—————j—õ— ———j—õõu —— —y——— ——— — — ——yy — —— —— 9 5 4— 4 1 1 8 b b 4 4 .* 5 A 7 —— ih i pe i ize ho ieee . ra RELATING To AG KIC Doty pe RU RA ly Ut 2a a P ALTARS, 4 y 5 AND LAL a FRBAIRS R U R£ ER SA X© THE FOURTH EDITION, WITH CORRRECTIONS, AND LARGE ADDITIONS, BY ny a De JAMES ANDERSON, LL: EeRiSs dhe A.S.§. Honorary Member of the Society of A rts, Agr at Bath; of the Philofophical, and of the Agricultural Societies r; of the Society for Promoting Natural Wiftory, Load n; of the Academy of Arts, Sciences, and Belles Lettres, Dijon; of the Philofophical Society, Philad Iihia: of Royal Economical Soci ty, Berlin; and corre fpondent Member of the Royal Society of Agriculture, Paris; Author of feveral Performances, VOLUME EER ST. Ind he gave it_for his ofinion, that qwhoever could make tayo ears of cor MN, or iwo blades of grafs, to grow upon a fot of ground where only one grew before, would deferve better of mankind, and do x re effential ferc 10 HIS country, than the whole race of Politicians fut together, SWIFT. “ON D.ON RINT EUEEOR G. 6. AND 7. QRINCO» PATER-NOSTER-pO Toe ae AND FOR BELL E TUT I x N, A FO! E ND BRATEFUTE EDINBURGH A"HZ |!, THE |(} Pee sh, As b M( ¢ Se ie Wea i] U DC 9.{ if a ae oie Bkysuk as VU Beles . y ANS 3 AV i tO A? ant avi Th fe| IN yO LULL: aA_ a nt aN— path | | TO WILLIAM CULLEN, MD. PROFESSOR OF THE PRACTICE OF PHYSIC, IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, AND FIRST PHYSICIAN TO Hrs MAJESTY, IN SCOTLAND,&c.&¢. a 1 HE favourable reception given by the public to the Firft Edition of the following Effays, emboldens me to infcribe the Second to you*. Juttice, as well as gratitude, demand this of me- For, if there is any merit in the follow- ing Performance, I have no hefitation in * In this Dedication no alteration Is made from the former Edition, 5 afcribing vi DEDICA EI ON, afcribing it to the impreflion that your judicious inftructions have made upon my mind.—If I were capable of forgetting the many obligations I owe to your ten- der folicitude for my'welfare, when I had no other perfon to direct my youthful fteps, I would, indeed, be unworthy of the attention you beftowed. Accept, then, Dear Sir, of this{mall teftimony of my gratitude and efteem. I was: afraid to offer it fooner, left I micht have difhonoured your name by prefixing it to a work unworthy of your patronage. It fhall always be my ftudy fo to aét, as not to make you afhamed of the partiality you have fhown me. This is the only return in my power to make for all your kindnefs; and if I can fully fucceed in this attempt, I am well affured it will be to you the moft acceptable re- turn I could give. ra I fhall E AS DEDICATION; Vii I fhall always efteem it my higheft honour, to be, with the warmett aftec- tion, and moft grateful efteem, Silk, Your much obliged, Moft obedient, and a Very humble fervant, Monxs-Hi111, Aug. 1776. JA:. ANDERSON. iy t | | —— ORL Po Bak WA CB, T may not, perhaps, be looked upon as one of the fmalleft inconveniences attending the profeffion of Agriculture, that fo many of the moft confpicuous writers on that fubjeé, having been themfelves entire- ly unacquainted with the practice of that art, and, of confequence, unable to fele& with judgment from the works of others, have frequently copied errors with the fame fcrupulous nicety as things of greater value: And as it ufually happens, that when a man indulges his imagination, and creates to himfelf ideal plans of improvement, he can render them apparently more per- fect than any thing that‘really takes place in practice; itis but natural to expect, that fuch brilliant places fhould catch the attention of an inexperienced compiler, who, being thus himfelf feduced, will employ the ut- moft of his rhetorical powers to perfuade his readers to adopt thefe particular practices. In this manner is the judgment of the young and inexperienced farmer but too often mifled; and he is made to adopt peculiar opinions, and follow certain favourite practices, with Vor: I. b a perfevering x Po cba As eer oe a perfevering obftinacy, that his own better judgment never would have allowed him to do, if he had pro- ceeded with that attentive diffidence which always ac- companies inexperience when joined with native good fenfe. So, that although books of that kind often con- tain obfervations that may be of very great utility to an experienced farmer, who is able to diftinguifh clearly between the good and the bad; yet to thofe who have moft need of inftruCtion, and who ofteneft confult fuch performances, thefe books frequently prove the fource of very capital errors: fo that it would ufually be bet- ter for fuch farmers that no fuch books had ever been written. fhe Writer of the following pages ftrongly felt the inconveniences here complained of, in the early part of ife; and would be glad if he could in any way con- tribute to prevent others from fuffering in the fame way. With this view, he has penned, at his leifure hours,. the following Effays, on fuch fubjects as have in the courfe of his practice particularly engaged his attention; and now offers. them to the Public in that native fimplicity of drefs,i..«ic.°2 thinks truth ought always to appear. The fig Deen ee aes Gesameal OF Xi The obfervations contained in thefe fheets, chiefly the refult of his own experience; but if at times he has ventured to extend his views a little fare ther, with a defign to turn the attention of the Reader to fome other objects of importance, care has always been taken to inform him of it, that he may never be at a lofs to know what degree of credit he ought to beitow upon every particular part.‘And as the Author had no other aim but to afford a few plain inftruc- tions to the inexperienced Reader, upon which he might fafely rely without fear of being mifled; he has followed no other plan but to mark down with candour fuch faéts relating to the fubjects that he has treated of as he knew could be relied upon, or fuch obferva- tions as naturally flowed from thefe; without ever once propofing to give a complete treatife on any one fubject, or being anxious in purfuit of novelty, or foli« citous about collecting whatever others may have faid concerning it. he proper bufinefs of a farmer, is to furnifh facts to others, and not to pilfer from them 5 and he thinks it would tend much to the advancement of this art, if men of knowledge and experience in any branch of Agriculture, would be fatished with commu- b 2 Xi By Re Ejsls Ae Oe Be nicating to the Public fuch ufeful facts as they may have een enabled to afcertain with regard to that particular branch of their art, without endeavouring to extend their obfervations to every other branch thereof, or thinking it a duty incumbent upon them to give a phy- {ical inveftigation of the caufe of every phenomenon; 7 which too often tends to divert the mind from attend- ing to ufeful facts, and to lead it, in fearch of a phan 1e brain, into the inextricable mazes of error. Hor although a Bacon or a Newton may fometimes appear, whofe towering genius is capable of taking a comprehenfive furvey of Nature,—of comparing the dence that each part has upon another, and the relation it bears to the whole,—of tracing out the laws by which they are united or disjoined, and of thus xalting an art into’ a{cience; yet as there are but few who are thus peculiarly favoured by Heaven, it is be- coming in others, who have reafon to feel that they are Cc not poflefled of fuch fuperlative abilities, to be more hle humble in their aim, and to content themfelves with moving ina lefs exalted fphere. Yet, how natural is it \o{e heart is ever ie{c oti} l f Ta eae 1ole Heart is ever iulceptible of the impreflions nd whofe mind mutt always be delighted with thet Sones See ne me that fublime beauty which refults from a knowledge of Nature, to be ready to indulge himfelf a little too freely in refearches which coincide fo well with the natural bias of the mind!—Let him who has not erred in this way, criticife with afperity the failings of his brethren: It does 7 not belong to me. For, when at ot ~ > ~ — — a>) pad) eal oD a O OD CI — ~ tempted, by fome concurring facts, to think that[had got A glimpfe of a fundamental law,. the knowledge of which brought order from confufion;—when the ima~ gination has been fired, and I have been ready to enter, an unbidden gueft, into the facred temple of{cience;— when I was ready, in my own imagination, to withdraw the myfterious veil that covers Nature’s works;~-when I ftretched forth my hand, methought[ heard a voice, which, with awful folemnity, faid, MorTaL, KNow THYSELF,—BE HUMBLE.—Cenfounded at the juft reproof, I ftarted from my dream, and, with an humble mind, refolved difcreetly to purfue the inferior path that Nature had affiened me. Purity of language will not be looked for in a treatife ef this nature. A man educated in a remote province, at a diftance from men of letters, in a great meafure b 3 deprived aiv OR Re ir A Gece deprived of the ufe of books, and attending more to the objects of his profeffion, than to the delicacies of ftyle, cannot be expected to write with a purity that might be required in a book of mere amufement. It is the matter, rather than the form, that ought to con- ftitute the principal merit of every didactic performance, And as the writer hereof knew that it would be in vain for him to expect to arrive at a claflical elegance of lan- guage, it has been his principal aim to convey his mean- ing to the Reader in the cleareft and moft diftin@ man- ner that he could, without any attempt at ornament. He obferves, however, with regret, upon perufing his book, that the great attention he has beftowed to render every thing he fays intelligible to every capacity, has introduce ed into his ftyle a certain languor and diffufe prolixity, that is extremely difagreeable to himfelf, and doubts not but many of his Readers will find it much more difgufting to them; but he finds, at the fame time, that it requires different talents to perceive a defect, and to be able to correct it properly. However, as he has not vilfully offended, he hopes for the indulgence of the candid Reader in this refpect, He o Bo Re ob. B= A Ce FE, XV He is, neverthelefs, fenfible, that he has not rejected with fuch fcrupulous nicety, all provincial words, as fome may wifh he had done. Some of thefe he has even knowingly inferted; becaufe he was not fo well acquainted with the language as to have been able to convey his meaning in fuch a determinate or eafy manner without them. This he was likewife, in fome meafure, induced to do, from having frequently obferved, that inexperienced fcribblers, like himfelf, by too ftudioufly avoiding to employ every word that they could not meet with in their Ditionaries, have given to their writings an air of pedantry and affectation that is extremely difgufting; and, which is worfe, by being obliged to employ other words in their ftead, the precife meaning of which they have not been able exactly to learn, they have helped to debafe our language, by in- troducing a vague and indeterminate application of phrafes, which he deems an evil of far greater confe- quence than that which they have endeavoured to fhun. On thefe accounts, he has always employed fuch words as he found conveyed his idea in the eafie{t ma‘aner, with- out being anxioufly folicitous to examine whether they were much in fafhion or not: always taking care, how- b 4 ever, oe Xvi Py Reh fe An Cok: ge, the precife ever, to mark at the bottom of the pa meaning of every uncommon word that he was confcious of employing. Some Readers may perhaps be difgufted at this, while others may poffibly think, that-as every other art has fome particular terms appropriated to itfelf, which could not be rejeGted without occafioning great circumlocution or inaccuracy when treating of it, fo muft Agriculture have fome peculiar to it, which ought not to be expunged from the language; and that there- fore they would find fault with no word that conveyed a diftin&t idea to the mind, if the eaning of it was duly explained, and if it could not be exactly fupplied by any other ftandard-word of the language. ADVERTISEMENT. ADVERTISEMENT. pe es Effays were written by the perfua- fion of the late ingenious Dr.‘fobn a ys SOF Edinburgh, who see inte to ee the ee a of mankind to the purfuit of was folid and ufeful in arts os Jeiences, rather than to what mg bt be more{bo owy ond unimportant: Andas the writer concurred entirely with bim in opinion in this refpect, be bas aimed, in thefe Effays, rather to mnfirucl the ignorant by a fimple enumeration of a few well eftablifbed facts, than to amufe the{pecula- tive by an os oa a of ufelefs he, The Firft Part of this Book was nearly in the ? fame ee. ubich it now appears, when that gentle- mon died, Feby uary, 1773 3—~fince which time, the autbor bas foundin himfelf little inclination to profe- cute a fuljel? which he was chiefly prompted to un- dertake by the pleafure be bad in doing what he thought might be agreeable to a friend he fo much efieemed, and from the profpett of having bis performance revifed by one who would have been no lefs ready to correct the faults, than to approve of what might be deemed praife-worthy. But the m ese having been carelefsly’ al- lowed to be feen by feveral perfons, and there be- ing reafon to Jufpelt that it might be publifbed under another form, it was judged proper to commit it xvut. ADVERTISEMENT. t to the prefs as it originally came from the hand of : the Author Ti[RR IR o OWi o ie 7H thi ley“bLiU)( aii 0/ 797 ul€ made COF lerab le ee nae 7 Ede> mice ey ae ee erticularly to the Effay on mene ),* Finca eae Spf“PAT- which it 1s boped w ill be now deemed tolerably com- —~ estan Sage fp a Sc Ribas a) bs Ah MHA betas be rm el RiP cy) Taye aronk p ele} BG fe veral other articles, which havin g 9real- loc fe fe Sagar TT haga 4 24 ly augmented the fize of the Firft Volume, it was } ATA an Niger Ee hin gg Te et l, fo und thata whole New Ejay Migil OC added to the C l ogagthoyt rondering 7 sive /7 Second, without rendering it of a di[proport tionate S A JE fixe. Ihe principal pari of the Additions are pub- lifhed by themfelves, to be fold feparately, for the ac- J y) J Sob~ J commodation of the purchafers of the former editions of this Work. Through the whole Work are inter- Sperfed Corrections; thefe, however, are not, in gene- %= Oo ral, of very material confequence. a © GaN Tose. N-LS, Essay I. OF Incrosures and FENcEs,= secT. I, Comparative value of dikes and hedges, II. Of dry ftone dikes,= 2 II. Of feal or earthen dikes,-~ IV. Of white-thorn hedges,== V. Of the moft eligible method of planting thefe,== VI. Of the choice of a proper foil for the nurfery of whitee-thorn hedges,= VII. DireGtions for managing the plants while in the nurfery,= 2 VIII. Rules for choofing the plants,- JX. Of the proper fize of plants,-- X. Of the proper feafon for planting thefe XJ. Of trimming before planting,= XII. Direétions for the manner of planting, XIIf. Dire&tions for the manner of planting in a very expofed fituation,- XIV. Of the ufe of the eglantine in fencing, 22 48 58 Sect. XV. oe xX CO N= A> ANG TESS. SECT. XV. Of the neceflary attention to the hedge the firft year after planting,~ 54 XVI. DireGtions for clipping and pruning hedges~= 55 loe after it has been > XVII. How to recover a hec {tinted in its growth,-- 66 XVII. Of re@overing old open hedges by plafhing,~ 2=- 68 XIX. Directions for preventing the young twigs of a hedge from being killed in winter,=-== Gi XX. Of lopping full grown-hedges, eh, XXI1. Of ornamental plantsin hedging,= 78 XX. Of the ufe of the willow in fencing, 82 XXHIT. Of the ufe of the Lombardy poplar in fencing,-- a go XXIV. Of the ufe of the quick-beam or rawn- tree in fencing,= z 95 XXV. Of the ufe of the alder in fencing, 96 XXVI. Of furfe or whins as.a fence, 4 07 AXVIL. Of the‘ufe of the balfam poplar in fencing«-= 102 Sect. XXVII foes GG, Net BN: Tt Se a ’ Page Sect. XXVIII. A particular kind of fence de- {cribed for orchards, bieaching- greens,&c.-- 1416 XXIX. Of fecuring the banks of rivers, fo as to prevent the earth from being wafhed away by the violence of the ftream,-- TIg XXX..OF fencing the banks of rivers, fo as to confine the water within pro- per bounds, and prevent the da- mage that might be done by its overflowing the fields. upon its banks in the time ofinundations, 128 ®XXI. Method of fecuring the fields, thus defended from the river, from the danger of being overflowed by extraneous water coming from the high ground behind them, I2e XXXII. Of freeing the fields, thus fenced, from water that might arife from fprings within the fame, 136 XXXII. Directions for floating thefe fields at XXXIV. Of fencing and fecurin o flat meadow ,dOW= =- we ne pe} Send soon grou nds rom the Ganeer or Deine drowned, or of floating them at EE ane? ty ae WET: hag _ 3= a ON Bas tap er | | ( ESSAY FIRST. OF INCLOSURES anp FENCES, Vor.& 6 ‘| sf WA ay on INCLOSURES anp FENCES. TOR oP PP Ph ob PPP PPE bb bb bbb hpten HE ufes and value of inclofures are now{fo generally underftood, that it will not be neceflary to fay any thing upon that head in this place. All that I propofe, in this Effay, is to make fome obfervations on the principal ufes, com- parative value, and manner of rearing, fe- veral kinds of fences, with a view to ena- ble the young farmer to make choice of fuch kinds as may beft anfwer the pur- pofe that he may defire. B2$I SAS lofine at rs] 4 OF INCLOSURES § I. Comparative Vahie of Dikes and Hedges. The fences that are moft univerfally em- ployed, are either{tone dikes or hedges*. Dikes, if well built, preferve a field from the intrufion of domeftic. animals as ef- fectually as any other kind. of fence, but they afford little warmth or fhelter to the field; whereas hedges, if good, anfwer all thefe purpotes equally well. But the moit material diftinétion between dikes and hedges is, that dikes are in their high- elt Gegree of perfection as foon as they are reared, and from that moment begin to ecay; whereas, hedges, being at firft weak and tender,-ftand in neéd of attention and, care, and do not oe a. fence tor 1e- veral years atter| 1ey are planted: but having once‘attained.a due degree of lireneth, they sc fuatly acquire a higher her degree of perfection, and are + Dike is a term employed in the following Effays, to denote any kind of wall reared for the purpofe of eld, and nothing elfe. long Si aaee a SPs=-—_ a Ee SS— z ———— ee: mace — AND FENCES. 5 1 long before they begin to decay; fo that they are in acai much more durable than dikes, although it is longer before they become of ufe to the perfon who plants them. Which of thefe two kind of fences will upon the whole be moft eligible, muift, in general, be determined by the circum- {tances and views of the poffeflor of the cround to be inclofed. If. he is a tenant who has a fhort leafe, without a profpect of getting it renewed, or, if he has im- mediate occafion for a eee te fence, it will, perhaps, in general, be moft prudent in him to make choice of dikes, if the materials for rearing thefe are at hand; but if it is probable that his pofterity may reap any advantage from thefe in+ clofures, it will in general be more for his advantage to make choice of hedges. ¢ Il. Of Dry Stone Dikes. If you live in acountry whe re good free- ftone can be eafily got, and dine can be B 3 procured 6 OF ANCLOSURES procured at a moderate price, a dike built of thefe materials will, it is true, be little lefs durable than‘a hedge; although, in ceneral, it will neither be fo cheap nor agreeable. But dry ftone dikes, unlefs built of the fineft quarried ftone, are of fuch a perifhable nature, as to be{carce ever worth the expence of rearing; unlefs the field that you would with to inclofe has plenty of ftones upon itfelf, which mutt be carried off from its furface before the field can be improved. In fuch a fituation, a man may in fome meafure be extufed if he fhould be tempted to put the ftones into dikes; becaufe the carriage of thefe materials may be faid to coft him nothing, and he might perhaps be at a lofs how to difpofe of them in any other manner. But in all other circumftances, {apprehend it is very bad economy to rear fences of this kind, as fea/*-dikes can always * Feal‘is a provincial word, which may perhaps have many fynonyma. It here means any kind of fod dug by the fpade from the furface of grafs-ground, confifting of the upper mold rendered tough and co- herent ee i en a si See oe: oe s x si accented——_—— ES Se eT Ae ee pS AND FENCES. 5 always be built at about one fourth of the expence that thefe would coft—will antwer all purpofes equally well, and if carefully built, may be kept in repair for any num- ber of years, at a very{mall expence. Slat Of Feal or Earthen Dikes. As feal-dikes are common enough in fome parts of this country, and are not in many cafes fo durable as I would feem to infinuate; and as this is in general owing to the faulty manner in which they are built, it will be proper for me here to explain the manner in which thefe dikes may be built, fo as to ftand much longer than they ufually do. The greateft part of the dikes of this kind that I have feen, are made of.a con- herent by the matted roots of the grafs thickly inter- woven with it. If only a very thin flice of the upper furface is pared off with a paring-fpade, the pieces are here called divets. Thefe being of a firmer con- fiftence, are more durable when built into dikes than feal, but much more expenfive. 3 4 fiderable So PR RR| Se ee Bete \ § OF INCLOSURES fiderable thicknefs, with a ditch on each fide; the heart of the dike being made up with the earth that has been taken from the ditches, and only a thin facing on each fide,-is built of folid fea/ from top to bottom; the confequence of which is, that as the loofe earth that is thrown into the middle of the dike fubfides much more than the feal on each fide, the top of the dike finks, and of courfe the two fide-walls are preffed too much upon the infide, fo as to d/ge({well) out about the middle, and quickly crumble down to duft. To avoid this inconvenience, I have always chofen to build my dikes of this fort much thinner than ufual, they being only three feet and a half or four feet thick at the bottom, fifteen or eighteen inches at top, and five feet high, taking care to have them built in fuch a manner as that every fod(feal) from top'to bot- tom binds the joinings of the others be- low it, with as much accuracy as the bricks in a well-built wall; as will appear by examining and comparing together ( Fig. AON Dok BE NsCeE:s. 5 (Fig. 1ft.) which reprefents a perpendicular {ection of this dike;(Fig. 2d.) a fide view of the fame; and(Fig. 3d.) a perpendi- cular view of each row as it lies in the dike. The manner in which the workman pro- ceeds, fo as to effectuate all thefe joinings with the utmoft accuracy and facility, is as follows:—He begins by making a iong rut xx and xx(Fig. 3d.) with his fpade, along each fide of the dike, turning his back towards the place where the dike 1s intended to be, fo as to pale the cut of the feal flanting outward, as atexx(Fig. aft. and 4th.); He then makes anothe Wits g Ze hae oe) parallel to the former at the d diftance of the ee Nh of from it, keeping his face towards the dike,= as to flope inward, as at R(Fig. 4th.); which is neceffary, that the firft row of feal may be allowed to be raifed up with freedom. It is then cut into fods of a proper breadth, as at the doted lines a(Fig. 3d.) which, being raifed up by the {pade, are then laid into the dike, with the grafly fide undermoft, as at a,(Fig. 4 iit. IO OF INCA OSU RS ft. 2d. and 3d.); the fame letter always reprefenting the fame feal, as viewed in different directions. The other fide be- ing finifhed off in the fame manner, the upper furface of the whole coutfe of feal is pared fmooth, and clapped down with the back of the fpade, to prepare it for receiving another courfe above it. Another row of feal, 4 z,(Fig. 3d.) is then marked off, at: the diftance of the breadth of that at 4(Picscrity and yd.) from the former, the workman keeping his face ftill towards the dike; and the through-band feal B, on the oppofite fide, having been firft lightly laid, this is put acro{fs the ends of thefe length-ways, fo as to form a fide-band, 4(hig."2d? and 3d.) Another rut, ¢ z, is then made, at the diftance of the ength of the feal c from the former, but before it be raifed, it is neceffary to draw a rut in the line bz, with the back of the workman towards he dike, which gives it the form BAG (Fig. 4th.) leaving a{mall triangular piece at 5: fo that when it is put upon the dike, HN ire A are RR a a Seo eo AND FENC ES. 11 dike, it at once affumes the pofition as marked at BAC, and thus allows the op- pofite fide-band O to join quite clofely to it; whereas, had it not got the rut at B (Fig. 4th.) it would have projected out- ward above, as at D; fo that the feal O could not have joined it clofely, but would have left a triangular opening in the heart of the dyke, as marked in the two courfes of feal below this, which would make the dike far lefs folid and compact than it is when managed in this way. Tn this manner the workmen proceed, always rutting the through-band rows of feal in both ends, but the fide-bands only on one fide, beginning every courfe with thofe which go acrofs the dike; fo that if the meafures are taken exactly, and the whole be rutted by the line, they may work with the utmoft freedom, and every feal will join to the others at the firft with the utmoft accuracy and facility.“The upper- moft courfe of feal is cut a little longer than thofe that are immediately below it, and placed with the grafly fide uppermott, lo fa a sie“é- whol] y of either of thefe m me a ca aa a +) 9| pred + A 4 (er) Ga ome) Cc Ne 'e9) ‘me| ms mm| 4 ¥p) fo as to project a little on each fide, as t 3 may be feéh at L/(Fic. rf.) which is J\ not only of ufe to throw the water a littl vet. kes off the dike, but is alfo of ufe in prevent- ing fheep or cattle from atten npting to jump over it fo readily as they eee might do*. At the foot.of the dike, on each fide, is dug a{mall ditch xx(Fig. ift.) about a foot and a half,| or two feet deep, leaving a ledget of a few- inches broad on each fide, that the dike may not. be undermined by the crumbling * Since the above was written, experience has taught au me, that in many cafes the coping will be more dura- ble if it confifts of a row of feal fet on edge, as at Fic. 4th: for when the fla t-laid feal are withered by the fun in fummer, they become very lights and are apt to be blown off by the wind fing] gly; whereas, when they are fet on edge, as ces lean upon e bound fo firmly together, that bil flat each other, they< are & no fingle one can be carried off.[| hive 1LHCWHIE TOUN d, that a wall, whofe £ AN tane. th h. nesh“ foundation is, ftone, thouch, perh aps, the ftones rofe no fag) more thar a yOOT, O OOT ana a ie LV ing the NODEr Darconiihed woth faa ek S Appt Pall tiiliead WIth ea 5» JEN Gin enfions are the fame as if it were compofed entirely of feal, is, perhaps, =f} ray oS eye a~} 1 PEs 4 more durabdle than any other kind of fence compofed ei4 gece tan hi SsACCT LAS. A eo qOwn £= eae= me= Ce= —=.= Ufa a an — = se ————— AND FENCES. 13 w down of the loofe earth into the ditch. Thefe ditches not only help to give the dike an additional height, and keep its foundation dry, but are alfo of ufe to prevent cattle from coming clofe to it, and rubbing upon it, or-tearing it down with their horns, which they are very apt to do if this precaution be omitted. The earth that is taken out of the ditches may be thrown outwards into the place that was $e 11=> 1 7> Ac ent a a-~+ re oe by the feal that has been taken t6 build the dike; and if the fie id is in grafs, a few feeds may be fowed upon it, and it will foon be covered as well as the reft of the field. I| 7.} Po}(BERS Pa 55: have been the more particular in de- {cribing the manner of forming thefe Sib a] APA fe Bee arta< f- Se al dikes; becaufe, by having the joints bound in every direction, the fabric 1s rendered much firmer than it could be by any irregular manner of working, while o? it is at the fame time more eafily reared. And, as experience has taught me the eafieft method of working thefe, which others might not, perhaps, have fallen upen r4 OF ENCLOSURES upon at firft, I thought it would be of ufe to communicate this tothe Public. If the eround is foft, and the feal rifes well, I get a fence of this kind done for one penny halfpenny per yard; but ifait. as not good to work, a little more than that mutt be allowed. How long a fence of this kind may ftand without needing repair, I cannot fay with certainty, as it is not long fince I fell into this method of building them. The oldeft has juft now ftood about fifteen years, and feems to be nearly as firm as when firft’ built. I have feen fome walls of mean cottages that have been built fomewhat after this manner, that conti- nued to be good, after: ftanding forty or fifty years: but their durability, in a great meafure, depends upon the nature of the feal of which they are formed. The beft is that which is taken from poor ground, of a{pungy quality, which is generally covered witha ftrong fward of coarfe benty grafs. And, in fituations where this can be had, I have no hefita- tion See AND FENCES.‘3 tion in recommending this as the cheap- eft and be{t temporary fence that can be reared. The greateft inconvenience that attends this{pecies of fence, is the danger it runs of being torn down by the horns, or watt- éd away by the rubbing of cattle upon it, which they will fometimes do even where the ditches have been properly formed. This may be effectually prevented, by planting a row of iweet-briar(Eglantine*) * As this plant forms a moft ufeful affiftant to maay others in fencing, I fhall probably have occafion_ to mention it in fome future parts of this Effay: I hall, therefore, in this place, mention the method of rearing it. Let the berries, or hips, as they are ufually cailed, be gathered when ripe, and pitted in the ground, likehaws, or other kernelled feeds, for one year, and fowed in the eniuing fpring, in a bed of light rich garden-mold: they will quickly appear; and, as they grow very fatt, fome of the ftrongeft of them may be taken up the firft winter, and planted where they are to remain. All the others may be planted out the winter after that; fo that they require but fhort time and little room in the nurfery, and are, therefore, reared at a very{mall ex- pence. plants he 16 OF INCLOSURES plants between the firtt and fecond* courfe of feal when the dike is building, which’ will not fail to grow with luxuriance, and in a fhort time defend the dike from every attack of this kind. But if fheep are to be kept in the inclofures, this plant ought not, on any account,’ to be employed 5 q] os dF i + \{ Qa tinnt aAetenrcele PUlg ao taat UOC iUCLo animal naturally flies to the fences for fhelter in ftormy weather, the prickles of the ftraggling branches of the brier, will catch hold of in great quanti- tics, to the great detriment.of-the flock, and lofs of the proprietor. In thefe cafes, if the poifeflor of the ground is not afraid of the bad confequenees that may be dreaded from the fpreading of whins (furze)}, it would be much better to fcatter a few of the feeds of this plant along the 4S es a jeer 2 gal feaget XX(Fig. Ht. at the foot of the I. ao) x Loal KT a] s L a“ dike, which would quickly become a pre- 4 fervative for it, and be otherwife of ufe * Or, if the foil be fertile, and not in danger of be- ing too much dried by the fun, between the fifth and fixth courfe is better. as AND PEN CES. 17 as a green food for his fheep during the winter feafon. But before he ventures to fow this plant, let him remember, that where it is once eftablithed, it will hardly fail to{pread through the adjoining fields, and can hardly ever afterwards be tho- rougaly rooted out. Where the foil is rich, white-thorn plants may be ufed in place of eglantine, and will thrive re- markably well. I have often imagined, that this kind of fence might be greatly improved, both in beauty and ftrength, by planting a row of ivy plants beneath the firft courfe of feal in building the dike, which would in a fhort time climb up the fides of the dike, and cover the whole with a clofe and beautiful net-work of woody fibres, covered with leaves of the moft beautiful verdure, which would tend to preferve the dike from being eaten away by froft*, and * It is generally allowed, that all the phenomena produced by what we call froft, are entirely occafioned by a certain degree of cold; and that, of confequence, if we by any means exclude the cold, we effectually guard againft the effects of froft. If this is the cafe, we would naturally expeét that thofe things alone Vor.d. C would 18 OF INCLOSURES and other viciffitudes of weather. And, when it arrived at the top, it would there fend out a number of ftrong woody branches, forming a fort of hedge, that would afford fome fhelter to the fields, and break the force of the wind confider- ably; but as I never yet had an oppor- tunity of trying the experiment, I only here offer it as a probable conjecture™.— I have feen a garden-wall, that had been built of ftone and clay, ornamented and {trengthened in this way. I have had the would preferve other objects from the effets of froft, that did moft powerfully exclude the cold; yet it is found by experience, that a very thin covering of ftraw, or other fmall and light vegetable twigs, carelefsly {trewed upon any thing, prevents the effects of froft in a much more powerful manner, than almoft. any kind of folid covering, of much greater depth, even where ‘tis fo clofe all around as to exclude all accefs to the air. [leave this phenomenon tb be accounted for by natu- ralifts; and would only here remark, that, from repeat- ed obfervations, I am pretty certain of the fact: from which I conclude, that the leaves of the ivy would powerfully preferve the wall from the effects of froft. * J have feen, that, in poor foils, ivy will grow in this manner very well; but where-the foil is rich, the grafs is apt to choak it. experience by thi aftet have had AN DOPENCGESS ty experience of ivy growing very well upon a dry ftone-dike; and have likewife feen it growing up the walls, and covering whole cottages built of feal, which have by this means been preferved entire, long after other naked walls of the fame kind have fallen to decay. But, not having had plants of this kind at hand, I have not had an opportunity of trying it in the manner propofed; although I think there is the greateft reaton to hope for fuccets*. Sly. Of White- Thorn Hedges. Tue fences before mentioned may be employed upon particular occafions; but, * Since writing the above, I have met with Dr. Haf- flequift’s Voyages, who defcribes, in the higheft terms of rapture, the beautiful appearance of the garden walls all around Smyrna, entirely covered with ivy. He does not f{pecify the materials of which thofe walls are com~ pofed, but it is probable they may be various: his obfervations, at leaft, fhow the practicability of what LT have recommended, Ivy may be propagated by cut- tings; but it is probable that they would require to be well rooted in garden-mold, before they were planted out for good. It grows freely from feeds, C 4a in | | 20 OF INGE LOSURES) in general, hedges muft be confidered a¢ feed of much greater value, and, therefore, ther with juftice, demand a more particular|° sm {hare of our attention and care. cales Many plants have been fuccefsfully Qf employed for hedging 5 but, among thefe, pat the common white-thorn is juftly efteem- Be: ed the moft valuable in this country, as and it pofleffes, in a more emment degree than dife any other plant common with us, the re- ntl uifite qualities of quicknefs of growth, di ftrength, pricklinefs, durability, and beau- it ty. It will, therefore, be proper to make e fome remarks upon the‘method of training this valuable plant, before| take notice ii of any other. in ing ent § V. wee allo Of the moft eligible Methe dof planting thorns. bel Ir may,.1n ceneral, be remarked, that on a hedge of thorns which has been planted F in the face of a ditch, thrives better tham al wlien planted in any other way; and that, m on the contrary, this plant feldom thrives u fo ill, as when put upon the top of a bank st faced a] ————— Se is = a= 2 3= sign 2* a ea==% a San. SS: tee— eae =:——— Ranta NR ae ¥ cy en OO CO AND FENCES. 2i faced with ftones. This laft method, -therefore, ought to be avoided as much as may be, and the firft be praétifed in all cafes where it can conveniently be done. Of thofe who practife this method of planting a hedge, fome plant only one row of thorns, while others prefer a double, and others even a triple row, placed at different heights in the face of the bank; putting the plants in each of thefe rows oppofite to the interftices of the other rows. But as either the double or triple rows are attended with the inconvenience of not eafily admitting either the hand or tools to clean them after the firft year, the fingle row ought always to be preferred, except upon fuch foils as are quite free of weeds: for, if. weeds{pring up, and are allowed to grow without moleftation, the . hedge will be quickly choaked up with them, and ftinted in its growth. Indeed, I am of opinion, that the fingle row is in all cafes the moft eligible; as it is not only more eafily cleaned, but likewife for 1 5| if | _2:= the moft part advances with greater vi- gour, and becomes at laft a{ftronger and a better fence than where more rows are C3 planted; a 22 OF INCLOSURES planted; though thefe laft have ufually a more promifing appearance for the firft year Or two. g VI. Of the Choice of a proper Soil for a Nurfery of White-Thorn for Hedges. WRITERS on agriculture, in general, ad- vife the farmer to be very careful to make choice of fuch plants only as have been raifed in a nurfery of a poor foil; and al- ways to reject thofe that have been reared in aericher foil, than that in which they are to be planted:* Becaufe,’ fay they, ‘a plant which has been reared in a barren foil, has been inured from its in- fancy to live hardly, and will advance with a great degree of luxuriance, if it 1s planted in one that is better; whereas, a plant that has been nurfed in a fertile foul, and has fuddenly rufhed up to a great fize, like an animal that has been pampered with high feeding, and{welled up with fat, will languifh and pine away if tranfplanted to a more indifferent foil.’ It = a r oe i, ee oe m ———————=—_—_ Eanes 25 ONS—— AND FENCES° 23 It would be no difficult matter to fhow the fallacy of this mode of reafoning, and to point out many errors which have crept into all{ciences, from purfuing fuch fanciful analogies between objects in their own nature fo different as in this example. But as this would be, in fome meafure, foreign to my aim in this Effay, I thall content myfelf with obferving, that it could feldom be attended with worfe con- fequences than in the prefent cafe, be- caufe it leads to a conclufion, directly the reverfe of what is warranted by expe- rience. For, I have found, from reiter- ated experiment, that a ftrong and vi- gorous plant, which has grown up quickly, and arrived at a confiderable magnitude in a very fhort time, never fails to grow better after tranfplanting, than another of the fame fize that. is older and more . ftinted in its growth, whether the foil in which they are planted be rich or poor; fo that inftead of recommending a poor hungry foil for a nurfery, I would, in alk cafes, with to fet apart for this purpofe the richeft and moft fertile{pot that could be found; and,-in the choice of plants, ee 4 would 2 OF INCLOSPRES would always prefer the youngeft and moft healthy to fuch as were older, if of an equal fize. I fpeak here from expe- rience, and therefore do it without the {malleft doubt or hefitation; being cer- tain that future obfervations will confirm the juitnefs of thefe remarks. § VII. Directions for managing the Plants while ay i 4 72 the N urfery. Ir has been hinted above, that if the plants have been fo managed as to have their roots very much mulplied clofe by the ftem, it will tend greatly to make them profper well, after they are tran{- planted. But as this is a circumftance of much greater importance than is in general apprehended, I fhall beg leave to call the attention of the reader to it ina more particular manner, It was long imagined that roots im- bibed nourifhment from the earth through- out their whole length, as it was appre- hended that the watery juices penetrated the AND FENCES. 