 lb. that is, for each ox, 1116lb.; and two eth horfes, confuming alfo 36 lb. a-day, will eat in 31 days 11161b. which is at the rate of 558 Ib. confumed on the fattening of each horfe. S an that,, on thefe data, the horfe can be fatted with precifely one half the quantity of food that mitted the ox can. If this be fo, the faving to the fumes nation would be great indeed, were we at liberty 5 and to fatten horfes for food to man, inftead of cattle: vill be: but prejudice fays that this muft not be done. x. Its I have often thought that the refufing to living eat the flefh of horfes in Europe, is an unrea- { m one fonable, prejudice that ought to be overcome. pfature It is indeed forbidden by the law of Mofes, e exatt to which origin we can trace many of our med by vulgar prejudices what have been gradually over- me, has come: the animal itfelf is a beautiful clean feed- rately af: 446 ‘ON RURAL ing creature, fo that no averfion can be excited on that account: it’s flefh, wherever it is eaten, in common with that of bullocks, is invariably accounted the greater delicacy of the two; and there are not wanting perfons in this country who have tafted it, and concur in the fame Opi- nlon. The prejudice, then, muft be accounted highly unreafonable; and why fhould it not be overcome? Many perfons among ourfelves have got over the much better founded prejudice they had once entertained again{t eating fwine’s flefh, and now relith it perfectly well. The common people, at this nioment, fhudder at the idea of eating a frog; yet many perfons in the polite circle have overcome that prejudice, and admit it to their tables as one of the greateft delicacies: and what is to hinder them frona overcoming in like manner their prejudice againft horfe flefh?. We have feen above, that it might prove a mean of reducing the price of meat, and augmenting the produce of the country: I fhall only add, that humanity would{trongly plead in behalf of this exertion: for were the fiefh of horfes to be eaten, inftead of being worked to death, as they now are, and fubjefted to a treatment that outrages the feelings of na- ture, they would be put up to be fed; kindly ene Shae ODI unted ot be have (ONS In udice, eatelt fron apaintt ECONOMY. 4AT treated and pampered with delicacies, fo°as, to have the full enjoyment of life till the laft mo- ment they are fuffered to exift. That fome particular kinds‘of food have a great- er tendencyto produce fat than others, there feems to, be little doubt; and that others prove more nutritive for a given quantity, is undeniable. But the comparative value, in thefe refpeéts, is in every cafe’ as yet unafcertained; fo that here a wide field of inveftigation remains that is wholly unexplored; which muft be done before We can pretend to have attained any thing like a proper fyftem of economy; but even a begin- ning, however feeble, is fome faint advance in an unexplored region Condiments, their tmporiance on domeftic eco- nomy.—On adverting to what. has been: faid above, it will appear that too little attention has hitherto been beftowed to the fubjeét of condi- ments as affecting animals. Hitherto the great- eft part of mankind feem to forget that mere animals have the fenfe of tafting in as great per- ee, fection as man; and are difpoted to indulge their appetite for fenfual gratifications, without any reftraint, wherever circumftances put it in their power.‘The nies that may be made by man, 448 ON RURAL for his own emolument,; of this natural propen- fity of animals, are very obvious when adverted to. Yet I know no cafe in which the general attention of men feems to have been ftrongly turned to that point, ualefs it be in refpedt to the fattening of calves: for I have met with few perfons who have had an extenfive practice in this department, who are not fenfible that the profit is in proportion to the quantity of milk that the creatures can be induced voluntarily to take ina giventime.‘This folitary faét is known by thoufands, who never once think of extending it to any other cafe of animal exiftence. But there are not wanting a few perfons, who, in confe- quence of accurate obfervation, have difcovered the vaft importance of ftudying with care the talte of the creatures they feed, that they may not only furnifh them with the kinds of food they like beft, but alfo to vary thefe from time to time, and to give them exactly in the quantities, and in the way that they find will induce the creatures to eat the moft; having the full expe- rience that the profit to be drawn from feeding beafts is always proportioned to the encreafed quantity of food they can get each individual coared to confume in a given time. In this branch of rural economics, I have met with no — oe ee ECONOMY: 4.4.9 a perfon who has made greater progtefs than a dverted: bs ewig aes plain praétical farmer at Hope, in the neighbour- aPner hood of Manchefter, who{pares no trouble nor trongly expence in procuring fuch kinds of food and Jett to condiments as he finds beft calculated to induce i ke his cows to confume, in a given time, the greateft ctice in quantity of food poflible. The confequence is, that hat the this man makes much money, where his neigh- ulk that bours, who are not in the fecret, and more nig- | to take gard in their outlay than he is, fuftain a lofs, nown by Among other condiments, this man-has difcovered ending tt that pure water ftands pretty high in the fcale; But there on which account his beafts are never fuffered, in confe: far lefs obliged; to tafte a drop of water that has feovered ever been fullied by any animal fetting a foot are the into it. With this view, they are always ferved ey may with running water, which is, for their conve- oad they nience, received into a long wooden trough, time{0 through which it paffes while they are drinking: juantities Such poor beafts, as are compelled, through nduce the neceflity, to drink out of thofe muddy ftagnant Full expe- pools, in which other cattle have waded for days n feeding together to cool themfelves in hot weather, which -pereated are fully impregnated with their dung and pifs, sdividual feel the inconvenience of this naufeating draught; In this and the farmer of courfe fuffers an abatement of 2< 1: gan aftanilhinge 20rer 1d Pupsens Ale> 0 Ct with no his profit tO an alton ining degrec 3 Aftonithing WOOL. Ibi, GS a 450 ON RURAL to him, it may be juftly called: for though he feels the effect, he feems to be ignorant of the caufe, and therefore fuffers it to exift, without an attempt to femove it. as every attentive per- fon muft have obferved in many thoufand cafes. There can be little reafon to doubt, that ani- mals which can be induced voluntarily to take an extra quantity of food in a given time, will be quickly fattened by that pra€tice; but we would fcarcely be inclined to fufpeét, that the fame effect would be the refult where the animals are compelled involuntarily to take a much great- er quantity of food than they ever would do, if left entirely to themfelves, were we not in pof- feffion of faéts which undeniably prove that this is certainly the cafe. The prattice of cramming fowls, as it is generally called, eftablithes this point beyond a doubt. The following method of fattening geefe, in Languedoc in France, while it proves the pofi- tion here ftated, deferves to be generally known, as it will give fome hints that may be ufeful in fattening other animals. After the bird has got into full flefh,(7. e. by being well kept upon green food,) it is necef- fary not to delay the fattening of them too long, RY" ECONOMY: 4 Dal hough he left you lofe the feafon entirely. About the end nt of the of December they enter into rut, after which without time they will not fatten at all. As foon as tive per- the froft has fet in,(ufually towards the end of houfand November,) they are fhut up, to the number of ten or twelve,(never more) ina dark ftill place, that ante where they can never fee light, nor hear the ‘olakean cries of thofe which are kept for laying. They | will be remain in that prifon till they have attained the eeu greateft degree of fatnefs, and are ready for kill- Ble titre ing: that moment muft be feized, otherwife they mains would very foon turn lean, and at laft die. nich great There are two ways of fattening of them.— wittde i The fir is, by giving Be a trough filled with notin po: grain, which they call /arde, fo that they may het this eat whenever they pleafe.[I do not know what kind of grain is denoted by the word farde. Per- crainming ‘thes thi haps it may be buck-wheat. It does not feem pithes this from what follows, that the effect of the opera- tion called malting on grain, intended to feed toe animals, is there known.] The geefe fattened ves the pole ally known, be ufeful im on this grain are very delicate. Others put into the trough grains of maize boiled in water.—- They take care to give them plenty ot that food, and to keep the coop clean. At the end flefhy(16 of two or three weeks the geefe are all fully ‘hy le.‘ QO y itis neceh 7 Gg a ern{00 Lon Ba>: p a Se Rpts goa a 2= pasar ae Fe eee ad aa"—=——— 4.52 ONG RERA L fattened. They are then taken out of the coop, and allowed to go at large into the water for twenty four hours. Without that precaution their flefh would have a difagreeable flavour.— The above may be called the natural method of fattening, by enticing them to eat food enough of their own accord. The /econd may be called the arfificial method, and is as follows: The geefe are put up in the fame manner as before, and are crammed twice a day, by put- ting into their craw, by means of a tinned tube, as much as it will hold, of maize boiled in water. The tube is ufed, becaufe the bill of the goofe being furnifhed with teeth, the per- fon who fhould attempt to perform that opera- tion by hand, would foon have it fcratched and torn to pieces. By this means, the geefe acquire a prodigious fatne/s, fo that a pair jome- fimes weigh from fifty to firty pounds. Their liver weighs from one pound toa pound anda half,—is white and delicate;—but has a flight bitternefs to the tafte, which the liver of a duck has not. The hearts are large, like a fmall apple, and when dreffed on the gridiron, they are excellent eating. The feet are boiled, after which they are fried the fame as the tongue, \ C0dp, ler for n their ethod ough called lanner DY pur 1 tube, led in bill of he per- operas atched - geele r fome- Their d anda a flight "a dack a{mall N, they d, after Ue, ECONOMY. 4.53 Ducks are fattened in the fame place as under. When the ducks are pretty fat by the ufual modes of feeding, they are fhut up eight by eight in a dark place. Every morning and evening, a fervant puts their wings acrofs, and oO? placing them between his knees, opens their bil] with his left hand, and with his right fills the craw with boiled maize: they fometimes die fuf- focated; but they are not a bit the worfe for it, provided care is taken to bleed them direttly.— The unfortunate animals pafs there fifteen days in a{tate of oppreffion and fuffocation, in confe- quence of ¢heir liver growing large, which keeps them always panting, and almoft without breath- ing. When the tail of the duck /preads out like a fan, they know that it is fat enough; they are then turned out to bathe in water, after which they are killed. «[have opened two ducks, of which the one had not, and the other had beencrammed. The firft had a liver of the natural fize, the fkin equal- ly thick in all places, and the lungs perfectly found. That which had been crammed, had an enormous liver, which, covering all the lower part of the belly, extended as far_as the anus. (The ducks are generally fuffocated when, by the preffure of the liver, the anus is opened, and the liver appears at it’s orifice.)“The lungs were Ggs 454 ON RURAL {mall, and loaded with blood. The fkin of the belly, which covered the liver, was of the thick- nefs of a fhilling. When the ducks thus cram- med, as well as the geefe, have been plucked, they feem balls of fat, and none of their mem- bers are difcernable.” There are fome inferences, not a little curious, may be drawn from thefe facts, in regard to the fattening of other animals. Not only does it confirm the general pofition affumed above, that the more food an animal can be made to take, in a given time, the quicker it will be fattened: but this rule feems to hold, when it is given even in a hurtful quantity, beyond what the animal would naturally have taken; and far- ther, that by certain modes of feeding, when well underftood, the fize of particular parts of the body can be augmented at pleafure, far be- yond their natural proportions. Could the quan- tity of tallow in quadrupeds be augmented near- ly in the fame proportion to the liver, in this cafe, it is evident the profit to the owner would be greatly augmented. The following mode of fat- tening poultry, as practifed by an experienced perfon in Britain, approaches nearer to that na- tural mode of feeding, and concurs in confirming the general doétrines. of the thick. crams icked, mem- Urhows, rard to ly does above, made to will be hen it is nd what and far- , when parts of , fat be- the quatt- ted near this cafe, would be fe of fat- erienced that nd- onfirmin? BME RE oe a a> aS“5——S—SSS— ECONOMA. 4 wt Lea) Receipt for feeding poultry. « Very fhort time is neceffary. If a chicken be not fat ina week, it is diftempered. « Poultry fhould be fattened in coops kept very clean. They fhould be furnifhed with gra- vel, but with no water. Their only food, barley meal, mixed fo thin with water as to ferve them for drink. Their thirft makes them eat more than they would, in order to extract the water that is among their food. This fhould not be put in troughs, but laid upon a board, which frould be clean wafhed every time frefh food ts put upon it. It is foul and heated water which is the fole caufe of the pip. The preventative is obvious.” Common falt, value of, in feeding beafis.