25 the bark every where, which acted asa filtre, or very fine ftrainer, and ferved to prepare the fap for entering into the finer veffels of the plant. But the experiments of Du Hamel, Bonnet, and others, have now fufficiently demonftrated, that little or no moiiture is imbibed through the pores of the bark of roots; but that the whole nourifhment of the plant is abforb- ed at the extremities only of the fmalleft ramifications of the roots. Hence, then, it follows, that the more numerous thefe {mall ramifications are, the more nume- rous will be the mouths of the plant, and the nourifhment imbibed by them will be, in proportion, more abundant. But if a plant be allowed to remain undif- turbed for a confiderable length of time in a good foil, its roots will be extended toa great diftance around it, at the ex- tremities of which roots will be found al- moit all thofe mouths that imbibe the juices which nourifh the plant; fo that ~when thefe extended roots are cut off near the ftem, as muft happen when the trees are to be tran{planted, the greateft part of the{mall fibres are cut away, and the * roots # SS || i // 26 OF ITNCLOSURES; roots remain in a great meafure deftitute of mouths, which tends in a moft power- ful manner to check the vegetation of the plant at that time, fo as to{tint it in its growth, and to make it languifh ever afterwards. But if, by a judicious management while in the nurfery, the roots had been prevented from extending to any confi- derable di ftance, and had been forced to divide into numerous ramifications near the ftem, fewer of thefe{mall roots would have been cut off when it was tranfplant- ed, and the inconveniencies above enu- merated would have been, in a great mea- fure, obviated. Many improving farmers feem to be fufficiently aware of the good effects that refult from this caufe, and therefore are difpofed, on all occafions, to prefer well- rooted plants(that is, plants that have ndny{mall fibres at their roots) to fuch asare Darer or fiat pres.- ANG do. 1b often happens that plants which have been reared in a poor foil, by being un- ps to penetrate it with eafe, are com- nelled to branch out into more numerous ramifications AND FENCES: 39 ramifications: near the ftem, than thofe that have grown upon a richer and eafier- penetrated mould, thefe firft, altho’ poorer and more ftinted plants than the others, merely on account of their better-formed roots, are preferred to them; and often fucceed as well, and fometimes even bet- ter, than the others do. From which cir- cumftance, fome may imagine that the directions above given with regard to the choice of plants, is erroneous. But as it is poflible to have the roots equally well formed, and the plants*much more healthy, on a rich than on a poor{oil, it behoves thofe who with to rear hedges in the moft eafy and. perfect manner, to at- tend to this circumftance with the moft careful circumfpection. As fome perfons imagine. that the young thorns are greatly hurt by being tran{pianted in the nurfery, to prevent the neceflity of doing that, they fow the feeds at firft in rows, in which they fuffer them to ftand till they are planted out for good. But this is an exceedingly improper practice: for, if a thorn 1s faffered to remain long where it is firft fowed, > 25 OF“INCLOSURES e— defcends to a great it out a fufficient number of ae fhoots near the furface; fo that when it is afterwards taken up to be planted in the he lve-row, it has few or no fmall roots that can be raifed with the plant, which fubjects 4 in a very high degrees to the inconveniencies above enumerated. To obviate thefe inconveniencies in fome meature, it is always proper to tranf- plant the thorns when young; at which period, the roots oug ght to be fhortened with a fharp knife, whith will force them to fend out a number of fmall ramifica- tions, in the fame manner as we fee hap- pens with the branches of a tree when thefe are lopped off. The ufual method of fowing thorns in a bed pretty thick, 1s as good a praétice as can be followed, if the young thorns are tranfplanted from it in proper time. If the foil of the nurfery be fufficiently rich, fome of the{trongeft plants ought to be drawn from it the firft winter after towing; and the remainder ought only to be iufece-d to remain in the feed-bed one year ee CUR $$ AND FENCES: 29 year longer. For, if the young thorn fhould be allowed to attain any, confider- able magnitude before this operation, the proportion of roots that it would then lofe, would be fo very great, as would en- danger the. future health of the plant; which will not be the cafe if the plants are very young. For which reafon, this ne- ceflary operation ought, on no account, to be deferred longer than till the fecond winter after the plant appears above ground. Nurferymen, in general, tranfplant their thorns from the feed-bed at two years old, and plant them into rows about a foot or fixteen inches from one another, and keep them clean ever afterw ards by means of the hand-hoe. In confequence of being thus tran{planted, the roots are a little fhortened, which is of fome{fervice to them: fo that tranfblanted quicks, if of the fame age and vigour, will always be better plant ts than fuch as have been al- lowed to remain in the feed-bed. But if thefe thorns remain above a ies or two in the nurfery after they have been trant{- planted, their roots extend to a creat dif- tance; Ne 3 + ee TAT Se te ia x eee; a a eas es‘ 3«€8OF INCLOSURES tance; fo that before they have attained the due fize, they will be far beyond the -proper limits; and, by intermixing with one another through the whole foil, they foon exhauft it of all the nourifhment it contained, which ftints them in their growth before they have attained the magnitude required. But, inftead of planting them at this time 1n rows, only twelve or fixteen inches apart from one another, as is ufually done, I would advife that the rows fhould be five or fix, or, at the leaft, four feet dif- tance from one another, which will allow all the operations neceffary for forming the roots to be properly performed; and the plants will be fupplied with fuch a- bundant nourifhment, as to keep them al- ways inaftate of very vigorous vegetation. Nor will the frugal nurferyman lofe any thing by allowing fuch a diftance between the rows as is here prefcribed: for, if the ground is in the high order that has been recommended, it will be ina condition to carry, between the rows, any fort of garden-plant that he may incline, in almoft as great abundance‘as if no thorns een AgN OD clei N*C ES. 5 >t thorns had been planted on it. The only caution neceffary to be given in this cafe, is, to avoid fowing any high-growing plant upon thefe intervals for the firft year or two, left they fhould over-top the young thorns, and hurt their growth. If the foil is fit for carrying onions, that would be a very proper crop for the firft year: or, if this{hall be thought impro- per, dwarf-peafe may be fowed in their {tead, or any other low-growing annual plant that may beft fuit the circumftances or fituation of the poffeffor. But whatever crop- may be put upon the ground the firft year after the thorns are tran{planted, it\is neceffary that it fhould be, at all times, kept quite clear of weeds. In the fucceeding winter, the earth between the rows ought to be dug over with the f{pade, taking care to go very clofe to the rows, and to work with a very fharp-edged tool, the operator always tak- Ing care to force his fpade ftraight down, with the back of the fpade towards the thorns on each fide of the row, as clofe to it as poflible, fo as to cut the greateft part of the lateral roots as near the body of the pla nts 32 OF TNCLOSURES plants as may be, which will tend to make them branch out into ftill more nu- merous ramifications. And if the ground be dug every winter afterwards, keeping at a little greater diftance from the plant at each fueceffive digging, the roots will be kept at all times fo fhort, and their rami- fications will be fo numerous near the ftem, that when they fhall be lifted to be put into the hedge, they will not fail to be provided with fuch an abundance of mouths to imbibe nourifhment with, as to be in no danger of fuffering much by that operation. ~~ If the foil of the nurfery be fufficiently rich, and if the thorns have been tranf- planted while young, and early in winter, they will rufh up chiefly in height, and fend out but few lateral branches; which is a thing much to be wifhed for in a nurfery: therefore care ought to be taken, when they are firft tranfplanted, not to bruife or injure the{tem of the plant, nor, on almoft any account, to cut it over, un- lefs the ftem was before nirly and ftinted. Neither ought the upright fhoots to be in any cafe fhortened while in the nurfery: I: But AND FENCES. 33 But to facilitate the operations between the rows, any ftrageling fide-branches that may{pring out, ought to be cut off by the knife or fhears, at the beginning of winter. In every fituation, it will be proper that the earth between the rows be ftirred the firft winter dy the Spade; but if the nur- fery is of great extent, it may be after- wards done by means of the plough, with the utmoft facility. The courfe of crops that would feem to be the moft eligible, would be as follows: i{t year, Dwarf peafe or onions. 2d, Early turnips, or colwart-plants, if there is a demand for them on the{pot; and after thefe come off the ground, winter turnips. 3d, Early peafe, and, as a fecond crop, Winter turnips. 4th, And every fucceeding year, early peafe and turnips. The reafon why I would advife peafe fo often, is, that this is a meliorating as well as a very profitable crop, and would be peculiarly proper in the prefent cafe: For as the young thorns would{oon at- tain a confiderable height, they would Mor. ff: D aftord = a—— aj ee ———— cael———. 34 OF INCL'IOSURES afford much fhelter to the ground, and ee bring the peafe forward pretty early in a the feafon. And if a row were fowed on‘i each fide of every row of thorns, at a foot pies or fixteen inches from them, there would se be fufficient room to hoe the interval be- ie tween them and the thorns, fo as to keep aS down the weeds with little trouble; and thor when the peafe grew fo high as to need ng {upport, they could be laid towards the Ha hedge, which would anfwer the purpofe tan of ftakes perfectly well, and admit of the cont peafe being pulled with the utmoft facility. ley If thefe peafe are of the early fort, and teal the foil and fituation favourable, they; the may be off the ground in fufficient time we to admit of rearing in perfe@tion a crop then of winter turnip upon the fame ground. T And as this plant ferves to meliorate the het ground more than moft others, there is tom little doubt but the nurfery could, by this the fucceffion of crops, be kept in very high eq order, for any length of time that could the be neceflary, with very little or no ma- tan nure at all.| this By this, or fome fimilar mode of ma- tat nagement, the nurfery will always afford| oy its| ANDFENCES,| 4s its owner very profitable crops; and the thorns will be reared to the utmoft per- fection, and have their roots formed as properly as could be defired, at little ex- pence. But as it is impoffible to pur- chafe fuch plants as thefe from an ordi- nary nurfery-garden,—and as the young thorns always fuffer very much by being long kept out of the ground, not to men« tion the expence that. would attend the tranfporting fuch large plants from any confiderable diftance, it is of much con- fequence for every improving farmer to rear plants fer himfelf; or, if he buys them at all from a nurfery, to take them when only one or two years old, and nurfe them afterwards for himéfelf. The only thing that can make the plan here propofed mifcarry, is the neglecting to make the nurfery rich enough before the thorns are planted in it; for I have frequently obferved, that Gentlemen in the country, or farmers, who are at a dif- tance from manures, err exceedingly in this refpe@: I therefore again repeat it, that it is of the utmoft confequence, on all occafions, to have the nurfery as rich as D2 poffible. 36 OF INCLOSURES poflible. And, indeed, unlefs this be the cafe, he who fhall attempt to rear thorns in the manner above defcribed, will cer- tainly be a lofer; and therefore had bet- ter not attempt it at all, than do it in an imperfect manner; for a‘poor foil could never produce to advantage the crops above enumerated. But if the ground is once put into proper tilth, it may be con- tinued asa nurfery ever afterwards, at very little expence to the owner. To put the ground into that high tilth, the year before you intend to turn it toa nurfery, give it a fallow in the beginning f fummer, and a very full dreffing of dung and lime, if it needs it, and take a crop of winter turnips. This will clean, enrich, and mellow the foil. If it has been in good order before, this will be fufficient; put if the foil was naturally poor, it may be proper to repeat this fame dreff- ing a fecond year, which will affuredly effect the purpofe. Starve not your plants at fitft; for, the richer your foil is at firft, the more quickly and abundantly will § VIL. Rules for chufing the Plants, Ir you wifh to have a good fence, free of gaps, and of an equal degree of ftrength throughout, pick your plants with great care, fo as to have them all as nearly as poflible of one fize, and of an equal de- gree of healthinefs. But if you fhould have occafion for fo many plants at one time, as makes it neceflary for you to take them as you can find them, you had much better affort them into feveral lots of different fizes, and plant each of thefe lots in a place by itfelf, than plant the whole promifcuoutly; it being much better to have two inclofures fenced with hedges of different degrees of{treneth throughout their whole extent, but equal in every part, than one which‘is in fome places ftronger than in others; becaufe, {o long as any one part of it is weak, all the ftronger places can be of no ufe as a fence: and if, with a view to remedy that evil, you. plant your ,weak plants by the fide of the ftrengeft, they are apt to be DP 3 overtopped| ae i a—: a 38 OF-INCLOSURE'S na ver -overtopped by thefe, and ftinted in their Ae growth; fothat the hedge, in thefe places, cr continuing always weak, is liable to be ssh broke down by cattle, hogs,&c.; which a occafions thofe unfightly and irremediable i gaps that farmers fo generally have reafon a to complain of. But if all the plants are x at firft quite equal, their firft fhoots will be uae nearly equal in vigour, and will continue to they advance at the fame rate, fo as to forma fan hedge equally ftrong in every part, 7 in cx in be Of the proper Size of Plants. rea than Ir the young thorns are of an equally they healthy temperament, the vigour with le, which they advance will be nearly in Wd proportion to the fize of the plant; fo ca that it is of great confequence that thefe tel be not too{mal]l. The leaft fize of thorns th that I think fhould ever be planted out, th if the plants can be got, fhould be fuch ba as are about the bignefs of a man’s little tp finger; but they will be better if about the| b fize of the thumb. If the plants are reared h in| AND FENCES,«39 in a very rich nurfery till they are of this’ fize, and have had the earth carefully dug about them each year, fo as to make them have their roots very much multi- plied clofe by the ftem, and be planted in a good foil in the manner after men- tioned, few perfons have any comprehen- fion of the degree of vigour with-which they will advance. In fuch a cafe, the farmer may reafonably expect that the fhoots of the firft year will be at a me- dium between three and four feet in length, and fome of them confiderably beyond that. It would be difficult to rear plants ina nurfery to a larger fize than thofe above mentioned: and although they may be fometimes got of a larger fize, by grubbing up a hedge which it is neceflary to remove; yet, as in this cafe the roots have been allowed to ex- tend to a greater diftance when growing, there is a neceflity of cutting off many of the roots at raifing them, fo as to leave but few fibres adhering to the plan; tit is not to be expected that they will advance fo faft as plants of a fmaller fize, which have had their roots properly formed by D 4 a judicious 40 OF INCLOSURES a judicious management in the nurfery; yet plants of this kind ought not to be rejected, as I have fometimes one them fend out fhoots of very great ftrength and vigour. oak Of the proper Seafon for planting thefe. As the ftrength and future healthinefs of a hedge in great meafure depend up- on the vigour of the fhoots it makes the firft year, too much care cannot be taken to guard again{t every circumftance that may tend to retard its progrefs at that pe- riod. On this account, it is of very great confequence to have every hedge planted as early in winter as poffible: for I have re found by long ex perience, that if one part of a hedge has been planted early in if winter, and another part.-ot it: in the months of March or April, when the 4 buds begin to{well, all other circum- {tances being equal, the fhoots of the firft i year, from that part which has been firft:| planted, have always been nearly double 4 the FAP AND’ FENCES. At the fize of thofe of the other part, and continue ever afterwards to be more healthy and vigorous in every refpect; which is a circumftance that few who have not experienced it, would naturally have expected. If the Spring be not very back- ward, thorns fhould feldom be planted after the beginning of February; and, in the moft backward feafons that we: ever experience, none fhould ever be planted after the beginning of March, if it can pofiibly be avoided. It 1s a good method, in general, for thofe who have a great deal of work of this kind to perform, to begin to plant early in Autumn; taking only fo much earth from the ditch at that time, as is neceflary to cover the roots of the plants fufficiently; and running along the whole in this manher as quickly as poffible, fo as to have the quicks all plant- ed early in Winter; after which the ditches may be finifhed, without any lofs, in the Spring. But, even in this cafe, the whole ought to be finifhed in the month of March, otherwife the young fhoots will be much injured by the difturbance they will meet with. 65k en 42 OF INCLOSURES § AT. Of Trimming before Planting. As the vigour of the firft fhoots of a hedge likewife in a great meafure depends upon the proper trimming of the young thorns before planting, I fhall make a few obfervations on that head. Every tree when it is tranfplanted, lofes a part of its roots, and is on this account unable to abford fo much nourifhment as_ would be neceflary to make it pufh out fhoots with an equal degree of vigour, as if it had not been removed: it therefore becomes necefiary to lop off fome part of the top of every tree when tranfplanted, that the remaining roots may be able to abfory abundant nourifhment for thofe branches that we leave behind. Jf the plant is old, the proportion of roots that it lofes by being tranfplanted, is always greater than when it is young: but, in every cafe, it is neceflary to lop off jome part of the top of the plant, otherwife there Se cities AND FENCES. 43 there is great danger that it will then re- ceive a check in its growth, and become {tinted; which is a difeafe that hardly admits of a cure, but by amputation. To prevent this dangerous difeafe in an hedge, it is always proper, at the time of plant- ing, to cut off the top of the quick en- tirely; which never fails to make it fend out fhoots the firft year, of a more than ordinary degree of vigour. This ampu- tation ought always to be performed by a fharp tool, that the wound may be as clean as poffible; and when the hedge is to be planted on the face of a bank, it ought to be made about twelve inches above the root. Although this operation is not fo indifpenfibly neceffary on young plants as on thofe that are older, yet it is always of ufe, and ought never to be omitted. Gardeners too often neglect this moft neceflary operation, and almoft as univer~ fally prune the roots too much. If the plants have not been brought from a dif- tance, or long kept out of the ground, it is only neceffary to cut off the points of fuch roots as have been lacerated in taking up the plants; leaving as many !{mall 44 OF INCLOSURES {mall roots as poffible, if they are found. If, indeed, they have been fo long expofed to the weather, fo as to have fome part of the fmalleft fibres killed, it will not be improper to cut away thefe‘dead fibres; but it is in general the fafeft plan, to prune the roots but very little before planting. § XIT. Directions for the Manner of Planting. THE proper methed of planting this kind of hedge is, firft to turn up a little of the earth from the place where the ditch is to be made, and lay it upon the bank reverfed, fo as to forma bed for the plant about two inches thick above the folid ground. Upon this the thorns AS fhould be laid nearly in a horizontal di- 8 the point, and having the ends of the {tems juft equal with the face of the bank, or projecting beyond it very little, not rection, but inclinine a little upward in more than half an inch. By this means, every plant will fend out only one or two fhoots, iS eo LOSERS (hoot sth cf th AND FENCES. 4 fhoots, which will be the more vigorous, as there are fu few of them. But if any of the plants fhould fend out a greater number of fhoots, it will be proper ta prune away all thefe fupernumeraries the firft winter after planting, cutting them with a knife clofe by the tem from which they fpring: for it is the largenefs of thefe original{tamina of the hedge that will afterwards conftitute its ftrength, and not the number’ of{mall ramifications, as is too generally imagined. But if the fhoots are numerous, they never acquire fuch a degree of ftrength as when there are fewer of them. The plants being thus regularly laid, fhould have their roots immediately co- vered with the beft mould taken from the furface of the ditch; and the workmen fhould take care to keep that good mould well back upon the bank, and rather be- hind the roots, leaving the breaft of the bank to be made up by the lefs fertile earth taken from the bottom of the ditch. By this means the roots will have: all the good earth about them, in which they will{pread with freedom, and draw from , it at=e | ue ma‘ 46 OF INCLOSURES it abundant nourifhment; and the bad earth which forms the breaft of the bank, will produce much fewer weeds there, than the good earth would have done if it had been kept near the furface. You will now likewife perceive the reafon for cutting the plants at fuch a diftance above the roots.(§ XI.) viz. that you may be thus allowed to put the roots among the good mould, and{till leave room for a breaft-work of bad earth of a fuffcient thicknefs; whereas if they had been cut fhorter than is theee mentioned, you would not only have been deprived of this con- veniency, but would alfo have been ob- liged to plant the roots fo near to the breaft of the ditch, as to expofe them very much to the droughts of Summer, which would greatly retard their growth; for no plant delights more in a moderate degree of moi- fture than the white thorn; which is pro- bably one reafon why it thrives better in this method of planting than any other, and advances much fafter in rainy fea- {ons, or in wet climates, than in fuch as are drier. If the foil in which they are planted is poor, I would advife to mix fome AND FENCES. 4 fome well-made dung* with the earth that covers the roots of the thorns, which would greatly promote their growth, and be attended with very little expence; as the quantity neceflary could be but very {mall+-. § XIII. * Thave met with many Gentlemen, who are firmly perfuaded, that dung, of every kind, is hurtful to hedges and many other plants. It is much to be regretted, that mankind fhould adopt any kind of theory with fo little referve, as to fhut their eyes againft the plaineft dictates of experience. I will not here attempt to un-. deceive thofe who may have adopted this opinion, by. any kind of reafoning, which, in matters of this fort, is always in danger of being fallacious: but leave the decifion of the matter to their own experience and ob- fervation; not doubting but that they will find, that if there are any plants which are not forwarded in their growth, by the judicious application of dung to the foil in which they are reared, the number is extremely fmall, and that the hawthorn is not one of thefe. ‘ ¢ It will hardly be neceflary here to remark, that the hedge ought to be carefully kept clear of weeds for feveral years; and that it ought likewife to be pre- ferved from being broke down by cattle, by means of any kind of dead fence that may belt fuit the circum- {tance of the farmer to rear. A nobleman in Scotland, who is eminently diftinguifhed by his attention to agri- culture, and the many improvements that he hath made in that art, has lately contrived to effect both thefe pur- : pofes > y r a8 OF INCLOSURES But § XII. os ton as Directions for the Manner sf Planting in a ed eve 2 art very expofed Situation. nit As mug ate ie re We i HOSE Who live int an open uncuiti-| A 1 SY Gy Bs 2 ms{he vated country, have many difficulties to . q y bd== com encounter, which others, who inhabit more : Pee pote warm and fheltered regions never experi- ple ence; and among thefe difficulties may ion be reckoned, that of hardly‘getting hedges off age\ to grow, with facility. For, where a young Mi ] lope= tna>{ ady 1edge is much expofed to violent Aa con-: tinued gufts of wind, no art will ever gl make it rife with fo much freedom, or bar srow with fuch luxuriance, as it would do b in a more sheltered fituation and favour- ah able expofure. vide ; cae Rep ghee; fven pofes at once, by facing with ftones the ditch in which woe ge: 2 the hedge is planted, making a{mali fquare hole for pl each thorn-plant, and cutting the ftems of a fufficient Pett length, fo as to permit them to come quite through\ the dike; in which fituation they advance as well as if Lt 2 f 3 1 1. hin no facing of ftone had-been there. In this way of planting, great care ought to be taken to rejeét bad pial plants, as it is more difficult to fupply deficieucies after- Dan wards, than in the common way; large plants are here ah alfo more eflentially neceflary, than in the ordiaary Wh J@"any mode of planting hedges.: But: as ee“ ae See eects a= i ci.= AND PENCES. a5 But although it is impoffible to rear i hedges, in this fituation, to equal perfec- tion as in the others; yet they may be rear- J ed even there, with a little attention and pains, fo as to become very fine fences. If it is advifeable, in other cafes, to plant the hedges upon the face of a bank, it be- comes abfolutely necefiary, in fuch an ex- pofed fituation, as that I have now de- icribed: For the bank, by breaking the force of the wind, fcreens the young hedge from the violence of the blaft, and allows it to o advance for fome time, at firft, with much . greater luxuriance than it otherwife could have done. But as it may be expected{con to grow as high as the bank, it behoves the pro- vident hufbandman to prepare for that event, and guard, with a wife forecatt, againft the inconvenience that may be ex- pected to arife from that circumfiance With this view, it will be proper for him, inftead of making a fingle ditch, and planting one hedge, to raife a pretty high bank, with a ditch on each fide of it, and a hedge on each face of the bank; in which-fituation, the bank will equally Vor tT. E fhelter \ i i ay ay H f | | i) | i 5| i Lex = SE jo OF. INCLOSURES fhelter each of the two hedges, while they are lower than it; and when they, at length, become higher than the bank, the one hedge will, in a manner, afford fhelter to Ithe other, fo as to enable them to advance with much greater luxuriance than either of them would have done fingly. To effectuate this ftill more perfectly, let a row of fervice-trees be planted along the top of the bank, at the diftance of eighteen inches from each other, with plant of eglantine between each two fer- vices. This plant will advance, in fome degree, even in fuch an expofed fituation; and, by its numerous fhoots, covered with large leaves, will effectually f{creen the hedge on each fide of it; which, in its turn, will receive fome fupport and fhel- ter from them, fo that they will be en- abled to advance altogether, and form, in time, a clofe, ftrong, and beautiful fence. The fervice is a tree but little known in rough it is one of thofe that ught, perha Be to be often cultivated there in ee ce to any other tree whatever, as it is more hardy,.and, in an expofed fituation, -‘ ooied i es a rig LEB AND FENCES. sg fituation, affords more fhelter to other plants, than almoft any other tree I know: For it fends out a great many ftrong branches from the under part of the ftem, which, in time, affume an upright direc- tion, and continue to advance with vi- gour, and carry many leaves to the very bottom. almoft as long as the tree exifts; fo that if it is not pruned, it rifes a large clofe bufh, till it attains the beige Cina foreft-tree. It is of the fame genus with the rawn- tree—and has a great refemblance to it, both in flower and fruit; its branches are more waving and pliant—its leaves undi- vided—broad, and round, fomewhat re- fembling the elm, but white and mealy on the under fide. It deferves to be better known than it is at prefent. § XIV. Of the Ufe of the Eglantine in Fencing. ALTHOUGH the hawthorn makes a very fine fence when planted alone, yet it is rather improved by having{ome plants E 2 of er om wipe ot a seh sz OF INCLOSURES of fweet-brier(eg/antine) intermixed with it. For, although this plant is fo weak and ftraggling, as never to make a fence ftrong enough by itfelf; yet, as it ad- 1 f vanees with fuch prodigious rapidity, and re{ reap Gemeente rered Seas S| Lh ne ve is 10 entirery covered With Prickles, it ees GC Egin re) VE) ann fal RPE A ae= fer VES aGimMiradiy WELi VOL IntermMixws with eat Le 3“rf 1 SOre mm merate ewrnencre ir thner7 are tie+ more moccrate CHEDENCE, IF tNey are: Plant— 1 v= 1 oA| > eS tneDyeA AHDAICT TATU? 3 Gay IT CQVeLve-Coe aval ls Witil a§ gE @ iH ee t+1 4 I2Yrliqgntine VO NOT Or E€Siantine oe THOMmMs. 16{ J bY: 3 yea are| 1 A I DEY~~ e BAAR ae GQ Sess a a- hers eee g isike CMe CP ian JE=-LEOUIG De pig Hecas Our OO A za Sy’ e Tf ta 5 ary A miar Da ae cod YOU) gy tag dd List tolaiit WErC ‘ } aol eS nored= ft, WOW ron y FOOUCO, bie 100tS VUURA / .._ 2 ran mt al at an inf oo| 1AryR Pe Ae£ hRAghhil. od LU We In. tome Gdneel <: 4 7 1 + Tre rtnnnine the tharn a hedge that he may chance to attack, a —~ % however clofe it mes to be. Be 1h, nitead of being cut on the top, the t ae 4 =—_ oe. can TR et od ¢ AN DD’ EE N-C ES. 57 be allowed to advance upwards without any interruption, its ftem, like that of any other tree, will continue to increafe in fize and ftrength, and, in a fhort time, become fo large as to be able to refift the whole force of any animal that we may have occafion to fear. They even, in time, become fo large, as to occupy almoift the whole fpace that was originally left be- tween the plants, fo as to form a folid vegetable wall(if I may ufe that expref- fion) which it is almoft impoffible for any 5| force to overturn. It is therefore obvious, that cutting the top of a hedge when young, tends greatly to diminif ftrength of it. It will, perhaps, be a more difficult tafk to convince the Reader, that this practice likewife tends to diminith the thicknefs of the hedge; although I flatter myfelf that I fhall be able to demontftrate this as clearly as the other. When the principal ftem of any tree is cut over, the fap that would have gone to increafe the fize of its top, being ftopt in its afcent, forces out a great many fhoots all 1: » ¥ p, ;<:= ET nas— nraner arrg re> a he» depend upon’ the proper arrangement of thefe.—_—. £ ,. ae: Every branch carries off from the ftem a part of the eh nourifhment that is imbi toed by the roots; and although, oO in its patiage, it ferves to augment the fize of that part of the item that is below it, yet the parts that are above it, receive no addition from the fap that is pumped up s AND PENCES..% as there are from that period no branches {pringing immediately from the under- part of the ftem, to detain the fap in its paflage, by this branch; fo that if fome branches are allowed to remain upon the ftem near the root, and others at regular diftances above one another, to the top, the under-part of the ftem will be of a confiderable fize, and it will taper gradually upwards, fo as to ftand ex- tremely firm and fecure. But if all the branches are at once lopped away from the ftem, and it is allowed to remain naked to a confiderable height, it continues nearly of the fame fize from the root to the part where the branches begin to fet out; and being thus fo long and flender, it is not of a fufficient ftrength to fupport the top, fo as to be, in many cafes, bent down towards the ground, and continue to grow in a diftorted and lan- guifhing condition.‘Chis is more particularly obferv- able in the broad-leaved Scots elm, and the freeft- fhooting pear-trees, than in any other fpecies of trees that I know: But the fame phenomenon is obfervable "jn all trees, in a fmaller or greater degree, according to the vigour or pliability of their fhoots. But as the fap always more naturally afcends in an upright than in a lateral dire€tion, if; by any means, feveral{trong fhoots are made to{pring from any part of the ftem, thefe afilume an upright direction, and continue to draw away a great deal of nourifhment to themfelves; fo that the weaker horizontal fhoots be- Jow them, not being able to attract to themfelves a fufficient quantity of fap, they begin to languifh, till, at <2 =— nm: Se | | | 60 OF INCLOSUR-ES paflage, and make that part of it increate in fize,it there continues fmall and weakly; while the top, continuing to advance with luxuriance, becomes fo large and weighty as to be with difficulty fupported by thefe {mall naked fhanks, which gradually be- come barer and barer every year. But every one knows, that if the bottom of a hedge Vad be open, it 1s of very little confequence whether it be clofe above or not: And I leave it tobe determined by experience, whether this is not, in general, the condi- tion of hedges which Rave Been schippee at length, more and more weakened by the fhade and dripping of the branches above them, they gradually fall away. Having thus, for a time, helped to in- creafe the fize of the under-part of the ftem, fo as to enabie it properly to fupport its top, Nature oradually frees herfelf from thefe ufelefs branches: and, by their gradual decay, the ftem is left of that delicate taper torm which is beft adapted both for ftrength and beauty. ‘This is the regular procefs of Nature, if left to herfelf, It ate to es the ftudy of man to improve upon the hints that fhe affords him, and to dire&t her. operations fo as that they may beft concur with him in promoting his defign, fhoots AiN@D FEIN C EIS: 61 fhoots the firft year. And if it fhall be found, that this is, in‘general, the cafe, we muft conclude, that the practice here re- prehended, tends to make the hedge thin- ner, as wellas weaker, than it would have been, if that operation had been entirely omitted. But if an hedge is allowed to advance the imall branches that{pring out near the root, not being ftarved by the extraor- dinary fuction, or fuffocated by the fhade of too luxuriant branches above them, continue to live, and detain a part of the {ap; fo as to make the under part of the ftem.{till continue to increafe in fize and ftrength, and be well able to fupport the {mall top that it thus acquires. And if the moft luxuriant fide-branches that may {pring out above, are, from time to time; pruned away, fo as not to be allowed to overfhade thofe that may be below, thefe laft will continue to grow, as long as the hedge exifts. And as, by this manage- ment, there will be but few fide-branches of any confiderable fize, the principal {tems will advance with very great vi- gour, 62 OF. INCLOSB@RES gour, gradually tapering from the root upwards. 1 hedat (0 BY) I cannot be too particular in advifing the hufbandman to beftow his attention chiefly to the proper formation of the up- right ftems of the hedge; becaufe upon this the whole future ftrength of the my hedge mutt entirely depend: td if thefe are once rightly formed, it will be an eafy ro matter to give it Sed qua lity that we a! Bor,-bothete May ftrong ftems fhould be even entirely de- could wath for in a hedge y Se ftitute of se branches, abundance of we them may be made to pufh out whenever it fhall be thought neceffary, by only making a flight wound in the naked ftem,} me wherever you defire that young branches UGE( fhould appear: For, below every fuch tI wound, a number of{mall fhoots will en {pring forth the enfuing feafon; the points of which being cut off, a itil greater num- ber of{mall twigs will be fent out, which, te) by being frequently cut, will, in a fhort ite time, form a covering as clofe as could be wih defired. IX 9 The truth of this reafoning I myfelf they experienced at a very early period of my MND Ai NC ES. 63 life: For, having then had occafion to drefs a garden that was furrounded by an old hedge, which had always been allowed to grow as Nature prompted, never feem- ingly having been touched either by knife. or{ciffars, I found the branches{trag- gling very far on every fide, all of which I caufed to be cut off quite clofe by the upright ftems, which then were left en- tirely naked, and appeared hke as many may-poles placed befide one another. But by cutting a good many flight notches all along thefe{tems at the diftance of a few inches from one another, they were in one year entirely covered with young fhoots; which{mall branches by being cut i] once or twice in one feafon, put out fuch a number of{maller ramifications, as in a aneoall a er {hort time formed a covering{o very clofe ee ange that it was hardly poffible to fee an objec through it in any part.’ Nor did I ever in my life fee a hedge, that either for firength or beauty could be compared with this one. Many of the ftems were fix or eight inches in diameter; and they grew{fo clofe to one another, that no animal Y 6... Of INCLOSURES if th animal larger than a{mall bird could pof- is f hehe fibly have Sere te From thefe obfervations, I hope, it will yu appear evident, that if we wifh to have it a good hedge, either in refpe@ of ftrength nies or clofenefs, it is of importance never to alway fhorten the top-fhoots, at leaft while it is clofe young: but it is_always of ufe to prune pecial the fides, cutting off all the lateral fhoots hedge with the{ciffars quite clofe to the upright{hots ftems, after the firft year’s growth.. And main if, after the growth of the dtecond: year, fide of it fhould happen that too many fhoots above have fprung out at the top of the firft frelh year’s fhoots(which very frequently 1s to at the cafe} thefe fupernumeraries fhould be be at cautioufly pruned away with.a knife; thi 0 taking out all the{trong upright-growing upnigh branches, excepting one for a ftem; be- tde-br ing always particularly careful to cut fatther them away quite clofe tothe ftem from unt ob which they fpring: For if this caution time} were neglected, a greater number of tween fhoots would{pring out from the ee prope and the malady be increafed rather than come diminithed. rl I ere — rer) AND FEN GE GO> 68 if thefe circumftances are attended to, the hedge will need no other care ever af- terwards, but to be defended from cattle, kept free of weeds, and clipped in the fides once a year for fome time; being| always careful, at each clipping, to go as clofe to the laft as can be eafily done, ef- pecially towards the upper parts of the hedge, but as you.approach the bottom, the fhoots fhould be gradually allowed to re- main a little longer, fo as to make the fide of the hedge to flope a little inwards above, which gives to the under twigs a frefhnefs they could not otherwife be made’ to attain. But in a particular manner, be attentive, the firft time you perform this operation, to clip it as near to the upright ftem as poflible: for, as thefe fide-branches muft always extend a little farther at every cutting, if this caution is not obferved, thefe lateral thanks will in time become naked; and the interval be- tween the ribs(as the upright fhoots may properly be called) and the reticular te- gument(or fkin) that covers the furface, would be too great, and form’a very difa- greeble void. Vor. t.3°." F If 66 OF. INCIZOSURES If thefe rules are obferved for a few years, the hedge, while it advances in height, will become as clofe in the fides as could be wifhed for. And although the clipping of the fides fhould be difeontinued after a few years, it will be in no danger of running into great diforder; for as the vigour of the fide-fhoots wall have been much diminifhed by having been fo fre- quently divided, none of them will after- wards advance to fuch a diftance as to de- form or hurt the hedge: fo that this ope- ration may be difcontinued, unlefs where very great neatnefs is required. ee xXvit. How to recover a Hedge, after it has been fiinted in tts growth. Bur if, from the poornefs of the foil in which your hedge is planted, or from any other caufe, it fhould happen that after a few years. the hedge becomes fickly, and the plants turn poor and ftinted in appearance, the eafieft and only effectual remedy for that difeafe, is to cut the ftems of AND FENCES. 6 of the plants clean over at the height of an inch or two above the ground; after which, they will fend forth much{tronger fhoots than they ever would have done without this operation. And if the hedge be kept free of weeds, and trained after- wards in the manner above defcribed,, and protected, it will in moft cafes be re- covered, and rendered freth and vigorous. This amputation ought to be performed in Autumn, or the beginning of Winter: and in the Spring, when the young buds begin to fhow themfelves, the{tumps ought to be examined with care, and all the buds be rubbed off, excepting one or two of the ftrongeft and beft placed, which fhould be left for a ftem. For if the numerous buds that{pring forth round the ftem are allowed to grow up undif- turbed, they will become in a few years as weak and{tinted as before; and the hedge will never afterwards be able to attain any confiderable height,{trength, or healthfulnefs.—I have feen many hedges that have been repeatedly cut over, totally ruined by not having attended to this cir- cumftance in proper time. F 2 If. 63)- OF ANELOSURES If the ground for fixteen or twenty feet on each fide of the hedge, be fallowed at the time that this operation is performed, and get a thorough drefling with rich ma- nures, and be kept in high order for fome years afterwards, by good culture and me- liorating crops, the hedge will profper much better.than if this had been omitted; efpecially if it has been planted on the le- vel ground, or on the bank of a fhallow ditch. eV TTT. Of recovering old open Heages, by Plafbing. Ir fometimes happens, that a hedge may have been long neglected, and be in general in a healthy ftate, but full of gaps and openings, or fo thin and ftraggling as to form but a very imperfect fort of fence. On thefe occafions it is in vain to hope to fill up the gaps by planting young quicks, for thefe would always be outgrown, choaked, and ftarved by the old plants; nor could it be recovered by cutting clear over by the roots, as the &4ps AND FENCES. 6% gaps would ftill continue where they‘for- merly were. The only methods that I know of rendering this a fence, are, either to mend up the gaps with dead wood, or to pla/h the hedge: which la{t operation is always the moit eligible, where the gaps are not too large to admit of being cured: by this means. The operation I here call plafhing, may be defined,“@ wattling made of living uao!.” To form this, fome ftems are fir ft felected, to be left as ftakes at proper dif- tances, the tops of which are all cut over at the height of four feet from the root. The ftraggling fide-branches of the other parts of the hedge, are alfo lopped away. Several of the remaining plants are then cut over clofe by the ground, at conve- nient diftances; and the remaining plants are cut perhaps half-through, fo as to per- mit them to be bent to one fide. They are then bent down almoft to a horizontal pofition, and interwoven with the upright ftakes, fo as to retain them in that pofition. Care ought to be taken that thefe be laid very low, at thofe places where there were formerly gaps; which ought to be far- F 3 ther ; yaa 2 au<+“¢-, is ~~ Nh. R: nm-__-’ Y~_— ” EEO paige[ Reece y biti i aa a= ces ete= eee = OE Fn nT LET se pan ee zs apie 70 OF INCLOSURES ther ftrengthened by fome dead ftakes, or truncheons of willows, which will fre- quently take root in this cafe, and con- tinue to live. And fometimes a plant of eglantine will be able to overcome the dif- ficulties it there meets with, ftrike root, and grow up, fo as to ftrengthen the hedge ina moft effectual manner. The operator begins at one end of the the field, and proceeds regularly forward, bending all the{tems in one direCtion,. fo as that the points rife above the roots of the others, till the whole wattling is com- pleted to the fame height as the uprights; after which it affumes an appearance fome- what refembling that which is reprefented in Fig. 5. An expert operator will perform this work with much greater expedition than ene who has not feen it done could eafily imagine. And as all the diagonal wattlings continue to live, and fend out fhoots from many parts of their ftems; and as the up- right fhoots that rife from the ftumps of thofe plants that have been cut over, quickly rufh up through the whole hedge, thefe ferve to unite the whole into one entire AND FENCES. 71 entire mafs, that forms a ftrong, durable, and beautiful fence. This is the beft method of recovering an old neglected hedge, that hath as yet come to my knowledge. 5. Xd&, Directions for preventing the young Twigs of a Hedge from being killed in Winter. Ir fometimes happens, that the young fhoots of a hedge are killed every winter; in which cafe, it foon becomes dead and unfightly, and can never rife to any con- fiderable height. A remedy for this difeafe may, therefore, be wifhed for. Young hedges, chiefly, are obferved to be affected with this diforder; and it 1s ufually occafioned by an injudicious ma- nagement of the hedge, by means of which, it has been forced to fend out too great a number of fhoots in fummer, which are thus rendered fo{mall and weakly, as to be unable to refift the fevere weather in winter. It often happens, that the owner of a F 4 young 72 OF INCLOSURES young hedge, with a view to render it very thick and clofe, cuts it over with the fhears, a few inches above the ground, the firft‘winter after planting; in confe- quence of which, many{mall thoots{pring out from each of the ftems that has been cut over:—Each of which twigs being afterwards cut over in the fame manner, fends forth a ftill greater number of fhoots, which are fmaller and{maller, in propor- tion to their number. In confequence of this management, if the foil in which the hedge has been planted is poor, the branches, after a few years, become fo numerous, that the hedge is unable to fend out any fhoots at all; and the utmoft exertion of the vege- tative powers, enables it only to put forth leaves. Thefe leaves are renewed in a fickly ftate* for fome years, and, at: laft, ceafe. to grow at all—the branches be- come covered with fog, and the hedge| perifhes entirely.| But if the foil be very rich, notwith- ftanding this great multiplication of the ftems, the roots will ftill have fufficient vigour. to force out a great many{mall fhoots, . vn" joie ——_—— a a I AND‘FENCES. 9 fhoots, which advance to a great length, but never attain a proportional thicknefs. And as the vigour of the hedge makes them. continue to vegetate very late in autumn, the frofts come on before the * tops of thefe dangling fhoots have attain- ed any degree of woody firmnefs; fo that many of them are killed entirely by it; the whole hedge becomes covered with thefe long dead fhoots, which are always difagreeable to look at, and ufually indicate the approaching end of the hedge. The caufes of the diforder being thus explained, it will readily occur that the only radical cure is amputation; which, by giving an’ opportunity to begin with training the hedge anew, gives us alfo an opportunity of avoiding the errors that occafioned the diféafe. in'this cafe, care ought to be taken to cut the plants as clofe to the greund as poffible, as there the ftems will be lefs numerous than at any greater height. And particular attention ought to be had to allow: very few fhoots to arife from the{tems that have been cut over, and to guard carefully againtt fhort- ening them. But 7A, QE ENCL-OSLDERES But as the roots in the cafe here fup- : 2 feo pofed will be very ftrong, the fhoots that from are allowed to{pring from the ftems will| ae be very vigorous, and there will be fome|‘ danger of their continuing to grow later iby in the feafon than they ought in fafety to my do; in which cafe, fome part of the top iy of the fhoot may, perhaps, be killed the| i firft winter, which ought, if poflible, to ui be prevented. This can only be effectu- ally done, by giving a check to the vege- he tation in autumn,{fo as to allow the young th fhoots to harden in the points before the t winter approaches.\ If any of the leaves or branches of a| t tree are cut away while it is in a ftate of eee: vegetation, the whole plant feels the lofs, of and it fuffers a temporary check in its| owt growth in proportion to the lofs that it of _thus fuftains. To check, therefore, the t0 vigorous vegetation at the end of autumn, hee it will be prudent to choofe the beginning| hi September, for the time of lopping off all| 4 the fupernumerary branches from the|( young hedge, and for clipping off the fide- branches that have fprung out from it;| le which will, in general, be fufficient to Pee. give AND#ENCES. 9 give it fuch a check in its growth at that feafon, as will prevent any of the fhoots from advancing afterwards. If the hedge is extremely vigorous, a few buds may be allowed to grow upon the large{tumps in the{pring, with a view to be cut oft at this feafon, which will tend to ftop the vegetation of the hedge itil more effec- tually. By this mode of management, the hedge may be preferved entire through the firftt winter. And as the fhoots be- come lefs vigorous every fucceflive feafon, there will be Jefs difficulty in preferving them at any future period. It will al- ways be proper, however, to trim the fides of a very vigorous hedge for fome years, while it is young, about the fame feafon of the year, which will tend powerfully to prevent this malady._ But when the hedge’ has advanced to any confiderable height, it will be equally proper to clip it during any of the winter-months before Candlemas. It deferves to be remarked, before we leave this article, that the difeafe here complained of, is feldom dangerous, unle{s in 76 OF INCLOSURES in fituations that are pretty much expofed. -——And there are fome fituations fo very much expofed to boifterous winds, that no care in training the hedge will be fuf- ficient to preferve it. In thefe cafes, the hedges muft be proteéted from the vio- lence of the blafts, by the means pre- {cribed§ XII], which, united with the management here recommended, will fel- dom fail to prove efficacious* 4) Te Fax x. 2” * In a good foil, where the fituation is very much expofed, a ftrong, durable, and beautiful fence, may be thus obtained:—-Rear a good feal-dike, and on each fide of that dike, plant a row of thorns clofe by the foot of it, and keep them clean for fome years: they will, in this fitwation, advance with vigour, till they reach the top of the dike; their fhoots will then become poor and ftinted, and they will extend| horizontally till the branches intermingle above the top of the dike. By this means, the dike comes to be inclofed as in a cafe, fo that it can fcarcely tumble down; and the twigs below that, are fcreened from the violence of the blaft alt, and thus preferved. I haye known fituations fo very much expofed, that, by no other contrivance that I have yet feen, a hedge could be preferved alive, where this has proved effectual. Even in other fituations, this prac- tice is of great ufe, where cattle are foon to be put into the inclofures, as the dike prevents them from attempt~ ing to break through the hedges when young. Where } oTround grounc 5° AND FENCES. 77 § XX. Of lopping Full-grown Hedges. Ir you live in a country where fuel is not fcarce, I would advife never te cut the top of the hedge at all, but rather allow it to advance upwards in all the beautiful Juxuriance of nature. By this means, it will not only afford a much better fhel- ter to the fields, but will alfo, in time, come to be annually covered with beautiful tufts ef bloflom, whitch diffufe an agreeable aromatic odour to a confiderable diftance around, and are fucceeded by large cluf- ters of berries that are very agreeable to the eye; fo that the hawthorn becomes, in this ftate, one of the fineft ornamental thrubs that this climate produces. But if ftrong neceflity compels you to cut your hedge for the fake of billets, at any rate allow it to have attained a con- ground is valuable, and wood for dead railing is{carce, this is a commendable practice in any fituation, as ditches are thus faved, and the hedge, while young, is effectually preferved. ae ‘ 1 \u“ ie ht | AW | 4{} 2 ie \ 1 | \ a Ty 1g 7 a fe { P} a ¥ i ff| 4 78 OF- ENGLOSUR ES fiderable degree of ftrength, before you think of cutting it for the firft time, and then cut the tops clean over, at the height of three or four feet from the ground. This operation may be repeated after- wards, as often as fhall be found neceflary; taking care, after each cutting, to lop off all the luxuriant fide-branches that may chance to{pring out in confequence of that operation, which might be in danger of hurting the fide-fhoots that may be below. In this way, you may have a very good hedge; but it will neither afford fuch fhelter to your field, nor be fo beautiful, as if it had never been touched at all at the top. § XXI. Of Ornamental Plants in Hedging. ALTHOUGH ornament ought only to be confidered as a fecondary object by the farmer, yet, where it can be united with the ufeful, it need not be wholly dif- regarded. The country is, perhaps, the beft ANDiFENCESS 49 beft field for allowing the fympathetic affections of the mind to be fully deve- lopped, which forms the bafis for that de- fire for univerfal harmony, that conftitutes a true and corre¢ct tafte: and a correct tafte is, perhaps, the beft prefervative that the mind can ever meet with, againft every low and fordid affection. Let nct, then, the man who wifhes to be extenfively ufeful to his country, to his family, and, by confequence, to himfelf, clofe his eyes upon the beauties of nature; but rather allow them to fhed their benign influences on his fpirit. It will ferve to fhorten his labour, and{weeten his toil; it will help to brighten thofe gloomy intervals that the mind, which is totally occupied with fordid views, muft frequently experience, and be a fource of content and cheerful- nefs, which muft ever conftitute one principal ingredient of rural and domeftic felicity. If, then, you do not defpife ornament entirely, or difregard the beauties of na- ture, you may render your hedges very beautiful, without any additional expence, by intermixing a few plants of pyracantha with 80 OF INCLOSURES vith your thorns when you plant them. The pyracantha(evergreen thorn) is one of the moft beautiful évergreens that we have in this country; but as it is a weakly plant, unable to fupport itfelf, it has, in general, been but little attended to. If a flip of this were planted between every fecond or third thorn, it would, in a fhort time f{pread fo far on every fide as to meet, and, being fupported. by the hawthorn, would rife to the top of the hedge, and render the whole as beautiful as if it were compofed of the paracantha alone. And as its leaves, together with its large cluf- ters of{carlet berries, hang upon it dur- ing the greateft part of the winter-feafon, by it the hedge would be made not only clofer and warmer during the winter, but alfo more pleafing to the eye than it other- wife would have been. This plant is not of a very quick: growth, but it is, by no means, difficult to rear. Every twig of it, if ftuck into a good foil, will take root as readily as a willow. As I have planted it in this manner among my own hedges, and find it anfwer the intended purpofe, I can == a AND FENCES.. 81 I can recommend it with the greater free- dom*. If you are defirous of rendering your hedges{till more agreeable, it may be eafily done, by planting through them a few twigs of different kinds of honey-— fuckles(woodbine); or intermixing with them a few of the moft hardy and freeft fhooting kinds of rofes, which will grow without any extraordinary degree of at- tention or care. It will be beft, however, not to plant the honeyfuckles till the hedge is two or three years old; as fome kinds of thefe grow fo very faft, as might put the hedge in fome danger of being choaked by them, if they were planted at the fame time with it. A few plants of the crab-tree, intermixed with the white- thorn, form alfo a moft agreeable variety, the beautiful blufh-coloured bloflom of that plant, fo early in fummer, being ex- tremely delightful. * In bleak fituations, I find the leaves of the pyracan- tha are apt to turn brown in winter; nor does it carry many berries in a hedge, unlefs it be planted on a to- Jerably rich foil. Like many other evergreens, it is molt beautiful when planted a little in the fhade. Wor.) G T might 82 OF INELOSURES I might here enumerate feveral other a) fhrubs that could with propriety be em-"i ployed for adorning hedges; but as this i Effay is chiefly calculated to convey ufeful us luftruction, more than the foregoing hints ee on this head might juftly be deemed fu- fees: perfluous. vate ftan § XXII. evel Of the Upe of the Willew in Fencing. Fe ALTHOuvEH the white-thorn be in gene- p ral the moft proper plant for making of ie fences, yet there are feveral others that may tion be fuccefsfully employed on fome occafions; futur which, for fome particular purpofes, may uy be even preferable to it. Among thefe, Z you will perhaps be furprifed to hear me Wig mention the willow; yet I have found, that nd it may be employed, in fome cafes, with wt very great advantage, by a particular me- the thod of training it, not generally known,' which I fhall now endeavour to defcribe. e It is, in general, imagined, that the af willow can be made to thrive no-where, fen except In wet or boggy ground; but this he is AND FENCES.* 8 is one of thofe vulgar errors founded upon inaccurate obfervation, too often to be met with on fubjects relating to rural affairs. Experience has fufficiently con- vinced me, that this plant will not only grow, but thrive, in any rich well culti- vated foil(unlefs in particular circum- {tances, that need not here be mentioned) even although it be of a very dry nature*. as * To remove, in fome meafure, the prejudice that may perhaps arife in the mind of inattentive obfervers againft the writer, for the feemingly paradoxical affer- tion in the text, it will not be improper, here, to men- tion a few facts relating to this fubject, that their own future experience and obfervation will enable them to to judge of impartially. Water is not more effentially neceflary to the thriv- ing of the willow, than to moft other plants and trees, but only is, on many occafions, incidentally ufeful, as tending to promote that particular tendernefs, and eafy penetrability of foil, which is effentially neceflary: to the health, if not to the very exiftence, of this fpecies of plants. Asa proof of this, recollect, if ever you faw any kind of willow thrive in what can properly be called a quagmire, where the foil is{welled up with fuch a fuperabundance of water, as to be reduced to a fort of femifluid ftate. Again, did you ever fee willows thrive if planted upon a hard, poor clayey foil, how- ever much the furface- may be covered with water? I aeeeey G2 foolifhly, a | *| -. t NE I a ne ee ee MR TO nee gee Ma 84 OF INCLOSURES It could not, however, in general, be made to thrive, if planted in the fame manner as foolifhly, in my younger years, planted feveral pieces of ground of this nature with willows, but without any fort of fuccefs. Again, although it is rare to meet with a fandy foil, that is fo much fubjected to wetnefs as to be never dry through a whole feafon, yet I once met with a cafe of that kind; the fituation being fo low, that notwith{tanding the beft drains that could be made from-it,-the ditches were never dry. Willows were planted upon tHe face of the ditch, fo as never to be above fix inches from the water; but the greateft fhoots that ever they made in one feafon, did not ex- ceed fix inches. If your obfervations. fhould concu: with mine in thefe examples, we will be obliged to con- clude that wetnefs does not, in all eafes, caufe willows to profper. On the other hand, pleafe again to recollect, if ever you faw willows planted in a rich mellow garden-mould, Gf the foil was not a hard fand or gravel) which did not fend out luxuriant fheots, whether the fituation was dry or otherwife? IT am difpofed to think that you have not., For, although[ have tried the experiment feve- ral times, it has never once failed with me. And I have frequently had fhoots of willows from eight to nine feet in length, in one feafon, upon foils naturally as dry as almoft any could be.—In fhort, the refults of all my ob- fervations relating to the growth of willows, are, That they will thrive only in fuch foils as are of a foft light nature, which are eafily penetrated by the roots of this plant:—-That unmellowed clays are too coherent for them; and that fand, by falling too clofely together, ; makes 4$(noms ie prope the Wa) fr that eoulite for iy extent makes tc den mot in 4 pro} by the fi neat the foft by render culiarl foils, or pure and reach of by the f Wap Of water, Wr bet for re the ge| to the 1 being t of the r AND FENCES, 85 as thorns;—nor would m, in any refpect, be proper to train it up for a fence, in the way that has been defcribed, as bett for that plant. The willow, as a fence, could feldom be fuccefsfully employed, but for dividing into feparate inclofures any extenfive field or rich ground. And as makes too much refiftance to the roots:—That rich gar- den mould, if kept open by frequent digging, is always in a proper ftate fer them:——That banks of mellow earth by the fides of rivulets or running water, which often rifes near the furface of them, in confequence of being always foft by the natural moifture, without being drowned or rendered poachy by the adhefivenefs of the foil, are pe- culiarly proper for rearing willows:— That even clayey foils, or fuch as tend towards clay, if not abfolutely pure and rigid, when lying fo low as to be within the reach of water, if thrown up into narrow banks or ridges, by the fpade, having ditches between each, that are al- ways, or for the greateft part of the year, filled with water, will by this management, be rendered very pro- per for rearing this plant._ Becaufe, in this fitaation, the ridge being above the level of the water, is expofed _to the meliorating influences of the fun and air; and being conftantly kept moderately damp by the fuction of the roots of the plants. that grow upon it, the mould quickly acquires that mellow richnefs fo neceflary for the well-being of the willaw. Whether thefe obferva- tions are juft or not, future experience and obfervation will determine. a 2 LS 3 it er ae ca en e eteite= i se SS a a 86 OF- INCLOSU RES it is always neceflary to put the foil into as good order as poffible, before a hedge of this kind is planted in it, the eafieft method of putting it into the neceflary high tilth, will be to mark off the boun- daries of your feveral fields in the winter, or early in the fpring, with a defigni to give a complete fallow to a narrow ridge, fix or eight feet broad, in the middle of which the hedge is intended to be planted the enfuing winter. This ridge ought to be frequently ploughed during the fummer- feafon, and, in autumn, be well manured with dung, or lime, or both(for it cannot be made too rich) and be neatly formed into a ridge before winter. 3 Having prepared the ground in this manner, it will be in readinefs to receive the hedge, which ought to be planted as early in winter as can be got conveniently done; for the willow is as much hurt by being planted late in the fpring, as the hawthorn(§ X). But, before you begin to make a fence of this kind, it will be neceflary to provide a fafficient number of plants; which will be beft done, by previoufly enable “Se ee AND‘FENCES.% previoufly rearing them in a nurfery of your own, as near the field to be inclofed as you can conveniently have it: For, as they are very bulky, the carriage of them would be troublefome, if they were brought from any confiderable diftance. The beft kinds of willow for this ufe are fuch as make the longeft and ftrongeft fhoots, and are not of a brittle nature. All the, large kinds of hoop willows may be employed for this purpofe: But there is another kind, with ftronger and more taper fhoots, covered with a dark-green bark when young, which, upon the older fhoots, becomes of an afh- grey, of a firm texture, and a little rough to ‘the touch. The leaves are not fo long, and a great deal broader than thofe of the com- mon hoop-willow, pretty thick, and of a dark-green colour. By what name this{pecies of willow is ufually known, I cannot tell; but as it becomes very quickly ofa large fize at the root, and is ftrong and firm, it ought to be made choice of for this purpofe, in pre- ference to all other kinds that I have feen. The fhoots ought to be of two or three years’ growth, before they can be properly ufed, and fhould never be lefs than eight G4 or ——” Spy tio Ma i ay peri ee=— 38 OF, ENCLOSURES (nj, as or nine feet in length. Thefe ought to be| bia cut over clofe by the ground immediately. sa before planting, and carried to the field at ie their whole length. mae The planter having ftretched a line along ee the middle of the ridge which was pre- 7|" pared for their reception, begins at one and end thereof, thrufting a row of thefe plants ee firmly iato the ground, clofe by the fide hand of the line, at the diftance of eighteen or_) del twenty inches from one another; making could them ali flant a little to one fide, in a di-| fo qu rection parallel to the line. This being nue{ finifhed, let him begin at the oppofite end orca of the line, and plant another row in the.—. ecient intervals between the plants of the former boi, row; making thefe incline as much as the| fipport others, but in a direction exactly, con- OS ori trary; and then plaiting thefe bafket- ine ways, work them into lozenges like a net, anon by faftening the tops by plaiting the{mall|‘lsh twigs with one another, which, with very| RW little trouble, may be made to bind to- ed, i gether very firmly. The whole, when fi-| the nifhed, affumes a very beautiful net-like et by appearance, as is reprefented at Fig. 5th; ty and is, at firft, a tolerably good defence: cl And,| La.— aim“ee sm aves AND FEN-C ES. Sg And, as thefe pl root, and quickly increafe in fize, it be. ants immediately take comes, after a few years, a very{trong fence, which nothing can penetrate. This kind of hedge I myfelf have em- ployed, and find that a man may plant and twift properly about a hundred yards in a day, if the plants be laid down to his hand: and, in a fituation fuch as I have defcribed, I know no-kind of fence which could be reazed. at fuch a{mall expence, fo quickly become a defence, and conti- nue fo long in good order. But it will be 1 greatly improved, by putting a plant of g eglantine between each two plants of wil- Jow, which will quickly climb up, and be fupported by.them; and, by its nume- rous prickles would effectually preferve the defencelefs willow from being browfed upon by cattle. As it will be neceffary to keep the nar- row ridge upon which the hedge is plant- ed, in culture for one year at leaft, that the plants of eglantine may not be choak- ed by weeds, and the roots of the willow may be allowed to fpread with the greater eafe in the tender mould produced by this , means, 69, OF FNCLOSURES means, it will be proper to ftir the earth once or twice by a gentle horfe-hoe in the beginning of fummer; and, in the month of June, it may be fowed with turnips, or planted with coleworts, which will abundantly repay the expence of the fal- low*, § XXIII. Of the Ufe of the Lombardy Poplar tm Fencing. Tue Lombardy poplar may likewife, on fome occafions, be employed for a fence, with propriety.‘This is a tree that has been lately introduced. into Britain * The willow is likewife of great ufe in forming railings in fields. For, if truncheons of live willow are employed as pofts, they take root and grow; fo that they do not, like wood of any other kind, rot; and, by confequence, are much more durable than pofts of any other kind of wood. In general, plants of willows, for the purpofes here fpecified, fhould be pretty thick; for, when thus planted, many kinds of willow increafe very little in thicknefs, and continue long weak, fo as to be eafily bent down bythe wind or other accidental impulfes.| from sais.~~.— —~* intone as a— Hisham“ SoS ee RR a EN ea ee a ee AND LF-E/N-C€ EDS. 91 from Germany, and is not yet fo generally known as it feems to deferve. It is faid to be one of the quickeft growing trees that is found in northern climates; and the wood is faid to be of as great value to the hufbandman as either afh or elm. It is eafily propagated by cuttings, like the willow; and, like it, delights in a rich mellow foil, tending a little toward damp- nefs, in which it grows with amazing vigour, rifing with a flrong upright ftem, growing three or four feet in height each year, for fome time, while it is young, and in its moft vigorous ftate. But although it may be eafily propa- gated by cuttings, yet it is always advife- able to plant thefe firft in a nurfery of rich garden-mould, where they may be allowed to take root, and acquire a little ftrength, before they are planted out where they are to remain in a hedge: For, as fome of thefe ufually do not ftrike root fo rea- dily as others, it would occafion fome ir- regularity in the growth of the hedge, that may be avoided by this precaution. After they have been nurfed a year or two, and have formed good roots, they may ¢@; OFMNCLOSURES| ne may be taken up, and planted on a bank, ja in the fame manner as thorns, managing| at(P , them, in every ref{pect, as the thorns(§ XII,| fom h XIII, XIV); only obferving to put a plant quiet) of eglantine for every plant of poplar, for ee] the whole length of the hedge. And as plat this tree would, in all probability(for I} i m here{peak only from analogy, never hav- a 10¢ ing feen them planted in this way) make fon very ftrong fhoots, they would foon be 1) ay large enough to form a{trong fence; of eg and the eglantine would furnifh the de- for t fenfive prickles which this plant ftands fo to| much in need of. But the way in which| inf ! L apprehend that this. plant might be mott atten | advantageoully employed in fencing, would tiveen | be as follows: tat | Let the young plants remain in the nur-| bp, 2 B| fery, till they are become as large at the| thee ; root as the wrift of an ordinary man, which pea may be expected to be the cafe in four or| 1" five years, from the time of planting; tak- T ing care to dig the earth each year between Sug the rows, that the plants may have abun- ae dance of fhort well-formed roots. When he the plants are of a proper fize, prepare a ton ridge to receive them exactly in the fame manner Py, ——— ae a ice——— 2am on NO a i 5 a AUN DP EON E'S: 93 manner as was directed for the willows (§ XXII); and, having firft cut off all their tops at the height of four or five feet from the ground, raife them from the nurfery with as great caution as you can, —carry them directly to the ridge, and plant a row of thefe in the middle of it, in an upright pofition, at the diftance of a foot from one another; which will form a fort of railing, as is reprefented at Fig. 6; always taking care to put a plant of eglantine between every two poplars, for the reafons already mentioned. And to keep them more, firmly together, and in fone meafure to prevent cattle from attempting fo readily to rufh through be- tween them at firft, it will be of ufe to twift fome‘hoots of willows along their top, as is reprefented in the figure; or, in. places where thefe cannot be had, a{trong rope of ftraw twifted, may be employed as a fuccedaneum for it. Thefe trees would not fail to fend out {trong fhoots from the top of every ftem, as at E, which would quickly arrive at a confiderable magnitude; and the {tems increafing in fize proportionally, would, 94 OFA INC LO SURES would, in time, clofe the intervals fo much as that no animal whatever could break, through it. The tops of thefe trees might ified be afterwards cut over at the height of five feet from the ground, whenever the fhoots had attained the magnitude that‘:: thould be thought the moft proper for the i purpofe that they might be defigned for; be whether it was wal ing-ftafis, hurdles,| ferme hop-poles, fhafts to carts, or any other| ah| ufe that the peculiarities of the fituation| que might. render moft advantageous; and fall, would thus, in all probability, afford a a profit to the farmer, much greater tha ie could be drawn from any other kind of and fence whatever.—Reader, obferve, I do not ths {peak from experience. What I here hint, It or is only probable conjecture; let it, there- wick fore, make no farther impreffion on your vin mind, than reafon feems to authorife*. height * Since writing the above, I have met with fome tt - facts that feem to fhow that the Lombardy poplar is not| ot| fuch an exceedingly quick grower, or fo valuable a tree, be in other refpects, as we were made to believe when it mar was firft introduced into Great Britain. But as feveral tg kinds of ftrong upright{hooting willows might be em- P ployed as a fence in this way, as well as the elm, horn- De beam,&c. I choofe to let the paflage remain without to farther correction, § XXIV. ae a:= AND FENCES. 