— There is no fubftance yet known which is fo much relifhed by the whole order of grameni= vorous animals, as common falt. The wild crea- tures of the defart are fo fond of it, that where- ever they difcover a bank of earth impregnated with a{mall proportion of falt, they come to it ever after regularly to lick the faline earth, as they would to a pool of water for drink, were ye om Gg 456 ON-RU RA I, there none other near; fo that when a hunter in America difcovers fuch a livk, as fuch places are there called, he reckons himfelf fure of obtaining plenty of game, by lying in wait near it, and, fhooting them as they approach it, until the whole beafts thai have difcovered it are killed, it is alfo admitted by all thofe who have tried the experiment, that falt, given along with the food of domeftic animals, jexcept fowls, to which falt is a certain poifon,] tends very much to pro- mote their health and accelerate their feeding; and although fome perfons, who have been at a Jofs to account for the manner in which this fti- mulent cguld aét as a nutritious fubftance, have affected to difregard this fa&, yet no one His been able to bring the flighteft thew of evi- dence, to invalidate the{trong proofs that have been adduced in fupport of it; though, unfortu- nately for this country, few experiments of this kind have been tried in it. In fact, we have no reafon to fuppofe that falt ats in the{mallet de- gree, asa nutritious mee ce, or, of it/felf, tends to fatten any animal; but that merely, by a€ting as a condiment, it whets the appetite, and gives the creature to which it is properly adminiftered a{trong relith for it’s proper food, fo as to induce it to eat in@ given time a greater quantity than it would have done, and thus greatly to aug- EGON QGM Y. 457 aia ment, as has been above explained, it’s feeding ean quality beyond what it otherwife could have had. ein In this way, it is not-perhaps an extravagant po- , ai fition to fay, that by a proper ufe of common falt,; Ul the the fame quantity of forage might, on many occa- ie fions, be made to go twice as far as it could have i ined gone in feeding animals, had the falt been with- ith the* held from them. If fo,(and let thofe, who are which inclined to withhold their affent to this pofition, {a pro- prove, by a fet of experiments fairly conducted, ceding thatit is erroneous; till then, the unvarying tef- cen ata timony of the few who have tried it, confirming this ft the pofition, ought to be relied on. If fo, then, e, have I{till fay,) we have here laid open to our view ne hts an eafy mode of augmenting the produce of our of evi- fields to an amazing extent: for, if the fame at have quantity of forage can be made to go, not twice untortu-‘as far, but one twentieth part only farther than it ; of this now does, it would be the fame thing as adding have no one twenticth part to the aggregate produce of sllett de- meat for beafts, throughout the whole kingdom. fends But, according to the eftimate of the prefident rating of the Board of Agriculture, there are upwards yy J fe) Rae Pann g: i ae of fifty millions of acres of cultivated land in this AM re)> a 7. ifland; the value of that forage produced by which inittered f ie cannot, on.an average, be rated fo low as twenty o induct ae sa thay fhillings per acre; but even at that low rate, the {uy:° j to all 458 ONAR URAL. the addition of one twentieth would amount to 2,550,000]. per annum; a fum fo great, that when viewed in the aggregate, it 1s difficult to bring the mind to believe that fuch an improve- ment is a€tually praéticable; yet, when the par- ticulars dre confidered in detail, it feems to be impoflible not to admit that the amount of the improvement muft be greatly above what is here ftated. This improvement, however, immen/e as it muft appear to be, in whatever way it can be viewed, is entirely prevented from taking place in this ifland, by reafon of the falt laws: for while thefe fhall be continued on the footing they now ftand, it is yain to think ever to induce farmers even to try the experiments that are neceflary for elucidating the faéts here wanted: and other per- fons are, for obvious reafons, incapable of making the experiments; nor, if they could make them with the utmoft accuracy, could they ever convince farmers in general, while the duties fhall be allowed to continue as they now are, fo far as to induce them to make a copious ufe of falt for their beafts in their general prac- tice. Confidered under this point of view, as well as many others, the duty on falt muft be accounted one of the moft impolitic taxes that be lace hile 10W ers ECONOMY. 459 ever was impofed in any country; as it tends to retard the profperity of the nation in a thoufand ways, to an amount that no perfon, who has not confidered the fubjet with the fame attention I have done, could ever believe to be poflible.— Better were it for the inhabitants of this country to pay an hundred times the amount of the free produce of the duties on falt, if levied in any one of a variety of ways that might eafily be fuggett- ed, which do not bind up the hands of induftry as this does. But fo long as party cabals fhall occupy the minds of the leading men in the legiflative and executive departments of govern- ment, to the exclufion of every object from their ferious thoughts, that cannot be immedately con- neéted with them, it is in vain to think that ob- fervations which tend to promote merely ufeful meafures, which might perhaps affect the inte- reft, and tend to difguft fome powerful fupport- ers of either party, or their adherents, will ever command the attention of any party. I write then, at prefent, as in times paft, without hope, and merely from a fenfe of duty. I am happy in being placed beyond the verge of the vortex of any party whatever, otherwife I alfo might perhaps have been induced, like others, to leave this fubject untouched, as well as fome others 460 ON? R URAL that in a fimilar manner retard the profperity of the nation, and which are equally refpeéted alike by thofe who are in power, and thofe who hope to be fo(r). Tay, bef mode of obtaining it of a fine qua- lity.—Hitherto[ have treated only of green fo- rage; but as in this climate, where grafs does not continue to vegetate luxuriantly throughout the whole year, a provifion muft be made for winter food for beafts; for this purpofe, it be- comes neceflary, in all cafes, on grafs farms, to appropriate a proportion of the land for hay. It becomes, then, a confideration of fome imports ance, to enquire in what way hay of the bett quality can be obtained in the greateft quantity, and at the leaft expence that the nature of the cafe will admit. From the confideration above ftated, it is evj- dent that it isa matter of much greater confe- quence than has been generally imagined, to take care that the hay fhall be of the very beft quality poflible; becaufe one ftone of hay, of an exceeding fine quality, may probably go as far in feeding beafts, as four of an inferior quality will do. Indeed no hay, but that which is of the very beft quality, will fatten beafts at all; and ” “a ECONOMY. 461 there are very few places in this ifland, where the farmers are at fo much pains in making their hay as to render it fo good as to be fit for this purpofe. So little attention is in general beftow- ed upon this fubjeét, that few farmers have even an idea of the circumftances that chiefly tend either to improve the quality of their hay, or to make it worfe. For the moft part, all that feems to be aimed at, is to get the grafs as quickly dryed as poflible, fo as that it may admit of being kept, when put up ina large mafs together.— And as grafs, that is already withered before it be cut, can be more eafily dried than that which is very green and fucculent, it is too ge- neral a practice to allow it to advance too far before it be cut; in confequence of which, the hay is rendered of a quality much inferior to what it might have been. Some light will be thrown on this branch of our fubjeét by the fol- lowing fatts ftated by Mr. Davies, in his account of Wiltthire. « The dairy farmers,” he obferves,“ in North « Wiltthire, and in particular the grazicrs, are «“ much more attentive to the quality, than the « quantity of their hay. It has been: already “a ‘ remarked, that they make a point of haining ray ‘up their meadows as early as pofhble in au- a og Ni lee 462 ON RURAL “sé «ae tun, and of courfe are able to mow early in the fummer. «It is not uncommon to fee grafs mown, not only before it is in bloffom, but even be- fore it is all in ear; and to this it is owing that it is more common to fatten cattle with hay alone, in North Wilts, than perhaps in any county in the kingdom. «« And by this the dairy men are able to keep up the milk of thofe cows that calve early, and from which calves are fatted, which would otherwife fhrink before the fpringing of the grafs, and never recover. And the ad- * vantage they get by early after-grafs, and by the duration of that after-grafs to a late period in autumn, fully compenfates for the lofs of quantity in their hay crop.”; Thefe obfervations are judicious; but they do not go as far as could be wifhed. Nothing is faidas to the mode adopted for winning the hay(s) on which it’s quality muft always greatly depend. Itisin general underftood, that if hay can be made fo as to retain fome tinge GF at's green colour, it is better than if it were bleached white, or rotted: but precautions are feldom thought neceffary to be adopted for guarding againft the effects of feorching fun-fhine, which keep cally, which nging he ad- nd by neriod ifs of ey do othing mg the greatly if hay of it’s eached feldom yanding ; which TR ECON OM Y.. 4.63 by too quickly exhaling it’s natural juices, ren- ders it fticky, brittle, and unpalatable to a cer- tain degree; and, what is of{till more import- ance, the effeéts of rain, or even dew, if abun- dant, if they be fuffered to fall upon the grafe after it is cut, and before it be made into hay, are feldom adverted to; fo that if dry weather come foon to exhale that wet, while the grafs lies fpread out upon the ground, the farmer feels little anxiety about the confequences; though it is a certain fa¢t that no hay, which has been in the leaft wetted during the procefs of hay- making, can ever be made to have that fweet palatable tafte it would have had without it. Nor did I ever fee it fail that beafts, when al- lowed to choofe between hay fo made, and that ‘which has been carefully guarded from moifture, ever hefitated to make choice of the laft, or committed a miftake, even where| myfelf could not diftinguifh a perceptible difference. By precautions that I myfelf have adopted, and which are mentioned in the efflay on hay-making, in the firft volume of thefe effays, this evil may be in a great meafure obviated; but even under that procefs, the furface of the hay-cocks can- not be proteéted from dew or rain; fo that if wet weather fhall come-+on during the hay pro- 464 ON, RURAL cefs, a very large proportion of the hay muft fut tain a damage that greatly diminifhes it’s value. To guard again{ft this inconvenience, and to obtain hay, in all cafes, of the very beft quality the circumftances will admit of, the following procefs may be fafely conjoined with the prac- tice of cutting and feeding beafts with grafs in the houfe, above recommended. If the produce of grafs land be to be cut, as’ above defcribed, and ufed green, it will be pro- per, in general, to reftrve a part of it for hay: in this cafe the cutting for gra/s and for hay fhould be carried on together; but with the following variations, depending on the ufes it is to be applied to. That part of the grafs which is intended to be ufed green, as it will fuffer no damage by being cut when wet, mutt continue to be cut regularly each day as it is wanted, with- out regard to the weather; whereas that part of it which is. intended for hay, ought on no account to be cut while wet; and therefore that part of the operation muft be difcontinued un- lefs when the weather is dry and fine; nor fhould grafs that is intended for hay ever be cut either in the morning, or the evening, while dew is upon it. And as the hay, in the mode pro- pofed, ought to be made day by day for.a conti- : | | | | fut ECONOMY. 465 alue, nuance, as the grafs comes forward for the d to{cythe, while the weather is in a proper ftate ality for it; and not all at one time, 4s in the ufual ving mode of hay-making, the cutting both grafs and tac hay from the fame field may be very economically 3 in combined. together. For this purpofe, the grafs which is cut in the morning, while the dew may t, as perhaps be upon it, and in the afternoon, pio- ought to be appropriated to the beafts green; hay: and that part of the grafs only, which is cut rt hy from about nine till two o’clock, while the wea- 1 the ther is dry and fine, fhould be made into hay. 6 ILS If the mower begins to cut down for hay about which nine o’clock in the morning, and goes on in that er 0 operation till one or two o’clock in the after- inue noon, and if the perfons who are to put up the mith. hay begin to that operation about one, the grafs part will thus be allowed to lie between three and mn no| four hours in the{wathe, expofed to the fun, e that which will exhale fome part of it’s moifture, and 1d Un- deaden it enough for the purpofes required, e; not though it ftill retains the whole of its nutritious be cut juices without abatement. e dew After being allowed to lie thus long, it fhould - pro- be raked clean up, and carried off the field in contl- the fame cart that is employed for taking in the grafs, and immediately put into the ftack, VOL. 111. Hh 466 ON RURAL fo as that the whole grafs that was cut that day fhall be put up before evening; and thus regu- larly each good day throughout the feafon. But as grafs, while in this green and fucculent ftate, would not keep if put up by itfelf, care mutt be taken te provide fome dry forage to mix with it. For this purpofe nothing can be fo proper as good dry hay; but for want of that, at the beginning, good ftraw may be very fafely, employed.(¢) To perform this operation properly, it will be neceffary to erect a permanent roof for the hay- ftack, fupported by upright pofts of a proper height. This pra€tice will be highly economical in every fenfe; not only becaufe it will fave the wafte of thatch every year, and the labour of putting it on and fecuring it upon the hay-fiack, but alfo becaufe it will fave from damage a great proportion of hay, which is unavoidably wafted in confequence of the imperfection of that kind of temporary thatching. Nothing, I conceive, but inattention, or the averfion that landlords have to ere€t proper buildings, or the want of fecurity to encousage farmers to do it, could ever have reconciled the nation to the idea of fe- curing hay by the imperfect prote€tion of a tem- porary roof. Almoift the only hay-ftack, proper- ECONOMY. 467 that day ly fo called, I have ever yet feen with a perma- eu nent roof, is belonging to J. Bayley, Efq. at es Hope near Manchefter, which is one of many ju- ieculent dicious improvements adopted by that public-fpi- If a rited gentleman.| to mix Nor need this roof coft the farmer almoft any itt ae extra expence beyond what he muft have laid t of that, out for his proper accommodation in other re- s: for if the bottom of the hay-ftack be made to reft upon beams fupported fo far above ery fafely it will be the ground, as to admit of his domeftic animals tthe hay- to ftand under them, the fame roof will antw 8 proper both purpofes at once, as is done at prefent w ith cconomical dwelling Ae of feveral ftages. I fave the When the’ hray- ftack is to be made Wpi cea labour of wooden gangway of a few loofe deals fhould be hay-flack, laid along from end to end of the whole ftack, ge a greet about fix feet above the furface of the floor; a bly watted platform on the fame level for receiving the f that kind hay, fhould be conneéted with it. By means of | concelve, this gangway, a thin ftratum of dry hay fhould t landlords be firft ftrewed lightly above the bottom floor:[It = want of will be neceffary, in all cafes where cattle are sould eve! put below this hay-ftack, not only to have a dea of' floor, but alfo to have the beams lathed below «ofa tet and plaiftered, not only for the purpofe of pre: & org venting fire, but alfo for preferving the beamé Hop 2 468 ON RURAL| from rotting by the breath of the beafts.| and: j above that a ftratum of grafs fhould be ftrewed| in the fame light manner without trampling:; upon it; and fo on over the whole length of| p the hay-ftack. Ifthe extent of this ftack be a properly proportioned to the quantity of hay to_ a be daily cut, it may be fo contrived as that no'/ more than one(or perhaps occafionally two) very| Mm thin ftrata fhall have occafion to be thus made in| fa any one day. In which cafe the new cut grafs 03 will be expofed to the fun and drying air, for| mh the beft part of one day more, before it be co-‘4 th vered up, without danger of being damaged| la either by dew or rain.[To render this kind of| in hay-ftack perfeétly compleat, the fides of it might be covered with open deals, fet fhelving| this like a tanner’s dry houfe, which would admit the| faci air without fun-fhine, and totally exclude‘Tain tha even during windy weather.} Another. ftratum fe I of hay and grafs being, in the fame manner, oC Jaid upon this next day, will prevent it from ha being ever afterwards expofed to the fun, and 3 for will at the fame time prefs it gently down, but|| Th " fiill fo lightly as to allow the air to pafs through;|. mt it, and gradually exhale its moifture. Each fuc- ceflive addition will prefs that below it a little ee ro) (om more firmly, fo as to make it flowly to confoli- mil ONO MY. 469 ils] an date below in proportion as it dries. Thus will > ftrewed the whole of the native juices of the hay be re- rampling tained in as great perfection as can be conceived ength of poffible, without danger of having it either tack be mufty, in any cafe,(for mufty hay is always oc- of hay to cafioned by extraneous wet,) or over-heated: § that no and J have not a doubt, that if hay were thus two} very, made by the intermixture of dried hay of the § made in fame fort with: the frefh grafs, it would prove i cut prafs as nutritious and fattening for beafts,(perhaps ng ait, for more fo,(w),) as the frefh grafs would be; while it be co- the quantity obtained from the fame extent of - damaged land, would be greater than can be got by any is kind of mode of management hitherto adopted. des of it To render it practicable to firew the hay in fhelving this manner quite equally over the whole fur- admit the face of the ftack, the reader will eafily perceive clude rain that the gangway muft admit of being fhifted ner fratum more or lefs towards one or the other fide, as ne manner, occafion may require; and alfo, that when the ent it from hay rifes fo high as nearly to touch it, the plat- ‘eis Kad form fhall admit of being raifed a ftage higher. This, he will eafily perceive, can all be effected down, but 4 4:: without inconvenience, by making the gangway ifs through J} baie 5 of loofe deals, to be fupported by light move- Bach fue Be se err able bars, running acrofs the ftack, the ends of it a ithe.=: s. sere v i which reft upon bars fixed to the uprights that conidil: 10 Hn, 3 470 ON“RU: AL| fupport the roof, horizontally along the fide of the ftack, at the height of fix feet above each other. All this will be fo plain, by one mo- ment’s refleCtion, as to require no farther iluf- tration here. When the hay rifes fo high as to touch the eaves of the roof, it may be allowed to fubfide for fome weeks, during which time it will have funk a good deal, fo as to admit of more being put upon it; after which, being allowed to fettle once more, it may receive a frefh addition; and fo on till it be filled choak-full up to the roof, the laft additions being introduced by the end, the perfon treading on the hay in the mid- dle, and fqueezing it lightly before him, when he comes to the end to fill up the whole of the triangular cavity of the roof as full as may be. As there can be here no preffure from above, there will be no danger of it’s not drying fufficiently: or, if it be a corn farm, the hay-ftack may be allowed to fettle till the corn harveft; and at that time the vacuity at top may be filled up with corn inftead of hay. This will be. a great conveniency to the farmer ina ticklifh harveft: for as he will be able to put up the corn without prefling it clofe, and as there will be little preflure upon it in this fituation, he will be ECONOMY: 471 e fide of able to inn his corn long before it could admit of z OVE each it in any other fituation. an One mo. It may perhaps be deemed a digreffion in this rer illuf- place, but I cannot omit the occation that here offersy to take notice of the benefits that the far- ouch the smer might derive from the practice; were it uni- 10 fub{ide verfally adopted, of putting up all his corns, as will have well as hay, under permanent roofs, conftru¢ted ye being on the general plan of that recommended for the Howed to hay-ftack.. The expence would be trifling at firft, addition and the faving afterwards very great, as well as the up to the accommodation it would afford. It would, in faét, ed by the be only heightening the roofs of the houfes he a ought neceffarily to have upon the farm, fo as to Sie adimit of placing the.corn above the beafts, and | f the fhades for utenfils,&c. he muft-have at any, rate, ie 4 for no walls would be neceffary to that part a ms where the corn is to be kept. ny. if this plan were to be adopted, it might be ee effected in the following manner. Let a row of ay pofts be placed perpendicularly on each fide of ts anda ane building where the walls fhould Des at ie e filed up diftance of fix feet from each ojher; thefe pofts beva great refting below onthe floor, one se at h harvelt top the platform on which epoH sles for the without roof are to ftand, which will ade hem firmly, | be Vittle Place then another row of bebe: pofts at he will uh 4 vi ern ee IE IO= a[ee———— ap——____.__.__ oad Se 472 ON RURAL fix feet from each other, acro/s the building, di- re€tly from fide to fide, in a line between the two outfide pillars. The top of thefe inner pofts' to be faftened to the girder,(or, as it is called in Scotland, the balk) that joins the under part of the couples; and the roof being put on, and properly fecured, the building is finifhed. Po This ftruéture being in readinefs, and the corn fuppofed to be ripe before it is reaped, and dry cut down, it may be carried home the fame day, and built up with fafety in the following manner: For ever purpofe, and in whatever way the corn has been reaped, Iam fatisfied it ought ta be bound up into fheaves before it is led, if eco; nomy be aimed at; and the neater thefe fheaves are done up the better: for the expediting the Joading and unloading, and the faving the wafte that would accrue by fhaking, and while carry- rying it about loofe in forking, will always de much more than pay for the expence of, binding it up, even where‘the corn has been cut down bythe fcythe;(aflovenly pra€tice, however, which cannot, I am fatisfied, from a€tual experiment ac- tually made, be in any cafe advifeable, where all 2éems are fairly taken into the account.) Suppof- ing it then to be in fheaves, begin to build it up in the corn fhade, by laying a row of fheaves ardlaaeEelaieaeneeeniaiaiiaaien ECON OMY. 473 ng, il with the butt end outwards, right acrofs the een th Z fhade in a line with one of the rows of pofts; and x er polls:© another row of fheaves in the fame manner in a: led in line with the next row of pofts, laying the of the tops of the theaves towards-each other. Thefe roperly ought to be laid in by hand loofely, from a fcaf- fold on each fide, and not trod upon. The points he corn of fome of the fheaves will reach to the butts of and dry‘the others, and they will pack thus quite well. me day, A row of fheaves is then to be laid acrofs thefe, fo manner: as that the length of the fheaf lies acro/s the build- way the ing. The butts of the fheaves of this row fhould ought to be placed firft on the outfide, and then another , if eco: row of fheaves fhould be placed, in the fame di- heaves reétion, overlapping the points of the former, and ing the fo far from the fide, as that the middle of, thefe e watte fheaves fhall be oppolite to the firft poft; and on le catty the other fide of it another row reverfed, fo as ways€o that the points of the one fheaf lie towards and binding 6 intermix with the points of the others; and fo on’ nnn acrofs the whole building, in rows, with the butt bic ends of one row of fheaves to the butt ends of ii" another, leaving a fmall fpace between them for seit all the circulation of the air. Above thefe fhould be laid another flratum of fheaves acrofs thefe, in ie the fame direétion as the firft; and fo on, crofling uild tu f heave! 474.:.) O NpgR UPR AGL, each other in alternate layers, the whole way till it reaches the top. One divifion, of fix feet in width, being thus finifhed, another is to be begun, and finithed in the fame manner, leaving one of the intervals of fix feet between the pofts free, acrofs the whole firucture, and the other filled up alternately throughout the whole. In this way, the work goes on from day to day, as the harveft advances. The corn is thus fe- cured immediately, as foon as it is cut, from the poilibility of receiving damage from bad: wea- ther; and being placed high in the open air, in narrow divifions, full of perforations, what fap is in it will be gently evaporated, while the na- tive Juices of the plant will be preferved, without danger of heating. The fheaves being put up loofely, the ftack will gradually fubfide a good deal, in confequence of the preffure from above: and as it will be fit, in moft cafes, to be packed more clofely after a few days, by the time that the whole range of fhades are thus filled up, and room wanted for more ,corn to be put into it, the fheaves that are upon the top of the firft divifion, and which are of courfe now the drieft, ought to be thrown down into the firft open divifion, and regularly laid and se SFP ee Sem ae—=—————— SS= ene nm= ae ECONOMY. 473 fe trampled upon, fo-as to make them firm; until this by lowering the one divifion, and raifing the. other, they come to be of an equal height; when ain the operators fhould proceed to another, and fo sot on gradually to others as they are wanted. ile The under part of the fhade will now be filled tel clofe up, and the top be left quite open, as at firit, fo as to admit of a fimilar operation with the for- day, mer, the firft led corn forming now the bafe, and 8 fe. fo on. The latter cut corn may now be put upon 1 the the top of it, exactly after the fame way with the Wea- firft; and being high in the air, and not fo much ir, in| prefled by the weight above, it will be more t fap quickly dried. Thus fhould you proceed, mak- e fla- ing two or three fucceflive rows, if neceflary, un- out til the harveft is finifhed, and all got in. For wheat, which is much firmer in the ftraw ack than other corn, and generally cleaner and well ence ripened, lefs precaution is neceffary. The firlt be fit, divifion may be put up as above defcribed; but fer a it will not be neceffary to leave any open divi- eof fions for this kind of corn: one divifion after ano- 4 for ther can be filled up from the fcaffold at one fide. tare In moft cafes no precautions will be wanted to re of prevent it from heating; but where it is greener own cut than ufual, and it appears doubtful if it will {and Beep well, in laying the fheaves lengthwife Sa aes 5 Ee a a ern a 5 SS 2 476 ON RURAL acrofs the fhade, an opening of a few inches in width may be left in the middle, between two fheaves, all along in the fame line right acrofs the whole, which, being covered by the{heaves laid lengthwife acrofs it, will admit a circulation of air: one of thefe pipes may be made in every fe- cond, fourth, or fixth layer, as circumftances{hall feem to require.| After this manner, the whole corn of a farm could be perfectly fecured againft fuftaining any damage from the weather in any feafon; and thus an immenfe expence on fome occafions, and an amazing wafte in others, be entirely prevent- ed; while the ftraw, in every. cafe, would be nearly as good as hay; and the quality of the grain much better than it ever can be, if fub- jected to rain after it has been reaped: for I have found by experiment, that if grain has ever been wetted from the time it is cut down, it never can be brought to the fame ftate of perfection as it would have had, if it had never been wetted: nor can any art ever make the fame corn, if it has been once wetted, fhrink into fo{mall a bulk, or hecome, of courfe,; fo weighty as the fame corn would have been, if it had been thoroughly winn, without having been at all wetted. Nor does barley, that has been wetted and afterwards FR SS aoa ae zs ein 7 ee at ORB SE I I arn mmermanpag I — an= i. a ECONOMY. 477 a < dried, ever malt fo kindly as it would have done ” if kept quite dry. This is a fatt, I believe, that hid is not generally known.