95 & SOE. Of the Uje of the Quick-beam, or Rawn- tree, in Fencing. ANOTHER plant that may be employed for the fame purpofes, and in the fame manner as the laft mentioned, is the wild fervice, fometimes called the mountain- afh, or rawn-tree. This is one of the quickeft growing trees, for a dry barren foil, that is known in this country. It grows upright, and tapers gradually from the root—is extremely firm in the ftem, and is hurt by no fort of expofure. At this prefent time, I have fome plants of it growing upon a very indifferent foil, which, in eight years from the time of fowing the feeds, are about twelve feet in height, and eight or nine inches in girt at the root; fo that I think there is but little doubt that thefe trees might be employed for a fence, in the fame manner as was defcribed for the poplars, upon fuch poor and barren foils as would be improper for them. This tree ought _ to be raifed from feeds, in the fame man- Nee 06 OF INCLOSURES ner as the hawthorn;—tranfplanted: from the feed-bed at one or two years’ growth, into a rich garden-mould, and, in four or five years, they would be fit for planting out upright’ Yr —_ Ww 5 XXV. Of the Ufe of the Alder in Fencing. THe alder might be employed for the fame purpofe, upon damp foils. If pro- pagated from feeds, it rifes upright, and grows very faft; and, being ftrong in its fhoots, would be well adapted for this ufe. Hedges are undoubtedly the fences; and would, on almoft all ete be preferable to thofe of every other kind, were they not fo long in coming to per- fection after they are planted, and{o dif- ficult to be preferved from other accidents * Since the above was written, I find that the rawn- tyge does not thrive fo well when planted thick in a hedge, as there was reafon to expect from the progrefs it makes when planted at a moderate diftance from other trees. Nor does it thrive extremely well upon avery poor foil, or in a very expofed fituation. I during ANG SENG ES: oF during that period; fo that it has hitherto been a defideratum in agriculture, to find out fomething that fhould be an immedi- ate fence as a wall, and lafting as a hedge, Whether the four plants laft mentioned will effectuate this purpofe in the manner above propofed, I will not take upon me to fay: but, as the matter is of confider- able importance, and there feems to be a probability that they may at leaft be of fome ufe, I hope I fhall be excufed for, having hazarded a few conjectures upon this head. § XXVI. Of Furze or Whins as a Fence. Wuins(furze) have been often em- ployed as a fence, when fowed upon the top of abank. They are attended with the convenience of coming very quickly to perfection, and of growing upon a foil in which few other plants could be made to thrive: But, in the way that they are commonly employed, they are neither a ftrong nor a lafting fence. The firft of thefe defects may, in fome Mot het art meature, ee——— oe—_— 98 OF INCLOSURES meafure, be removed, by making the bank upon which they are fowed(for they never fhould be tranfplanted) of a very confiderable breadth; in order that the largenefs of the agoregate body, con- fidered as one mals, may, in fome mea- fure, make up for the want of ftrength in each individual plant. With this view, a bank may be raifed, of five or fix feet in breadth at the top, with a large ditch on each fide of it; raif- ing the bank as high as the earth taken from the ditches will permit; the furface of which fhould be fowed pretty thickly with whin-feeds. Thefe will come up very quickly; and, in two or three years will form a barrier that few animals will attempt to break. through, and will con- tinue in that ftate of perfection for fome years. The greateft obje€tion to the furze-plant as a fence is, that as it advances in fize, the old prickles always die away; no more of them being ever alive at any time upon the plant, than thofe-that have been the produce of the year immediate- ly preceding: and. thefe thus gradually falling —— AND FENCES,<9 falling away, leave the ftems naked below, as they advance in height; fo that it very foon becomes an exceedingly poor and un- fightly fence, the ftems being entirely bare, and fo flender withal as not to be able to make a fufficient refiftance to almoft any animal whatever. To remedy this great defect, either of the two following-me- thods may be adopted, that fhall beft fuit your fituation and circumftances:_ The firft is, to take care to keep the banks always ftored with yeung plants; never allowing them to grow to fuch’a height as to become bare below. And it was principally to admit of this, without lofing at any time the ufe of the fence, that I have advifed the bank to be made up of fuch an unufual breadth. For, if one fide of the hedge be cut down quite clofe to the‘bank, when it is only two or three years old, the other half will remain as a fence till that fide becomes ftrong again; and then the oppofite fide may be cut down in its turn, and fo on alter- nately, as long as you may incline: By which means, the bank will always have a ftrong hedge upon it, without ever becom- H 2 ing pew 10 OF INCLOSURES ing naked at the root. And as this plant. when bruifed, is one of the moft valuable Kinds of winter-food yet known for al kinds of domeftic animals*, the young tops may be carried home,‘and employed for that purpofe by the farmer; which will abundantly compenfate for the trou- ble of cutting, and the wafte of ground that is occafioned by the breadth of the bank. The other method of preferving a hedge of whins from turning open below, can only be practifed where fheep are kept; but may be there employed with great propriety. In this cafe, it will be proper to fow the feeds uponsa{harp ridge of earth, fhoved up from the furface of the ground on each fide, without any ditches. If this is preferved from the fheep for two or three years at firft, they may then be allowed to haye free accefs to it; and as they can get up clofe to the foot of the bank upon each fide, if they have been * Some may, perhaps, imagine, that the expreflion ¢n the text is rather too bold; but I have very fufficient, reafon, from undoubted experience, for ufing it. accuftomed -+3 4 : NaS: oo= eS SO— ee a a—a i. AND PENCESR. Fo} accuftomed to this kind of food, they will eat up all the young fhoots that are with- in their reach, which will occafion them to fend out a great many lateral thoots; and thefe being continually browfed upon, foon become as clofe as could be defired, and are then in no fort of danger of be- coming naked at the root, although the middle part fhould advance to a confider- able height. The reader ought to be apprized of one very great objection to this kind of fence, viz. that the feeds are blown by the wind into the fields, and come up in fuch abun- dance as to become a very great nui- fance. As it is hardly poffible to extirpate them when they are once eftablifhed, every one, therefore, ought duly to confider what are to be the confequences, before he fows them*. § XXVII. * Sinee the above was written, I have had occafion to take notice of fome other ways in which whins may be fuccefsfully employed as a fence. In poor foils, where ftones are fcarce, it becomes extremely difficult to rear a proper fence for protecting young trees: as, on many occations, the foil is not co- H 3 hefive N 10 OF INCLOSURES § XXVIII. Of the Ufes of the Balfam Poplar in Fencing. WHEN the firft edition of thefe Effays was printed, the Balfam Poplar was fcarce- ly known in Britain. It is now fufficiently known, as a healthy free-growing tree; and, while young, it is particularly attrac- tive, hefive enough for making firm earthen dikes; and ditches alone are not a fence, unlefs they are extremely large. In fuch a fituation, whins may be fuccefsfully employed, in the following manner: Make a ditch all round the field, four feet wide, and two and a half, or three feet deep: throw the whole of the earth that comes from the ditch, to the inner fide of the inclofure,; taking care to prevent it from falling down at the back, by rearing behind it a bank of fods, at the diftance of five feet from the ditch, rearing the fod-wall in proportion as the earth is thrown from the ditch, to back it,- When it is finifhed, the whole af= fumes the appearance in the margin. When it is thus finifhed, ftrew whin- {ceds pretty thick along the furtace of the bank between B and C, and rake them in. At the fame time,‘ftrew a row of whin feeds along the edge of the ditch at A, and cover . OF INCEROSURES being ftill farther retarded in its courfe by| ig the north-wind, which at that time conti- i nually blows upon this coaft, the earth is| atid allowed gradually to fubfide, and forms; that rich flime which covers the whole; wil country when the Nile retires within its ge fa bed, and gives to it the amazing fertility for which Egypt has been famous fince the earlieft ages of antiquity. Now, although m it is’ not to be expected that an inundation, 1 which continues only for fuch a fhort time, and rifes to fuch an inconfiderable height above the furface of the earth, as any that we ever experience, could produce fuch great effects as this more per! fect annual overflowing does with them:, yet id the| contrivance I have mentioned, the far- mer might reap the fame improvement in kind, slihouah not in degree: and, Ae it in his power to repeat it as often as an inundation happened, if he fhould fo in-|, cline, it is hard to tell what a degree of fertility this might produce in time. To obtain all thefe advantages, when he wifhes to lay any particular field under wa- ter, he needs only to put a gag into the folding fluice, fo as to prevent it from fhut- ting a ip repre en—> AND FENCES. 141 s ting clofe; and having, at the fame time, opened the inner fluice, allow it to remain in that flate, till an inundation happens; at which time the water from the river will enter freely by the conduit, and flow gently in upon the field, till it rifes to the fame height with the river: and when it is as high as he inclines, he may fhut the in- ner fluice, which will detain the whole of the water in the field, as long as he fhall think proper; and, when the“river is‘¥ fallen in, and the water has depofited its fediment, he may open the fluice, and let it run off at leifure. In this manner, thefe fields may be richly, impregnated, and kept in high order, with the greateft- eafe to the farmer; in~ ftead of having the crops of them fre- quently deftroyed, and the fineft mould wafhed away, as is ufual, by the ordinary way of management. But although this method of admitting the water might an{wer very well in thof fituations where the ground is fo low as to be confiderably below the furface of the water in the river, in ordinary inun- dations; yet, to fuch as lie fo high as to be 142 OF INCLOSURES Tin4 a 4s* be above the level of the water, excepting HB sis upon very extraordinary occafions, it could be of very little fervice.‘ And as it will always be of great ufe on every occafion of this fort, to cover the field toas great a epth of water as poffible; it will, in ge- feral, be prudent in every man who means to avail himfelf of this circumftance, to in- | troduce the water to his fields in the fol- Jowing manner:— As every river flows downwards, in its courfe, in a leffler or greater degree, it is in the power of any one who choofes it, to raife a{mall current of water, drawn from ., the river, to fome height above the level! 3 are x{i“fo Ce 4¢ PR?@ ae lee me Qa of its furface, at any particular place, merely by cutting a track for it upon the t":| Pao ae aye Koester 2 lease ee bank, and making it flow in a bed nearer ca= Pers r Al rp as er 1, r nation 1> 4 a Norizontas diteciion toan that ox the river, a CA eke ot as we{ee daily practifed with reeard to mill- w Now, with regard to the prefent cafe, it may be in general in the power of thofe || °.°| who with to make an improvement of this m0 kind, to take off a{mall water-courfe fo: far up the river, as to be able to raife it| to a height equal with the top of the bank Ss a fi TU TAT eee_, Fig 3 na iii MIMI TI al TTA UM LH ill=)-4 mane ic i in 1 in = ae eeeinede il eng—— ney ee AND FENCES.§ 143 that is raifed for fencing his fields. And *f this canbe done, it would be the eafieft thing imaginable to form a fimall hollow on the top of the bank when firft made, as at A(Fig. 18) to ferve as a bed for this fmall ftream of water to run in, when it fhould be found ieee And, by having a fluice upon the upper part of this canal, to open or fhut at pleafure, the water might be admitted into it, when, and only when the pofieffor of it fhould incline. And if there was a particular fluice that opened from this canal into each of the fields, it would be in his power to throw the water upon any one of thefe whenever he faw proper, an: raile at. as high on that field as the top of the bank, if he chofe it; or, what would be{till more beneficial, unlefs in particular fituations, ” the water could be fpread over the furface of the ground, fo as to convert it into a watered meadow—the moft profitable kind of ground known in this country. I decline enumerating any more of the advantages that would attend this practice, as thefe muft appear obvious at firft fight. It is only neceflary for me here to take notice, iad.“OP INCLOSURES notice, that if the banks which form thé boundaries of thefe inclofures, are not made very thick and ftrong, as was already ad- vifed, they would be altogether infufficient for bearing the preffure of fuch a body of water as is fuppofed to be fometimes contained in fome of thefe inclofures, while ‘the other fields around them are empty. On which account, they ought in general to be made of a triangular form(as in Fipy 19%}. Thofe who may not have the conve- nience of being able to bring’ the water as here defcribed, may frequently have it in their power to convert them into watered meadows, or to lay thefe fields under water, when or to what depth they may incline, by diverting from its right courfe any rill that may fall from higher ground near them, and introducing it into the field when fwelled with rain. oe§ XLT. ‘ Va AND F EWN C ES. 145° § XXXHI. Of fencing and fecuring Flat Meadow- grounds from the Danger of being drowned, or of floating them at pleafure. Besrpes the level grounds on the banks of rivers, juft now defcribed as apt to be hurt by extraneous water, there are many large traéts of ground of another. kind to be met with, that are in as great danger of receiving damage from this caufe as the former. Thefe confift of low level grounds, lying in a bottom furrounded with higher ground; from which the de- {cent is fo inconfiderable, as not to allow the water to flow away from them fo fait as it comes upon them during the conti- nuance of violent rains; which fubjects them to the difagreeable inconvenience of being frequently overflowed at improper feafons, fo as to prevent the farmer from having it in his power to improve them as he might incline. Thefe grounds are commonly known in the North of Britain by the name of Meadows or Laighs. As it is of confequence for common farmers Vow. 4. ly to pL ais PLA tay DEI AL PAA LP IAAL r Boe=.> RP DEP IP AR Ang OOO Dy eB ————————=— SER Tn A sae « ab OFS INCL OSURES to know the way of fencing thefe, I fthall add a few words with regard to them; although others of a more comprehenfive underftanding may perhaps think it unne- ceflary, after what has been already faid. As the inconvenience complained of in this cafe arifes entirely from water that falls from higher ground, the firft ftep that is neceflary to be taken, is to de- fend the fields from that, by fencing them all round the fides by a ditch and bank, like thofe already defcribed, of a fufficient fize and ftrength to contain and carry off the whole water that may fall into it at any time. This ought to be continued all round, and to fali into the main drain by which the water is ultimate- ly conveyed from this level bottom. If the defcent from this be very{mall, fo as not to allow of a fwift current of water, make the ditch of a confiderable width, and clean it frequently from the mud and weeds, that will, in a fhort time, be in danger of choaking it up entirely. Fhis ditch, or water- courfe, being maae in the loweft part of the ground, muft be fecured on each fide with a bank, like | thote eet‘- eae” i! 7- Rn : om» ae*; a eee Mu ss ee:. Sa a parm cnnaey—¥ AND.FEN‘CES, 147 thofe already defcribed upon the fide of the river; and through that, let there be made a fmall conduit, paffing from the Joweft part of each field(as at/LL, Fig. 17) into the drain. But as the cur- rent of water is here fuppofed to be very a {mail, each of thefe muft be clofed with a water-fluice, to be opened or fhut at pleafure, by the hand, and not by folding fluices, which could, in this cafe, be of no ufe. The meadow may be divided into as many inclofures as fhall be thought ne- ceffary, by means of earthen banks(eee Fig. 19) raifed to any height above the level of the ground that may be thought neceflary, by means of earth taken Fon the ditch on each fide of it, BB. And, upon the top of each of thefe banks, plant a fence of poplars, willows, or elms(as defcribed in§ X XHI) which will foon be- come a defence againft cattle, and thelter the fields from wind, while the bank is fuf- ficiently ftrong to refift the preffure of the water, when you thall choofe to let it into any one field, and effectually prevent it from having accefs into any of thofe that L, 2 may 148 OF INCLOSURES may be around it. If you have not pop- lars, good truncheons of any of the{trong growing kinds of willows may, in this cafe, - be fuccefsfully employed. In this manner, thefe meadows may be kept conftantly either wet or dry, as the poffefior may incline, and have the fame advantage from watering, as the haughs above defcribed. I have feen many ex- tenfive tracts of very valuable land of this fort, which, by being fenced and divided in this manner, might have been made of three or four times its former value, at an expence{o inconfiderable, as to be{carcely worth mentioning.‘There are, indeed, fome fituations fo very low, that it might be, on fome occafions, neceffary to raife the water out of them by artificial aids, as is done in Holland, and, perhaps, in many other low countries; but there are many exten- five tracts, which are juft now, in a great meafure, ufelefs, that might be perfectly recovered by this method of inclofing, without any other aid whatever. I make no doubt, but that thefe methods of fencing are well underftood and prac- tifed in the fens of Cambridge, Lincoln- fhire, — AWN. D TE N.CLE.»5. 149 (hire,&&c. with others, perhaps, more effi- cacious than any of thefe.—But it is not to inftruct adepts, like the inhabitants of thefe counties, that I write; but the induf- trious farmer, who may not have had ac- cefs to fee thefe improvements. § XXXIV. Obfervations on the moft economical Way of making Fences, where Rills or Running Water is the Boundary. Ir is imagined, that by employing one or other of the kinds of fences already men- tioned, it will be in the power of the far- mer to fecure almoft every field that he can be poffeffied of, whatever its fituation may be: But fome cafes may occur, in which he will find much greater difficulty than others, in this refpect.‘This he will find to be particularly the cafe, where he means to fence a field that is bounded by any kind of ftream of running-wa- ter. When this ftream is confiderable, it may be, in fome meafure, fenced(as is defcribed in§ XXIX); as the river L 3 would Ho, OF INC EOSURES would form, upon one fide, a boundary fufficient for ftheep, which might be em- ployed for eating the grafs that fhould grow upon the banks: But where it 1s only a rivulet, or fmall rill, this could not be practifed. And if we attempt to make a fence of any kind that fhall be wafhed by the water in its courfe, it wilk always be found difficult to execute, and next to impoflible to preferve in proper order, unlefs where the declivity is fo fmall, as never to allow of a brifk current of water at any time. It will, therefore, be prudent in the farmer, as much as poflible, to avoid making fences in this fi+ tuation. But, unluckily for the views of the im- prover, it happens, that as running-water forms fuch a natural and eafily-defined boundary, in an open and uncultivated country, thefe rills are moft commonly em- ployed as marches between the grounds of one proprietor or tenant and another; fo that the pofieflors of all{uch fields find themfelves under the necefiity of making fences in thefe places. Where this is the eafe, and the propric- tor AND FENCES. te: tor of the adjacent ground will not agree to make any exchange of ground, this incon- venience mut{t be fubmitted to, as an evil that cannot be removed. But, in all cafes where it can be done, it would be much for the intereft of both parties to alter the match fo much as to allow a fence to be reared upon it on folid ground, making the rill entirely the property of one man for a certain part of its courfe, and entire- ly the property of the other at another part part of its courfe(as is reprefented in Fig. 20) where ABCL reprefents a{mall rivu- let flowing in its natural ferpentine courfe, which is fuppofed to have been the march between the two different farms, X and Z; the poffeffors of which, for their mutual accommodation, have agreed to make the line D E-F G HI,&c. the march in all time to come; fo that the proprietor Z, gets the rivulet wholly upon his own farm from A to B, and from C to L; and the proprietor X, enjoys it as entirely as his own, from B to C; each of them referv- ing to himfelf, if need be, a liberty to bring a fmall canal from the rill, as at M Loe A and OF-IN-CLOSURES tv 15 and N, to afford water to the cattle in his inclofures. By this means, the fences will not only be more eafily made and kept in repair, but the fields will likewife be more pro- perly divided, and admit of being more economically employed, than if a large ditch had been dug as a bed for the rill, and employed as a fence, as is commonly practifed in cafes of this kind. For, as ri- vulets of this fort ufually run in a fort of level f{trath*, which extends to fome dif- tance on each fide the water-courfe, be- fore the fields on each fide begin to rife from it; this level piece of low ground being frequently overflowed by the{well- ing of the rill, and being moreover con- tinually kept moift by the water running at no great depth below its furface, is ren- dered extremely fertile, and is much richer pafture than the drier ground on each fide of it, fo as to be of very great value to the farmer, and requires to. be managed in a very different. way from_ what would Strath is a narrow piece of low ground contained Wetween hills, or any{rt of higher ground of confider- able length, in proportion to its breadth, be AND FENCES. reg be proper for the higher ground on either fide of it._ But when a large ditch is made, and that becomes the fence, it draws off the moiiture from this level ground en- tirely, fo that in a very fhort time it lofes a great deal of that fertility for which it ufed to be fo remarkable. And as this low ground comes to be thus joined with the reft of the field above it, the farmer is fubjected to a good deal of inconvenience. For, as it is ufually of a nature fo differ- ent from the reft of the ground, it can neither be ploughed, fowed, nor reaped, at° the fame time with the other parts of the field, nor manured in the fame manner; nor, on many occafions, can be fowed with the fame fpecies of grain. But, by altering the march, as defcribed above, it is plain that all thefe inconveniencies are entirely obviated: For, by running the march-fence along the line that divides “the ground of different qualities, he throws all the meadow-ground to one fide; and, by erecting another fence on the oppofite fide of the rill, between the high and low | ground(as is reprefented by the dotted lines OF, EH, and GP) the ground of different a ee hE OS Fae wT" we OF UTNCEL@SURES different qualities are kept{feparate, and may each of them be managed in the manner that fhall be thought moft pro- per for it. SX NV. General Obfervations with regard to the proper Divifion of a Farm into Inclofures. Brrore I conclude this Effay, I thall beg leave to make one other remark with regard to the diftribution of inclofures, that may, perhaps, on fome occafions, be of ufe to the young improver; and that is, to be guided, in general, with regard to the form and difpofition of his inclo- fures, rather by the nature and fite of the ground, than by any ideal form of beauty that he may conceive from. exact regu- larity in a plan drawn upon paper. Na- ture will, in no cafe, admit of being direct- ly thwarted in her operations; and all that induftry ought to attempt, is, to pur- fue her footfteps, obferve her difpofitions, and gently bend them, where it can be done, a ae fi — ue yy i= PD. Ve g I a Sur, € gh ra ¢ f) 1 4 ' 1 ! y LAXMN RY) pry WAY Sa~ a AS, AS e) 17= a a 2 a—= oS=< FS=~ A Isat FS 7, Se AND FENCES.‘155 w done, to make them concur with our de- figns. Among men of tafte, that extravagant fondnefs for ftraight lines, and perfect uniformity, which, for fome time paft, fo univerfally prevailed, is now juftly ex- ploded. But let not the judicious farmer be hurried away into the oppofite ex- treme, by following too clofely the idea of beauty, that modern improvers have adopted. Ornament, with him, ought ever to be but a fecondary confideration; and as ftraight lines are always the moft con- venient boundaries for his fields, let him never deviate from that but where the fituation of his ground abfolutely requires it. But, where his ground is fo irregular as not to admit of thefe, it would be folly in him to attempt it. For ground that is to be kept in tillage, it will be of confequence to fludy, as much as may be, to have the fences of the tw fides parallel to one another, and ftrai okt ig at’ OQO(Fig. 20)‘but: ates of much fmaller confequence to have the boundaries, at the two ends of the ridges, caer _ m6' OF TINCEOSURES either ftraight or parallel to one another; and therefore, on occafions which may require it, the farmer ought always to humour the fituation of the ground in thofe fences that are oppofite to the ends of the ridges; as in the curve-line FGP(Fig. 20) which is fuppofed to be the natural form of the banks of the rill, rather than the traight lines ON, NG, GT, or any other ftraight line‘whatever. Nor ought the economical farmer to confalt only the fituation of his grounds, but alfo their quality, when he means to divide them into inclofures: For it often happens, that two fields of very different qualities, he quite contiguous to one an- other, and if thefe, for the fake of regu- larity, fhould be included in the fame in- clofares; and form, perhaps, different parts of the fame ridge, he may very foon lofe more by the damage that the one part may fuftain, by his being obliged to la- bour it improperly, along with the other, than he can gain by the greater quantity of work that he can perform in a regular than in an irregular field. He will, there- fore, in general, make it his ftudy to have all aS 72 -_—— —— ee See ee gc= BG a 4 2 A: fe= oe a SE Sa I a—_—s a= bed AND EEN CES: o7 all the ground in one ce as much of of the fame‘quality as pot(ible; and make the exact regularity of his field, in fonte meafure, give way to conveniency in this resect; although he will not be Jo.{cru- puloufly attentive hereto as to diftort his ali fences for every trifling inequality in this ref] pect. 4 The foregomg fheets were ies before« Thad an opportunity of perujing the late Mr. Boutcher’s judicious Treatife on’ F oreft Trees. ft gives me much fatisfaction to obferve, that the opinion I have been obliged from experi- ence to« adopt, of the meee) of having a rich foil for a nurfery af thorn plants, 1s fo sp ly confirmed by the experience of that attentive nurferyman.—in fome refpecis, that gentle- man recommends a mode of culture for rear- ng hedges, diff ferent JE om that which I have mojft approved of: But upon a careful re- vifal of what has been ad vanced in the pre- ceding pages, I find no reafon to alier any thing that bas been faid on that bead. His experience bas been chiefly in the garden, or 18 OF INCLOSURES BB ag, in rich fheltered parts of the country;—mine has been in the fields, and expofed fituations. Lhis will account for his approving of fome modes of prattice, that I have not, nor car econgmend. Tbofe who are in a fimilar fi- tuatton with himfelf, may, without danger, adopt this praétice. What I have recommend- ed, ie anfwer as well in thefe fituations, 2d as the only practice I have yet feen that can be fuccefsfully followed in others that are more unfavourable. My aim has been to extend this improvement to the bare and ex- pofed fields of Scotland, where the difficulty of rearing hedges is much greater than thofe oO A who barve Bued 3 wn foeltered countries can well wMagine. f might anfwer fome objections he bas made, and point out the reafons for my re- taming fome opinions ee Jrom binm:— but, thinking this would o only, without ne= cejjity, add ta the bulk go) oF this Wilin ne, E chaofe 9 engage no farther at prefent in this difcuf- aay S/S 6 AAT, RY GeO ae SS SE LS | SY Hi LD eat UU re nl iIl| Mi i Nt ih | i ee IA MA NTN| WAT TAM Hg {iil A ges mm Ml A- th Al Mi mil ii|| Mee Mua ut w AND FENCES. 1g ADDITIONS TO THE FOURTH EDITION, § XXXVI. Of the beft Method of making Mill-dams, or Wrers, Heads, or Breafts acrofs Rivers. I know of no fpecies of fence upon which more money is generally expended, than that which forms the fubje& of the prefent article: for, though I hope to be able to fhow that it may be eafily effected, yet, as it has been hitherto executed, it is not only expenfive on its firft erection, but is fo liable ever afterwards to fuftain damage from floods, that it is a fource of never-failing difquietude, and endlefs charge, to the owners of fuch works. Hitherto, it has been cuftomary to make the dike which forms the mill-dam, head, or wier, which runs acrofs a river, univerfally of a triangular form, being wide at the bafe, and growing gradually narrower towards the top, where it ends in a kind of: point, as in the margin, than which 223s SSNS WN: SSS no form can be devifed, that could be weaker, or more liable to accidents. The force 160 OF INCLOSURES force of running-water, when its velocity is accelerated by falling from a confiderable im height, upon bodies that oppofe its motion,| becomes nearly irrefiftible;- and, in. this. tiene mode of conftructing a dam, the artift feems induftrioufly to have aimed at giving an ex- ample of the power of water, under thefe ag! circumftances:" no fooner does that th water fhoot over the uppermoft ftones of tio tk 1€ dan am, tl Man it precipitates it fe if with ViQ— fiy jence upon thofe ftones on the‘lower fide of the inclined plane, which are made to de project beyond d the firftt—but which are thus| ct made’ to’*fuflain the whole force of that a e concuffion. From one{tone it nee to| Wi another, and another, ftill acquiring addi- ee tional velocity, till ic. reach the Bats m of| tog i\ the inclined plane; and, if the height be Mate confiderable, it is eafy to fee that the force win of the water, before it reaches the bottom, wie, mutt have become fuch, as to be capable of tet difplacing ue largeft ftones that the power| am of man can place in that pofition*®. not *“Phe water too, which rufhes through between the| This crannies of the ftones every where, efpecially where the| ta mound is of confiderable height, is fo powerful, as ta difplace the materials in every part, and greatly accelerate=*| bated the rin.+ found Thug ae j Vo ANID CHE ENG Es 161 Thus it has happened, and ever muft continue to be the cafe, that every weir which is conftruéted on this principle of rough unhewen ftone, is, from time to time, liable to be fwept entirely away, fo as to lay the machinery wafte until it be again rebuilt; which frequently happens at that feafon of the year, when fuch opera- tions are the moft troublefome and expen- five. The frequent recurrence of fuch acci- dents has induced fome owners of ma- chinery to erect their weirs in a very expenfive manner at firft, by building the whole triangle of hewn ftone, the furface of which is fo{mooth, as to fuffer the water to glide over it, without being able to infi- nuate itfelf fo readily between the crannies asin the former cafe. Much good like- wife, fome are inclined to think, may be derived from giving the furface of the weir a particular form of curvature, which I do not think neceffary here to dwell upon. This is, indeed, found to give it fome addi- tional fecurity; but, unlefs the whole be batted together with bats of iron, it is ftill found to be infecure; and the expence, VoL. I. M where | | 12 OF INCLOSURES where fuch batting is attempted, is fuch as to prevent it from being carried into effect, unlefs under very particular circumftances. Fortunately, however, for thofe who have works of this kind to accomplith, by adopting a more judicious mode of con- ftruction, they may rear a dam that will be equally ftrong with the inclined plane, when made of ewn ftone, or even when batted ‘with tron, at an expence not greater, at leaft, than would have reared one of the rudeft conftruétion of common{tones. The reader, from what has been already faid, will cafily perceive, that the chief cir- cumftances which are wanted to give ftability to the dam, are, to remove the ftones out of the way of the failing water, foas to free them from running a rifk of being difplaced by it in its fall, and to pre- vent the water from being forced violently through the crevices of the mound towards the bottom; he will alfo perceive, that the firft part will be eafily effected, merely by making that fide of the breaft which looks towards the lower part of the river, a per- pendicular wall, inftead of an inclined plane -—for in this cafe the water, when it is forced AND FENCES. 163 forced over the top of the dam, with the velocity it neceffarily acquires when in a flood, will fhoot over clear, without touch- Ing any part of the perpendicular wall, exactly in the fame manner as it(hoots over a perpendicular rock, in a natural cafcade. This is fo obvious, as to need only to be f{tated, in order to be recognized as unex« ceptionably juft, by every perfon who fhall beitow a fingle thought upon the fubje&. {t is indeed fo obvious, that it mu excite fome degree of wonder, it fthould not have been long ago carried into univerfal practice. It is not, however, a matter of great dif- ficulty to account for the manner in which mankind have been led into a general per- {uafion, not only of the w#z/ity of the trian- gular form of a double inclined plane, but even of the xecefity of it, for giving ftrength to the dam dike. It is very obvious, that ifa ftrong force were applied to one fide of a perpendicular wall, tending to puth it over, that wall would receive a great addi- tional fupport, were a ftrong beam of wood placed in a diagonal direction upon the fide of the wall, oppofite to that to which the M 2 preffure ya OF IMCLOSURES preflyre was applied—it is exactly upon this principle, that the buttrefs of{tones thus applied, has been fuppofed to ftrengthen| the dam dike—for as the water, flowing forward, apparently tends to force the wall forward along with it, the buttrefs feemed to be neceflary to enable it to bear that prefiure, without being carried away along with it. But here it deferves to be remarked, that there is a great fallacy in this mode of rea- foning, as applied to this’cafe. The ftrength of a wall for refifting the force of water, depends chiefly upon the abfolute weight of the materials of which it confifts; and, if thefe materials are of fuch a form, as to make the water prefs perpendicularly on any part of it, the very weight of that water, if the materials refift the entrance of water, will add fomething to its folidity. Now, as there is nothing to prevent you from adding as much thicknefs to the wall, as the circumftances of the.cafe fhall render neceffary, the buttrefs on the under fide may be removed, without the{malleft danger of rendering it weaker in any refpect —-and, for the reafons already given, it ought moft certainly to be removed. There led — I i A NN PGP ee AND FENCES, There is not, however, the fame reaz fon for removing the flope on the upper fide of the wall; on the contrary, the far- ther it is filled up above the breaft, and the more gradually it fhelves downward there, the firmer it will be: for, as the water preffes with a force exactly propor- tioned to its perpendicular depth, if the mound be broad enough, at the bottom, where the preffure is, of neceflity, greateft, there is no neceffity of having it broad at the top, where that preffure is diminithed al- moft to nothing. The eafinefs of the flope, too, is well adapted for preventing the cur- rent from ftriking with great force upon it, or other objects which may be forced down with the ftream, from laying‘violent hold of it, and tearing it forcibly afunder. Nor is it a matter of great difficulty to make fuch a mound; for, as the water above the dam is nearly ftagnant, any kind of loofe ftones, or gravel, or other rubbith that is not foluble in water, will be in no danger of being difp aced by the ftream, but will lie there undifturbed, if they be thrown in any-how, at random. Thefe principles being thus explained, M 3 I thall e 466‘OF INCLOSURES I fhall fubjoin a few brief directions for conftrudling bulwarks of this fort, which, if carefully adverted to, will feldom fail to give fatisfaction to thofe who fhall adopt them. It needs fcarcely be obferved, that in building this kind of wall, as in every other wall whatever, it is neceflary to dig, till a firm foundation be found.—Rock is the beft, where it can be reached, for obvious reafons. Where the bottom is only gra- vel, a wide trench fhould be made, for a confiderable depth, which ought to be, at leaft, fix or eight feet in width. All the rubbifh that comes from this trench fhould be thrown to the upper fide of the dam. ‘The wall fhould then be built, two, three, or four feet in thicknefs, as circumftances fhall indicate; the higher the dam, the thicker, always, fhould the wall be. But few cafes occur, in which more than two or three feet are abfolutely neceffary. The ftonés in this wall fhould be bedded with as great care as poflible, without any mor- tar, or with tarras at the bottom efpecially, if any mortar be ufed, and as few little pin- nings be put in among them as may be. And, AND FENCES. 167, And, as it is of great confequence for pre- venting the wafte of water, but ftill more, for rendering the wall firm and durable, that no water fhould leak through the dam, the opening that is left on the upper fide of the wail(which, in no cafe, fhould be lefs than: three feet, and, where the mound is high, five or fix feet will be bet- ter) fhould be rammed full of clay, regu- larly as the wall rifes upwards. When the wall reaches near to the height that is re- quired, it ought to be brought to a true level acrofs the river, it whele length, and upon the top fhould be laid a coping of flat ftones of as large a breadth as they can be got, and neatly cut, and clofely joined in every part(where this cannot be had, or where it is required to project very far, planks of oak-wood may. be adopted in its ftead). This coping of flat {tones fhould project over the perpendicu- lar wall, on the under fide, as far as the nature of the materials will allow; and on the other fide, it ought tg extend as far as the length of the{tones will permit, be- ing fo laid as to flope downwards, towards the upper part of the river, in fuch a marie M 4 ner 78 OF INCE GSURES ner as that the dipping edge of thefe ftones fhould be from fix to twelve inches(according to their length) lower at the edge which projeéts over the wall. Thefe ftones in the dipping lip ought to reft upon the bed of rammed clay, which fhould rife higher than their lower lip, and overlap it in part, and if the flat{tones cannot be made to join fo clofe as to be water-tight—fome clay ought to- be laid below them fo as to prevent the water from finking down through the wall, which is always attended with danger. Small{tones may fafely be rammed into that clay, and it ought to be covered with gravel, which fhould rife nearly, but: not quite fo high as the projecting lip of the coping of. the wall. Stones, rubbith, cr gravel fhould be then tumbled down careletsly into the bed of the river above the dam, fo as to fill it Up;“as ak as- caiybe° délic ala- miedeL Tate expence, making it to fhelve era- q f } ih} zi i} Fi i] i ie U| 1 {| YN Vi HW i dually downwards from the dike into’ the water; and it will be advifeable, where cohveniency permits, to have the whole of this bed to be puddied fo as to make at carry the water through ir without {in king. ‘ <.— e ee AND FENCES. 16¢ finking. The. figure annexed reprefents a fection of the whole when finith-‘. ed, in which A is the wall; B the bed of clay, intermixed with fiones rammed firm; C the coping; D the loofe{tones and era~ vel covering the whole, and extending for- ward in the form of.an inclined plane be# neath the furface of the water in the dam. By infpeCting this figure, the ufe of the projecting lip of the coping will be appa- rent. It ferves to throw the water clear over, fo as to make it fall at fome diftance from the bottom of the wall. This ditt tance will be greater when the river is in flood than at other times; of courfe, it will have a tendency to make a cavity in the bed of gravel at fome feet diftance from. the wall, fo as to be in no danger of undermin- ing it. But fhould any danger of this fort be apprehended, a row of flat ftones(or for want of thefe, a plank of oak) placed along the bottom of the wall, leaning towards it at top—and floping fome inches from it below, ‘ 4 470 OF INCLOSURES below, the under part of thefe ftones being funk as deep at leaft as the foundation of the wall, and then covered up with gravel, will effectually fecure it. Though this is rather a fuperfluous precaution. I beg leave here to repeat, that great care be taken to make the wall, through its whole length, as true a level as poffible, that .the fheet of water may be{pread over the whole of an equal thicknefs, during the floods, which will tend to moderate its force very much. I need fcarcely add, that in laying out the direction of the wall, it fhould never be fuffered to come fo near a rock in front of it as to endanger a pow- erful eddy being thrown back upon the wall to endanger it—this being obvious to every confiderate perfon. Where the head is thus made perfectly level and{mooth, it will often happen that the ftream of water which flows over it for the greateft part of the year, will be fo thin as not to prevent the growth of aquatic grafies near the top, which ought not to be difcouraged—for which reafon a little mould among the fur- face gravel(which ought always to be {mall) will de no harm. , I am — See eee= CIPO mr Ce AND FENCES! x: I am aware of one objeCtion to the mede of making dams here propofed(which, in- deed, aftects all the other contrivances in this Volume) viz. that it is fo fimple, and fo little expenfive, as not to be calculated to catch the attention of men, like thofe vaft projects which have the grand and won- derful to recommend them. It propofes only to benefit thofe who are attentive to their own intereft and a judiciols econo- my. A time may come, however diftant, in which thefe may be deemed objects of great national importance. Tt will alfo be objected that the ftones will be in danger of being fucked out of the wall, fo as to undermine it, and make it tumble down, this being an accident to which breafts on the modes of conftruction now in ufe are extremely liable. It be- comes, therefore, neceflary that the reader fhould be here directed to attend to the cirr- cumftances which have been here adopted with a view to obviate this evil, that the {tructure may be fo carefully erected as to be in no danger ef being deficient in thefe re- fpects, fo as to render the work of no value. In the firft place, you will pleafe to ad- vert 72 OF INCLOSURES vert to the bed of clay, rammed in upon the upper fide of the breaft; care fhould be taken that the foundation of this clay bed be dug fo deep as to reach the folid bot- tom—and that the clay téere be very care- fully rammed down, fo as to’leave no paf- fage for the water at that place, or any- where elfe; for if water fhould force its way through any{mall crannies towards the bottom,’ efpecially where the breaft is of great height, it will force its way with fo much impetuofity as foon to widen the breach, and carry every thing before it.