(v) For the purpofe of fattcning beafts, it may be Ny neceflary to mix the hay with the grafs, but for rearing young beafts, or other purpofes, it will be . highly economical to make ufe of ftraw for this purpofe: for ftraw of oats or barley, when thus me mixed with grafs, will be equally good as or- sh! dinary hay.. If economy were duly ftudied by ni farmers, perhaps not one particle of thefe kinds » and of ftraw ought ever to be employed in any other ma way: nor could the poffeffor of corn farms ever d be be at a lofs for making fuch an intermixture, as the he will find it profitable always to have as much {ub- ground under clover, as would be fufficient thus have to mix the whole of his ftraw, if he inclined. If been the proportion of wheat ftraw were more than r Call enough for litter, it may be cut, and profitably as it applied in the fame manner. But men muft ac- 1+ not cuftom themfelves to regard economical confi- t has derations much more than they do at prefent, Ik ot before they can bring their minds to bear with conn patience fuch difquifitions as‘the prefent. Till sling‘ that time fhall come, agriculture muft ftop far - does; fort of attainable perfeStion in Britain. wards ——_———— Stee reg ting SE——————— 478 ON RURAL I with to goon.—But the fear of becoming tire- fome makes it neceffary to curtail: yet I mutt add, that as fo much faving may arife from the pro- per diftribution of buildings; and as this would become an object of much greater importance than it now is, were the fyftem of{tall-feeding in fummer, as well as in winter, to become univer- fal, a few words on that head may not be deemed fuperfluous. On the right conftruction of Sarm-buildings.— Whatever diminifhes the quantity of labour re- quired of one man, produces a faving to the far- mer that will be in proportion to that diminution of labour, In houfes ill arranged, and, of courfe inconvenient, it will require one man to feed and clean from ten to twenty ftall-fed cattle, but in houfes properly conftruéted,‘I have known one man be able to feed and clean fifty head of beafts with great eafe. The arrangement which ad- mitted of this economy, was as under.. The houfe was divided by a foot-way of fix feet wide, running along the middle from end to end. On each fide of it was a range of ftalls for cattle, ~ placed with their heads towards each other, of fuch a length as to admit of twenty-five to ftand on a fide, whith, at three feet for each will give ECONOMY. 4.79 tire-) feventy-five feet. At each end of this walk was. mutt a door, by, one of which the hay or qther dry fe Dro. food was introduced; and at the other turnips 4 wuld or other food recently brought home were laid nce down, fo as not to mix with or foulthe hay. Along in each. fide of the walk was placed a wooden ee trough running the whole length, without inter- AEA ruption, a fection of which was of this fhape,\/ the bottom being about fix inches wide. Be- tween each beaft there was a fmall divifion by 1. means of a board, perforated below, and the - st whole trough was placed in an exact horizontal act pofition, the bottom being raifed about fix inches se from- the ground._ Behind the troughs: were ae placed the ftakes to which the beafts were faften- a ed. The floor on which they ftood was paved, oy floping a little backwards; and at. a length jut pus fufficient to allow the beatts to ftand eafily and ie no more, it was lowered at once about. three beat inches, fo that the dung which was dropped frem ch at the beafts, when they ftood right, fell into the The lower divifion.‘This part of it, and indeed the t wide, whole, was made very fmooth, fo’as-to admit of On the dung being eafily{weeped off by. a broad- cattle, mouthed flat fhovel or rake oceafionally, and put et, of into a wheel-barrow as often as was neceflary, ) fland and thus carried off. The upper part t: of the ih give ftruGture was fupported by fi trong g pofts” placed at 480 ON“RURAL proper diftances, and a paffage of three feet left clear behind the cattle. This houfe had been originally intended to be left open without walls; but as it was found to be too cold for winter feed- ing, to which it was folely appropriated, the {paces between the pillars had been walled in. For a houfe to be ufed the whole year round, it would beft anfwer the purpofes of this climate to have thefe intervals clofed in winter, by boards that join to each other quite clofe, which could be removed during the fummer fo as to keep the Cattle quite cool at that feafon. At one end of the ftalls, where the fituation will admit of it, _fhould be a pipe of water, which could by means of a ftop cock, be let into the troughs at pleafure. In this way the whole troughs could be filled at pleafure with pure water; and when the beafts had drank as much as they inclined, the water that remained cauld be let off by open- ing a plug in the bottom, and carried clear away by a channel prepared for that purpofe. In feed- ing, the attendant fills a barrow properly con- ftru€ted for that purpofe, and wheels it along the middle walk, giving to each beaft as he goes along, a{mall quantity only of that kind of food;— and fo on till he goes over the whole. As foon as that is eaten up,(or if any part of it remain in RO TY mete ite ECONOMY. 481 left the ftall of a particular beaft, he takes it firft been away:) he gives each beaft in the fame manner, alls; another{mall quantity of a different kind of food. 2ed- Jn this way he goes over them three or four times the fucceffively, varying the food at each time if he ms can; and always referving to the laft the fweeteft und, and moft palatable kind of food by way of defert. mate Then{weep their troughs clean; and if they have oards got much dry food, efpecially if falt has been ad- could miniftered, the trough ought to be filled with wa- the ter, at leaft four times a-day, which will keep it Hava always{weet and clean, and induce them to eat of it- much more than they otherwife would haye id by done. But if they have abundance of turnips, or ee other equally fucculant food, the water may be al j adminiftered much more{paringly. sia It is not confiftent with the plan of this effay, fined to enter fully into the beft mode of fattening ,_beafis; or to fpecify the kinds of food which an- ae{wer beft to be conjoined with each other; or the id way. of varying them, fo as. to produce the moft feet beneficial effects; or the mode of managing the hes beafts themfelves, as to temperature, drefling, 8&c. ng te or how to choofe the food and apportion it to the oe different ages of the beafts, and circumftances of\ food the cafe,&c.&c. This would form an ample $ foon fubjeét for a feparate differtation. I may, how- pain 10 VOL, ITI Li Poss Bt 9 oo 482 ON RURAL ever, here{pecify. one fingular’ fact, that refers immediately to the fubje€t of this effay, which, lays open a wide field of enquiry to the attentive farmer. Noxious plants may be converted tnto nourtfi- YY Z a ing food.—There are fome of the produéts of our ‘fields which are not only not ufeful, but highly noxious to the farmer; as, inftead of nourifhing his beafts, they prove actually poifonous to fuch beafts as accidentally taftethem. The following fat will thew, that had the enquiry above fpeci- fied been duly made, fome of thefe might be ren- dered highly nutritious. “No plant common in Britain is a more certain poifon to domeftic gramenivorous quadrupeds than the common yew tree,(Yarus Baccata;) ‘and many are the inftances of cattle, horfes, and fheep, being killed, which have accidentally taft- “ed of it’s leaves and young twigs. Yet it is a very furprifing fa€t, that in the province of Heffe ‘in Germany, where hedges of this tree abound, ‘the peafants are in the cuftom of feeding their cat- ‘tle through the winter with the tender fhoots of ‘that’ tree, cut down from their hedges for that purpofe, which they find a very excellent and ‘nourifhing food at a feafon of the year when hat teferg ty, Which, attentive 0 nourifh- its of our but highly nouri{hing. ous to fuch e following ibove{pec ight be ten- nore certalt wuadrupeds Baccata;) horfes, and dentally tal Yet it 1s 3 nce of Hele tree abount, in g their oo ler{hoots& \ges for th cellent att 1 yea wt ECONOMY: 483 other forts of fucculent food cannot be: eafily ob- tained. This fingular fact having come to the know- ledge of Profeflor Wiborg, of Copenhagen, he at firft was inclined to think that the common opi- nion, that the yew tree is a poifon to animals, was unfounded: but experiments foon fatisfied him, to his coft, that it certainly was fo. He then fufpefted that the tree called by that name. in Heffe muft be fomething elfe than the common _ yew; and he determined to take a journey thither to afcertain this faét. He found it was the com- mon yew tree; and, by experiments he there made, he alfo found that it proved equally poi+ fonous to beafts' in Heffe as it had been in Den- mark.| He then fufpetted that he had been mifin- formed in regard to it’s being‘there ufed‘asa food for beafts in winter. But here’ alfo he was foon fatisfied he had been told only the truth; as the peafants readily allowed that they ufed it for that purpofe every year, and that it made. a valu- able part of their winter provender. Surprifed at thefe fatts, he then enquired what were the means they employed to deftroy it’s noxious quality; but to this they could give him no fatisfagtory anfwer. All they knew of the mat- 41 2 paar am ee OW), R)U- RA ter was, that they found it neceffary, at the be+ ginning of each feafon, to ufe it fparingly at firft, and to give it to the beafts along with their other food: that they gradually encreafed the propor- tion of yew twigs, which at laft came to bea principal part of their food; but that they never kept their beafts entirely on that food alone, but always gaye them fomething elfe along with it. At the firft he fufpeéted, that,; in this cafe, as is experienced by man in regard to opium, the animal frame gradually became habituated to this drug, fo.as to admit of it’s bemg taken in much larger dofes, in time, with fafety, than could have been. pratticableat the beginning: and willing to make fome experiments to afcer- tain this point, he tried to give it alone in{maller dofes than thofe he had formerly adminiftered, and. found to be poifonous; but the beafts he tried refufed to eat it by itfelf in any quantities; fo that he began to fufpeét that the reafon of their mix- ing If with food, at the beginning, in very{mall quantities, was merely to cover it’s tafte, which proved difagreeable, till the beafts became habi- tuated to it, when they eat it more readily. If fo, it feemed to him probable, that-it’s dele- terious effects were counteratted merely by the operation upon the animal economy of the other po he bee ECONOMY. 4.85 ath food that was adminiftered along with it. Con- other vinced of this, by the facts that had been ropor:{tated to him, he ventured to give, at once, to bea a horfe eight ounces of green yew twigs,(which never he had repeatedly found before was a dofe fuf- \e, but ficient to kill any horfe when given by itfelf,) th it. chopped fmall, and mixed among twenty ounces ale, as of oats. This mixture the horfe readily ate up im, the at the firft; nor did the{malleft fymptoms of ated. to any diforder appear. This experiment he fo akenin often repeated, as fully to afcertain the faét, y, than that when adminiftered in this manner, the yew inning: tree was perfedtly innoxious; and that it is folely. 0 afcer- to the circumftances of it’s being always admi- Fale nifttered along with fome kind of dry food in (tered, Heffe, and never by itfelf, that it proves there Hered falutary inftead of hurtful. {otha_“He has not afcertained whether every kind of dry food for beafts would anfwer the purpofe, or a whether it is confined to fome particular kinds Ty inal only: but as the peafants have remarked no pe- ) which. culiarity in this refpeét, it is probable that any hal kind common in that country, anfwers the pur- i pofe equally well as others. Neither is it afcer- ts dele tained as yet, what is the fmalleft proportion of by: fuch dry food that will barely ferve to render it he othe! innoxious; but here, asin every cafe where ac- $13 ’ Sk aye 5 ae PR ern ee=A$ ae~——~ a ge PIERS= 486 ON RURAL curacy is required, experiments are ftill want- ing. From this fact we e ought to infer, that perhaps there is no plant whatever produced i in this coun- try, which may not be employed as food for beafts under a judicious management, though we are as yet ignorant of the way in which any other fubftances than thofe we have long been accuf. tomed to ufe, can be employed with advantage by the farmer. Sheep may be flall-fed.—Hitherto I have fup- pofed that ftall- feeding can only be employed with regard to beats that have been ufually kept in the houfe; viz. cattle, horfes, and fwine: but it will be prefumed, that fheep mutt be thrown out of the lift of domettic animals, if ever. the mode of ftall-feeding on green food above re- commended, fhould come into general practice. So far is this, however, from being the cafe, that lam inclined to believe that if fheep fhould be fed after this manner, the improvement will be greater on them than any other clafs of ani- mals, It is true, we have never yet been accuf- tomed to fee fheep faftened to a ftake, and thus fed by hand, like what has been done with cat- tle; but this cenly proves that we have not hi- ete eS — em cae. yippee Wants ethaps coun- beatts We ate y other accuf. rantage ave fup- mployed ly kept e; but thrown yer the ove te- practice. the cale, p fhould ent will 5 of ani: naccut and thus with cat e not, bk ECONOMY. 48% therto confidered the fubject with the attention it requires, and no more; for| know of no in-. ftance where it ever has. been tried and proved abortive. It behoves us then to enquire what reafons we have for believing that it would not fucceed; and if we can find none, which tend to that point, but rather the reverfe, we ought at leaft to fufpend our ultimate decifion on that point, until the fatt fhall be clearly afcertained by fair experiment. We know that the fheep is an animal as gen- tle in it’s nature, and as fufceptible of domefti- cation and controul, as any creature whatever; and therefore we have no reafon to believe that it would make any violent ftruggle, or fuch ef- forts as might tend to retard it’s thriving, if tied up: but much the reverfe; for it delights in eafe and quiet: fo that in this ftate it would meet with an indulgence, in this refpeét, en- tirely fuitable to it’s nature. We farther know, that no domeftic animal fuffers fo much from wet as the fheep: for, on account of the thicknefs of it’s fleece, it becomes fo weighty, when wet, as to overload the poor creature, fo as to opprefs it. And as it is long before it can be dried, efpecially in winter, the animal is chilled by the cold while thus drenche¢ bi 488 ON RURAL in wet, fo as greatly to retard its thriving. But if the fheep were put into a ftall when dry, and never fuffered to go from under cover to be wet- ted, it muft be totally freed from both of thofe Inconveniences; in confequence of which it could not fail, as’ one would think, to thrive much better under this mode of management, than that to which it has hitherto been ufually fub- jected. It may perhaps be alledged, in anfwer to this, that we do not obferve that fheep thrive in general better in thofe diftrifts, where they are ufually put up under cover all night in cots, than in thofe diftri€ts where they are never houfed at all, but rather the reverfe.| believe, indeed, that they always thrive worfe where they are cotted, than where they are fuffered always to lie without doors: but this feems not at all to militate againft the practice recommended, be- caufe the cafes differ from each other in an ex. treme degree. When put up into a cot, while the. fheep are yet wet, as muft often, indeed ufually, be the cafe in winter, and there ftowed. very clofe together, as they ufually are in thefe circumftances, they muft foon become extremely hot, and a copious fteam arife from their wet fkins, under which they muft be ftewed for the ECONOMY. 489 gba greateft part of the night: but it is well known try, and that the fheep delights rather in a cold than a hot be wet climate; and, if it be dry, this animal never feems u thofe to enjoy fuch perfeét health as during the coldeft could weather we ever experience, provided it have at © much all times abundant food. This kind of ftewing i than heat thus produced can fearcely fail to prove lly fub. highly detrimental to the creature; and when it is confidered that the vapour that rifes from it’s ntwer to own dung, on which, to a great depth, it is thrive in ufually obliged to lie in thefe cots, mixes plenti- > they are fully with the warm aqueous vapour, it can - in cots, fearcely fail but that difeafes of various forts er houled will be the confequénce. Nor is this all: after _ indeed,. being ftewed all night in this clofe place, and hey are put into a ftate of high perfpiration, the poor | always creature is turned out hungry in the morning, at all to| perhaps amidft froft and fnow, which foon nded, be- freezes the water in it’s fleece, ftops all the in an eX- pores in the fkin, fuddenly checks all perfpira- ‘ot, while tion, and chills the poor creature almoft to death n, indeed during the whole day. Under this kind of ma- ve we nagement it would be wonderful indeed if sin thele difeafes innumerable Pie not the’ confequence. patie ee where ne creature is put up while dry, and ail is kept continually fo, and at fe ever after- -d i ig wards, in-a cool airy place, where it never can 490 ON RURAL be fo much crouded as to fuffer any extraordi-,| nary degree of variation in regard to heat or cold, and at the fame time receives abundance of nourifhing food, none of thefe evils can be experienced; and the difeafes which originate from that fource can never be expected to ap- pear. From thefe confiderations, to omit others that might be mentioned, there feems to be good grounds for believing that fheep will admit of being ftall-fed with perhaps greater benefit to the perfon who adopts that mode of manage- ment, than that which is to be drawn from any other animal whatever. Thofe, then, who would with to fatten fheep under the fyftem recommended, in preference to other kinds of domeftic animals, have no rea- fon to think that they will be under a neceffity of laying afide the{cythe on that account. It will be eafy to contrive low apartments under the hay-ricks, properly divided by ftakes and al- leys of a proper fize, bounded by ftakes, as for cattle, of a proportional fize, to which the theep may be faftened, and thus to be regularly fed by hand throughout the feafon. Whenever the ex- periment fhall be fairly made, it will foon be feen, whether it will be attended with as much profit a0rdis, >at or lance n be inate 0 ap- that - good mit of refit to anages om any 1 fheep rence NO Tea eceflity int, It 5 under and al- 5, as for ¢ Aheep fed by che ex be feet, ch protit ECONOMY. 49} as we at prefent have reafon to expeét; and when this fact is afcertained, the prattice may be either continued or abandoned. The perfon who{fhall try this experiment, can run no rifk of fuftaining much damage by it; and as the expence attending it can be but finall, it feems to be a very proper object of experimental trial, On the confumption of turnips by sheep— Though thofe branches of the fubject I meant to haye treated in this effay be not nearly ex- haufted, I find the volume has fwelled to fuch a fize, that it becomes neceflary to curtail a good deal. Turnips, however, are an article of fuch yaft importance to the#farmer, and the economt cal modes of confuming them have been fo little adverted to, that-I. cannot omit offering a few fhort hints, on that head, before I con- clude. There are three modes in which turnips have hitherto been chiefly applied; viz. 1, confuming them by fheep on the field in which they grew; od, drawing them, and giving them to cattie in the houfe; or, 3d, drawing them, and giving them to beafts in the field. To thefe prattices I do not object; but there are fome circumftances 492 ON RURAL refpecting the management of each, that do not feem as yet to have obtained all the attention they deferve. - In confuming turnips where they grew, by fheep, much watfte is incurred over moft parts in Britain, by letting them have accefs to too great a quantity at once. It is not uncommon to hur- dle off as much ground, at once, as is intended’ to keep the fheep for a week at leaft; and fome- times as much as will ferve them four weeks, without moving the hurdles, The fheep have thus at one time too much food; in confequence of which they range at once over the whole, and break, during the firft day, almoft every turnip in the field, all of which broken turnips begin in- {tantly to rot, fo that many of them become In a fhort while fo putrid and ftinking, that no crea- ture will tafte them, and a large proportion of wholefome food is thus inevitably wafted. Nor is this the only watfte fuftained by this practice, As the pulp of the turnip is more palatable to the fheep than the rind, they naturally fcoop out the pulp from the whole, before they think of eating any more of the rind than is neceffary to grve them accefs to the pulp. When the pulp is all confumed, however, they muft either eat the rind alone, or the whole of it will be loft; fo ancl tea ae ECONOMY. 493 that the farmer finds himfelf conftrained either to ie keep his fheep fo long upon that part of the tur- nips, as to compel them through hunger to eat Hig the turnip peel,(in which cafe the seen mutt iy oe D thrive, if not to fall back into a worfe ane condition than before.) or he muft refolve to tie abandon the ED, fkins to watte alfo, although : he knows that thefe, under proper management, Hehe are a.very wholefome kind of food. A good eco- ome. nomitt will think it neceffary to adopt fuch a weeks mode of management, as to fuftain no fort of iy have wafte under this head. equence With this view, he will not blindly adopt the ole, and notion which feems to be but. too common, urnip in that turnips can only be beneficially employed gin In- for faticning of fheep; but he will examine with me in| attention, whether, under certain circumftances, 10 creas he might not be more benefitted by, rearing rtion of fheep by the aid of turnips. than. by fattening. + Not them. Every confiderate man knows that. the prathice, market for fatted. fheep is extremely limited, in table to many remote fituations,.which are pequiiatly adapted for theep-rearing; but that if he€an con- + think trive to keep his breeding fheep always in high sceltry condition, he ie find abundance of markets for he pulp thefe at good prices, where fheep in sport order ere could not be fold at all..When turnips were clot; fo 494 ON RURAL firft introduced into the remote parts of Britain, they were invariably confidered as being in a manner exclufively adapted for the fattening of beafts; and that was the ufe to which they were folely applied: but, by degrees, experience taught the farmers in fome remote fituations, that a much greater profit may be derived from ap- plying them to the fuftaining of milk cows, and the rearing of young cattle, than to the feeding of them; and thefe are the ufes to which this va- luable article is now chiefly applied. But the ufe of turnips for keeping on a breeding ftock of fheep, though it is known in fome diftriéts in Britain, is far lefs generally underftood than it deferves to be. By this mode of employing turnips, how- ever, it would feem to be a very eafy matter for an attentive economift to avoid the waite above pointed out, and to derive the full benefit from all his turnips with much improvement to his flock. All that is required for keeping a young ftock inaconftant ftate of growth through the whole year round, is to prevent them from ever being ftinted for food, efpecially of the tender and fucculent fort. It muft happen, however, that during the winter, when the days are fort, and the wea- ther fevere, very little fucculent food of any kind ECONOMY. 495 can be found on the common paftures of fheep 5 fo that they are pinched for hunger, and greatly decline during that feafon, if they do not die en- tirely. What is wanted then, is a fmall addition to their ordinary food, adminiftered fo equally throughout the whole winter feaion, as to give them each day enough to prevent them from fliding, though not fo much as to fatten them for the butcher. This will be beft done by giving thema {nap of turnips eachnight, that fhallin quantity be juft fufficient for that purpofe, without being fo muchas to prevent them from feeking and relifh- ing their ordinary food throughout the day. With this view, let us fuppofe that a row of hurdles is run along one fide of a field of turnips, fo far only as is juft fufficientto allow the whole flock to get accefs to the turnips with their heads at one time. Let this row of hurdles be moved jult fo far back every day as to leave accefs to as many turnips as fhall be judged fufficient for this pur- pofe, andno more. The confequence will be, that when the fheep come in from their pattures at night, after having picked up as much through the day as they could there find, they will eat their turnips by way of a defert; and then lie down to repofe during the night in a comfortable fate, with their bellies full. If the food through- 496 ON RURAL out the day hasbeen fcanty, the turnips will be all eaten up at night, fkins and all. If the food has been more abundant, perhaps a few of the fkins may be left till the morning, when they will be clean eaten up. In general, it will be advifeable to fet off rather fewer turnips at one time than the fheep could eafily eat up, in order that none may be wafted. By this practice the fheep will be kept in perfeét health and high condition, throughout the whole year, and will grow nearly as much during the winter as the fummer months. The ewes in particular will be kept ftrong and healthy, fo as to produce ftout lambs, and afford milk in much greater quan- tities when they yean, than they otherwife would have done; as is known to be invariably the cafe with cows that have been kept up by means of turnips during the winter; and being in high health in the fpring, the whole flock will ad- vance with the firft{purt of early grafs, fo as to be at all feafons more forward for market, and confequently bring much higher. prices than otherwife could have been the cafe. By moving the hurdles regularly forward, as propofed, and leaving the field open behind ‘them, the area in which the fheep are confined will become larger every day as the feafon ad- Se ee will be e food of the 1 they ill be at one 1 order ice the d high nd will tas the lar will produce erquan- e would he cafe eans of in high will ad- {fo as to ket, and ces than ward, aS ; behind confined ealon ade ee ECON OMY 497 vances, fo as to give them better room to choofe their bed where they find it moft convenient. A neceflary confequence of this will be, that if the field be uneven init’s furface, the fheep will na- turally choofe to lie moft upon the high and dry patches, which are ufually the pooreft parts of the field, fo that thefe patches will thus get a more than ordinary fhare of the dung, which is precifely what they ftand in need of to make the crop equal over the whole. To admit of this, it will be proper to begin in all cafes at the higher parts of the field, and advance downward to the loweft extremity. But on this, and other particulars of management, equally obvious, it is unneceflary to enlarge. I fhall juft hint, becaufe it is not as yet univer= fally known, that where the early grafs yielded by watered meadows cannot be obtained, fuccu- lent food for keeping fheep on in the months of April or May, till other grafs gets up, may al- ways be procured merely by fowing or planting (this kind of turnip admits of being tranfplanted as eafily as colworts,) a proportion of the turnip- field. with the fwedifh turnip; of ruta baga, which will keep. perfectly fucculent till June, if fo long wanted; as I myfelf have often experi- enced. This kind of turnip does not indeed VOL; It! K&k 498 ON RURAL grow to fo large a fize as the common forts; but st is much more folid, and goes much farther, bulk for bulk, than any of them do. It’s flower- fems fhoot out as carly in the fpring as thofe of other turnips; and they will become as foon fticky, if not adverted to. But where they are fo be applied as above, the ftems fhould be cut over before they become fticky, and given either to fheep or cattle. New ftems will fhoot out in their ftead, which will continue ten- der for a confiderable time. In the mean while, the bulb lofes none of it’s fucculence, if it fhould be even allowed to ripen it’s feeds before it be ufed; only the fkin becomes hard and fticky to- wards the month of June, at which advanced feafon it could fearcely be gnawed even by young fheep. But every one knows that, after the be- ginning of May, there are very few fituations in Britain in which grafs cannot be obtained in abundance for fuftaining fheep, fo that it is unne- ceflary to provide a fupply from this plant in any fituation beyond that period; and in few fitua- tions can it be wanted, even fo long as that time. It would be improper in me to fay more on the culture(which differs in fome refpetts from the common turnip,) of this plant, which ts truly a ECONOMY. 