— It is chiefly becaufe of the neglecting this precaution, that breafts for water are in gene- ral founftable. With a view to give mounds of this kind ftability, it is ufual to throw in a great quantity of /arge ftones in the place that is here occupied by the clay, than which nothing could be more injudicious— for the water always finds an eafy paflage among thefe ftones—and infallibly muft Juck out, as it is technically called, the lower part of the mound.—This is the unobferved -caufe of the fucking out of walls, as it is call ed, which has been commonly afcribed to the eddy from below.—We hall foon have il age Is AN D-PENCE’S:[73 have occafion to take notice of other bene- fits that are to be derived from this bed of clay. In the fecond place, the levelnefs of the top of the breaft is of great confequence for giving ftability to the work, for by this means the{fheet of water, by being extended equally to a great length, is extremely thin in every part, and, confequently, its force is much lefs confiderable than when it is deeper in one place than in another, where powerful ftreams are formed, which dig out pits below, that are extremely troublefome and dangerous.“This circumftance ought therefore to be attended to with great care.—For the fame reafon the longer the breaft is, the fafer it will be, where this cir- cumftance is adverted to. Thirdly, the coping at top ought to pro- ject as far over the wall as poffible, and to be cut quite even in the edge.—By this means, the water is made to fhoot clear over the breaft fo as never to touch it, and is of an equal thicknefs in every part. This is a con- trivance that has never yet, that I have feen, been introduced into practice, and from the want of it, much mifchief is produced.— For, 174 OF INCLOSURES For, where this is wanting, the water in its fall ftriking on one{tone after another, with the accelerated velocity it acquires in its defcent, foon infinuates itfelf among the feams—fucks out the fmaller ftones, and thus throws down the whole fabric.—The caufe being thus removed, the effect of courfe will not be felt. F ourthly, in confequence of the fhoot that the water acquires, the place where it falls at the bottom will vary with the force of the current.— When the{tream ts low, the water will fall almoft perpendicularly down: when higher, it will fhoot over toa greater diftance; and when it is ina flood it will force itfelf over to a fill greater diftance.—+ But when the water falls down perpendi- cularly, it has fo little force as not to be able to derange any thing——when higher, it acquires more force, and pufhes more for- ward—and when in a high flood, it pufhes forward with the greatetft impetuofity, and falls at a diftance from the breatt propor- tioned to the quantity of the water, and the height of the fall.—It is, of courfe, at the place it now reaches, that it digs the deep- eft pit.—Hence, then, it would follow, that fhould AND FENCES: 9. : fhould the water, when it fhoots over the h head, alight upon a bed of gravel, it would . work for itfelf a pit, not clofe by the wall, : but at fome diftance from it; and that dif- | tance would be the greater, the higher t the head from whence the water falls, fo i as to form the bottom of the pool, fhelving upward, to the wall, as in the figure;—» t thus the foundation of the wall would be ‘ in no danger of being undermined. of But fhould any danger of that kind be Ie apprehended, where the fall is great, and a 3 the bottom foft(a bed of clay, for ex- er, ample) it may be advifeable rather to il prepare a proper bafon for the water, than s to leave it for nature to form one for herfelf. With that view, let the bottom e be fcooped out, as in the figure, fo as to t make a deep pool, into which the cafcade . may fall. The depth of this bafon may 25 be augmented, by raifing a kind of bank of nd gravel or loofe ftones before it. In this way a 2 all danger of undermining the foundation will the be avoided; the force of the fall being broken he by the water, before it reaches the bottom. in If the bottom be very foft, a little gravel ‘A may be thrown into it, to defend it; no a z kind 1 COUR SINCE@SU RES kind of fhoing, where the: pool is deep enough, can be required. There is only one cafe I know of, where the wall runs a rifk of being hurt by the water, after it has made its fhoot, viz. when the falling ftream ftrikes upon a fhelving rock which inclines towards the wall, fo as to drive an eddy back upon it, or make it wheel round in an irregular kind of cur- p C rent. The eafieft cure in this cafe, will be to, dig out the rock where it is fo cir- cumftaneced, and to forma deep pool in its place—the materials taken away can always be ufefully employed in making the head. But if, after all, any danger fhould be ap- prehended, from any kind of eddy below facking-out the ftones, that may be very eafily and effeciually prevented, by laying a few planks of oak along the whole length of the lower part of the wall, on whofe {mooth furface the water can take no hold, and behind which the ftones will be effec- tually fecured. I need hardly obferve, that where any thing of this fort is intended, care fhould be taken to put fome knots of oak into the wall at proper places, when it is built, for the purpofe of fecuring thefe planks. Neither T AN DE hie NLC 4 Ss 77 Neither is it neceflary for me to enlarge upon the neceflity of augmenting the thick- nefs of the breaft wall, where that is required to be made of an unufual height--- that being a thing fo felf-evident, as to be underftood by every ordinary. mechanic. It may not, however, be j improper to re- mark, that a wall which is{trong enough to{upport the fame quantity of loofe mate- rials as the mound confifts of, that lies on one fide of it, is all that is required....[his is neceflary---but no perfon of found jude- ment will choofe to go to the very ane of poffibility in a cafe of this fort---it ic always fafeft to err on the fide of excefs, fo that the wall fhould be made fo{trong as to remove all doubt. § XXXVII. Ox the Means of preventing the Sea from making Encroachments on the Land. WHEREVER water is in motion, it is perpetually producing changes on the fur- face of this globe, which at times prove highly beneficial to individuals; but more frequently hurtful, feeing the ravages pro- VOL. I. N duced 178 GEZINGELOSURE'S duced by that element, which, when dire€ily oppofed, is found to be often irre- fiftible, are frightfully deftructive. In the preceding pages, fome directions, which have never been found to fail in any one inftance where they have been followed, have been given, for fecuring the banks of ravers from the devaftations by running waters. i now propofe to add a few hints concerning the moft efficacious means of fetting bounds td the raging fury of the ocean. The principle, upon which the force of water can be effeCually refitted, is precifely the fame in all cafes: fo that, in ftrict pgs! little can be added to what has been already faid, farther than to fhow in what manner the fame principle can be. fo managed, as to apply, with the beft effect, to the different cafes, as they fhall occur. That water, when ftrongly agitated, can beft be refifted by gently yielding to its In- fluence, and not direcily by oppofing its impulfe, is a truth that cannot be denied, and never ought to be loft fight of in every operation, in which that powerful agent 1s Coney ise In conformity with this prin- iple, it is found, that where the fea-beach 1s AND FENCES 199 is low, the land is rather, in general,’ en- croaching on the fea than the reverfe--- but wherever the fhore is fleep, the fea is making encroachments upon the land, which are more or lefs confiderable, ac- cording to circumftances. Where rocks oppofe an impenetrable barrier, they are lit- tle altered for ages; for, although immenfe mafles of rock are fometimes overturned by the raging fury of the ocean, the progrefs it makes in fuch cafes is fo flow, as fcarcely to be perceptible; but wherever the fea approaches a perpendicular cliff of clay, or penetrable mould, it encroaches with hafty ftrides; and fometimes carries off whole fields of good land, by the devouring fweep of one furious tide. To guard againft this evil, feveral con- trivances have been adopted, mott of which have been fo expenfive and inefficacious, as to compel thofe who are fufferers by this misfortune, to be often obliged to remain inactive f{pectators of the ravages to which they are inceflantly expofed. The general mode that has hitherto been attempted to ftop the progrefs of this evil is, to erect a ftrong bulwark of large ftones 7m front of the N 2 bank, 10, OF INCLOSURES bank, piling thefe ftones above one another as carefully as poflible,; fo as that the front expofed to the fea flopes gradually back- ward towards the bank above, to which it finally joins at fuch a height above the fea, as the undertakers are able or willing to make it. Every bulwark of this kind is liable to be deftroyed by one or other of the follow- ing circumftances, all of which, on fome occafions, co-operate, fo as to get it thrown down, nearly in as fhort a time as was re- quired to rear it up: tft, If an individual has only a fhare in the property of fuch a bank, and thofe on either fide of him negle& to fortify their property, the fea, making encroachments at either end, leaves his bulwark ¢here, expofed to the fury of the elements, fo as to ftand in need of perpetual repairs; or, 2d, Although this evil fhould be avoided, the fea, when furi- oufly impelled by a ftorm, is forced up the inclined plane with great fury, and, when the wave falls back, the body of water that had been forced up, rufhes back again over the{tones of the inclined plane, with ftill greater force, like a cafcade, fo as forcibly to tear the ftones out of their places, exactly in —— ye AND. oN eS: 181 in the fame manner that the ftones of 4 mill-dam, of the ufual conftruction, are dif- placed; or, /a/ly, the water, in its return, infinuates itfelf between the ftenes and the bank at the top, where the{tones join to the earth, and there{coops out the earth, fo as to leave the ftones defencelefs from behind, and thus expofed to be tumbled headlong down, by the force of the caf- cade, occafioned by the revulfion of the tide. Norisit poffible that this evil fhould ever be obviated, unlefs the inclined plane of ftones fhould be carried to a ereater height than the water can ever be forced to rife, by the accumulated force of a high tide, impelled by a ftorm; a thing that, if it could be accomplifhed by human power, would fruftrate its own aim---for the cafcade would thus become{fo much lengthened, as to give the revulfing tide an irrefiftible power over the ftones toward the bottom, that muft tear them from their places in a(hort time, and featter them about like pebbles on the fea fhore. Thus would reafon decide on the probable confequences of attempting to fecure pro- perty, by means of fuch bulwarks; and ex- perience has fatally confirmed the juttnefs N 2 of NRO #2 OF.INCLOSURES of it, by the example of numberlefs indi- viduals who have had the misfortune to attempt it. Wherever a cure is practicable, it muft be effected by a procedure, in almoft every refpect, the reverfe of the above. Large ftones, inftead of being gathered together there, muft be carefully removed from the beach; for wherever a large ftone is fuf- fered to remain near the fea-fhore, between wet and dry, as it may be called, it, in- failibly produces a whirling eddy, which prevents the fand and gravel from ever at- taining that fmoothnefs of furface which alone can mitigate the fury of the waves, and prevent them from fcooping out the earth near the fea-fhore. Thus it happens, that wherever many lar; oO oO e ftones are per- mitted to remain near the fhore, the fand and{mall gravel, inftead of being fuffered there to remain till it be accumulated into folid bed, that gradually rifes above the level of the fea, is whirled about by an un- nterrupted agitation, among the{ftones, sae it, at laft, makes its efcape from among a ct hem, and is fuffered to remain at reft, on fome leis perturbed part of the fhore, and g) there Se. ep i nn SI SS en AND FENCES...»- 183 there to form a bulwark to protect that place from farther encroachments; where- as, that part of the fhore w here the great. {tones are fuffered to remain, mutt conti- nue nearly at the fame depth, for ages, and 4 faffer the defenceleis coaft, behind it, to be infallibly expofed to the encroachments of the fea, until that nuifance fhall firft removed._ adverting to this circum- ftance, and carefully attending to the na- tural ope soa the fea, in cafes of this fort, we fhall be enabled gradually to per- te evil complained 1 ‘ 1 ceive by what{te eps t of may beft be guarded againtt. When the fea wafhes down a great 1 4 body of clay, or other kind of earth that is eafily diffufible in water, the whole of that diffufible earth is quickly mixed with the agitated water, and with it is carried far away, until it reaches fome place where the water is fuffered to remain{fo long at reft as flowly to allow it to fubfide. There it forms beds of that foft kind mud, called fleetch, which, when they gra- dually rife above the furface of ordinary tides, become, in time, covered with her- ‘ QA C-“4~ bage, and, at laft, form thofe rich grafs N 4 lands, OR ET Sere eae sient nT. seg Smaps Ss RAEI A . 4 OF INCUOSURES lands, known by the name of /a/t-marfhes. While this operation is going forward, the fand, gravel, and ftones, which were in- termixed among the earth, in its original ftate, being more weighty than the other component parts of the mould, are depo- fited near the bottom of the bank from whence they originally came; and if thefe materials be abundant, and few large‘{tones among them, the bed of fand or gravel thus accumulated, rifes, in time, above the furface of the fea, and forms that kind of natural fea-beach, which is found along the fhore, in moft places, where no fenfible encroachments of the fea are perceptible. But if little fand or gravel be contained in the bed of earth that is wafhed by the fea, efpecially if that bed of diffufible earth reaches deeper than the furface of the wa- ter, the quantity of gravel or fand is too {mall to fill up the void that is occafioned by the wathing of the fea, and the water continues deep Zo the very edge of the bank. Where this happens to take place, it isa very hopelefs cafe; and it will be found a matter of great difficulty to effectuate a radical cure—but, fortunately, this is a cafe rn I that ——- ~~ pk AND FI ey ry <4 CN — P| tf mn co Gn that very feldom occurs; fo feldom, in- deed, that I have never feen one of the kind. In general, there is fuch a quantity of fand or gravel accumulated at the bot- tom of the bank as to raife the beach there, above the furface of low-water mark —frequently above the furface of high-wa- ; oe ter mark, neap-tides; fo that it is onlyat Spring tides, or during ftorms, that damage is fuftained. Where this is the cafe, the evil may be obviated, in moft cafes, ata very{mall-expence; and, in no cafe, will the expence be extravagantly high, if the following mode of procedure be adopted: Let a trench be firft opened in the fand or gravel, ten, twelve, or twenty feet wide, running in a direction perpendicular to the fhore, right into the fea. This ditch fhould not go deeper than the fand or gravel, nor need it be made more than one foot in depth, unlefs as afterwards excepted, let the gravel be of what depth it may. This trench may be carried out farther or fhorter as circumitances fhall indicate. As foon as the trench is made, fill it up with earth dug from the bank immediately behind it, tak- ing care to pick out the large ftones that happen ig6 OF INGLOSURES happen to be among it. Lay this earth fo as to flope gradually upward. towards the land, rifing ina regular flope, with an angle between 10 and 20 degrees from the hori- zon, continuing the flope in this manner till the top rifes higher than the higheft tule of tide when agitated by a itorm. When this trench has been thus filled up with the earth, taken from the bank—opena frefh trench, of the fame breadth, at one fide of it, in the gravel, covering the furface of the earth that has juft been laid down, with the gravel that is taken out of the trench, fo as to cover that new-laid earth with a bed of gravel about one foot deep over the whole. Let the fecond trench be filled up and covered in the fame manner, and fo on, till the whole be finithed. If the bank of earth be not very high, and the fhore over which the tide flows does not dip much, the inclined plane may be pufbed fo far forward into the fea, as to confume the whole of the earth that mut be taken from the bank, to bring it to a re- gular flope to its full height. The advan- tages to be reaped from this mode of pro- cedure, will be, 1ft, that the earth will thus be s Ba at ES a am SE —.=_——— AND FENCES. 187. be removed at the leaft expence poffible— ad, that the gravel will require to be moved toa{maller diftance, for covering it, than would otherwife be required; and, laftly, that no ground will be loft, but rather fomething will be gained from the fea. But where the fhore dips very faft from the beach, it may perhaps be impofiible to proceed after this manner, fo that the flope muft be made chiefly backwards upon the the land; and in that cafe it will be necef- fary to dig the trench as deep in the gra- vel near the fhore as can be conveniently done, in order that a quantity of gravel may be thus obtained to cover the earth as far back within land as poffible. Pleafe, however, to obferve, that the new-made earth will gradually fubfide, and that the.part of the flope which is conti- nued back upon the folid ground, will not {ubfide at all; fo that if no precautions were adopted, there would foon happen to be a breach at this place, which would render the bank vulnerable.---To guard againft this evil, therefore, be careful to ram the new-laid earth as firmly down as poftible, efpecially near the joining; and alfo 18 OF INCLOSURES alfo to trench over the furface of the folid bank to a confiderable depth under the flope, which will allow the earth there to to fubfide a little, fo as to keep them from feparating. mY=“47>]“h++} r= te j- the{] t ine gravel ought to be carried up the flope as far at leaft as high water mark during the higheft tides. Above that, the flope fhould be covered with a furface of vegetable mould, Of as criché’a quality as can conveniently be obtained, laid{mooth, and fown with erafs feeds---fo as to bring it toa{ward as quickly as poffible. Over that thould be laid, for fome diftance, a little gravel, which fhould become gradually thinner, as it rifes higher, till it decreafes to nothing. When this bank has become covered with a clofe pile of grafs, fuch waves as may be acci- dentally pufhed to an unufual height during a cafual ftorm, will flow back over its {mooth furface without breaking it. For obvious reafons, no ftones or other impedi- ments ought to be fuffered to remain upon the furface of this part of the bank. {It will be unnecefiary for me to give more detailed direétions, concerning the va- rations that ought to be adopted as circum- ftances J TH 7 AND, CE S: 189 ftances differ, feeing that common fenfe, where the principle is well underftood, will fuggeft all that is neceflary to every attentive mind which contemplates tlhe fubjeét; and even if a volume were written upon it, there is little probability that all the variations of circumftances, which in fome cafes may poflibly occur, would be adverted to. I fhall therefore add no more than barely to fugeeft, that if the quantity of earth which requires to be taken away, be more than can be{wallowed up in mak- ing the flope, perhaps t the eafieft way of difpofing of it, after the flope is completed, will be to wheel or cart it down the flope at low water, as far as can be done, and there to throw it down loofe, to be wafhed away by the returning tide---taking fpecial care, in this cafe, to remove any{tones that may be left---and not to allow a high mound there to accumulate.—If the bank be fo very high, as to render it an object of great expence to carry the flope as far as the top of the bank, in that cafe the flope may be difcontinued, when it has advanced fo far as to be beyond the reach of the fea at the higheft tides.---For, under thefe cir- cumftances Ay| iH; | ‘) { oe too.. GF IN GIVOSURES cumftances, though a part of the cliff may at times fall down merely from the effects of the weather upon it, yet the fea will not there make any farther encroachments upon the land. In Holland, where the fea dikes confift almoft wholly of loofe fand, which is nearly in as great danger of being deranged by wind as by water, and where the fmalleft accident happening to them would prove fatal to many thoufand perfons, and entirely deftructive of their property, they are under the neceflity of adopting precautions for fe- curing their banks that our fituation renders, in general, unneceflary. In the moft vul- nerable places, they find the beft defence they can adopt againft the alternate attacks of the two elements, is to cover the flope of the bank with thatch, which is pinned down along their whole furface with care, in a manner that experience has taught them to be tolerably fecure; but, as this thatch is liable to be deranged by various accidents, magazines of it are laid in at convenient diftances, and men are ap- pointed to examine the banks daily, along their whole length, each being charged to take ATS bot NCES. 1gi take care, that any derangement in his own divifion be immediately put to rights. I mention this here, as a thing that ought to be generally known in this ifland, though it can fearcely ever be required in the cafes of whith I now treat---it is chiefly where wiers are attempted with a view to gain land from the fea, as in Holland, that it can be wanted. § XXXVIII. ~ ‘g ur for y hints on the> moft beneficial shina 7 recovering low land, in certain cafes, from the fee A On the fubje& of gaining land from the fea, fo nearly connected with that I have juft confidered—but upon which Tf do not mean to enter at large inthis place, I thall be 2B eave to fuggeft a fingle hint for farther confidera- tion.—It is this: land is fometimes gained from the fea, by gradually rifing in its fur- face till it be above the level of high water mark-—fometimes by rifing no ele than low water—and fometimes by making an inclofure, and pumping the water out from 4 92° OF INCLOSURES a depth below the loweft tide level, as in fome parts of Holland. In this country, in general, the greateft efforts that are made, have been to recover landthathas rifen abovelow water level—but has not reached to the height of high water mark, as in thofe large works in Bedford, Cambridge,and Lincoln-fhires, in which the ground is.\fo low as to be much incommod- ed by water—and, according to the mode of procedure that has been adopted, it feems to be in notrain of ever being better, but per- haps rather worfe,if the fame{fy{tem fhould continue to be followed. To obtain ideas on this fubject, it is ne- ceflary to advert, that the extenfive marfhes here named have been produced by a gra- dual depofition of mud, continued for ages, which has been carried down by the large ravers Which there difembogue into the fea: for the current of thefe rivers being there met by the fea, occafioned a ftag- nation of the muddy waters during the full tide, which, while in a ftate of reft, depo- fited its mud, and flowed off at ebb-tide much purer than before. The bottom thus gradually rofe higher till it got above the AND FENCES. 193 the level of low water, in which ftate a few aquatic plants fprung up, and formed thofe marth lands, which naturally attraéted the cupidity of men of property around them; and it became an object of great enterprife, fo to fhut out the water from thefe marthes, as to augment their produce as much as poffibie.| Perhaps fomething was gained in point of time, by thofe operations that have been there carried on---but I much fufpec, that, if the ultimate value of the fubject be con- fidered, and the expence at which the al- terations that have been made, is adverted to, the lofs has confiderably exceeded the gaia. Nature in her progrefs, though per- haps alittle too flow for the wifhes of man, would have effected her purpofe much more completely(and probably by this time it might have been fully effeted) than ever can be achieved by the feeble operations of man. Experience has difcovered, that cer- tain places in thofe marfhes are much deep- er than others; and, confequently, by being below the general level, are of{carcely any value; nor have they any profpe@ of ever be- coming more valuable than they now are.---If Vox. I. O nature- 94 OF INCLOSURES naturé had been fuffered to purfue her own courfe, this would not have been the cafe. 7; Vhen the rifing tide pufhes back the mud- dy waters, thefe,— ftagnant, muft affame a level a rfacé; of courfe, the quantity of matte! need, ed at the bottom, during till) water, muft be in proportion to the height of the water above it every where. Hence, where the height of the bottom was withim three feet of the furface, if the depofition there was oneinchin a av en time, where the depth of water was fix feet, two inches of mud ye ould be depof cae three inches where A was nine feet deer this way, it is obvious that the hallow places muft have been filled up much more quickly than the fhallows. But when it Ln ¢ 4)> Coed a 4} a 2-1, Aa x«unater 7 ild is LAL rther ad Ver tuts iO, tN¢ if tlic Wa LOl woul c~~“, 5 vam j(Y> oie e- a| on have remained ftagnant above the deep places many Hours at each tide, while not }= 4 Hee TR mes[Lee yh or=e Ls»20O a4 one arop was adove the niener piaces, li po! 1 2 ms ae 1[ae SESSBY oo eae muft be evident, that the depofition of d Dae rs eames mes We es eek Ads h a d mud in the hollows, mutt have: exceede 4.-~ j that on the heights, in aratio much greater than that which is above indicated. In this manner, nature had a eee and invari- able tendency to level the furface of this bottom, AND FENCES. igs bottom, and gradually to raife every part of it above the furface of the water nearly in an equal degree, fo that every part of the field muft have been, at laft, nearly of the fame value. Many millions of acres, the moft fertile on the globe, have thus been raifed out of water; and immenfe marfhes have thus been filled up, which the weaknefs of man alone has prevented him from ef- fecting. The operations of man, have, in this inftance, effectually deranged this beautiful economy of nature. Cuts have been made, through which the rivers were to be con- veyed to the fea, without being fuffered to {pread, at any time, upon the marfhes. What are the natural confequences of thefe Operations? In the parts of thofe artifi- cial channels, where the water is made to {tagnate by the tide, a confiderable depofi- tion of mud is made, which tends gradually to raife the bottom of thofe rivers,the loweft of which were originallyintended to operate, and didin fact operate,as drains to the adjoin- ay 3: a ips ing’ fields, and to make it higher than © thefe fields, and thus for a thort while only anfwer the purpofe for which they O 2 were 196 OF IN:GLOSURES”’ were originally intended. Now, although the current where the rivers are confider- able, does tend to{weep away part of that mud, at the retreat of the tide, yet a great part of it remains, and this muft either be fcooped out, at a great expence, or the land be deftroyed by hurtful water. In the mean while, all that mud which is carried forward, paft the marfhes, by the rapid current of the rivers, now confined to a narrow bed, is repelled by the tide, when it gets paft the mounds, and muft there gradually accumulate, fo as to form a bank beyond the marfhes, which, in time, will rife above the furface, and, if permitted, will rife higher than the prefent low lands, fo as to leave them like pits, that mutt be fubjected to a perpetual and heavy charge, to render them good for any thing. From this plain and obvious reafon- ing(without entering into the confidera- tion of other particulars, which tend to the fame point) the conclufion above drawn feems to be incontrovertible. From that reafoning, likewife, it follows, that the beft mode of ever rendering thofe fields found land, is to put them under fuch ma- nagement ae Se SS a ar EA REWAT NY= BIO See ne NIL= AND PRENCES.4 197 nagement as to enable the owners to fuffer the waters, when in flood, and, confe- quently, in the muddieft ftate poffible, to have free accefs to thefe fields when they can fuftain leaft damage from it(ef- pecially thofe that are the deepeft) and to allow that water to run off, after it has re- mained ftagnant for a fhort while, for the ‘purpofe of depofiting its mud. Butas the divifion of property there, will render it impoflible ever to get fuch a bold meafure generally adopted, and as it would require ftronger mounds, than can, in general, be erected round private property, to render this meafure locally practicable, it feems to me probable, that no effectual remedy can ever.be there applied for removing this evil. In the mean while, the progrefs of nature may be feen going regularly forward on the banks of the Humber; the tide, in which eftuary, pufhes the mud that is fo copi- oufly brought down to it by the Trent, the Oufe, the Darent, and many other rivers, towards the fhores every where a- round it, though’ with fome diverfity of O 4 progrefs, q D hy ei v M ehh ji iy } Vy wy es He W) vies 4 | 198 OF INCLOSURES,&. progrefs, according to fituation and circum- ftances, to which it is making continual ad- ditions of land, that when it has rifen high enough, is among the moft valuable which is to be found in the kingdom. taf ESSAY SECOND. GN DRAINING BOGS anp SWAMPY GROUND. — RGR MEN BE RANT RR net: NTRODUCTION. HE principal part of the following Effay was firft publifhed in the year 1755, exactly as it now appears, (verbal corrections excepted) and had paffed through three editions before the year 1795, when the Prefident of the Board of Agriculture brought* forward a motion in parliament, to obtain a premium efi; tooo /.-7to:.be..given'~jto..dne-~ Mr: Jofeph Elkington, for difcoveries{aid to be made by him in the art of draining land. This naturally calied the attention of the author to a fubject, on which he had formerly written himfelf; and from the particular enquiries he made, he found reafon to be fatisfied, that the only par- ticular in which Mr. Elkington’s mode of draining differed from that practifed general throughout Britain, confifted in, what he called, tapping for{prings, a mode of draining which had been practifed by the ates more than thirty years be- fore, and which had. been particularly deicribed 202 1 INTRO CTO I defcribed and illuftrated by figures in th firft edition of thefe eflays. On this oc- cafion, without any intention either to ruitrate Mr. Elkington of his premium, , eke he 1 ae or to claim any gratuity to himfelf, the "EA Peeing) Rt Cea 3), teen eee oe a Aes= author thought it expedient, politely by letter, to inform Sir John Sinclair of tthe miitake he had inadvertent tly fallen into, m aicr ribing that practice, as an original *f. N44 -{ muention, exclupvely to Mr. Elkineton,and Be el| Bee Ae C; el| oR Pee producing a quotation from this Effay, as a oS 4. L B32} J> a Be raat jes% Tk7TQC Hv a caecive proor that it was not a new thing. Sir. John Sinclair, without ad- Oo Pv Sates Pere SS: 4] 2 il Sad OS ba Aes a ea AE, verting to thofe facis, chofe afterwards tO tate, in two ieparate pubiications, in i RS Per ao OE me ea aa SSR a ay the Moi GeClive manner, his opinion of i a es 2S, See bye Dee Navfdce. ob Dawid co tee BLYS-11n dot ubted HICME thats Ia Mikinoeoton @ S a}} i ro/? ae 4 SA See, e& nad(TO Ciaim this invention ENCUfUELY AS Le ae a ol eerie pee 3 eee eae© sus OWN. 1s VEGF EW fro m the autnor a ; 4 1~e 7. OE| 1 4 CNT$+ ry+> Mae\' TmACH tne econd‘etter to Sir Joan, in which the MINCE. OF that’ Geciion: 3. Eontror Grueca, °}|| l 17' rey xe aR tha anthnye AM hlal WIHT tna a nd lit WOICD the author-Cails: upon«the oa PASE! Bee j Ef A a 4 yy A| Board of Acriculture to publith ai ac NLC- May be ei 1aD1 led to ee aes Sew oe Py borers Ae in this cafe.-°Thefe blifhed in the introdu@ion 4 to a EE CR INTRODUCTION.- 263 to the Third Volume of thefe Effays, the reader is here referred to them. Whether it was in confequence of the demand above made, or from any other motive, the author cannot fay; but in the news-paper called the Suz, for June 3, 1796, the following account of Mr. El- kington’s mode of draining was publifhed. As foon as he heard of it, the author took the Au opportunity of reading it,which he had no foower done, than he repented him of having, in fome meafure, pledged himfelf in that| letter,to make fome remarks upon it. Writing, where one finds little to commend, is but a very unpleafing tafk. On the prefent occafion, it became pe- culiarly fo, becaufe tne honeft man, againtft whom would feem to apply, any cenf 1 that fhould be made, appears himfelf te Need be abufed.—No wonder, then, if the tafk was undertaken with reluctance, and long delayed as poflible. When about to publi the oe efent edition of a Effays, it eres on a seer” what had pafied, to take fome notice of this, publica- tion; and with that view, he read it over with 204 INTRODUCTION. with gréater care than he had done before, which enabled him to perceive, that he could happily get rid of the tafk; for, un- Jefs it be in a very few particulars indeed, he finds, that from the moft painful atten- tion he could beftow upon it, he has {carcely been able to colleé a fingle con- fiftent idea from the perufal of that per- formance.—At the firft curfory reading, he believed, indeed, that he fhould be able to make fomething of it; but after- wards he found, that in proportion as the paflages were examined with care, thefe nafcent ideas evanifhed. He now, there- fore, 1s forced candidly to acknowledge, that he cannot collect, from this paper, any thing that can decifively fhow, whether Mr. Elkington’s mode of draining be the fame, or ditterent. from his’ own.«That the reader may judge for himfelf, however, in this cafe, and that the prefent Treatife miay be made as complete as poffible on this fubjeét in itfelf, that paper(which is not very long) is printed entire, with as {trict an attention to accuracy as he could beftow. It is, however, fo far fortunate for Mr. Elkington, that it does not appear ta INTRODUCTION 205 to be written by him. Indeed, it bears internal eyidence fufficient to prove, that it never could have been written by him, or by any one who had aétually practifed draining. MR. ELKINGTON'S MODE OF DRAINING. Extracts from the Minutes of Pro- Vt CEEDINGS of the Boarp or AGRICUL- TURE, refpecting Mr.‘ ELKINGTON’S , Mode of Draining Land. £[risa circ urmnitance hardly to be cre- dited, that the principles on which the draining of land depends, fhould have re- mained fo long unafcertained, confiderin the great private benefit, and the ey public advantages, which mutt neceflarily be derived from carrying fo apprednt an art to perfection. eT he following narrative will explain the circumftances, that led to fo valuable a difcovery; which, however immaterial in themfelves, it was thought right to pre- {erve " /= ‘ on y }. :| x" => a FS na& ol j 4) a '‘B) Ss nies, ane eof; ea, 3“4 Z Gummy al Lo! ao Oo co =— Sy a‘‘. m @ SADE OE Se oh eh 5 fen et oe iN ee oe 5. Cy Qe On 25.0 a= oe 3 me gr 0 Oe Dy See oe ip ep ca eS Ree ‘ ata-© ap nN=) q@) nS pa enna co i) m oO es% aS“4= be©) A sete: foay rt~ oO o Diageo> tH w- &=>©= rhe eae. Q$2 pies Gp)' Qi eS) eet»"Oo ec e) Si i ee 3 ae rat OE) ae ee~ oc wet N@ EP en a) eS OTS> t4 he c ) oe— rb CS ae sven") sd as! ont L ae= 1)© Y et) ¢ me q)—. men tend ot New© pS© ey O aa a 2): 3 kad as a oe pi ie bead al Ley i EL ed Grea) QO)\\e 4 ¢ naa 1) OME wa[cola(@)= ct ape A} ae e cS “= fel os\ ua Ay oA) | fant(ew) CQ ot©: G) s() nS ey 4 2 j Ai) | Pe 4 leo)+ Napa i Ned ¢ a G)~ bL~~ C oY jad ree me a ret ww(tees sy O D3) ca a) Se fm Cc ar har ae ©)+ GS e«e ad aD) Mat= 5 pa Sr@)©)> c we cq ee 3 Le! O~= i Cy aw+ an Oo. oe Wi ky fa ee et tee LA gol> tia cae aa cS op) Caer See” coum fC)> a ny Mohan? one Maes) - iS o(ex.= Drexel om Dir ey C 3 Fea]= ce ! eS. tegey) a> a ee =i ACA BS Oo+ 4; Faas mat hae caret go i. f G5) i q-#29 a4 te SSS Hee ea 5 eae t at mo>@ dnd 4 | 8 Oe OO ee, Fo eee Ba| m CN cD)| wn O ime} t P< co nai SEY qe 3)- eis. By| ( Ce ret ca Se OvniOe- 1s: So Gee A) i\ 4 SH“ ee r= red* LES=} CQ ors tr eS po~— a Ay nN 2} t+ bey 6 ie ORE 40% oh ot ge) xe) OY ais i 5 Siac 3 seagate) Oy| aa‘ SO Oe os soy Crete(COniccia JAAN eS See CS ret sa co@) OB 4~ 4 1D) m4{ r Qs: ct PA et©) lg 8 co 5m"eS rie S Ema ge ti » yo 5} RA Ly(60) Sa ea) es oO== os= x j (ee» MA“ a Speers~ on Ps) a cok{ — a) b Me+ dB; A>= ) cH Cr, ee Saat eae ai ee fed Qo== i y ct pea a men tr)$3 ee mt Sef ee a 4 iS v1~=) f oa Mel} beh Lc a A> ac?!- ae)——. 4(| pos}; OS re ras}‘(2)(cD) CU= nih frp~ SoA= Cec os Ore Ge= ep) oe Fe ee| ut: 4 ret 3 bat+)| pied D‘ 3 a a‘ i 2. ee) ie s q)= s ‘§—_— g~- ee) ve CS Es> C3 o= } cB) Oo<< a: Seeley ane= eas pe et© ee ae nse ae Oe sey z 4 ta re ty Da here eae Cet No) S me ys 4 rare platy se es) i)(Oya= om ed an 2 efi Ad)} — jie, NS iJ) ams Sa(os, lant py os ee QO) pest Naame pe as Gr a er is A SA © or eee ee© BS ep 2 Ome Ss Sa GSS ee OR| C) Oe ns ¢ AJ€~ a Son om rap) ae ei ot ¢& ¢=~~ er C3 ie 3) i os“ f ed 3) “ Gals wen ee et es@ OG) ge te ee cg tae: Se a tee On ee ca\ obo ped—_>(ay Cc) oa~ Vz tH> ay a) m= ae)) nae coal pert a i) ND MEDI(Advice ive See key al)= ea ye a cw ¢ i 1 AS alee eg ia Sf a sie n; oad r= ca} ee oe- SAGE S iS H i beni + aoe rs cf rc w ODUCTION. 207 “4 2s Par ee ee on ere; to the rock. He got an iron-crow or bar CJ C Pe ee Q eal 7 for tha t purpofe, about 18 inches in dia- es be ey 1 NAPA aes)(ope A| RS Se ter(fuch as_the Warwickfhire farmers \# Va V7 ¥ aglzeA fa he ee fae commonly make ufe of for making-holes, or fixing hurdles 1e forced, down about three feet into the earth. Upon AE 1, ce SS igs=, ae tS) 5 7p); r me fy|> a“Or+ takine it out, to nis aitonunment, a great quantity of water burf cut, and ran down rs TY) ae hic 1 rhs lw lea, the trench.—This naturally led cr ‘Kington to think of applying an auger, as q et| ess an inftrument better adapted for the pur- pofe of boring. Upon trial, he foon found 4 that to be the cafe; and by following the {ame plan, ufing the auger where necet- 2 fary, he was at laft enabled to drain all the wet parts of his farm*. oT ae ye iS This account of Mr. Elkington’s difcovery, differs in nothing materially from that which is ftated in my letter; only it appears, that the precife date of this fuppofed difcovery, feems to be carefully kept out of view. It is here faid, that he took bis farm(obferve, it is took his farm, not that he entered to it, far lefs that he made his difcovery‘in draining) in the year 1763-4. For aught that here appears to the contrary, he may have en- tered into the pofleffion of his farm, in the year 1774: for I have known many leafes of farms taken ten or tae LWCiVE, 208°. IENCT R ODUCTLON. ‘“‘ The advantages attending the draining of this farm, were very great indeed. When twelve, fome twenty years before the entry to them. But to put afide all appearance of cavilling, let us fup- pofe that the ambiguous date of 1762-4, means that he took it in 1763, and entered to it 1764, I take. parti- cular notice of this circumftance here, becaufe, in the anfwer Sir John Sinclair wrote to my firft letter, printed above, after apologizing to me, for having obtained a premium for Mr. Elkington, inftead of myfelf, he {eemed to confider the priority of the date of Mr. El- kington’s difcovery, as the ground on which he mutt determine.