4.99 Mts bat valuable addition to the farmers catalogue of athe plants, where the ufes of it are propetly known. flower: My limits prevent me from entering on an ex- thofe of amination of yarious other modes of applying as foon turnips, which have hitherto been little adverted they are to, particularly for dairy cows, which under a ould be judicious management can be fed by them, with- nd given out affecting the tafte of the milk in the{mallet ems will degree, and of courfe requiring no procefs for tinue ten- removing that tafte; and for rearing young horfes, ean while, to which ufe turnips can be applied with fingu- f it fhould lar economy, as well as for various other pur- fore it be pofes, which the attentive economift will difco= icky te ver when he direéts his attention fteadily to this advanced fubjeét. by young; et the be- tuations 12 CONCLUSION. Ybtained in; be Wet) I Sok be not at prefent proceed farther in os latin my oe ues there are many other parti- oy fet fit culars I did intend to have touched upon. But «that time the volume is already of fuch a fize, and the oon tie teader, I fear, fo much tired of thefe(to many) 5 from th oo details, that I willingly defift from a is tly? proceeding farther at prefent. If only a few per- fons fhall be induced, in confequence of what ss Sm‘=— Pee== Sas a ei: aes i 500 ON RURAL has been faid, to turn their attention to thefe fub- jets, who otherwife would not have done it, pleafure, if I could indulge the hope that, in con- fequence of thefe hints, the reader fhould be in- duced to think for himfelf in all cafes; to refleét upon the objects he fees; to examine the founda- tion of popular opinions, and then to draw his own conclufions from the whole. It is thus he will acquire found knowledge, much better than by relying on the inftructions he fhall receive from any writer whatever; for there is no propo- fition in Euclid more certain, than that, in this Way, every man may foon become the beft, as _ wellas the moft pleafing inftru€tor of himfelf. THE END OF ESSAY THIRD. fhall be fatisfied: but it would give me{till more. fe tub.("501”) ie it,| ll more. nt POSTSORIPT:2("st be in- reflect th es founde- raw his Curfory remarks on the corn laws of Great thus he Britain. ter than “recelve I txrenpxp to have here made fome remarks 0 propo- on the corn laws of Great Britain, and the caufes , in this of the high price of grain, on which thefe laws belt, 28 have had a confiderable influence. With that elf view I omitted treating of them in the 14th fec- tion of effay firft. But upon digefting my thoughts upon this fubjeét, I found that, before I could elucidate the matter, fo as to make it be fully underftood, it could not be compreffed into a fize to admit of being brought within the com- pafs of the prefent volume; fo that Ihave been forced to abandon the idea of it. This, indeed, becomes the lefs neceflary, now that the very in- terefting treatife on the corn laws by Mr. Dirom, with the additions to it by Mr. Mackie, have been publifhed. For although, the fubje&t is there taken up under a fomewhat different point of view from what I fhould have done, and feve- ae ees i 3——; a Tf ea om: tt ee 502 CURSORY THOUGHTS ral particulars that I confider as of great import- ance, have been in a great meafure overlooked by thefe gentlemen; yet as the conclufions they draw nearly coincide, as far as they go, with my own, Iam well pleafed to abandon the fubjeét for the prefent, hoping the public will beftow fo much attention to the forcible arguments founded on undeniable facts, brought forward by them, as to pave the way for the obfervations of other men who may at a future period puth their in- veftigations a little farther than they have, per- haps wifely, chofen to do on the prefent occa- fion. Referring then to that treatife for reafons that will fatisfy moft men, I fhall here, with a view not to leave the treatife incompleat in one of it’s moft effential articles, barely ftate the conclufions I fhould have been forced to draw on this fub- ject; viz. hat the corn laws of Great Britain, as they at prefent{tand, are extremely inadequate for the purpofes intended by them: that the prin- ciple of them, if any confiftent principle can be fairly recognized, is erroneous: that as they at prefent ftand, they neither are, nor have been, nor can be executed: that they are calculated td give rife to jobs, chicancery, and frauds innumer- able: that they unneceflarily interrupt the inter- nal commerce of grain, fo as to diftrefs the peo- 5 ON... THE CORN. LAWS... 503 import. ple and deprefsthe agriculture of the nation: that rlooked under the pretext of attempting to lower the price ns they of corn, they really enhance it beyond what it ith my ought to have been, and give occafion for the in- 5 Be Ann 7 RP 11 7 ara oy p ag fubjod terference of government in innumerable cafes, lots where that interference can only prove hurtful to biti the public at large, with fome other evils, which ane it would be tirefome here to enumerate. m, ce I am far, however, from agreeing with the in- enn genious author of the inquiry into the caufes of the wealth of nations, in thinking that no corn ave, pers‘ laws at all are neceffary: on the contrary,[believe_ ent O¢Cas Saat 2 a judicious fyftem of corn laws would contribute, pa more than almoft any other political regulation, fons tha ieee to promote the tranquility and internal profpe- a view oe Se-< rity of this nation. This opinion of Dr. Smith I we of Its combated foon after the publication of his book. mclutons[ Obfervations on Natural Induftry, LetterXII. P.S.] this{ub- He at one time declared, that he did intend to + nd:.. t Britany, anfwer it, and took fteps to afcertain faéts. re- nadequate{petting that fubject; but afterwards laid the de- t the pr: fien afide. Moft of the fa¢ts that he enquired le can be after are now brought forward by the very inge- is they at nious writers of the treatife above quoted; and ave Weel thefe facts, in the moft decifive manner, overturn culated t0 his theory. I therefore hold it as a point proved, s innumer that, in this particular, the judgment. of Dr. + the iter Kk 4 fs the pe 504 CURSOR YY PHOUGEH TS Adam Smith, which in many other articles is much to be relied on, had been mifled by the fafcinating charm of an attachment to a favourite fyftem; and I take notice of it here merely to put the reader upon his guard againft being mifled by an attachment to that great name, fo jufily re- fpeCted in general in this country. That a well regulated bounty on the exporta- tion of corn, and duty on it’s importation, would tend to encourage the agriculture of this country, and to moderate, not to enhance, the price of corn, is evident, not only from abftract reafoning, but well-eftablifhed facts, the reader will be fatisfied, if he fhall confult the works above quoted. And although the corn laws of Britain, from the re- volution, when the bounty on corn was firft adopt- ed, till the year 1773, were defeCtive in feveral ef- fential particulars, fo as to operate in a very im- perfect manner, compared’ to what they might have done; yet, even under that defeétive appli- cation of them, and notwithftanding the other difcouragements to agriculture, developped in the firft effay in the prefent volume, this nation was found to be capable of not a fupplying it’s own confumption of corn entirely, but of fpar- ing annually a coni fiderable Areeplls to other na 7 tions. Whereas, fince the year 1757, when the 4 | 5 icles by the vourite to put milled uutly re- exportae 1, would country, eof Corn, ng, but | fatished, d. And . the te- t adopt everal ef- very Im- ‘ 1% ITP AT\l- VU app vig nation ( r a(hy fupplying vat of{pat y other na when fle ONT A ECO RN CAWS:~505 corn laws began to be fufpended, and frequently thereafter, till 1773, when the old fyftem was in a great meafure abandoned, the manufactures of this country being cherifhed, advanced into the moft flourifhing{ftate, while it’s agriculture re- ceived fo fevere acheck, that the production of corn has been thereby diminifhed to fuch.a degree, as to force us now to rely on foreign nations fora confiderable part of the neceffaries of life; and thus the prices have been gradually enhanced. But it was not till the year 1791, when the new regulating fyftem was adopted to it’s full extent, that the coup de grace. was given to our corn laws. It is fince that time only, that the perni- cious confequences of that fvftem have been fully experienced. It appears, from the tables exhibited in the work refefred to, that the average importation and exportation of corn to and from Great Bri- tain for forty years; viz. from the year 1710 to 1750, inclufive, when the original bounty Jaws were in force, compared with the fame average for twenty years, from 1773 to 1793, when the alterations blamed were adopted, were as fol- low; viz. Pe 506 CURSORY THOUGHTS Quarters From 1710 to 1750, the average quan- tity of grain of all kinds imported into Britain, was DOT ORR==m,= ZOOS Ditto exported------+ 665,435 Balance per annum during this period in- favour of Britain-----=-- 644.459 From 1773 to 1793, the average quan- tities of corn of all forts imported into Great Britaim, was per annum- 733,938 ’-'<=-.== 80878) Balance per annum during this period againft Great Britain-~--- 430,157 ——— eee During the firft period the exports ex- ceeded the imports----- 644,459 During the laft period the imports ex- ceeded the exports----- 430,157 making topether="-~~--"=*1.074 516 being the difference between the produce and the confumption of Great Britain, during an average of years at thefe two periods. ON THE CORN FAM: tables very concife and curfory manner, a few, and but as a very few, of the ftriking abfurdities of that law. ea Thefe animadverfions happened to fall in the eg ie way of fome perfons pretty high in adminiftration is at the time, who, inftead of endeavouring to cor~ crealind, er ages yq; f0 88 510 CURSORY THOUGHTS rect the glaring abfurdities there expofed to view, have only fince then expreffed their aftonithment that any individual fhould dare to point out er- rors of legiflation with fuch undifguifed freedom as is there done. Since that time, the effeéts of thefe laws have been more ferioufly felt than be- fore; and had I been able to enter at all upon the fubjeét at prefent, it muft have called forth a much more fevere tone of indignant reprehenfion than it produced on that occafion.: That thefe laws have tended to diminith the production of corn in this ifland, and to enhance it’s average price, and muft continue to do fo as long as they fhall be fuffered to exift,—could be eafily proved, did circumftances admit of it af prefent: but I am far from attributing the enor- mous prices that have for fo long a time de- ranged the economy of this nation, entirely to a diminution of the crop, originating either from this or from any other caufe. This phenomenon muft be afcribed chiefly to political manceuvres of various forts, arifing from circumftances that, when explained, would tend to excite a{mile, if it were not checked by a contemplation of the extent of the pernicious influence of effeéts that have originated from fuch trifling caufes. Among thefe Circumftances, one of very great influence jy ON FIFE CORN' LAWS:: 5tt iy indeed, is, that the fubje€t chanced to attra& the ag notice of the public, towards the clofe of a par- ust lament, when a general eleétion was expeéted to ‘dom take place: for had it happened foon after a gene- ts of ral election, when men’s minds are in a compara- ates tive{tate of repofe, many difcuffions that have been bi i brought forward with great eagernefs by a va- orth 4 riety of individuals, would have been paffed by enfion with indifference. In that cafe, a member of parliament, inftead of opening, like the leader of th the a pack of hounds in full cry, on the popular fub- nhance ject of a care for the welfare of the lower orders 0 fo as of the people, with a view to excite their ve- uld be neration for his charaéter at the next eleétion, of it at would have contented himfelf with eating his » enor own bread in quietnefs, and allowing others to ne des do fo in the way they pleafed, at fuch prices as ly toa they could obtain it for. Nor would others, fear- se a ing they might be thrown out at the next gene- omenon ral{cramble, have found that it was neceffary vewtes not only to follow, but to try to outdo thefe firt es that, ftarters by ftill more violent vociferations. Nei- Gmile, if ther would the minifter, with a view to difplay “of the his parental regard for the flock over which he eis that| for the prefent watches, have thought it incumbeng Among on him, to depart fo far from his proper byfinefs fuente as to become, like Julius Cefar, and many other ae a 512 CURSORY THOUGHTS Cefars, the difpenfer of corn to the people; and thus to derange the whole fyftem of that domettic economy which ought ever to be preferved, like the apple of the eye, ina well regulated ftate. No man can have fuch a mean opinion of the ta- lents of the minifter, as to believe he did not per- ceive this long before the period arrived, when fearing that the great drains upon the treafury, occafioned by this meafure, might afterw ards be produétive of difagreeable confequences to him, he obtained a 1 recommendation from the commit- tee of parliament not to interfere farther in the commerce of corn. Nor will it be credited but that many men of found underftanding in the houfe of commons, and of all parties who have been emulous which fhould come moft forward in this firuggle of apparent humanity, did not per- ceive at ee moment, as well as other fenfible men did, that this conteft only tended to fruftrate the end it apparently aimed at, and to enhance the prices of corn to the poor, inftead of lower- ing them. The hiftory of the prefent period, if ever it fhall be developped with the neceffary de- gree of impartiality, intelligence, and precifion, will afford one of the moft interefting leffons to the political enquirer: for never before was the power of imagination of men, in over-ruling the 'y and meftic 1, like ftate, le ta- U per- when calury, rds be (o him, ommit- “in the ed but in the| o have| orward Ot pet- fenfible ruftrate hance dower tod, if fary de- ecifi0n, ons to vas the , e Ing th GON THE