“ I am to meet with him(fays he) at Wooburn Abbey, on Monday next, when I fhail have this circumftance fully inveftigated, and inform you of it”? The publication above, is the firft intimation I bad of it. Now, by what is here faid, it could not be earlier than the year 17643 probably it muft have been many years after—for it is faid, the farm rotted his fheep, which he could not kaow, till he had been in pofleffion of it at leaft one year. From the very next paragraph it appears, that he had not keptit one year only, but fe- veral years before he began to drain; for it is there faid,“ when he firft got poffeffion, he loft, im the courfe of a few years, above 8co fheep by the rot.””_ The.ori- ginal difcovery, therefore, muft have been made by him, not in the year 1764 or 1765, but feveral years, at leaft, pofterior to thefe years. Whence comes. it, that Sir John fhould now, /fudicufly{peak with fo little precifion, to a point that he confefiedly confidered to be of a moft primary importance.!, for my own part, confider it to 5 SS= SSS= ais et—$a RE Sen INTRODUCTION,- 69 When he firft got into poffeffion, he loft, in the courfe of a few years, above 800 theep by the rot; whereas, fince the farm was completely drained(one feafon alone excepted, when a field that had not been particularly attended to, rotted about a {core) his flock has never been affe@ted by that difeafe.” On the Principles of Mr. Elhineton’s Mode d Ae of Draining. “ WetTNESss. of land, in(6 far as it is con- nected with the prefent enquiry(for it is unneceffary, on this occafion, to take any wetnefs into confideration, if occafioned be of no confequence who made the difcovery, if dif. covery it muft be called; for I doubt not, but it had been made by others long before either Mr. Elkington or myfelf was born:—but a man ought to be confiftent with himfelf. Such difengenuous fhifts, to difeuife truth, excites contempt for the meannefs of the perfon who adopts them, rather than refentment for the injury in- tended by them. Through every paragraph in this pa~ per, the fame difengenuous effort is clearly difcoverable: Might it not be faid, in this inftance,“ the fpirit is will- ing, but the flefh is weak 2” Vora P by Aue « mene ~asentaene i ey a ce a a ee a10 INTRODUCTION. by the overflowing of the fea, or of lakes, or of running wa sek) muft either proceed from rain-water lying on the furface, or” from{prings iffuing from below. “« No water will remain upon the fur- face, but upon clay, or where the fubftra- tum is clayey, for through the more porous foils it naturally fubfides. Clay, however, being of a tenacious nature, water can neither pais through it from the furface to the bottom, nor from the bottom to the furface. In fuch land, therefore, there an be no{prings, and the water that falls on the furface muft remain upon it, unlefs there is a defcent, and the water is carried down by becfad ce ins; of until it 1s Ex- haled by the air, or by the fun. “ Where the furface does not confit en- tirely of retentive clay, but is: porous above, though tenacious below; the Effex or Hertfordfhire mode of hollow-draining may be fuccefsfully practife d. ‘The object of Mr. Elkington’s fyftem, however, 1s, the draining of lands rendered wet by waters confined beneath the fur- face, and— to rife in the man- ner of{prings. It is neceflary, therefore, try Ld INTRODUCTIONS©.2n3 in the firft place, to afcertain the nature of{prings. “« According to Mr. Elkington’s idea, {prings originate from rain: water, faved and collected by the hills and rifing grounds; which water fubfides through particular ftrata, and runs either over or under fuch other ftrata as are impervious to water, according as they happen to lie, when the water comes into contaét with them. He alfo fuppofes, that there mutt be great quantities of water preferved in the bowels of the earth, either in a few or in many refervoirs, according to the extent of which,{prings are either temporary, (flowing only in wet feafons, and in general burfting out on the fides of hills) or per- petual, which are chiefly to be found at the bottom.— Where the quantity of water is great, and the orifice or channel{mall, the water muft necellarily flow in equal abundance, at all feafons of the year. ‘¢ Springs, he divides into two forts:— Land-fprings, which being fupplied by a {mall quantity of ground(perhaps only a fingle vein of fand or gravel) muft foon tun dry; and bog-fprings, which being P 2 fuppled iene eae ales as | cy ; P| } | ¥ a2 INGRODUCTION. fupplied by a hill, or great tract of coun- try, muft neceffarily be more regular and abundant.| ‘‘Inwegard to the regularity of bog- {prings, it is to be obferved, that whatever may be the quantity of rain that falls upon a hill, and fubfides through its porous foils, or through the fiffures of the rocks, and then falls into refervoirs; yet the quantity ef water that iffues at the{pring, in any given{pace of time, muft depend upon the fize of the orifice, at or near its mouth; and the velocity with which it flows, is according: to its defcent from a ereater or leffer height. There are only four{ubftances through which, fprings naturally iffue; namely, 1. Rock, whether contifting of{tone or hard chalk; 2.:Gravel; 3. Sand; and, 4. Marle. ‘© When fprings ulue through clay, it can only be in confequence of the clay being perforated, and upon this circum- ftance, ina great meafure, depends the fuc- eefs of Mr. Elkington’s mode of drain- ing; for the wetnefs of land, arifing from fubjacent water, is in general occafioned by PNOL RO DUC EHION. 213 by this, that the water runs under a ftra- tum of clay, until it comes either to rock with fiffures in it, or to gravel, fand, or marle; it then rifes, or endeavours to rife, to the furface, and in wet feafons over- flows the land thus circumftanced. But if, by perforating the ftratum of clay, you can intercept the water, and thus prevent its rifing, or can give it an eafier channel, you may then conduét it in any manner that may be thought moft advifable, and the land which lies above the bottom of the trench is drained. ¢ The object of Mr. Elkington’s fyf- tem, therefore, is that of draining land in- jured by fubjacent waters, not by ufing palliatives, but by obtaining the command of the fubterraneous waters themfelves, and thus completely, and radically, cutting off the caufe of the mifchief. Where there is only one colleétion, or one princi- pal vein, with feveral{maller ones, this may be done as effectually by one drain as by a thoufand. «¢ The different kinds of foils in which Mr. Elkington has principally worked, Ps3 ares org INTRODUCTION. are, 1. Clay; 2. Sand; 3. Bogs, or Mo- raffles. “ In many parts of England, there are weins of fand, where the ground is of a clayey nature, and where the foil is com- monly called clay, becaufe that fubftance predominates. In fuch a foil it is very difficult to work, as it requires a number of trenches, becaufe there is no general mafs, but only partial collections of water. The water is colleéted in beds of fand or eravel, which, perhaps, may have no com- munication with each other, being crofled and intercepted by beds of clay; and, con- fequently, as many trenches muft be cut as may be neceffary to extract the water from every bed of fand or gravel, each vein of which, if furrounded by beds of clay, becomes a feparate refervoir of water; at the fame time, there is no im- practicability in draining land of that mix- ed defcription, though it requires more pains and attention. In this mixed fort of foil the ordinary modes may be fucceff- ful.| “¢ Tt i3 alfo difficult to drain any field where fand predominates, as the water fubfides ee, i ING RODECTION. ais fubfides through it. In land of that de- {cription, it 1s better that the drain fhould be open, and alfo very wide, that it may not eafily fill up. *« But the great object of“Mr. Elkin- ton’s fyftem is that of draining bogs; and it 1s. In every point of view the moft im- portant; becaufe, in the firft place, im- menfe tras of valuable land, of a mo- rally nature, are loft to the community, from an idea, that it is umpofiible to.drain them: and in the fecond place, becaufe land of that nature and value, in propor- tion to its extent, can be drained at the {malleft expence, and when they are drained, are, perhaps, the moit valuable of any. ‘¢ When a bog or morafs is to be drain- ed, the firft object is, to afcertain the di- rection in which the trench fhould be dug. This is the moft difficult part of the whole bufinets, as it is hardly poffible to explain it by words or writing, owing to the great variety of bogs, and the great diverfity of countries in which they are fituated.— No man can acquire this art completely without a great deal of practice. Such P 4, rules 216- TI N-TRODUCTION. rules as Mr. Elkington has been able to furnith, are as follows: “1. As the whole depends upon the nature| of the bog to be drained, and the ftate of the adjacent country, as much knowledge as poflible muft be obtained refpeéting the {trata in the neighbourhood, whether’ con- fifting of{tone, gravel, fand, or marle, as the water muft be lodged in one of thefe,| and it is neceffary to afcertain which. “2. The trench muft be direéted fo as to hit the bottom of the bed which occa- fions the mifchief, and the particular fpot where the main fpring lies. One{pring probably occafions the whole bog, which having no proper vent, forces the water through a number of{mall veins, even to a great diftance, and makes the whole aiwamp. By draining that main fpring, the others follow of courte. 64 Oo . If there are various beds through which water iffues, the ftone is the one to‘ be preferred for draining the whole, as the water 1s much more eafily drawn through| it, than through gravel, fand, or marle;| confequently, by draining the{pring there, the whole water which communicates Ji therewith SES SY OEE INTRODUCTION.‘3y therewith flows through it; water alivays preferring a ftraight or clear to a crooked channel. But in ftone beds, the trench ought to be made from fix to eight yards from the tail of the bed, or the place where the rock ends; becaufe, in lime- ftone, and in‘ other rocks, the tail, as it is technically called, is harder than any other part of the rock, and there are few, if any, fillures in it; but by going a few yards above, you get into’a fofter part of the bed, and the water is more acceflible. The tail of thefe beds may often be found ina point Or promontory, jutting out from the adjacent heights. fet AT he teeneli in general, fhould be ~ directed in a line with the bottom of the hill, becaufe it makes the betft{eparation between the Upland and the Meadow In- clofures, and the fpring can beft be inter- cepted. Thesfrench, however, muft be earried in the line of the{pring, or near ; for if it diverges from it at any dif- taince’ all profpeét of reaching the{fpring, by tapping it, or otherwife, is over, and the labour beftowed upon digging it, is probably loft. - 5 aa zi8 INTRODUCTION. « g, It is better to make a new trench than to tap the{pring in any old brook or runof water, where that may be practica- ble; for though the{pring, when once it burfts out, has force enough to throw upany ftones, fand,&c. that may accidentally fall into it, yet brooks, in a flood, may bring down fuch immente quantities of fand,&c. as completely to overweigh and choak up the{pring, and fo much caution is neceflary to prevent any rifk of fucha circumftance, that when the trench crofles any runlet of water proceeding from a fmall brook, or from a collection of fur- face water, the trench is puddled, fo as not to receive it, left it{hould blow up, and deftroy the works. “« Latthy; haviag fixed onthe general line of direction, and marked out the trench, you are to begin at the bottom or loweft level, carrying your trench gradually up, the fpirit-level in this part of the operation being your guide. The fall for the water need not he very cenfiderable; a few inches in a hundred yards will be fuffi- cient. “Tn INTRODUCTION. aig “ In digging the trench, no tools but thofe of the moft common fort are made ufe of, and common labourers can carry on the trench, under an experienced foreman or overfeer. The auger, which mutt often be made ufe of for tapping the{pring, may be from one and a half to two inches dia- meter, and is applied in the ordinary man- ner, If, in boring, a-ftone is met with, the auger muft be taken off, and a chiffel or punch{crewed on, to penetrate fo hard a fubftance. ‘‘ Sometimes the{pring is cut off by the trench alone; but in many cafes it lies greatly below the level of the trench, in which it is neceflary to make ufe of the auger, for tapping the fpring, as it is called. Mr. Elkington bored an auger- hole near Tamworth, thirty feet in depth, which threw water up equal to three hogfheads in a minute, and completely drained all the neighbourhood. ‘“¢ To judge when to make ufe of the auger, is a difficult part of the bufinefs; and here it is to be obferved, that if the water, from having a ftraight and clear channel, rifes without difficulty through the 220 INTRODUCTION. the hole made by the auger, it may draw off the fpring above, and even drain all the neighbourhood, and you may proceed no farther. For natural{prings often iffue through narrow and crooked perforations, and, came eucaly the water may prefer the eafier though lower Grice.” Tit+s certain that all the water in the{pring flows through the hole made by the auger you may there{top; if not, the trench muft be carried farther, and the auger again made ule of, «¢’Fhe trench being once made, and the fpring cut off, dither by tapping or otherwife, it is then neceflary to deter- mine whether the drain fhould be open or covered. If the drain can with propriety be made a fence at the fame time, it had better be open, if not, it ought to be co- vered. No appret ehenfion need to be:en- tertained of the holes made by the auger being filled up, vhether the drain is open or covered, unlefs other waters are ad- mitted; becaufe fuch is the force of the fpring, that it will throw up any ftones, earth, or other fubftances that might ac- cidentally get into it, and it can be imjur- 2) fvded * INTRODUCTION. 099: ei ed by nothing, but great quantities coming upon it at once. ‘© If the drain is to be covered, the mode adopted by Mr. Elkington is, to make it {quare, either of common brick or ftone. f the two, ftone, when flat, is prefera- ble; at the fame time, when ftone can- uot be had, a fort of brick, invented, is faid, by Mr. Elkington,; anfwers the purpofe well. “¢ But the tax(which certainly ought to be taken off, on bricks for drains) prevents the general ufe of this article, thouch fo well calculated for the purpofe. If the drain is well made, it may laft for ages; the force of the running-water preventing it from filling up,more than a{pring flowing through the bowels of the isles provided the mouth of the drain is kept open, and regularly cleaned out when neceffary. None of thofe made by Mr. Elkingt ou have as yet failed; any perfon who makes in future, may fafely engage to keep then n in repair for fifty or one mer dred years. ‘« This fyftera of draining land is fome- times attended with extraordinary conte- ~’~~ 4 J 16 Wk° =“ é - -~~ a oes,-—=~—-> ee em—_ ere 3 i,_——_——— (< Bo SS ee_S—— 222 INTRODUCTION. quences. By it, not only the land below the natural{pring, or even above the ar- _tificial fpring, is drained, but the waters from the neighbouring heights, finding a new and eafier channel, abandon the places to which they formerly went, and thus a traét of country may be drained, without the leaft apparent communication with the{pring intended to be drained, or the trench made toit. Nay, a drainmade on one fide of a hill has been known to make fprings and wells on the other fide quite dry, opening a channel of an,eafier fort, to which the water naturally draws. ‘¢ As yet, Mr. Elkington has only made ufe of thefe difeoveries for the purpofe of draining the land. But as the complete command of an unexpected treafure of water is thus obtained, it is probable, that the plan may be very much improved, by ufing the water thus obtained for the purpofe of flooding land, which it is well known is the greateft of all improvements, as it requires little pains or expence to in- fure, by means of the water alone, luxu- riant crops and perpetual fertility. From 2{prings INTRODUCTION. 23 Sm) fprings alfo fuch quantities of water may be obtained, as may be of ufe in regard to mills and navigations, and in fupplying private houfés, and even towns and vil- lages, with wholefome water to drink, or to ufe for other purpofés, inftead of mere puddle. “Mr. Elkington being extremely fueceff- ful in judging of the‘Pitata of= earthy where it has not been greatly altered“by fome convulfion of nature, it may be right to ftate the principles on which he a Sts: His mode of judging of the ftrata is not from the herbage that grows upon Se fur- face, which is often artificial, and not natural Sd bala only excepte ed, which de- re, from the but in wet note clay} nor, as fome ima git morning and evening vapour; weather he judges by the ftate of the fur- face, the veins of clay being then wet, whereas thofe of fand are comparatively dry. The beft mode of determining the matter is, however, by examining the neighbouring heights,; particularly if any pits or quarries have Kiel made in them, becaufe, if the one height at all refembles the ee‘>. ee ee 214 INE RODUG EON. the other, the ftrata on the fame level will probably be the fame. He alfo judges, with remarkable precifion, how to find {tone in places where it would not be ge- nerally looked for, and to difcover the place where wells may be made with the heft chance of fuccefs—The rules on which he aéts in regard to thefe two arti- cles, muft be the fubjeét of future enquiry. The knowledge of the different ftrata will be oreatly facilitated by Mr. Elkington’s giving plans of the ftrata in England, fo far as he has travelled through it; the fame ftrata frequently running in a line from fea to fea. « On the whole, it appears that this mode of draining land injured by fubter- raneous‘waters, is by far the moft effec- tual of any that has yet been fuggefted; and, to the credit of Mr. Elkington, it is to be obferved, that he made no difficulty in communicating the nature of his difco- veries to the Committee of the Board of Agric ulture, appointed for the purpofe of meeting with him upon the fubject; and that he left it entirely to the Board to make him INTRODUCTION:; 22; him any remuneration, or not, as they might judge proper. oo Vie: Elkington having thus enabled the Committee, to form fome idea of his fy{- tem of draining, and the principles on which it is fenuiged It only remains to point out the beft mode of making others matters of the fubjeét, fo that ae benefits thereof may be{fpread as quickly as pof- hible over the kingdom. Mr. Elkington is of opinion, that the moft likely plan for that purpofe, is, for the Board either to pitch upon fome intelligent perfons to travel about with him, to whom he will communicate his ideas, and explain the principles on which he aéts more diftinétly, by pointing out on each{pot, refpectively, the manner in which he would drain the different kinds of foil; or to bind appren- tices to him, whom he would readily in- ftruct. erhaps, a tour over the whole ifland, would be adv ifeable, beginning with the Eaftern, and returning by the Weftern coaits of the kingdom. Mr. Eikington would thus be enabled to judge, to what extent this mode of improvement could be carried, and whether the fame fj{tem will anfwer amidft the hills and valltes of Vor. E Q Wales, 226 INTRODUCTION. Wales, or Scotland, as in thofe of Lan- cafhire, where he has already been{o fucce(fsful.” The only remark I fhall make on the above is, that it is not eafy to form an idea how fuch a performance could ever have been produced. Perhaps, it may be ac- counted for on the{uppofition that the fol- lowing cafe could have happened.—If Mr. Rikineton: when he met the Committee of the“Béatd of Agriculture at W ooburn- Abbey, for the purp sofe of explaining to them the principles, of his mode of drain- ing, fhould have candidly toldthem, that he was merely a plain practical man, whoavas little acquainted with philofophical prin- ciples of any fort, and therefore was not able to give any kind of explanation fuch as they fee emed to elie- that be could not clearly exprefs, perhaps, any of’ his ideas,{o as to make them intelligible to gentlemen of their rank; but, if they would have the coodnefs to fhow him a field that Hequived to be drained, he would let them fee in what manner he thould proceed, INTRODUCTION. 22 proceed, and give them the beft explana- tion he could of every thing about which they fhould interrogate him as he went on; and that this was the only way in which he thought he could make the reafons of his practice be fully underftood. Should this, I fay, have happened, and fhould this have been all the information the Committee could obtain from him- felf; and fhould they further think, that after what had happened, it would be ab- folutely neceflary for the Committee to make fome report to the Board; and fhould they thus circumftanced, have charged fome perfon to make out the beft account he could on this fubjeét; and fhould that perfon, who had fermed a few vague no- tions from the imperfect hints of Mr. Elkington all gre elo and mingled with former’ ideas adopted at fchool, make out that account; fuch a production as that which has been above exhibited, might naturally enough have been the refult..— I do not fay, that this did actually happen; but, I think, it yee be difficult to ac- count for fuch a performance in any other way. It certainly never could have been rasatte Q 2 written ~ a—— a— oe ~< - ES aes en TOLLE, 228 INTRODUCTION. written by one who had even attempted to put his own dire¢tions into practice. In the prefent edition fome additions have been made to this Effay, to render it fomewhat more complete than before; but thefe additions are carefully dif- tinguifhed from the original performance. Thefe additions, with fome others, are printed feparately, to be fold for the accom- modation of thepurchafers of the former editions of this work: and for the fake of other purchafers, who may incline to have the Effay on Draining complete, that Eflay has been there given entire. To which 1s added, the Two Letters to Sir John Sin- clair, illuftrative of that fubject. Itis hoped, the author will be pardone d 1‘ Gpreman, si ie dem for employing the fame plates for the te- parate publication as for the book, though ¥ 1 they contain fome objects that do not re- late to ae prefent Effay. j fp?~z ANT! 2 Hee 2 The Author returns bis Befi acknowledge Sad- mients fo ees centle MNCi, W bo have ODL ZI g LY offered to Pah lard with atteftations of ? pee fee;(EW as el eae the: fuccefs they have had, in. followin ge bie directions given in former editions of thts WOLrk: 5 2 EN PRODUCTION:©‘23 - S@) work; but hopes, they will permit him to de- cline their obliging offer on the prefent occa- jion. He has no anxiety on this head; and is perfectly fatisfied to leave his Treatife, as JSormerly, to the unbiaffed judgment of an im- partial Public, which he is confcious can never fail, ultimately, to decide with the moft ympartial juftice, {) ¢ 43 0 ie ail »~ epee cee Se ON DR AT NING. 8 OG 6 AN D SW ACM PY on. O tN DS. N the the preceding Effay, I have fhowed, that water may on fome oc- cafions be of great utility to the farmer; yet, as there are few things more prejudi- cial to him than a fuperabundance of it, when too long continued upon the ground, it behoves him to guard againft this evil as much as he poflibly can; and at almoft any expence, to free his ground from it, if he hopes to make any confiderable im- provement thereon; for, unlefs this be firft done, all his other operations will turn out to little account. The methods of drawing off ftagnant water, which may be accumulated in any low fituation, for want of a proper outlet, are in general fo obvious to every man of difcernment, who examines the fituation of the ground, that I fhall not tire the Q 4 reader 232 ON DRAINING BOGS reader by enlarging upon that head; but fhall proceed immediately to treat of the moft proper method that I have expe- rienced, of draining{uch ground as is hurt by{prings oozing out upon them(ufually diftinguifhed by the name of wer, or /pout- img ground) and bogs*; as this is a matter of much greater difficulty than the former, and the principles upon which it fhould be conducted, far lefs generally underftood. Springs are formed in the bowels of the earth, by water percolating through the upper ftrata, where they are of a po- rous texture, which continues to defcend downwards, till it meets with a ftratum of clay that intercepts it in its courfe; where, being collected in confiderable quantities, it is forced to feek a paflage through the porous{trata of fand, gravel, or rock, that may be above the oa following the 1 courfe of thefe{trata till they approach * Jt will appear to the reader, that the term bog, is here employed in its moft unlimited acceptation, denot- ing any kind of quaggy ground ari fing from too much moifture; and not according to the ufual meaning of the word in Ireland, where it, for the molt part, only denotes what is in Scotland called peat-moé, +L ¢ ENG Sie AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 233 the furface of the earth, or are interrupted by any obftacle which occafions the water to rife upwards, forming{fprings, bogs, and the other phen omena of this nature; which be eing varioufly diverfified in differ- ent circumftances, produce that variety of appearances in this refpect that we often meet with.} This being the cafe, we may naturally conclude, that an abundant{pring need never be expected in any country that is covered to a great depth with fand, with- out any{tratum of clay to force it upwards, as is the cafe in the fandy deferts of Arabia, and the immeafurable plains of Lybia. Neither are we to expect abundant{prings in any foil that confifts of an uniform bed of clay from the furface to a great depth: For, it mutt always be in fome porous ftratum that the water flows in abundance, and it can be made to flow horizontally in that only, when it is fup- ported by a ftratum of clay, or other fub- itance that is equally impermeable by water. Hence the rationale of that rule fo univerfally eftablithed in digging for wells, that if vou begin with fand or era- Br| a Vel, Ge. 234 ON DRAINING BOGS vel,&c. you need feldom hope to find water, till you come to clay; and if you begin with clay, you can hope for none in abundance, till you meet with fand, gra- vel, or rock. It is necefiary that the farmer fhould at- tend to this procefs of nature with care, as his fuccefs in draining bogs, and every {pecies of damp and{pouting ground, will in a great meafure depend upon his tho- rough knowledge of this,—his acuteneds in perceiving in every cafe, the varia- tions that may be occafioned by particu- lar circumftances, and his{kill in varying the plan of his operations according to thefe. As the variety of cafes that may occur in this refpect, is very great, it would be a tedious tafk to enumerate the whole, and defcribe the particular method of treating each; I fhall, therefore, con- tent myfelf with enumerating a few par- ticular cafes, to fhew in what manner the principles above eftablifhed may be applied to practice. Let Fig. 21ft reprefent a perpendicular fection of a part of the earth, in which AB is the furface of the ground, beneath I which AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 2 235 which are feveral ftrata of porous fub- fiances, which allow the water to fink thtough them till it reaches the line CD, that is fuppofed to reprefent the upper furfaee of‘a folid bed of clay; above which lies a ftratum of rock, fand, or gravel. In this cafe it is plain, that when the water reaches the bed of clay, and can fink no farther, it muft be there accumulated“4 ‘toa body; and, feeking for itfelf a paf- fage, it will flow along the furface of the clay, among the ag or gravel, from D euwards C, till at laft it iffues forth at the opening A, a{pring of pure water. If the quantity of water that is accu- mulated between D and C is not very confiderable, and the ftratum of clay ap- proaches near the furface, in that cafe, the whole of it wiil iffue by the opening at A, and the grovnd will remain dry, both above si below it. But if the quantity of water is fo great, as to raife it to a confiderable height in the bed of fand ot gravel, and if that ftratum of fand is not difcontinued before it reaches the fur- face of the ground, the water in this cafe, would not iffue at A only, but would like- wile 236 ON DRAINING BOGS 2) wife ooze out in fmall ftreams through every part of the ground, between A and a; forming a barren patch of wet fandy or gravelly ground upon the fide of a de- clivity: Which is a phanomenon that every attentive obferver muft have fre- quently met with. To drain a piece of ground in this fitua- tion, is perhaps, the moft unprofitable tafk that a farmer can engage mj; not only becaufe it is difficult to execute, but alfo, becaufe the foil‘that is gained is but of very little value. However, it is lucky that patches of this kind, are feldom of great breadth, although they fometimes run along the fide of a decliyity, in a ho-, rizontal direction, for a great length. The only effectual method of draining this kind of ground, is, to open a ditch, as high up as the higheft of the fprings at a, which fhould be of fuch a depth as not only to penetrate through the whole bed of{and or gravel, but alfo to fink fo far into the bed of clay below, as to make a canal therein, fufficiently large to contain and carry off the whole water. Such a ditch is reprefented by the doted lines a, Gs AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 237 é, 2: but as‘the vexpence of making‘a oO 9 ditch of fuch a depth as this would fup- pofe, and of keeping it afterwards in re- pair, is very great; itis but in very few cates that this mode of draining would be advifeable, and never, unlefs where the de- clivity happens to be fo{mall, that a great furface is loft for little depth; as would have happened here, if the furface had extended in the direction of the doted line a d. But, fuppofing that the ftratum of clay, after approaching to the furfacexat)A, continued to keep at a little depth below ground; and that the foil which lay above it was of a fandy or fpungy nature, fo as to allow the water to penetrate it eafily: In that cafe, even fuppofing the quantity of water that flowed from D to C, was but very inconfiderable, inftead of rifing out at the{pring A, it would flow forward along the furface of the clay, among the porous earth that forms the foil, fo as to keep it conftantly drenched with water, and, of confequence, render it of very littie value. Wetnefs, arifing from this caufe, 1s 238 ON DRAINING BOGS ufually of much greater extent than the former; and as it admits of an eafy cure, it ought not to be one moment delayed. For a ditch of-a moderate depth opened at A, and carried through a part of the ftratum of clay(as reprefented by the doted lines A, os would intercept and carry off the whole of the water, and ren- der the field as dry as could be defired. It is, therefore, of very great confequence to the farmer, accurately to diftinguith be- tween thefe two cafes. fo nearly allied to each other in appearance; and as this can be eafieft done by boring, every one who has much ground of this kind, ought to provide himfelf with a{et of boring-irons, which he will likewife find ufe for on other occations. I might here enumerate a great variety of cafes which might be reduced to the fame head with the|‘oing: but as any attentive reader may, aiter w hat has been ake be able eafily to diftinguith thee, I fhall only in general obierve, That every a of a foft and porous texture, that lies upon a bed of hard clay, w tenes its fis tuation in other refpe@’s may be, will in {ome AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 239 fome meafure be fubjected to this difeafe: And if it is upon a declivity of any confi- derable length, the undermoft parts of the field will be much damaged by it, unlefs ditches are thrown up acrofs the de- clivity, at proper diftances from one an- other, to intercept the water in its de- fent. It may not likewife be improper here to remark, that, in cafes of this nature, unlefs where the foil is of a very great depth, the malady will always be encreat- ed, by raifing the ridges to a confiderable height; as will appear evident by examin- ing Fig. 22, in which the line AB repre- fents the furface of a field of this nature, and CD the furface of the bed of clay. Now, if this field were rarfed mto high ridges, as at F,F,F, fo as that the fur- rows E,E,E, defcended below the fur- face of the clay, itis plain, that all the water that thould fink through the middle of the ridge, would run along the furface of the clay, till it came to the fides of the ridge L,L, L, L, L, L, which would thus be kept continually foaked with water; whereas, if the ground had been kept le- vel, 240 ON, DRAINING BOGS vel, asin the part of the field from G to H, with open furrows H, at moderate dif- tances from one another, the water would immediately fink to the clay, and be car- ried off by the furrows, fo as to damage the foil far lefs, than when the ridges are high. If the foil is fo thin, that the plough can always touch the clay, the ridges ought to be made narrow and quite flat, as from G to H; but if there isa little greater depth of foil, then it ought to be raifed into ridges of a moderate height, as from H to K, fo as to allow the bottom of the furrow to reach the clay. But neither is this ne- ceflary, where the foil is of any confider- able depth. I have feen fome induftrious farmers, who having ground in this fituation, have been at the very great expence of making a covered drain in each furrow. But, had they rightly underftood the nature of the difeafe, they never would have thought of appling fuch a remedy; as muft ap- pear evident at firft fight to thofe who examine the figure. The fuccefs was, what Beka peat ; 5 Oli ee a. —— an SE. eect omy—— AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 2 41 what might be expected from fuch a fool- ith undertaking. Thefe obfervations, it is to hoped, will fuffice as to the manner of treating wet, fandy, or porous foils. I now proceed to take notice of fuch as are of a{tiff cla yey nature, which are often very different in appearance, and require a different treat- ment from thefe. Suppofe that(as in Fig. 23) the ftra- tum of fand or gravel, DC, thould be diz continued, as at E, and that the ftratum above it fhould be of a coherent Clayey nature: In this cafe, the water that flow- ed towards E, being there pent in on every fide, and being accumulated there in great quantities, it mutt, at length, force a paf- {age for itfelf in fome way; and preffing ftrongly upon the upper furface, if any one part is weaker than the reit, it there would burft forth, and form a{pring(2c: fuppofe, at A). But if the texture of cvery part of this ftratum were equally itrong, the water would{queeze through many {mall crannies, and would ooze out in numberlefs places, as between A and F, fo as to occafion that kind of wetnefs Vox. I, R which 242 ON DRAINING BOGS which is known by the name of a fpout= ing clayey foil. 7 The cure, in this cafe, is much more eafily effected than in any of the former’; For, if a ditch of a confiderable fize be opened, as at A, towards the lowermoft fide of the{pouting round, fo déep as to penetrate through the upper ftratum of clay, and reach to the gravel, the water will rife up through it, at firft, with very great violence, which will gradually de- creafe, as the preffure from the water bes hind is diminithed. And when the whole of the water accumulated in this fub- terraneous refervoir is run off, there be- ing no longer any preffure upon the clay above it, the whole foon becomes as dry as could be defired; and‘continues fo ever afterwards, if the ditch be always kept open. This I fpeak from experience,| having rendered fome fields of this kind that were very wet, quite dry, by this method of treating them. It will hardly be neceffary for me here to put the farmer upon his guard, to be particularly careful in his obfervations, ,:: that ne.. is eg ee=— 7 AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 243 that he may diftinguith between the wet- ne{s that is produced from this caufe, and that which proceeds from the caufe before mentioned: Becaufe the treatment that would cure the one, would be of no ufe at all to the other. The attentive obferver, likewife, will readily perceive, that if any field that is wet from this caufe, admits of being ploughed, it will be in equal danger of being hurt by being raifed in high ridges, with the other kind of damp ground be- fore mentioned: For, as the depth of earth above the refervoir would be{maller in the deep furrows than any where elfe, there would, of confequence, be lefs refift- ance to the water in that place, fo that it would rife there in greater abundance, And if, in this cafe, a farmer fhould dig a drain in each furrow;—as a confiderable quantity of water would rife into them, in fome cafes, the ground might be im- proved, or even quite drained thereby, (efpecially if they fhould have accidentally reached the gravel in any other place,) although at an expence much greater Rez than 244 ON DRAINING BOGS than was neceffary*. I take notice of this circumftance, in. fome meafure, to prevent the prejudice that fome inatten- tive obfervers. might entertain againft what we faid before of‘this method of draining, from their having accidentally feen ne fields that may have been bet- tered by it 3 Bogs are only a variety of this- mentioned kind of wet ground, and there- fore ought, in general, to be drained after the fame manner with them. Clay is a fubitance that itrongly refifts the entrance of water into it; but, when clay 1s long es with water, it is, in procefs of time, in fome meafure, diffolved thereby, lofes its eS firronefs of texture and confiftence, and becomes. a fort of femi- fluid mafs, which is called a bo And as thefe bogs are iometimes peecicd with a } furface of a particular kind of grais with b) la) very matted roots, which is{trong enough * This feems to have been pre cifely the cafe, in the firt attempt of Mr. Elkington at draining, in which cafe he accidentally penetra La ihe bed of clay, and reach- ed the pervious ftratum below it. to. AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 245 to bear a{mall weight without breaking, although it yields very much, it is, in thefe circumftances, called a Swaggle. But whatever be the nature of the bog, it is invariably occafioned by water being forced up through a bed of clay, as juft now deferibed, and diffolving, or foftening, if you will, a part thereof. I fay only a part, becaufe, whateyer may be the