CORN. LAWS.” 519 practical bufinefs of a great nation, in a matter of fuch ferious and univerfal concern as the price of bread corn, fo clearly afcertained; nor could the means that produced this wonderful effe€t be developed with fo much facility and precifion. Other inftances indeed have occurred, in the pre- fent day, of the irrefiftible power of the imagina- tion of men over practical affairs of the firft im- portance; but it will long remain a matter of much greater difficulty, to trace with precifion the caufes that led to thefe aftonifhing effe€ts. On the whole, there can be no doubt that this nation poffeffes the means of abundantly fup- plying itfelf with provifions of all forts, were it’s po- pulation augmented even to a degree far beyond what is in the contemplation of any perfon at the prefent moment, if fuch meafures were not adopted by the legiflature, and leading men in the coun- try, as tend to deprefs that bufinefs below the level of other profeffions that are open to every man in this ifland; and of courfe to abftraét from agri- culture that capital, genius, and induftry, which ought to have been appropriated to rural enter- prifes, Among the meafures that would lead to ‘this falutary end, no one could prove of fuch ex- tenfive influence as a fyflem of corn laws ground- ed on principles that fhould tend to enfure a VOL. TIT eee| 4, CURSORY-RHOUGHTS fteady market to the farmer, at reafonable prices, under all circumftances. Were fuch a law made, which fhould be fimple in it’s operation, compre- henfive in it’s influence; and fhould it be freed from thofe numerous petty regulations that tend to fetter individuals in the management of their own private affairs, which it is fo much the fpirit of the prefent day to delight in; and which, as they cannot be executed, give rife to innumera- ble frauds and evafions that derange the public economy,—render the laws.difrefpeétful in the eyes of fenfible men,—perplex the legiflators, and occafion thofe innumerable alterations, un- der the title of amendments, of our laws, which fo much difgrace our code; and were this fimple efficient law, when once made, to be fuffered to operate fteadily for a fufficient length of time, no perfon can form an.adequate idea of it’s be- neficial tendency. But till a fet of men can be» found, who fhall be ferioufly difpofed to enquire with candour into the principles upon which fuch a law fhould. be. conftructed, without having a view toany kind of party influence whatever, no- thing elfe: can be expected but a feries of futile expedients, that are fubje€ted to a ftate of per- petual fluétuation, the natural tendency of which is to drive us, in time, like ancient Rome, to de- § le prices, W made, compre. be freed at tend Lot their the fpirt which, as innumera- ful in the legrflators, itlons, Ut: vs, which his fimple ifered to of time, of it’s be- en can be to enquire which{uch having@ ateyel, 20- of futile te of per 1 of which ome,(0 dee ] : ee Se——~ ae— ON“PERE CORN LA Ws, 596 pend upon other nations for our fupport. If the experience of paft times,ithe fufferings that we pref: Vit 1ent experience, and the derange- ourfelves at rere the JIS ee IPE ipa oe ra— fr= 7% J Mens that Muit i00n Mow irom it, do not pro- AY~- Be eco Gp Wes ee(Rosse x Meat z: duce a convittion of the neceffity of ferioufly ad- P J: ae ey Pies ee eaten Wi Peete, Wik ha verting to this fubject, nothing that I could fay J 3) Es 2 i a Ade ae te FS 1 t would prove of any avail, Here, therefore,[ 4 7 Wwinne con oh uleLe. THE ENDMOF THE THIRD VOLUME. re peal to ee< en eee~ saeeiiimen Se eR Sr See =* NOTES TO VOLUME THE THIRDse ‘ (4, Page 48.) Tue Reader will here advert to the difference between the law of primogeniture, and the law of entail, which, by appropriating the whole property unalienably to one, is produc- tive of the moft deftruétive confequences to.a fociety of men who are engaged in projects of indultry. (4, Page 65.) I know no exception to this rule; unlefs the fol- lowing practice, which the beneficence of Mr. George Dempiter, {o well known in this country, fuggefted to him, be confidered as an exception. In an eftate in one of the highland counties of Scotland, that lately came into his poffeflion, and on which, as is ufual in thofe diftri€ts, there was much uncultivated land, and many perfons who had little employment; he, with a view to en- courage fome induftrious exertions on their part, agreed to give full permiflion to each perfon, who fhould fettle on any of the wafte lands belonging to him, for a cow to go on thefe; and alfo to cut fuel in his moffes, and to cultivate as much of the land«as they fhould think proper; giving them a perfect fecurity of poffef- fion, free from rent, during the natural life of the original fettler; and, on the demife of the firft fettler, a continuation of pofleffion by his heirs for years more, at a rent to be fixed by two neu- tral perfons to be mutually chofen by the parties; with fome other fmall bounties, unneceffary to be here fpecified: and he has now the fatisfaction of feeing a great many{mall patches of land cultivated along the wafte and more coming gradually into cul- Lt ~ tite, I or ee ees, an pian- ie ct s—’ 538 NOTES. This is a fine obje& for benevolence to delight in contemplat- ing; but the unceafing exertions of a beneficent owner are necef- fary to be continued, or the induftry muft flacken. In few fitua- tions, perhaps none, could the exertions of men in thefe circum- {tances be fufficient to maintain their families, even without pay- ing any rent. Where they are furnifhed with employment fo as to enable them to earn as many days wages as they incline, they will be enabled to benefit themfelves by their own exertions upon their little field. This employment Mr. Dernpfter has furnifhed them, by fetting on foot certain manufactures in their neighbour- hood for that purpofe. The ground, in this cafe, comes to be cultivated in confequence of the manufactures: and, in a few par- ticular fituations, this may become praéticable; but fituations of this kind are fo rare, and the requifite exertions of the proprietor fo great, though, perhaps, under judicious management, not ex- tremely expenfive, that it’s influence muft always be confined to fuch narrow bounds, as fcarcely to deferve to be taken into the account as a national object: neither can it be confidered as farm- ing, in the{triét appropriated meaning of the word. All the ob- fervations in the text, it is evident, refpect land under the manage- ment of a farmer properly fo called. (¢, Page 73.) I am inclined to think, that the general preju- dice which prevails among the vulgar againft large farms, and rich farmers, may be referred to the fame fource. In the flate of fo- ciety to which I allude, there were no claffes of men who were thought to be entitled to enjoy the advantages to be derived from wealth, but landed proprietors alone: for lands were originally ap- propriated by the fovereign to thofe who had diftinguifhed them- felves by their military prowefs; and military prowefs in thofe days, being the only criterion of merit, whoever difcovered that they poffeffed that merit in an eminent degree, were immediately invefted with Jands to exalt them above the yulgar. Witnefs the N&@r iiiso: 516 cOntemplat. a well-known origin= the family of Errol, and many others that cone ye on paca Military prowefs was, in thofe days, deemed a Pret virtue of ep an exalted nature, that few among the lower claffes nes could aim atit. And landed chieftains, with their ammediate dc. a as fod were ae to 2105 the glory arifing from it, without acne, they ee one a their ee: but yeu oe of the people them- eae‘ ves ae by ge the Oy: baat acer Ceca 2s fried ae= ee of the fame oa it roufed their envy; and ee they all, of ce fe, concurred with the landlord, in wifhing to Son pull down this upftart, who was{uppofed to have obtained this ee' wealth, not in confequence of a laudal ore: ae in few pr oe ns ae a a Pee induftry, une oN g e encouraged; but to the unfair bargain he had obtained ee 4 from the owner of the ground, who conceived that every fhilling he proprietor that fuch a man acquired, was actually filched, as one might fay, not) from himfelf; and that, of courfe, he had a natural right to refume e confined t it, if he could. Nor are thefe ideas totally obliterated, even tll ken into the‘the prefent hour, either among the owners of land, or the herd of red as farm- the lower claffes, who in general borrow ideas from father to fon, A\\ the ob- through many generations, without the{malleft attempt to afcer- r the manage- gain whether thefe be well or ill founded. b(d, page 92-) I have{een men of confiderable talents, who, general pre from[peculative notions of ideal poflibilities, have deemed it prac- rms, and rich ticable to devife a leafe by which a man, without having any fecus ne fate of fo rity of a continued pofleffion, ina fe rm, fhould be laid under cer- yen who were tain reftriGtions that would prevent him from ever having it in his derived fom power to hurt the landlord; and, at the fame time, to bring the gia a na ee cote of ee as‘it ever could at- vied them ce und ee fy oe prope ee: ut, though we were to‘ad- i" aie He(which I ne oon doing) that the thing was phyfically a a poflible, I would ftill maintain, that it is morally smpracticable;{ce- feovee! i ing no confideration whatever, except a perfect conviétion of abfo- a lute fecurity, can_eyer induce the farmer to exert himfelf con- ae Tales ;:> ~ Fn AR ae OO= 3™ la a ae pat —————— a———,———- Gites Src nc eg MEE £20 N.O-T-E S. tinually, and without intermiffion, to the utmoft of his power; and nothing but a leafe, legally certain, can imprefs this conviétion on his mind. I confider that kind of metaphyfical refinement in rea- foning, which confounds pofidilities, with thin gs pradicable by man, as one of the greateft curfes that can be introduced into fo- ciety: and I fear, that here, as well as in other inftances, it’s effecis have been exceedingly baneful among mankind. (¢ page 94.) Thofe who are fond of political calculations may have here full{cope for their ingenuity, by fuppofing that two men, of equal{pirit, knowledge and capital, fet out in the agricul. tural line,—one of them as a farmer ona leafe of the kind here propofed, and the other as a{mall proprietor, or Yeoman. Let the capital be taken any how at random, fay zo00l. The Yvoman we fhall fay, lays out 1500l. of that fum. on the purchafe of a i r farm, which, at thirty years purchafe, the ufual rate at prefent,| would be worth sol. a year; and he has sool. left for ftocking i; and improving it. The other leafed a farm, which, at a fair rent, was worth 2ool. a year. Let him follow out the calculation,— q firft in regard to the profits that the different occupiers themfelvyes can enjoy, and the rate at which their families may afford to liye; —and, fecond, with regard to the augmentation of agricultural produce that each of them could afford to the ftate; and let this be continued for the fpace of an hundred years. Let him then {trike the balance, and fee what an amazing difference! (f; page 120.) I confider entails, and other fuch ridiculous attempts to perpetuate a name, as alike impious, impotent, and impolitic, in a ftate of fociety like that which prevails at prefent in Europe, and liable to produce political diforders of the moft dangerous fort, Wherever ideas of luxury prevail, and thofe ideas of perfonal freedom which alone can give energy to human exertions, entails produce a kind of fetters that are incompatible with thefe notions, and therefore prove extecdingly galling to a NOTES. g21 3 powers and y alt 4 tas= oni vaft variety of defcriptions of men. They ought not perhaps to ee CON On oye:: ner 5 be tolerated; but if at all tolerated, it fhould be under fuch reftric« ADEN tn rea. Fill tions, as to mitigate, in fome meafure, the evils that neceffarily rachcable b a ae; 6 3* } originate from them. A wife legiflature looks forward to things ced into fo.‘ fee:: ae of this nature; and, in time, guards again{t the evils of violent 8, its effect‘ 3 ‘ of convulfions of any fort, by making cuftoms which have been fanétioned by law, gradually give way to the changes in men’s . Calculations , minds and cirtumftances that are imperceptibly taking place in all fin ie Bthattwo{tages of civil fociety. n the agric: sere. He agricul(£> page 137.) Farmers who pay tithe in kind, for the moft he kind here part, confider thofe who draw the tithe in the fame light nearly omar Let that brewers or diftillers view the officers of excife; and the The Yeoman ingenuity of thefe two defcriptions of perfons is almoft continually purchale of af on the ftretch to difcover fome way in which they can be cheated te at prefent, it is eafy to perceive, that a perfon whofe wits have been thus ex- for flocking' ercifed from*his infancy to difcover modes of eyafion, will at laft at a fair rent,- acquire a confiderable degree of dexterity in it, fo as often to foil alculation,= an honeft man, who happens to acquire aright to the tithe. This s themelres is an evil whofe confequences are of wider extent than I choofe Kord to live; to develope at prefent. f apricaltura(4; page 184.) T cannot produce a more ftriking proof of this, and let this than occurs in refpe& to the irrigation of land; a praétice that has TT it Let him then been found in the higheft degree beneficial in Wiltfhire, and feve- e! ral other counties in Britain, where it has been prattifed as an im- = c saeweodoh 2 ee t ch ridiculous provement of the very firft confequence for ages. Yet, through npott ard the greater parts of the kingdom, it was never heard of till of Jate; ’..-. gat ree and in many very extenfive diftri@s, the farnlers in general know alls at Mt-.... nothing about it, even‘at this prefent time. Though there is not of the moft aye eee + and thofe a doubt, that were this pra@tice introduced as generally as it might an: ee:: fe be in every diftrit, the total produce of the ifland might be aug- to hum a‘le mented by that means alone to the value of many hundred thoufand sncompall nr pounds per annum. y palling 194 ’ 3 ae oa— OI a AOE CLIO—"—— adi tet nie————— $22 N-O2f ES: (i page 229.) For the fake of brevity, I mention /ime only in the text; but the fame obfervations will apply to any other cal- careous matter, of equal purity, that can be obtained: of thefe fhelly fand, and fhell. marle, are the moft eafily divifible, and, where free from extraneous mixtures, are nearly equal in value to lime. Chalk is a pure calcareous matter; but is not fo eafily di- vifible; and clay marle is often impure, fo as to require to be em ployed in very /arge quantities to produce a fenfible effect. All thefe fubftances operate nearly in the fame manner. (4, page 244.) Perhaps turnips can be reared to a larger fize on clayey lands than any other, if merely the rearing them to a greater fize were to be adverted to; of which the following well authenticated fact will afford a fufficient proof. Mr. Campbell of Shawfield occupies a farm at Woodhall, near Glafgow, confifting of a{trong clayey foil, upon which he had fome turnips laft feafon (crop 1795,) of a.fize that attracted the notice of every perfon who faw them. One day an argument having arifen among the gentlemen at table, about the greateft weight to which a turnip could be raifed, and opinions varying very much on this fubjedt, Mr. Campbell ordered one of the largeft of his turnips to be pulled and weighed. This was done; and moft part of the company were very much furprifed on finding that it weig xed full forty pounds. On fearching, however, with great care, through the field at a fu- ture period, when they had attained a greater growth, one turnip was found which, when perfectly cleaned from earth and rubbith of any fort, weighed Sixty THREE POUNDS AND A HALF. This turnip was kept for fome time, and repeatedly weighed be- fore different perfons; among the laft of whom was the Duke of Argyle, who faw it weighed fome weeks after it had been taken up, when it was found to have loft juft half a pound; it weighing then no more than fixty-three pounds neat. Many perfons are now alive who faw this turnip weighed, and can correct me, if I NOES:; 523 1 ime only Other caf. : of thefe Lible, and, mif-ftate the fa&, which I fhould not have ventured to give, but upon the very beft authority; for it is fo great, that I am fenfible it will occafion fome furprife. I record it here with fatisfaction, for two reafons; firft, becaufe it affords the cleareft proof that turnips ], 0 value to: as i can be reared well on clayey foils, as I have often experienced we oe and fecond, that owe are reared in Scotland to a larger fize in 9, Al general than perhaps in any other country, as I had ventured to | hint at in the agricultural furvey of Aberdeenfhire, publifhed by the Board of Agriculture. (1, page 244.)'Turnips may be carried off even a clayey foil, a larger fize ie) p them toa: uae: without poaching it, by the following contrivance. Let the tur- llowing wel Campbell of=/ W, confifting nips be fown in drills at a convenient diftance for horfe-hoeing, ' fay three feet, and let them be propetly earthed up for the laft time to as great a depth as the plough can go; let care be then. s lalt felon taken that no clods be fuffered to remain in the bottom of the fur- VETY perfon row, to detain the water when rain falls. If this be carefully at- jamong the 9) tended to, the rain will run clear of as foon as it falls; and that wet ch a turmip poachynefs, which is frequent on fuch lands, will be in a great mea- his fabie&, fare prevented. Let no animals of any fort come upon the field to be pulled after this laft hoeing, till the turnips are to be carried off. ympany were Have a cart provided, of the nature of a waggon, having three rly pounds. wheels, two on one end, placed at fix feet afunder, and one at the Geld at a fo- other end, exaétly in the middle line of the cart; of courfe the y, one turn! two firft wheels will ftretch over two rows, and the wheels go and, rubbifa exactly in the outfide furrows of thefe; the other wheel will go in the furrow in the middle that divides the two ridges. This yp A HALF weighed be- cart may be drawn by one horfe, or by two, one before the other; the Duke of the horfes will go in the middle. In this way, neither the horfes ‘been taken nor the wheels will touch the plowed land; the cart being intro- +e weil duced at one end, and drawn along the courfe of the fame ridges ning Se as far as is neceflary for loading the cart. When it is loaded, the y perions@ 5’ yf ral horfe or horfes fhould be unyoked,(the cart refting as a waggon rect me,} —_== SR i id_——.————== 524 NOTES, on it’s wheels,) and turned about, be then yoked at the other end of the cart, and fo return in the fame tra@ in which they came. Care-fhould be taken, in general, to draw the loaded cart down the hull, not only becawfe of the eafinefs of the draught, but alfo becaufe the wheels will make a clear tract, to ferve asa good wa- ter furrow afterwards. (m, page 259.) In a praétical treatife of this na uture, it is im- pofible to avoid ufing technical phrafes, without employing sreat circumlocution. But technical phrafes are fometimes of a loca! nature, and in danger of not being generally underftood. The words Tilth and Tid may be of that nature, for which reafon they require to be explained. * Filth has always a reference to the ftate of the foil refpecting g manures and culture. When it is richly impregnated with ma- nures, and well divided by means of good culture, it is{aid to be in good ¢/th; or in bad tilth, when the reverfe, Tid has always a reference to the flate the foil has been in, chiefly as refpeéting wetnefs or drynefs at the time of labouring. At has been found by experience, that whatever{tate ground may be in at a particular time, as to tilth, if it be laboured when very wet, or fubjeGed to a deluge of rain, under particular circum- Stances, immediately after ploughing, the effects of the former good culture will in a great meafure be deftroyed; and the fuc- ceeding crop, which, if this{tirring i in improper circumftances had been avoided, would have been abundant,—will, in confequence of this circumftance, be very poor. A farmer, in this cafe, would fay, that the land had got a very bad zd; or, where the feafon, when labouring, and immediately after it, was y ery favourable, he would call it a good td. (", page 265.) This is the general eftimate in thefe counties where the fheep-fold has been long ufed. T myfelf am inclined to think it could not dung fo much: on that point I will. not dif- SSS a a a=‘ eee a NOPE ES: 525 other eng pute. The general conclufion will be the fame, whether it be{up- they came, pofed to be above or below the truth. It muft vary in different cart down cafes. ty but ally(9 page 269.) bb differs from fhallow in this refpet. Ebb ‘good wa. denotes a{mall depth in a folid body; /hallow the fame of a fluid, Therefore we fay an eld furrow, and a Shallow pool. €, itisin-|(p> page 355.) Though I think it beft in general to obtain loving ores young plants from nurferies, and therefore do not in the text en- esa: es: sof ald| ter into the minutie of raifing them from feeds; yet where very 0d. The| extenfive plantations are to be made, it will be beft to raife the 1 1" p= raft young plants. This has been the practice for many years paf{t by the Duke of Athol, who has made more extenfive plantations A idee of larch trees than perhaps any other perfon in Europe: the mode UI relpetting:: as” of rearing them at Dunkeld is as follows: : be Dunkeld method of raifing larches in the nurfery.—* A well dug set" bed in your nurfery garden being prepared, three inches deep of the ee earth muft be removed from the furface of the bed, with a fpade ores iB or the back of a rake: place the earth round the edges of the bed, labouring.!. and beat the bed with the flat fpade. In the month of March, or wound may| beginning of April, lay the cones very thick and quite clofe to or when very covering one another on the bed. About 10 or 14 days, or three ar circum= weeks, according to the weather, you will find the cones have dropt the former| a great deal of feed on the bed; rake them off, and lay them on nd the fice another bed prepared in the fame manner; then, with the rake, draw ances had the earth over the firft bed;_ proceed in the fame manner with the onfequence fecond bed, and you may expect a full crop of larch plants or feed- cafe, would lings:—cover them with ftraw or fhilling-feeds, during winter,— the fafon, fet them remain next fummer in the feed bed,—tranfplant them nurable, he the following{pring or autumn,—when they have been tranfplant- ed two fummers, plant them out in your plantation ground,— fe counties make a{mall pit for them to loofen the earth, and fet them into m inclined the hole, replacing the turf, cut in two, and with the earthy fide vill not dit/ 526 NOTES. of it uppermoft: no foil fuits them better than moors, with a peaty or black mould: the fame cones will ferve for two or three years. Thefe inftru@ions I copied, Auguft 1795, from the mouth of one of the Duke of Athol’s pencil gardeners, and are the matt perfect that ever were ee and will be found the moft effe@ual for raifing larch nurfery.’ G. D. To the above[ fhall only add, that in nurferies, where they are reared in’ very large quantities for fale, a very different practice is adopted. In thefe cafes, the cones are always{plit, and the feeds threfhed and winnowed: they are fown in a bed of good garden mould, prepared as if for carrots or onions. The feeds are equally fown in the month of April very thick; for it is found that, on an average, of the beft feeds not more than one in three will germinate, and fometimes a fmaller proportion. They are covered with mould direétly after fowing, as with onions, and {moothed by a light wooden roller drawn along each bed. The plants appear in a month or fix weeks, with the ft top, when they muft be watched, eed hufk upon the to drive away birds, which would pick them up very faft, if not guarded continually, while they are coming up: afterwards the ey require no other care, ex- cept to pull up the weeds frequently before they get firm roots: if the feafon be dry and hot funfhine, it is a great advantage to fhade them for fome time from the fun by means of mats> otherwife they run a rifk of being fometimes wholly killed by it; but in moderate weather, in this climate, they often efcape unhurt, though unpro- tected. In very rich foils fome of them may be planted out when only one year old; but for themoft part they maybe allowed to ftand two years in the feed be d, and then be planted where they are to remain. A plant fiom 6 to g inches high, is what I fhould deem the beft for fuch foils as have not a tendency to produ [e) Cc much Brats. =apy- NO Fest 524 :(% page 388.) Tam inclined to think this will be but a very et f moderate dunging; but I ftate the fas as they are there ftated. } Should double the quantity of dung, or more, be required for cer- of tain purpofes on particular occafions, it will not affe@ the conclu- ii: fions deducible from thefe facts in Lind, only in degree. al(7; page 460,) The duty on faltis in a particular manner to be regretted in Britain; becaufe it enhances the price of this ne- y! ceffary article to a much higher degree than would be experienced ent i in other countries where no falt mines are found. Were it not for lit this tax, rock falt, without any purification, would anfwer perfectly of well for the ufe of beafts, and could be afforded to farmers at eds perhaps one twentieth part of the price of{alt at prefent; but we und, all know that rock falt dares not be fold in Britain, hree Again.— Were the duty on falt taken off, it would be eafy to are fhow how the manufaéture of falt could be carried on in Britain to and an extent that fcarcely knows any bound, without the wajte of one The particle of fuel, fo as to admit of being fold to foreign nations at.a n the: much lower price than it can be had from any other place; while hich it could alfo be made of a finer quality than is yet known any where wale on the globe. Thus would be eftablifhed an immenfe trade in falt; seks which, asa neceffary article, could admit of few interruptions; for ane 4 no other nation is fo circumftanced as to have it in their power to thade become our rivals in this manufaG@ture. Tt is foreign to my pur- they pole here to ftate farther particulars, but’I pledge myfelf to do If Jefate| if ever properly called upon for that purpofe. np(5, page 462.) Iam afraid that ic phrafe, winning of hay, is eh provincial, and may not be generally underftood. By winning, 1 pe mean to denote the procefs of converting fucculent herbage intoa an ftate of hay that can be kept in quantities. I intended to have ‘a made ufe of the word drying, in this cafe, but it did not exprefs my na meaning. Grafs, when wetted by rain, may be dried fo as not to feel wet, when it is by no means in the ftate of hay. ’ ‘ ee ne pote Ripe MS a7 ze scien 5 i tg Ah RR RBIS et encarta es ¥ wae!‘ i— C—O ens LEE re i a 528 NOY ENS! (t, page 466.) I once faved a great quantity of clover hay, be- ing:a late third cutting, when the feafon was too far adyanced ta admit of it’s being made in the ufual way, by putting it up when new cut, thus intermixed with a large proportion of good ftraw, It kept perfectly well; and when cut down and given to the beafts, was relifhed by them better than any other hay I had, and was equally valuable, J am perfuaded, for every purpofe. This mode of faving a late crop of clover is by no means uncommon. (4, page 469.) No hay has yet been feen that is equally fat- tening as fucculent grafs. J, believe hay thus made would be more fo, becaufe it’s native juices would be fully retained, and only it’s foperfluous moifture be drawn off; and that this watery juice is more hurtful, is proved by experience; for every grazier knows that, in a dry feafon, when that moifture is exhaled from the grafs, his beafts fatten much fafter than in a rainy feafon, when it con- tinues fully fucculent; although the herbage upon the field be, in this laft cafe, far more abundant. (2% page 477.) The method recommended in the text for houfing corn, is extremely different from that which is pretty ge- nerally adopted in England, where /arge barns are in ufe. In par- ticular, it admits of taking down any part of the corn that fhall be firft wanted, wherever it is placed; for, as any one of the fix feet divifions can be taken down without affecting the others, it allows the moft perfect freedom in this refpeét. Whereas, the mows in a large barn can only be taken down in the exact form they have been originally put up. The danger of a large mow heating in the barn is thus alfo entirely obviated. END OF THE NOTES TO VOLWME THIRD. ——y--— eet nare 8 In 1 —— 5 4 ℳ 8 r e: 1 — 8 — O em ſoùr&—— ͤſ ‿ðʒy Coſoùr& Grey Sortroſ Chart Blue Cyan Green Vellow Hed Magenta White—— Sfeya Grey 3 Grey 4 Black