depth of the bog, or fwaggle, it generally has a par- tition of folid clay between the bog and the refervoir of water under it, from whence it originally proceeds: For, were not this the cafe, and were the quantity of _water confiderable, it would meet with no fufficient refiftance from the bog, and would iffue through it with violence, and carry the whole femifluid mafs along with it. But this would more inevitably be the cafe, if there was at firft acruft at the bot- tom of the bog, and if that cruft fhould ever be broken; efpecially, if the quantity of water under it were very confiderable. And as it is probable, that in many cafes of this fort, the water flowly diffolves more and more of this under-cruft, I make no doubt but that in the revolution of many ages, a R 3 great 246 ON DRAINING BOGS great many irruptions of this kind may have happened; although they may not have been deemed of importance enough to have the hiftory of them tranfmitted to potterity*. Of this kind, although formed of a dif- ferent fubftance, I confider the flow of the Solway mofs, in Cumberland, to have been; which, upon the 16th November, 1771, burft its former boundaries, and poured forth a prodigious ftream of femi- fluid matter, which, in a fhort time, co- vered feveral hundred acres of very fine arable ground. Nor will any one who is acquainted with the nature of mofs, who knows its refemblance to clay in its qua- lity of abforbing and retaining water, and its very eafy diffufibility therein, be fur- prifed at this; as, from all thefe proper- ties, it is much better adapted for forming an extenfive bog, and therefore in greater danger of producing an extenfive devatta- tion, by an eruption of the water into‘it, * Probably, the eruption which produced Saint Win- nifred’s well, in North Wales, may have been of this fort. Note to the fourth Editien. than ee AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 247 than thofe that are formed of any kind of clay whatever*. If the bog or fwampy ground be upon a declivity, the ditch ought to be. carried acro{s the field, about the place where the loweft fprings arife. But if the furface of the ground be level, or riearly fo, as be- tween Aand B(Fig. 24) and the{prings break out in feveral places, 99999% 10 as to form foft quagmires interf{perfed through the whole of the field, it will be of % Since the above was written, I find the eruption of Solway-mofs was produced in a manner very differ- ent from the above: The water which carried it off; infinuated itfelf between the{mooth bed of clay, below the mofs, in fuch great quantities, as, without foftening the mots fo as to reduce it to the ftate of a femi-fluid mafs, heaved it up, foas to be as if afloat upon the water, which carried it bodily forward with the current, till it was left, ina great meafure, in its natural ftate, lying above the corn=fields, to the whole depth of the mofs. For farther illucidations on the fubject of mofs, fee a Praétical Eflay on Peat Mofs. Robinfons, 1794:— N.B. At the time the prefent Eflay was written, L had formed no diftiné&t idea of the nature of mofs; and at the time the Effay on mofs was written, I knew no- thing of the fact here fated. It affords an additional proof of the truth of the hypothefis there brought for= ward. Note to the fourth Edition. R4 little ; | yf 248 ON DRAINING BOGS oe = i| .: 3 cy{ have. little confequence in what part the drain ae is opened; for, if it be dug fo deep. as to, allow the water to rife in it with freedom, A beagye it will iffue through that opening, and the| in the field will be left perfeétly dry. i} ead But as it may frequently happen that\ the ftratum of gravel fhall be at a confi- he On { derable depth beneath the furface of the ote earth, and as it may be fometimes even below the level of the place into which the drain muft be emptied, it might fome- times be, extremely difficult to make a { to reach the bed of fand et ditch fo deep as or gravel. But= is lucky for us that this is not abfolutely neceflary in the pre- fent cafe; becaufe a drain, of two or three feet.deep, asat D, will be equally effectual with one that thould go to the gravel. All that is neceflary in this cafe is, to fink: pits(P) in: the“courfe“ofthe drain}-ata 4 moderate diftance from oneanother, which go fo deep as to reach the gravel. For, as the water there meets with no refiftance,‘ it readily flows out at thefe openings, and‘ is carried off by the drain, without being‘ forced up through the earth; fo that the 4 7 ground is left entirely dry ever after. a' I have, 3 AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 249 I have likewife drained feveral fields in this way; and as I have. generally found the appearances pretty much alike, I fhall, for the information of the inexperienced reader give a fhort account of them: — If you attempt to make your pit in one of thefe foft quaggy places, where the wa- ter is found in great abundance, you will meet with very great difficulty in forming it;. For, as the fubitance of which‘it 4s compofed is foft, it will always flow into the hole as faft as you dig it. On this account, I would advife, not to attempt to make the pit in the fwaggle, but as near it in the folid earth as you conveni- ently can. However, if it be pretty firm, and of no great extent, it will be fometimes practicable to make a pit in the foft bog, at the drieft time of the year. This I have fometimes praétifed, which gave me an opportunity of obferving the nature of thefe bogs more perfeétly than I otherwife would have had. In the trials of‘this kind that I have made, the foft quaggy ground has feldom been above three or four feet deep, below which I have always found a ftratum of hard £50 ON DRAINING BOGS hard tough clay, ufually mixed with{tones, and fo firm that nothing but a mattock or pick-axe could penetrate it: And as this ftratum is comparatively fo much drier than the ground above it, an inexpe- rienced operator will be very apt to ima= gine that it is the bottom that he 1s in fearch of. In digging through this{tratum, you will frequently meet with{mall fprings eozing out in all directions; fome of them that might fill the tube of a{mall quill, and others fo{mal! as to befcarcely percep- tible. But, without regarding thefe, you muit continue to dig on without inter- miftion, till you come to the main body of the refervoir, if I may fo call it, that is contained in the rock, cravel, or fand; which I have generally found from two to four feet below the bottom of the{wag- cle, and which you will be in no danger of miftaking when you come t0 1G=F Ol; if there has been no opening made before that time in the field, as{oon as you brealx the cruft immediately above the gravel er rock, the water will burft forth like a tor- rent, and, on fome oceafions, will rife like 4 AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 261 like a jet d'eau, toa confiderable height above the bottom of the ditch; and con- tinue to flow off with great impetuofity for fome time, till the pent-up water be- ing drained off, the violent boiling up will egin to fabfide, and the ftrength of the current to abate, and in a fhort time it will flow gently out like any ordinary fpring. Allowing it to remain in this-ftate for fome time, the quaggy earth will foon be- gin to fubfide, and gradually become fir- mer and firmer every day; fo that in the {pace of a few months, thofe bogs that were formerly fo foft, as hardly to fup- port the weight of a{mall dog, will be- come fo firm, that oxen and horfes may ‘tread upon them without any danger of finking, at the very wetteft feafon of the year. I had a field of this nature, that, by having only one fuch pit, as I have now defcribed, opened in it, was entirely drain- ed, to the diftance of above a hundred yards around in every direétion. But, as it is poffible that the ftratum in whichthe water runs, may be infome places interrupted, 252 ON DRAINING BOGS interrupted, it will be in general expedient to make feveral of thefe pits, if the field ISOf great extent; always carrying the drain forward through the lowermoft part aS e of the field, or as near the qua you con- Yr © +} if L veniently can; and ee a pit where- fary. But if the ftratum of gravel is not interrupted, there will be no violent burft of water,~-++). x I have: often niet that the ex- ence a 6 Tigo} wo thefe 47 ¢ ni0hs no{- pence Or daiggines tnere pits Miene DE lav- [ORS eS)©\ 1 ES ear eee el+1, a== el(oe) pee ed, by boring a hole through this folid ftra- m9> VIITAOAe e h 9 Li Watrare ea made on purpofe; but as I neve expe- : fee ooo. ae Sie aagneed this, I cannot fay whether or not Et] would an{wer the defired end exaélly. “ig the whole field that is to be drained, confifts of one extenfive bog, it will re- quire along time before the whole work can be entirely finifhed; as it will be im- poffible AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 253 poflible to open a drain through it, till one part of it be firft drained, and becomes fo- lid ground. In a fituation of this kind, the undertaker, after having opened a drain to convey the water from the loweft part of the. bog, muft approach as near to the {wampy ground as he can, and there make {t pit, which will drain off the water from the neareft parts of the bog. ee= nt ae nis tis When this has continued open for fome time, and that» part of the bog is become fo folid as to admit of being worked, let him continue the ditch as far forward through it as the fituation it is in will ad- mit of, and there fink another pit; and proceed gradually forward in the fame manner, making crofs cuts where necef- fary, till the whole be finifhed. In this manner, may any bog or tract of{pouting ground, of this nature, be ren- dered dry, ata very inconfiderable expence. And as there can be no other method of draining ground of this fort effectually, I recommend the ftudy of it to the attention of every diligent farmer who may have occafion for it. Let him firft be extreme- ly ——————-- ee 254. ON DRAINING BOGS ly cautious in examining all the circum- {tances of his particular fields, that he may be certain which of the claffes above enumerated it may be ranked with; and when he is perfectly fure of that, he may proceed without fear, being morally cer- tain of fuccefs. There is, however, one kind of damp ground, not yet particularly{pecified, that I have purpofely omitted taking notice of till this time, as I have never had an op- portunity of examining particularly into the nature of it, nor of afcertaining, by ex- perience, what is the moft proper method of treating it-—The{oil I have now par- ticularly in my eye, confifts of a deep ftrong clay, that does not vary its nature even on the furface, but in:as far as ma- nuresmay have rendered it more friableand tender, The colour ufually inclines to a reddith caft; and, for the moft part, it 1s fituated upon the{ide of fome declivity. This bed of clay reaches to a great depth, without any variation, and is, on many cecafions, intermixed with a confiderable quantity of{mall ftones. , Many AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 2535 Many foils of the fort now defcribed, are apt to be continually moutt, and full of water, during the winter feafon. But when the dry weather of fummer fets in, the moifture is diminifhed, and the furface becomes hard; and it is rent into many large gaps, which allow free admiffion to the fun and air, fo as to fcorch up almoft every plant that is fowed upon it. And as thefe foils are ufually, in themfelves, natu- rally fertile when drained, it were to be withed that fome method could be difco- vered that would be lefs expenfive than what is ufually practifed with regard to fome foils of this kind in Effex, where they make covered drains of two feet and a half deep, running diagonally through the whole field, at the diftance of twenty feet from each other. Were I to indulge myfelf in conje€tur- ing, I might here offer fome remarks tend- ing to fhow the probable caufe of this phz- nomenon, and point out an eafier method of cure. But as it is extremely danger- pus for one who pretends to inftrud others, to give way to the tempting feduc- tions ¢ 256 ON DRAINING BOGS tions of a warm imagination, IT fhall con- tent myfelf with having pointed out this evil to thofe who may have it in their power to examine into the caufes of this particular malady, and to point out to others the eafief{t and moft efficacious cure. Here ends the Effay, as it was originally printed, ADDITIONS N. Ww TA fderat Elky more moved the a tolloy AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 2.7 A DDITBRIONS TO THE ESSAY ON DRAINING, MADE yINij THE» YEAR(1797. [am no longer reftrained by the con- fiderations which influenced me when this Effay was firft publifhed; an experience of more than twenty years farther has re- moved thofe{cruples entirely; and though the attentive reader will find little in what follows that may not be inferred from what has gone before, yet it wiil not per- haps prove difagreeable, to fee how the few fimple principles above fuccinétly de- veloped, may be eafily applied in fome practical cafes which affume a confiderable diverfity of appearance. The peculiar{pecies of wet land, that has been juft now defcribed, is not in general occafioned by{prings; for in the kind of foil here deferibed, fprings, properly fo called are rarely to be found;—it originates, for the moft part, entirely from water that falls from the clouds. When rain falls in Vou. I. S abundance 258 ON DRAINING BOGS abundance upon 2 field of the kind here efcribed, a part of the water will find its way ee the furface towards the furrows, > fuch have been made in it, by which it- wil be carried off the field; but a confi- derable quantity of water will be abforbed by the porous foil on the top, through which it will gradually fink, till it reaches the folid bed of clay below, which, having never been opened up effectually, refifts the water, which can there penetrate down- wards no farther. In that cafe, it can find no outlet‘ielst it forces its way laterally to- wards the furrows, flowly through the fu- perficial mould—or, if no furrows are Pro- vided to carry it off, it mutt remain as in a bafon, in which the fuper ficial foil is mixed with the water, fo as to become a thin pafte, that muft remain of a foft con- fitency during wet weather, and which, when much rain hath fallen, will be only gree removed from fluidity— lc in this ftate, it muft be highly preju- dicial to the vegetation of all thofe plants we-are in the ufe of cultivating in this country: But in this ftate the foil mutt drenched with water, until the return of dry weather. The fun will then evaporate AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 259 evaporate it, when the foaked pafte, now de- prived of its moifture, will affume a hard irony confiftence, which is equally unfit for the fuftenance of plants as it was in its moiftened ftate. Such being the caufes of this difeafe, the confequences may be eafily removed. The opening up of hollow drains, running diago- nally acrofs the flope, at a{mall diftance from each other, if they can be kept open, will anfwer the fame purpofe, nearly, that the drawing of Open water furrows in he fame dire&tion would have done, and will, doubtlefs, mitigate the evil, in propor- tion to their nearnefs to each other: but they muft be very clofe together indeed, if they remove it entirely—for{till the foil muit be drenched in the manner before defcribed, by the water forcing its way through it, until it reaches the drain. But, as the rain-water will fink perpen- dicularly through the foil, until it meets with the folid clay, before it attempts to feek a lateral dire¢tion, it mutt follow that that part of the mould which is neareft to the clay, will be more drenched with wa- ? par Roe rm Oe mer ye DER a) Pea 1\ hoe enn ter than thofe parts of it which lie at4 260 ON DRAINING BOGS greater diftance above the clay; of courfe, the deeper the foil, the lefs will the furface- mould be liable to be drenched with hurt- ful moifture—Hence it follows, that if the foil thall be deepened to fuch a degree, as that the water, even during the greateft rains,{hall not be forced to rife fo high as to chill the roots of the plants which grow upon it, the remedy withed for will be effected. Nor will this be a matter of fuch great difficulty, as at firft fight it might t appear— for as the rain Gals floy af downward through fuch a foil, that portion of rain which fills fart continuing to fink regu- nny, if the foil be mellow, without{top- ping, goes gradually downward, making way for that ehh follows, without being regorged back upon it till it meets the bottom—hence, if we fhould{uppofe, for the fake of illuftration, that the rain funk four inches downward in twenty-four hours, and that the rain continued without inter- miffion for three days together, the water would have penetrated, by that time, to the depth of twelve inches, had it met with no interruption before the rain abated; but res i AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 261 if the foil were no more than four inches deep, the water would have reached the bottom, in twenty-four hours, after which time, it could go no farther—but.the rain continuing to pour on more, the foil towards the bottom, by acquiring frefh ad- ditions of water every moment, is there foon reduced to the ftate of a femifluid pafte, and as the water muft rife higher.and higher, while the rain continues, more of the foil muft be drenched by it, until the whole foil becomes like a foft pap, that is incapable to fupport the{malleft animal. Or, if the open furrows or under-drains be near at hand, a part of the water will at laft fall into thefe, and be carried off the field, after having wafhed the furface-mould in its pafiage fo as thus to carry off with it all the foluble parts of the manures it has met with in its pafiage. But if the penetrable mould had extended toa greater depth(fay fixteen or twenty inches) the water would not{top even when the rain abated, but continue to fink farther, till at laftit would be all imbibed by the earth, without hav- ing reduced any part of it to the ftate of a p3p-—and even without the aid of any drain’ ~ Sy e, sthate 2 whatever, 262 ON DRAINING BOGS whatever. Thus would the mould, having never been reduced to the ftate of a patte, continue friable, even when dry weather ap- proached: and as the roots of plants grow- ing upon the foil would thus be invited to {tretch to a great depth, they would there find moifture fufficient to fuftain them, at a time when, if they had been forced to fpread abroad near the furface, for want of depth of foil, they muft have perifhed from want of moifture. In this way, the foil is rendered dry in moift weather, and moift in dry fea- fons, to a degree that could not otherwife have been experienced. And,'as it has been already faid, the water in its progrefs dif- folves and carries along with it, a portion of the vegetable manures, this portion of mahure, by the procefs now defcribed, is al] TASe ha(AG Ba At Baie ese Ala te aes leitein tne foul, and of courfe tends to nc- Teens ee a 0g ROK o aed eee Gel a s10Tate if, INitcaad OY Deins carried orn from 1g 2 S Sprit aecline thei tee eG bh ociier eta its 1 bs ciuner DY the water-rurrows or the drains d whic} b aly IMCL ec andifne nfabh Nn ece fia on OE aCe JOCUi TITS Mbititaediia VY SU wdidl Vy in Yau| er Te Be ciiy. B Pao|= i.4 il is thin—and which unavoid- | aed rAaQ aya 147+} Ps at L. Pome? abiy reauces it into that poor hungry ftate fo frequently experienced under circum- pk a Pe Pa See ah. 3k pane ge ee {tances of the fort here defcribed. Tnere are found in many counties of 5, Great ae: AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 26 >) Great Britain, immenfe tracts of poor, hungry, clayey foil, that are all reduced to the clais of which we now treat.—T hey have been denominated Aungry, from the fudden difappearance of the effeéts of ma- nures that have been laid upon them; they are alfo called Azde-bound, becaute of the hard itiffnefs, and miferable appearance of the furface. Few foils are, in their pre- fent ftate, more unprofitable than thofe. Yet there are, perhaps, none, which, under a judicious management, could be render- ed more productive than many of them. It often happens, that over the whole fur- face of fuch foils, a thin crop of weakly rufhes are produced, while it is allowed to remain in grafs; and fog or mofs, which eftablifhes itfelf there during the winter months, is almoft the only vegetable pro- duction, that gives a fickly verdure to the furface.. Upon examination, it will be found, that in all cafes of this fort, the unloofened clay rifes very near to the fur- face, in confequence of which, the fuper- ficial mould, which has been ftirred by the plough, to a{mall depthonly, being thinly {pread over it, is fubjeét to be drenched S 4 through —— ———— nana 264 ON DRAINING BOGS through its whole depth by every violent rain, the manures completely wafhed out of it, and the whole reduced to a pappy paite, that becomes hard like iron, when the fummer heat diffipates the moifture. Under thefe circumftances, whatever ma- nures or culture are beftowed upon it, are in a great meafure, thrown away, as they are{een to produce but very little effe@; and thefe foils, are ne: in a great mea~ fure, abandoned as hopelets. Many{foils of this defcription, however, if opened to a fufficient depth, may be Gradually orou cht in EO=a{tate OY great oO/© fo) Was Guy Je Se eet. productiveneis. Indeed, many of the moft productive diftriéts in this kingdom con- = HW es} exe te te re Sar hf fift precifely of foils that were originally (=| ake 7 Le c\’ Ory E I 7 aH 2 re vy a of this kind. When fuch foils are thus = AE one| eee SS Eee MES opened up, they are, for the reafons above i Soke/ a Wer. ist ee ez A aliv: ee Si ay LE; aihened, more effectually drained than they could be by any other procefs. The manures that are, after this is done, work- ed into the foil, are never carried off from it, but gradually tend to ee, and thus to render more tender and friable, the bot- tom foil; fo as, in time, to become deep, jound, and wholefome land, which isneithe: 1x; {trongls AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 265 firongly affected by the viciffitudes of drought or of rain. Thefe effetts, however, are not to be expected to be felt at firft, to their full extent. Some clays are fo cohefive, that mere digging alone will not render them as permeable by water, as could be with- ed. Before they can become fufficiently ee—— er friable for the purpofe, to the higheft de- gree that could be wifhed, manures mutt have had time to operate upon them For this reafon, although the effect of deep digging, and copious manuring, will be at once fenfi» felt, yet the meliora- tion that will refult from this proceis, will be going forward for many years to come, and, by degrees, it will be coming nearer’ and nearer to that higheft degree of pro- ductivenefs for which the old lands of that defcription, above named, are fo very re- markable. We have an opportunity of obferving the effect of thus opening the foil to a great depth, in our gardens, which, in con- fequence of being univerfally trenched oyer, as an initiatory ftep, are found to continue healthfully dry, even in foils of this ! ¥ } i rt \ 4 Dew 266 ON DRAINING BOGS this kind, without the aid of either water- furrows, to carry off the furface-rain, or hollow-drains, to carry off the moifture from below. If there be but one drain Jeading fromthe loweft part, to allow the httle water that /eeps* down to it, to be earried freely away, that is quite enough to preferve the mould healthfully dry. But in fields where the plough can pene- tfate toa much{maller depth, it is found univerfally, that many water-furrows are ly required, before fuch a foil can be prevented from fuftaining great da- mage from the pafting proceis above des C Gheds and that hol lente drains are like- wife aguas’ to aid them, before the eround can be made tolerably healthful. I may be permitted to obferve, how- ever, that in moft cafes of this fort, where the furface-mould is no deeper than the plough goes, hollow-draining becomes ne- ceflary only in confequence of the ridges ‘being laid in an improper direction; for, Bon the furrows lie direaly up and down * Is feeps an Englifh word? It means to flow gra- dually, and in very fmall quantities through fome refift- ing medium. he ' ANDSWAMPY GROUNDS. 267 the declivity, it is eafy to obferve, that whatever water finks through the mould, will have a tendency, when it reaches the clay, to run forward among the foil to- wards the bottom of the hi ill, rather than to force a /paflage for itfelf laterally to- wards the furrows.—In confequence of this, the foil, efpecially towards the middle of the ridge, in particular where the de- clivity is confiderable, will be drenched with water nearly as much as if no water- furrows were left in the field. To inter- cept that water therefore, in its defcent, hollow-drains, that run aflant the ridges, become abfolutely neceffary.—If the fur- rows had been laid in the fame direGtion with the drains, nearly the fame benefit would have refulted from the furr the drains afford. And were it not for the inconvenience that is felt in plough- ing in that direction, thefe furrows would even operate more veatea sion in moft cafes, in drying the ground, than the drains. For, it muft be obferved, that in making Sn allt it becomes necefs fary that they fhould not be fo far filled with brufh-wood, or other porous matter, throu gh 268 ON DRAINING BOGS through which the water can be permit- ted to fink eafily, as to reach the plough- furrow; otherwife that matter would be deranged by its operations, and in fuch ftiff mould, the earth that is put above the brufh-wood is apt to cake, and become folid, fo as to refift the entrance of water inte, the. drain... his. 1s_a. very ferious evil, which every perfon who has land in that fituation, muit have often experienc- ed, Open furrows are entirely freed from all danger of this fort. Where dry peat- drofs can be obtained in abundance, for filing the drains at top, this inconve- nience would be obviated. See Treatife p VA ALo on Feat Mois. x=, E& a a Kya But, although the facts above flated fuf- ‘a a 41 4 Fan%=>} c aes M0) ie= eh es rk ficiently evince,-that the loofening the 2 a ee Sr ep aiop er nt ean ae Pe ee eae furface mould to a fufficient depth, in a : Yep alle vataace her bean toad eel= foil of the nature here treated, will, in la) :: oe moit cales, prevent the necetfil na of under- 5 a ea(Of enw ail PF Riee7e,= a all c= ost agraining Of any Tort, and afes will ©)~ (tore GY Sars? ae Z ag a eee Sm effect a great and radi ic improvement; Srp| x —yet I wifh not to be underftood to fay, thatunder-drainu ng will not prove, in fom cafes, ufeful. But even in. thofe ar where they may prove ufeful, the number 2 of ~ sa a rm>= Sh ig a eee a -= as WS SE asa oat =—— a Le ene in Ae ee i 5. hn AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 269 of drains wanted, will be prodigioufly di- minifhed.. If the procefs above recom- mended be adopted, one drain will, under thefe circumftances, do more good than a hundred would do without it—(indeed, no number of drains whatever could fo effectually meliorate the foil) and, it de- ferves to be remarked, that where fuch a drain fhall be made, the evil juft ftated may be entirely obviated; for as the plough never reaches near to the bottom of the mould, the hollow-drain may be fill- ed quite to the top of the clay, or even above it, with porous matter, without any rifk of its being deranged, and it will, of courfe, keep always open, to receive any water that may have occafion to fall into it. As to the moft advifeable mode of deepening the foil, many center {1 quire to be adverted to, before that ea t Q 5 = be de termined. In general, the furface- mould is more mellow than any of the bottom foil, on which account, it ought not to be buried by trenching it down; the effects of which, upon a very{tiff clay, where manures are not extremely abun- dant, 270 ON DRAINING BOGS dant, can very flowly be overcome. In fuch cafes, it will be more advifeable, after having turned over a large and deep far- row of the furface-mould, to make men follow, in the fame furrow, with{pades, and dig it over, without turning it upon. the top; or loofen it to a confiderable depth, with an implement which may be called a crow-/pade(being a fmall crow, {harpened at the point, into the form of a very narrow-pointed ipade, not exceeding three inches at the broadeft part) having a foot-piece projecting from the ftalk, and a crofs handle of wood at top, which I have found to be a{trong handy tool for works of that kind. Where the foil is pecfeby free from ftones, a kind of plough, having a fhare and cutters es for Joofening without turning over the ros) } fe foil, may made to ae the ae plough, in the fame furrow, an implement which has been|. ately introduced into Lan- cafhire, under the name of the mer. This kind of under-mould loofening ought to be repeated from time to time, fyi it is perceived to get bound below; but the furface-mould fhould always be preferved at on ne a RS ER Sas— Sere a a — AND SWAMPY GROUNDS.(271 at top. In moft cafes, where circumftances permit of it, the friability, drynefs, and productivenefs of fuch a foil will be great- ly promoted by a copious admixture of lime or other calcareous matter with it. The quantity can{carcely be too great; but on fuch foils a dreffing of a chaldron or two of lime per acre, will be fo difpro- portionately fmall, as to produce fcarcely any fenfible effect. In every cafe, foils of this nature admit of, and in their poor {tate require, a more abundant manuring than any others.. After they have been 1S thus enriched and meliorated by time, they will produce greater crops than any other foil, even with a moderate quantity of manures. It would be foreign from the oe of this Effay to enter more fully into the pro- per mode of managing fuch an or of pee with great nicety the diverfi- ty of foils that all belong to this general clafs.“Thefe diverfities are very great, and fome kinds will repay the expence 1+ fcr 1. much fooner than others.. It is tae pfo- per bufinefs of the hufbandman to diftin- cuith thefe; it only belongs to me here to 272| ON DRAINING BOGS ‘ fay, that a// of them will be greatly bene- fitted by the procefs recommended.— Nei- ther muft I here ftop to explain in greater detail the moft economical ways in which the foil may be opened up, I fhall only in ge- neral add, that deep ploughing, in the or- dinary operations of tillage, at every time it is fitrred, is by no means necellary.—({See thefe Effays, vol. iii. p. 298.) I cannot omit, however, onthis occafion, to take notice of the abfurd impolicy of that rule which Bae in moft counties in England, of pron ibiting grafs lands from being Esauiaied In all cafes of this fort (and many millions of acres of this defcrip- tion of land are“fotind lying in the moft unprofitable‘kind of grafs) it is the fame thing as dooming the beft land to a J when fuffered to lie in its natural ftate, {tate of perpetual fterility—for fuch land, produces next to nothing in grafs; yet by he of culture, a{pirited and judicious mo: continued for a fufficient length of time, it becomes the moft productive of all foils. I could eafily point out foils of this kind, which, if left to grafs, intheir natural ftate, never could have yielded half a crown of rent AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 273 rent per acre, that have been brought, in the fpace of a few years, to yield crops of wheat from feven to nine quarters per acre; a weight“of crop that’ no foil| know, but thofe of which I now treat, could ever be made td.produce. Were I to call thofe improvements, d//- covertes, which are merely the refult of the exercife of the common powers of reafon- ing from facts that daily occur; and were I to value fuch difcoveries in proportion to the extent of their utility to mankind, I fhould perhaps reckon the above one of the noft important difcoveries that has been made in the art of draining in the prefent age; becaufe, for one acre of land that can be drained by means of tapping, there are perhaps feveral thoufands of acres in this ifland which may be benefitted in a very high degree by this very fimple procefs. Indeed, unlefs it were for the furprize that the mode of draining on the principle of tapping excites, at firft, upon the mind of thofe who have not adverted to things of this kind, and the quicknefs of the effect it fometimes produces, at little or no ex- pence, where 7t 1s well underftood, and pro- VoL. i sik perly 274 ON DRAINING BOGS perly applied, it muft hold an inferior rank to many other modes of draining that have been long praétifed, becaute of the much finaller extent of the evil that can thus be removed than by many of the other modes of draining that are developed in this Trea- tife. More mitchief is often produced by a fingle fpring,in the cafe I am juft about to illuftrate, than is experiencedina whole county by that peculiar kind of wetnefs which can be removed by tapping. Of the bogs that are found in this ifland, perhaps not one-thoufandth part of them could be reducible to that clafs which admits of being cured by tapping.. I now proceed — > A ES Ss a Ph a on ee 3 ee oe ae to-civea few additional illuftrations, witha (@)) Q ba ee OD nr fob) ho (ae Sj ot re O Sah ai 2 C hen bo) (@)) ct pe Q view mor ples already explained. a 1 1 r=? Ds~~S)° = en Fae eis SES(aes a( ee OE re i= As the whole fuccels of prattical drain- C = ee‘ q a BS> 1.,\f> c<1 47:(o a= no ing depends upon accurately difcriminat- ing between the cates already ftated 5]| ae Ran ERA maine za Se ee ere (though, pernaps, with too much brevity) in the foregoing parts of this Etlay, my X © Rpt ee Siete ny|e) A ee: chief aim in thefe Additions, fhall be, fo to mark thefe cafes, as to enable the 1 ees 2 1)= reader to dittine g hey oy| 7/ Tass. Ve i, 4 ant>]>> find no difficulty to do where the cafe 1S eh AND SWAMPY GROUNDS : 275 is fimple; but in mpound cafes, he may on fome occafions, a little at a lofs. Thefe difficult cafes are, however, very rare, and if he be a attentive, he will, after a few trials, be eafily able to difcriminate them alfo, Let the reader never lofe fundamental principle, that all prings are produced in confequence of the water which falls from the atmofphere, upon high grounds, fink ing through fome kind of porous earth, until it comes to a bed of clay or granite, or other matter that is impervious. to water,{topping it from finking farther, and, of courfe, forcing it either to rife upwards, as ina refervoir, ;- till the cavity be filled, or making it find a op Py Rta eee| Sy rae or ee ee ee Se paliage tirougna tubterrar meous pervious Ns till it yachec tha es oS= a ee jirata, tull it reaches the luriac Fr tne }] a nee aay eirene=a earth, where, according to the circum {tances of the caf: a pure{tream of clear water, running for- ae- ward in rills to th 1 a eee Poy Ok 0 ae eee ee Ae neareir ItrCamMs, Of [he oe= Sel aes oozes ovicurely forth throuch innumer- . 7 aie{mall orifices, into the porous vege- i— =e ae Aaa|+| ae table mould, which produces that wet { 2% E 3f ge :=% ee t 276 ON DRAINING BOGS weeping appearance, denominated_/poutmg ground or bogs. It will be unneceffary here to accumu- late particulars, refpecting clear{prings. In general, where thefe occur, little more is required by the farmer, than that the channel be fo opened up, as to allow that water to flow off in a free current, in the direction that nature points out; in fuch a way, however, as never to force it, or even to permit it to be abforbed and loft in the foft vegetable mould that may chance to lie in its way on its paflage to- wards the fea. And here I may be allowed to obferve, that thofe who with to get a clear idea of the principles of draining, will do well to begin their ftudies in mountainous or un- even countries, rather than in plains; for, inthe firft cafe, they will meet with many facts, that are obvious on a flight infpec- tion, which cannot, without great difficulty, be made apparent in a flat country.| It1s, perhaps, owing to an inattention to this circumftance, that fo few men who have prachifed draining, have underftood the principles of their art; which is doubtlefs the eee— ap Ne, ee AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 2% 7 / tae caufe of thofe numerous failures that have been experienced in the practical ef- forts of thofe, who, in certain cafes, have performed cures, that merited the higheft degree of applaufe. Where a ftratum of fand, rock, gravel, or other porous matter, lies. in a regular {lope towards the earth’s{urface,{upport- ed by a bed of clay(as in Fig. 25) if that ftratum has not been derdred by earthquakes, or other violent convulfions of nature,‘ ufually f{tretches back to a great diftance, perhaps at a great depth beneath the furface of the hill, and where it crops out, as at A, if the ftratum runs in a horizontal pofition(which is often the cafe) when viewed at rig it-angles to the fection here given(which exhibits the natural dip of the ftrata) it there forms a ‘kind of zone, running along the brow of the hill, nearly in a Rohieancal, direction, for a great way. I have often thus feen a zone of His kind, unning along the brow of a hill, ake at the fame height, for miles together; its courfe being marked every where, by a wet uncomfortable{tripe, of inconfiderable breadth, frequently broken into{mall holes, by the feet of cattle, or ae othe: wv 278 ON DRAINING BOGS other accidental circumftances. Wheré- ever this indication appears, you may, with next to a moral certainty, conclude, that the evil originates from this fource, and you may, therefore, boldly adopt the mode of cure that has been already indi- cated for this evil; fee page 236. A{mall ditch opened all along the lower part of the fpouting zone, that fhali be, in every cafe, fo deep as to pafs through the pervi- ous mould, and fhall penetrate into the bed of clay, or other impervious ftratum below, will with certainty intercept the water, and remove the evil, in as far as affects the lower grounds. Thofe who have not turned their atten- tion to this fubject, will fcarcely be able to form an idea of the benefit that may be derived from this fimple and eafy procefs. I have frequently feen, in commons, and other neglected places, where the hand of induftry has never been exerted(efpeci- ally in Wales) that a{pring of this kind has drenched fields for miles together, ren- dering the foil one univerfal cold foft kind of fwamp, unfit for producing any kind of vegetable, that 1s nutritious either for man Or EAN PL ye _ AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 279 or beaft;. for wherever the furface foil is {fo tender as not to be capable of carrying the water, it finks through that, and en- deavours to force a pafflage for itfelf to- wards the bottom of the hill, along the top of a bed of clay, frequently mixed with ftones, that will, in general, be found at no great depth beneath the furface. And as his water is thus interrupted in its courfe (our by the refiftance of the’ quagey mould, ~ UO- 4 itis alternately feen to rife upwards, run- ning through{mall pores, till it flows for- wards a little on the furface, and then finks downwards through the foil again. Mil- lions of acres of land have I feen, that have lain in this negleéted ftate for ages ro) fest aed which is unfit for any thing elfe except Dd that of rotting the few miferable th: ep LS that are fuffered to{tragele along its fur- face, and might be drained at an expence that‘1s inconceivably{mall. All that is required for draining land in this ftate, is to cut ditches acrofs the flope, nearly in a horizontal direétion, giving them merely fo much dip as to allow the water to run off through them freely. Thefe dgains muft always penetrate, at leaft, one foot or more, in proportion to the quan- flay tity J a a } | tl 4 — . scat is Ss: ay Seg a= aes sake 280 ON DRAINING BOGS tity of intercepted water, into the folid bed, below the foft furface-carth; and this furface-earth feldom exceeds one foot in depth. The earth that. is taken out-of thefe ditches, where it is not meant that it fhould be made to ferve as a fence, ought always to be laid upon the /ower edge of the bank. There, by its weight, it will ferve to confolidate the earth on the lower lip of the ditch, which will make it better refift the entrance of the water, in time of floods, when the ditches may be fuller than ufual. No fooner will fuch a ditch be made, than the water will be{een to trickle into it;- from. the higher fide, through the whole depth of the mould; but it will alfo be feen to flow moft freely imme- diately above the clay.© The lower part of the field, thus deprived of the fources that ufed to fupply a perpetual moifture, will, in a fhort Ae become drier than before; but it will equire a confiderable Jength of time to a ow the ale Wa- ter gradually to drain from it. And: the water that is neareft the en a pafs through the whole of the foft ground & below, Se f2 AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 281 below, before it can make its efcape, it is evident that if the{lope be Jong, it will require a great while to free the lower parts from wet.‘To facilitate this opera- tion, other drains of the fame fart fhould be drawn, nearly parallel to the firft, {mall diftances(from one to two hundred yards) below each other. This will not enly acceierate the operation, but it will alfo enable you to intercept, and thus to difcover, any concealed{prings that may accidentally break forth in any part of thefe neglected wattes, I would here mention, that if in driv- ing your ditch, you fhould accidentally crofs a bed of fand that lies deeper than the bottom of the earth, care muft be taken to obviate this evil, were it not fo apparently neceflary as fcarcely to deferve being mentioned,‘The way of obviating this evil will be gathered from the general tenor of this Blan and need nat ma here particularly fpecitied. When a bed of fand, which ferves as a receptacle of{prings, inftead of terminat- ing abruptly on the furface, as at A, Fig. 45, extends toa confiderable diftance, in ts CO ts ON DRAINING BOGS a direction nearly horizontal, as from ‘a to B, Fig. 26, the citcumftances will vary. In chat cafe, if the hill from whence it iffues, be of confiderable extent, whether of great height or otherwife, the water will flow throughout the createft part of the year with a ftream pretty equable; and if the bed of fand be moderately deep, that water will never be forced{ far upwards among the fand, as to prove hurt- ful to vegetation; and it will form a field of a dry fandy foil. But if fome grounds rife above this to a confiderable height, which are fo formed as to throw the water that runs from them, during violent rains, into places where it can fink freely into the bed of fand, it will then force forward a much larger {tream of water towards A, than at othér times; and, of courfe, that water will rife to a greater height among the fand than before(and the fame phenomena will oc- cur, if the furface-water, during rains, be brought from a great diftance, till it reaches the upper part of the bed of fand, towards B, where it will be abforbed). In that cafe, the under part of the bed of fand, S Ae tn ee A i a AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 233 Lal fand, towards A, where it is not fo deep as above, will become very damp, while that above will remain dry. When this cafe occurs, the cure is, to dig a ditch acrofs the field, at the place where the wet firit begins to fhow itielf during the wetteft feafon, quite through the bed of fand, till ) 3 it penetrates into the clay(as in every cafe of this fort) the open part of which muit be of fuch a fize as to carry off the whole of the w water it inter ote in its courfe. In thefe circumftances, however, it will be well to eiieies in the fir re place, whether the bed of fand be not intarruted at its lower end, by a bed of fome more imper- vious matter, which, by preventing it from flowing off as faft as it comes to it, forces it up towards the furface; for, in that cafe, it will be, in general, much lefs expenfiv to open a ditch through the impervicus {tratum, that interrupts the{tratum of fand in its bed, and running that ditch up the hill, till it comes forward to the fand; and to. make it of a fufficient eas ie which will give free vent to the water, than to drain the field in any other way. This Ge oe—— CS— aE vex oe Se Z Poe ue et a eatin Sc-— a—_ a a3 4 ON DRAINING BOG This is a cafe that ought to be carefully adwerted to; for no{foil that] know more worthlefs than a damp fand. > 1S 1 the cafes above{fpecified, it is very obvious that-no fort of benefit could fibly be derived from the praétice of / Nor, unlefs in the very laft-named pe- culiarity of the cafe, could drains, if car- ried in a direétion up the hill, afford any efficacious: remedy, even if they were made at.a very{mall diftance from each other; for the water would follow its courte down hill between the drains, near L vy Wit iF 199 nh ais ‘The doctrine of wells being fo inti- mately connected with that of draining, { fhall hold myfelf excufed for making {ome remarks on that fubject, where they are incidentally fugeefted by the circum- {tances treated. Let it be obferved, then, that in cafes of the fort now under difcuffion, if the water were fuppoted to have a free iffue at A, were a well funk into the bed of fand, at B;me water could be there permanently found until it penetrated quite through th {tratum H i AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 28 3 {tratum of fand, and went to fome depth into the bed of clay below it. In this cafe, the water could never rife in the well much higher than the line 4 c, Bist 275 becaufe, whenever it rofe as high as the porous fand, it would flow along through it, till it made its efcape below; and if the bed of clay extended backwards under ground a great way, and at a great depth below the furface, fo as to form an abund- ant and never-ceafing ftream under the bed of{and at B, it muft follow, that the well will continue conftantly at the fame height, exatly like a ftone bafon at a fountain, into which a pipe of water con- {tantly flows, fo as to keep it running over. This happened to’ be exactly the cafe with a well of water that was at my door in the neighbourhood of Leith. A bed of fand reached from the furface, to the depth of twelve feet, nearly; the well had been funk about three feet in the clay upon which the fand refted, andthe ftream of water was fo abundant as to keep that part of the well which. was funk in the clay conftantly full, fo that it was {carcely ever known either to fink or to rife ae sie—_ Wht ee 4|; ip me oes * : al 4 iF j ft >) 286 ON DRAINING BOGS rite fix inches above or below its ordinary {tream. But if the ftream that runs below the bed of fand be{mall, and the draught of water from the well, at particular times, be uncommonly large, the furface of the water in the well will of courfé be made to fink: it may be indeed quite drained of water at times, fo as to require to be left for a while till it thall fill again.“This may be occafionally a very ferious incon- venience, and ought to be guarded againit by enlarging the refervoir, which may be effected either by widening the diameter of the well, or by finking it to a greater depth in the clay, or both. Hence, it appears, that za cafes of this fort, a very wide well ought always to be made. Other cafes will come to be noticed in the courfe of this Work, in which the ftraiteft well that can be made, would fupply a quan- tity of water as abundant as thofe that are wider. Nor would the phenomena here de- {cribed be in the leaft varied if the well, in- ftead of being dug in the fand imme- diately below the vegetable mould, as at I B, thould AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 287 B, thould be firft funk through a confi- derable thicknefs of fome other ftrata, as at C. The depth of the well only would be greater, and all other circumftances the fame., Pleafe alfo obferve, that if there be an opening at A, fo as to allow the water to iffue freely from the furface of the bed of clay, the body of fand above it will bea firm folid body; and in this cafe, if houfes are founded upon that fand, with the pre- caution of putting planks of wood, or large flat ftones, as a foundation for the walls, thefe buildings will remain as {table for ages, as if they had been found- edon arock. This is precifely the cafe with town of Leith, the fea-port of Edinburgh, the houfes of which all ftand upon a bed of fand from eight to twelve feet deep; and there are houfes there of more than a hundred years old, the wails of which are now{tanding as true to the plumb, as if they had been built but yef- terday. But if, inftead of having had a free iffue at A, the bed of fand had been there interrupted as at A, Fig. a1, the wa- ter, m this cafe, would have been regorged back acl eee eal Re Sag’ = St a 288| ON DRAINING BOGS back among the funds, and, perhaps, would have formed a bed of that unmanageable body, which architeéts fo much and fo defervedly dread, under the name of guick- fands*; and which, when it comes in the way in digging wells, or other fubterranean operations, prefents obftructions that can be only with great difficulty{urmounted. The obvious cure of this difeafe(quick- fands) when it occurs, is to fearch for the means of opening an outlet by which the water may be fuffered to run off.—This, * An apology may, by fome, be thought neceflary, for here incidentally mentioning quick fands, as a thing that may, perhaps, be thought in fome meafure foreign to the fubject. As I aim at giving clear and difcriminative ideas on every cafe that may occur in the practice of draining, and as this cafe may, and certainly does, fometimes occur; it does not feem to be foreign from the object of this difquifition: and it appears to be the more neceflary at prefent, as I do not know that any fatisfactory explana- tion has ever yet been given to the public, of the cir- cumftances which give rife to the phenomena of quick- fands; and of courfe, no rational method of removing this diftrefsful malady has ever yet been attempted. A very able engineer, fome years ago, from a total inabi- lity of forming clear ideas on this head, made fome very ridiculous eftimates of improvements propofed at Leith, which he never could have done had he been better in- formed on this head. where HOt g ( lawy {0 pu Itfall {0 ryy altere Vor AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 28 where the quickfand is fituated above the level of the fea, or fome adjoining plain, may in many cafes be effected at very little expence, if due attention be beftowed upon the pofition and natural dip of the{(trata, which may be difcovered by various means befides boring. But there are cafes, particularly sda the quickfand is produced by a cavity| . bafon{cooped out of. the entire eaten fo as:to contain water to a confiderable depth, which in fome particular fituatior may be deemed incurable. It deferves alfo to be remarked, as a cir- cumftance necefla rilyaccompanying{pri‘Ings of this kind, that the digging wells in a hi abla diminith the quantity of water that her pofition, as at C or Bb, will not vce flows over the lower furface of the‘clay towards, A; for, as the well, as foon as it is filled, muft overflow, that will intercept not one drop more water than what 1S drawn up out of it. Were it even pole to pump the water from the we I], as faft as it falls into it, fo as never to allow one tie to run over, the cafe would not be much altered, becaufe‘no more water*eould be VoL. I. ay thus 290 ON DRAINING BOGS thus intercepted than that which would have flowed into the mouth of the well in its defcent, fo that every drop that would pats the mouth of the well, on either fide, would flow forward to the lower fituation, as if no well had ever been made. Hence we fee that fprings of this fort can never be intercepted by wells, or fenfibly aitect- ed by other wells placed either higher or lower than them. Wherever this cafe exifts, water will be found nearly in equal abundance, whatever the relative fituation of the well may be in refpect to others; no- thing but an uninterrupted trench, of a fize fufficient to intercept a// the water as it flowed, and to carry it off, could dry up the fprings below it. We may alfo obferve that if the bed of {and be of great extent, if it be at laft fup- ported by a bed of clay or other impervious matter, water will undoubtedly be there found, whatever may be the depth of the bed of fand above it, if a well be dug through it; for, as the water that falls in -_f{howersupon the earth’s furface neceffarily finks through that pervious ftratum, it is foon beyond the reach of the fun, fo as not * 5 to a AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 29% to be evaporated, and muft fink dowyp- wards till it meets with an impervious ftra- tum, fo that there can be no doubt but that under the immeafurable deferts of Lybia, there muft be water in abundance, to fup- ply any number of perfons, were wells there funk to the requifite depth: Nor is that depth perhaps, in many cafes, nearly fo great as has been in general apprehended. { may here alfo be permitted to obferve, that many inftances occur. of ftreams.of water flowing over the furface of beds of fand of the kind here defcribed, without finking into thefe fands. Sometimes the furface-fand is even rendered hurtfully wet by water{tagnating upon it, while{prings of the fort above defcribed, are freely run- ning below. This phenomenon is occafion- ed by a natural procefs, fimilar to that which is now adopted for rendering canals retentive, called pudding. When this hap- pens to be the cafe, the ftagnating furface- water may be let off merely by digging a hole till it penetrates the cruft which has been rendered retentive by means of the natural puddfing procefs, and till it reaches the unmixed fand, through which it will m3 fink 292 ON DRAINING BOGS fink with the greateft facility. I have of- ten, in this manner, opened up a hole, in the{pace of half a minute, in fuch fitua- tions, which has{wallowed up at once a ftream that flowed into it, whic abundant, that, with a n might have turned a mill, and which u YL —-. 1 7 {| SA aN Late a wieght not thus‘iet off, mignt! a rd ren(= r- oe ee bes[= TS ry y~~ ow ve]‘ EXE IVIE- Md GOI. DY. tLO WAIN OE. ONC! tne + a- 4 j‘ at lurface of the ground. vies. ai = 594- arnrvatanteo{tratiin r+ lana SPATS{LAna oe Fepreicnts a liratum OF lana,@tavei, 1LONCe, OF ge NerUIC We matter lvin aire| ay= Pen OENELY DETVIOUS Matter, Viti? between two di 4 ¢ Uo , 1(eet 1 Bhs Seay G9© ie BS ee to at din cat ois ie anc€ i) U7TRIC 7 ae DEGS- OF“Clave. bana Wait, WiniCn UNG, at d );+ 5 i: Se $y ne been tite< t MGEG ENC ATEACUIIN— OF danGdse 1S =; c- none IAF C eC PFHE tar w7N1 ait Lildt Cul€, tile iLCcr WHICH a> 1 PT CVUATC( f x Vi NeNn 27 ean ohe> bi VV oO Z1Uiild sd U Aids iis Viicll It tiladvLLlIvVSe q e 4 4 I yt yt ae ene= awa S LA that Point, VW i DCI In, aS di 14 a NOM, { f . 4 97£1]., { VATA 6 t.= ay ryatt LO ct a@O Liadve! i Sea eral i 3, H1LiCeG Wi1tn . i F* 1 fe 3- Seay ner> Water tiil IC Tire t 5, Ot C OUNCT point - é a TC ¢- rm= T XK WhNEre It Can DE pe@rimiri O 1OW OI. iT 4 x 1 7 L 1=) 3~~~ ‘ mwoner Ne Or 4 ee a': WH oS oe SE ee DEG OF Cla, E21 es BC Wi 1 tuifi=- c ‘“ Cire \ 3 VA—_ SS ————— ee ee aE Rs Bebe POT ies a ok pw a esti AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 293 cient thicknefs and tenacity to refift the whole prefiure of the water pee the fur+ face foil will be in no manner incommoded by it; but if that bed of bth be not very d thick, the water will be{queezed upwards through any fmall cracks that may occur, ay) producing{pout ting ground or bogs on the furface, as defcribed in the Firft Part of this Effay. In a cafe of this fort, it is ver Vy bs ae plain, that no furface-drains could afford 3| Db ex s) ee| any adequate relief—for while the water e is fuffered to remain in the refervoir be- low, no operation performed upon the furface can prevent the water from be- channels it will find for itfelf. In this ing pufhed upwards, through the natural z Beaty SY. cafe, tapping is the only remedy, which, by giving free iffue to the water throug! re) oO gn ‘oy 1 opening made for that ee in the j 2 upper bed of clay, diminithes the altitude of Ya ={ aK 4 ¢ i 4 a a the confined water within, and, of courfe, removes the preffure from below, which, as it was the fole caufe of the malady, a radi cal cure muft thus be effetted.—The only e ct ~ 2% e 4> tha a ays eer ale= Pm~ queition, then, that now requires to be J BS Amrita? Ie= jens Fis en eA= ah LS Pie lecided, is,‘in what manner ought we to | Fe 1° ad Meo. proceed, saa oa e Ee see 204 ON DRAINING BOGS proceed, fo as to effet a cure, at the leaft expence poffible to the employer 2” Let us fuppofe that the whole furface between G andL is hurt by fuperfluous water—but that towards L, the ground be- comes gradually founder, the furface near L being only wet during rainy weather. In this cafe, fhould a ditch be drawn along the face of the hill at L, in a direction nearly horizontal, allowing only a fuffi- cient declivity to carry off the water in it, it is plain that this ditch, unlefs carried to a very great depth, at an enormous expence, could do little or no fervice.—And if it were here tapped, by boring a hole through the bed of clay, as is reprefented by the line at L, the relief it would, afford would be very inconfiderable; as it could, at the ut- moft,. give vent to the water only until it funk to the level L. K, fo that all the parts of the field below L would be little bet- ter than before. Should another ditch be opened in the fame manner, lower down the declivity, as at M, and fhould it be there alfo tapped, the water would then be allowed to fubfide to =" = Pura e ee AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 295 tothe level-line MN; and all the ground between L and M would be effectually drained. In this cafe, we have derived {ome benefit from our operations, though at an expence greatly more than was neceflary; for if the operations at M had been firt made, the drain would have been as com- plete as it now is, though nothing had been done above—All that has been expended on the operations at L, then, would be mo- ney thrown away tono purpofe whatever. Still, however, the ground between M and G is in want of draining, and we mutt now go lower down: Suppofe we thould eo at once to G, and there make a fimilar ditch and tapping; in that cafe, the water would be made to fink to the level G H, and the whole field effectually drained at once. It is fcarcely neceflary for me now to remark, that had this been done at the firft, the field would have been as effectu- ally drained, without any of the operations above. I ftate thefe particulars, here, by way of illuftration, asa caveat which ought not to be negle4ted—for I have often ob- ferved, that men whoz ttempt to drain land, without underftanding the principles of the pl U 4. art, —— < —= Sa Se —== SS— =_ oe| dl od pe : | a) a— | « j j ( Bye)- 2 co tin ee War)-_ 2 ¢ ~~>a e Lan&= : oS OD O om= = a] g i Ss& Ra eo) Y ie i ; See aR ae 9 a sy , ge== oO Ss SO eat ‘ md( j Gary ma TS a on cd oO a 2©:. lal ct hn a 4 ld p) ae d PA= e page(Jp)- Ge:= an)~=— D se a cc ¢ ~~Y S° hse) Ss cs pals) om an}= 5-3 3°° 59 Whe vat ¥.©| i L> tole- C—~— BL, Ge wa GS@) os 7 TS Seta, 8 Sy aes c at 4~ rb i : 4"= ay Oe= ao o a 5 a 8 ge TS 3 a oe 2S er? 2.=: ea© O Bit ed 1)= cd ist om raed OD P= ie ta@= La on A j oo tp ye= eo ae eee eh eee g 29 i Sf P= vee Po ee= ao@- G4 Aiier to B a? fey QD) 1 Qe 4 Co. Healt OG te oo oS he eat oe; go. 22 co 2@ cs bid i oO i 3) Nd By pany ci(} rian©© D) ce O Ciel as(ex co cl G 2(cD) cn QO ,= hat to) yS Gi= 3 pt co ere ghee: ian!> 4 t. PB} a4 4 ms 2)<1) iS or Can et j= 4,:' z | Tt Ct) pa~—t co=+ xed ae> ete 2c 9 ew ze cas AS vas ot |@_ 0 c- Sea Oe en ort€ 4 O}a 0D) 7=) tat a=\e) q i aa J baa Tate> aah ees 4 ts c on wu a( QO sak is ae oO ct— ah Hing te; oO‘) r 1) os_ We+ ed—=| Ls oa) 5& a)~ J. ee 4 ne Oo i EY pasa 4 om%«Dy‘D) a)~~ wo pst in S 1, vo 4 e. if) cw ee=“By el A) a x QD.* fF aly) AS},{cron t ara; ti es cs oa ie} q a—«J f 4= not~~~ vod 5» “= Q© tle a Oi a-@-v= Se Oa eee coer S a i ees ee~ Te to ee ee Da SS: ag a 2 oe ag a ce SF| P s~. e ¢= ¢~‘+ ¥ © a~~ a z c,~~ Sea D) 2 ps w iy es SoS ey tes 1 ED|| m4~ 4 a)+ kK a et Aa s bat i g} oO i ie 2 ete Wage ae ee O SS ar ol Pi ee > Lo IS a San Ve ta a Dae© Le ce Ge P ex 9 z iy a raat be= oO OD—&© for w(oe) fn“f cS CT) q@) VL CD) Se a+ cae ony peat— 1)‘ 0D a oN YY ot 3 eras- m4 tax> re)~— Pal a)\ OA)= a) Ln} alex}; i 2 L AN poi i ar ad\& a) . f a En« sa(ee Z ce. uy : O nD)_~_> ey 4 wK| peed eo eo ad) treed= s road NOY a 4(aE) iia ose od QD wK Pa te VU oN rs et alee Uys 278» 9 a Be espe Boe 2 a® Ma ®) PS™~m£ he- es. P= ¢ yor anlage-& sea liga q z id aE) a< q Hi tale Nae= ae Se anes 3a Ss oe Sa eee oo oe aoe e ‘ au 3 i> a=.: w c a ow ra e ae shea vets a rr 1) Cc oy- i 4 oD ¢ Pa samt a) MM es lens) ee igs) i --= ba- C= b<+ coey= 12— os 2) Cr)‘, jo=© Guiles QD v co i yn. VY OQ ee: OQ, Ag band ca>© te ay Ss) WO w vat bans i 8 2 oN Of an 2= UO co Guy a e= Hl cB) lax, cS cS fi,©= pa a= generis ran CE Ba) oo) f k— 4 3 3 N sence es;@ ce Cae cota Glee j ra q Se ot ot SP a pt a 3 ee=\ ) ve\< oe- a“4 a O C~ ees Ze Logie eas) a tS Or ae a== ayy ao aL on Be) or ws oe 2} rene a) mo ca es) 4 tes a OA| a Ore) or eee orale Bae Le aac<1 os~ onc=:=H UR Pant ¥| ; q we+ NS ee he Ned ww 1>| eal oO(i) Cc 3 eS ow@) 2} SI pkey+ 7~—— t) C13| 3 bebe}=e 3 lean v0 ce= aA : Lg- Y in raed af oo Oo SD) borne NA es)_— CS = ea 2 Ke Spee\ “1 sy Sy= Peay} Oo Bs Sone Be i oO= ee~ me) aes ry:= 4 SO] [at 9)= tad \ i || \ | J y —oe = ec ai nes aT AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 297 into the ditch only by means of tapping there.the opening of a deep ditch, in this fituation, may be declared nugatory—and wherever a ditch in that fituation can prove radically ufeful in draining the lower grounds, there tapping can prove of little or no fervice whatever. Another economical confideration, that ought never to be loft fight of, is, that in the mode of draining’ by means of tay ditches of a great es can never be re- quired, fo that if deep ditc hes are ever made Lali w oe this mode of draining is adopted, it muft be accounted a mere uw/ele/s expen- diture 7 money.“Vhe only ufe of f the drain, where pais is beneficial, is not to zm- tercept, but merely to carry off the water.— ind if the drain be of a fize juft fufficient to carry off all the water that rifes through 1 tap-holes, nothing more can be 1 required. In general, a ditch of two feet deep will effed& this purpofe as well as if it were twenty— but the expence of making it will be very different—As there are men, however, who value things merely in proportion to the money thefe things coft them—it de- ferves the confideration os practical drainers, whether 298 ON DRAINING BOGS ‘whether it would be prudent in them, to lay afide fapenate and f{tupendous opera- tions, which often ftrike the imagination of men, and thus make the improvements which feemto require thisexpen{ive appara- tus be attended to, when trifling operations, though equally efficacious, would be neg le€ted and defpifed? Let Noblemen, and others of high rank, then, be indulged in thefe expenfive and fhowy operations— the country is benefitted by them—But if ever practical farmers fhould engage in undertakings of A fort, it is proper they fhould advert to the article exp: ence, as of the firft i importanee. In all cafes of this fort, now under con- fideration, where the current of water tha¢ flows in the pervious ftratum is not very great, and ee that ftratum continues ei ais in fize to the bottom, the drainage will be tl without interruption, and vu completely effected, by tapping in the Hweff part of the field only.—But where the us febarna is diminifhed confiderably, as at A B(Fig. 28) or, what comes to the fame thing, where it meets depth of the pervio vith cafual though not total interru ptions-- and AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 299 and if the current of water fhould be con- fiderable, it may happen that a fmall part of the water only(viz. lefs than flows into this refervoir from above) can. reach the point A, and as no more water than reaches that point can be made to rife through the holes there made, it muft in this cafe happen, that the drainage will not be completely effected by the opening at A. In that cafe, after trial has been made, and time allowed to fee whether the drain- age is complete or not—fhould it then be found neceflary, it will be proper to go higher up, as to C, and there open fome freth taps; and fhould that be{till found in- adequate for the purpofe intended, go ftill higher, to D, and fo on, higher and higher, till it be finifhed. In cafes of this fort(which are rare) it will be proper always to begin at the lower extremity—and if water rifes at all where tapped, be fure to ma ake the tappings fufh- ciently numerous as to allow the whole of the water that comes to the place they are made to iffue freely, You will eafily know when thefe openings are fufficient for the purpofe-—-for, in that cafe, after a fhort a es—_— t q ¢ \ { AN DP~ 5>. 1 Dp 4 Na ye t Dp~ rnoY oF Ok DRAT? ING BOGS 8] 1 yu 1 5 ie 1,: yy A {hort while, the water will not rufh up th"17=a ra ¢ Bee oh| 1 oe{ WISh Yay X7q ean o 74~ 1a as+ a aa} Irough them with great violence, but wil] Bey|< Bet es 55 f flow Ol gen tly, without any appearance Oi bo ili Ne») If tl Af“ ca| 9(‘S~f£ Be pe with) oiling up.—tiH that appearance of boiling ly — >> alee does not fubfide, it is a fure indication that aa 36 ae 1- y, 7> O“= anter a greater number of tap-holes are wanted— me et a a and they ought to be made.' IF this be cert a© Bei BBS pee PPR A hte Cc Tet= 5, atic frit done, and you find that even in the wet-, rat oo i Re pet>“7. 1 ine teit ieafon, the water rifes gently through oug —— iY sf the tap} A)| ae TOI? ma-}= a YAN Er| iL TTOl AL ap-Noles, you indy tnen, in Seneral, be iV fatishled that sy r' we wenistiea that’ no opening above will’ be we i« os Peak aes Pipe pas ey eae 3 ve wanted; but in order that no doubt may re- wt Rye 1es rat Het i=\ main on this head, you may eafily fatisfy al PAT ga Ws Paes 2:: Bs eS yourfelf, 4 rou may. afc rument, al inf{t ex pea Y DOIN NR ONM|Z iV Vi anne 2hicdiiiivtii K i> a VY - NENC! tm Y aL fi1re CO! 10;.\ PCACALE WU 19 I roceed roceed, pe 5) iyla} q abATICE pe ANr a i 1 DT pF fernal 2 90) c RY se ii ot=Ven wl CEPI ll to J We! YL \ Cllr WV~ Lil OC OUS ai cre anom oral Pa | i W 4 1 i + } a) 7 nat Liiadt 4 a ae co) Saat cD) eat > > ‘ etn| EH ~<= Liv AVY ne XDEC i ) ae a ( 1UMEratiol |:€n i) af Ais 1 1 ! 1d a £cL f L pat fqn ~ aon Vay Uchive are i talUuUo icular ¢ comp Ul 1 4 «4 { } V1 at 1 p 1 302-ON DRAINING BOGS draining would be much more than could be repaid by the fubjeGt. But thefe bear fuch a{mall proportion to the fields that could be drained with profit, as{carcely to deferve to be named in a treatife which relates to practical cafes alone. I have already mentioned fome cafes that relate to digging for wells. The fol- lowing cafes are of a different cla: Probably, fome of my readers may re- colleét having read in the Philofophical Tranfaétions, fome years ago, an account of the phenomena that occurred in finking a well at Sheernefs, near the mouth of the river Thames; fome of which pheno- mena were deemed, by many perfons, ra- ther of a wonderful kind. T hey were as follows: That fort is placed upon a neck of land, very little elevated above the fur- face of the fea. In digging the well, they pafied through a bed of folid clay, to the depth of fathoms, without finding wa- ter of any kind; but at that depth, they found a{pring of /a/t water; which, not being irrefiftibly abundant, they found themfelves enabled to wall it out.. This being done, they then funk, once more, through AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. KW (@) wo through the fame bed of clay, for fathoms more. Here they found anothe: {pring of /a/t water, as before; Fon having walled out alfo, they continued to dig through the fame bed of clay, for 300 feet more; at the bottom of which they found a bed of gravel, from which iffued a copious ftream of frefh water, which foon filled the well within five feet of the top, at which heigl ht nearly it has remained ever fince. Wonderful as this may feem, at firft fight, to fome perfons; it will appear, in YL no reipect, inexplicable to thofe who have adverted to the phenomena that eccur in the tapping for{prings, fo fully oe . 1:: a So eee ee in the foregoing parts OL this iiilay. eet 5 HSS 2.03 reprefeut t the fort; B the fea; CDE a bed of folid c ae out beneath the fea, and ba mete into the 1 1 ae(eee loi aye B(LtH Fe land to an indéfinite diftance. FGH re- AEetantie oe wid Boner ap apa| ieee«beeen: preients 2 ltratum ofr gravel, or other per- > Cai““ 2; TIAIIE yattar= Ba BS ae ae teeny ee Dn a ean vious matter 2 4\ INS up ON Anorner DEGI-OF clay, IKL. Under thefe circumftances, the ftratum FGH, having no opet ang alt the lower end, muft form a refervoir of water, which muft rife upwards towards et 9 Lily a-— ae ae eee eae wane~ SS eas ee=—— ws 7 pr em Pie am eo i. i] 4» = . est me wey od aes x g& mA~>| ts) Te) S cot a eo- | ¢€ vis A CD)‘ q Q cs=a @ 4 te Sen e ay 6 P oars eget ate oO. ATS] om= ee 49)© q oe' cS piles CF) Hee SS)= C an ES, 5‘a ce°<@) SS) c‘ tod re rey~ Actes=" CS a) aed 4= ras} 7 eet fn b la{ A ¢‘(90 fides ib eo) 0) a ae =>) DZD& a) aged a mo 5 a ae ON a)= a) 3 aol QO): a iS ON ae

feveral circumftances that contribute te render lime-cement more or lefs perfect. {n doing this, I have had occafion to ex- plain the nature of many of thofe calca- careous matters which have been generally ufed as a manure, which will confider- ably fhorten our labour in what remains of this Effay. If I have reprehended, with fome de- gree of afperity, thofe who, either through ignoranee, or a wilful intention to de- ceive, have endeavoured, by{pecious pre- texts, to miflead the ignorant, ¥ hope the candid will be rather ready to afcribe this to a defire of rectifying thofe abufes that might have been introduced by their means, than to any other motive.—I have never found fault, but where it was necef- {ary to correct*. I now * Before I quit this branch of our fubjeét, I may be allowed to remark, that although the difcoveries of Modern Philofophers have enabled us to account for fome of the phenomna relating to quick lime as a ce- : ment a ASA CEMENT. 487 I now go.on to confider calcareous mat- ters aS 2 manure. ment, that were altogether inexplicable to the Ancients, yet here, as in almoft every branch of natural know- ledge, we are(till far from having attained that fummit of perfection which fome may, perhaps too haftily, be difpofed to imagine.-—In many refpects, we have as yet been juit able to penetrate the myfterious veil of Nature, fo far, as to Jet us know that much remains to be dif- covered, of which we have now only a very faint idea. —The following hints will illuftrate my meaning, and deferve the confideration of Chemical Philofophers 5 There is little reafon to doubt, that fint is nothing elfe than calcareous matter combined with fome fub-’ ftance that has hitherto eluded the knowledge of Chymifts. It is likewife highly probable, that the native ehry- {talline concretion called guartz, by Naturallifts, is only another modification of the fame calcareous matter, combined with fome other fubftances that prevents the 2étion of acids upon it, and gives it other fenfible qua- lities very different from calcareous fubftances in their ordinary ftate. There is even fome reafon to fufpect, that all the other varieties of chry/talline earths, including fand of every denomination, are other modifications of the fame calca- careous matter. 7 Even argillaceous earths(clays) however different in appearance and natural qualities, in their ordinary flate,_ afford evident marks of the fame original. ut in what manner it comes to be fo differently dif- guifed“n thefe feveral bodies;—what are their feveral li4 component Li, Stent St So 488 OF QUICK-LIME,&. Component parts,—how they may be analyfed and re. compounded, are fecret: of Natu;» referved for the dif- Covery of future ages: And, till thefe ele are difcovered, it is probable, we will never beable to account for the mans her in which the moft perfec cement may be fometimes produced, PART PAR YT SEG ON D: (es= F 7H) iSO ia WU| Of QuicKk-Limeg, and other Ca RQ LVAaAN1ICG Wail ad bOCOUS Subftances, as a Manure. N the Firft Part of this Effay, I have as de | been able to give, as[ hope, a telerably | fatisfaciory account of the rationale of the | operation‘of lime as a cement;—and it is much to be wi ae ed, that I could purfue |, the fame method in the inveftigation of this fubftance as a@ manure. But in this re- {pect, I have as yet been able to difco- ver no clue that could, with fafety, be truft- ed for leading through the aveie laby- rinth that lies before us; on which ac- count, I willingly fhun the arduous under- taking. It would be eafy for me here to amufe the Reader with a critical analyfis of the {everal theories that have been invented by ingenious men, to account for the manner in which lime operates as a manure. It fi i) ] MN i ————= eo aw os— iets eae recess Se wouid SL Sas ‘ee: ie —, es ae Pe Te 490 OF QUICK-LIME would be no difficult manner to demon- ftrate the defects of their feveral fy{tems; and I might, with great facility, make an idle difplay of apparent fuperiority, by ri- diculing their feveral hypothefes. But as fF could not fubftitute any thing in their ftead, that would be more fatisfatory to the fenfible Reader, I choofe to wave this un- gracious difcuffion; and thall content my- felf with enumerating a few /fac?/s concern- ing the ufe of calcareous fubftances asa manure, that it much imports the practical farmer fully to underftand, See The firft idea that occurs in refleting on this fubject, is, that all fub{ftances in which calcareous matter is contained, have been fuccefsfully employed as a manure, at dif- ferent times, and in different places. Thus—/ime,—mar! of all forts,—chalk, —lime-ftone-gravel,—fbelly fand, or pure fbells of every denomination, have all been employed as manures, with the greatelt fuccefs. $2, And as all thefe, excepting lime, always contain the calcareous matter in its md ftate, See eS pee sa ee= AS’ ASMANUR E. 491 ftate, we are led to conclude, that they operate on the foil merely as calcareous, and not as faline fubftances. Lime, indeed, is fometimes applied to the foil in its cauffie ftate, as it comes frefh from being flaked, but more commonly at fome confiderable diftance of time after it has been burnt. However, as burning is the only mode ufually employed for re- ducing lime-ftone to powder, and thus preparing it fora manure, the opinion in general prevails, that calcination is as ne~ ceflary for rendering lime capable of be- coming a manure, as for making it fit to be employed as a cement. It is, however, of importance to the prac- tical farmer, to be informed that this is not the cafe.—Mr. Du-Hamel, was the firft, who, from an accidental experiment, was led to believe that powdered lime-fione was a manure equally efficacious with /ime itfelf. He recorded the experiment as a great difcovery. Having had occafion to drefs a marble chimney-piece, for repairing one of his country-houfes, the mafon chofe a lawn near a Sans a #“) N ca ¥ aren) ty nd VB) o } Ped teat 3 cB) ae> nel Said Peay t 2>‘e as ae ot a GO Re Oe ; Oo(caer@.© aD a5 EN“ BES Fs ee Mo a Bec OO! oo. 2 8 0 BS A amae— oi sme ay, SO eee Gn Cen Ca is 7)= eet be es iS) ie} ci a S&S MQ—— cod mea)© pred ies a e) et fea QO eee~~ O Es ee ia[oan f 2 a w se ce Le} ae Ss Ce= ec rN a f co Scar rs) co stead cS OI a)- Ss is} a DY >, Nei ges a ats Oe. es Bees oO MM om foc fe eS 3@ Oo eh ah per pike aio eetem pI ct 5 pe ee) (cms tt&) we q) qe}= ci Sd>~ c Re qo fe aot RS ie. PE ea ae(@ oe i.) oO ai© ie)=(cD) ens s O“4 SS Py Se whend= a 2) i) Sed oO a a a d a Sy 4 S co LE CE AT Cal iD) Y 2 ex=- oO Sas La QQ j am Sy 4 i oe oe og eee Oe CG 6H So: “4- 3 U= O.) ct |‘ ca Sy Sea, a Oo se ay G a. Y{ q GD et Se>“< ct ms, woe wl\@| ci a; ; Ned sf et> q M4©(ry ee rN oO=~. eel O ns rb) Ww CD) or“s : a ae| So:t SB See Fast ee oe } Ce)~ 2 1B)— ae) co= ein aay ye ¢ ee Gis nd Ca ail va of cw co ca>= mod O cc) O Cre fi% a ee| fet Ch aey Nett A,— cD) Oo". G og a4 S== i| ia Pe 4 it c3 pe AG oircet 4 So rd cS nd ci eo oe SN iI en B)= ce} co ae) ce) rein! w 4 Fi Late|(S) room, P nD) soe QS aad~~ fem;— re no me t am»“ 4°€ cu> res Vet te a) cd eS e Nop é 2 | gy a ee oe a a oH a gs oe na da } a s 3 aa a a aed q~-= CY qe) eS oe oe So Se Se Gy ae a(OO Bete a ss an} a) N. a= wonky 4 us 4= Pa) ae a i | pot_ don rs€ me S me z« S) es me= ae ded pan eT za- pa 2) Lott ie@ w eR t Vv cc \« Sie rs oe Smee. Fg OG an OU ear ae eng aS:| te 5G co 1} iy ad>“ ot Ne th a fly OO-. ra) ah OQ wa S UO oo mam S-O UY o oat te oS So pag arene == am he om pry GQ) lon) ct sal pase HEY cx SU i bi MS ed—)~“_— S Bagh epee oe Seen acy= Ww Dine ti® OY S ‘\ ny| 7 4 ¢= La= w~ a) Gel co od co ede Y past Ca ae> 4 j a ak WD aR pl SRY i a) pte Ge;"as sed i m4 cs rae){ * ee a rs 2 fe>->== t rig teat aD| A= 5 ed saan j Pes Oo co bn Spee rit an>) 4 A rey) Set oO on GO eee, ae ae he G Gs ey OP VY UV we we 62 i’ _ Pa“~~ ad) a, a ee vu(i ee aon g& O'S O Ow ik sa(8 MA ye oe Gl lee Be ae oO OO cS=| SY Co eet cw) 1) O- re cs h Ww_ Ca} ot ors aad 2| oN q tae) ay Lt=) 4 o PAX CO)= ¢ pS con)> ad oS 600! a 1 eS On ay eer fF O Ss G'S"e Ss 2 re ore, ae a a ee CO a agi). os QO, ww© Ad S ey tm Que OL, Oe Ot ta aes wa es O OC oo Gud 4 ea) fy 3 C) t ), C=~ YY e) Qs fe Dy te os ee ce S©\= oO a pet Ms aiiaee OR f RETR i € Cc 2 a c b } 2 a) ne| 0 4 i i Ss i 5 q na abe S ie By en ilme a) ~ 1 4a Vihar + cn V \ SN ey c] + a> C ¢ ‘s ¢ 1 Se the fi al upo! SAeet -( ANTTh Carti Ly wwe Ww i jo a mea ner £440 dade a co tened ann LLLOULIL aan r LF £ 4e and, o1 & pa oe *s f? 17-772 fe Ge ra 7° 47972 VEhlile th L V 11 W 494 OF QUICK-LIME=| any effet at all as /ime, as a faline fubftance, —it muft only be at the very jirft, when it is applied; and it muft act ever afterwards merely as powdered lime-ftone. But it is well known, that lime produces fearcely any fenfible effect as a manure at the beginning. Even the firft year after it is applied to the foil, its effects are incon- fiderable, in comparifon of what it produces in the fecond and fucceeding years. From whence we muft conclude, that it operates upon the foil, merely as a mz/d calcareous earth; and that its calcination is of no farther utility in preparing it for manure, than as a cheap and efficacious method of reducing the lime-ftone to a fine powder. § 4. It is of importance, that thefe fats fhould be generally known; becaufe it may fome- times happen, that good lime-ftone{hall be found in places where fuel could not be obtained for burning it; in which cafe, {uch lime-ftone could be of no ufe to the farmer, if calcination were abfolutely ne- ‘ ceflary. But, feeing this is not the cafe, lime-ftone, even in thefe fituations, may be converted into a moft beneficial manure, 1x AS‘A MANURE. AQS5 if a ftream of water can be commanded, fufficient for driving a mill, for reducing the{tone to powder. I have feen the model of a mill that had been invented for that purpofe, which was conftructed on the fame principles with an ordinary gun-powder mill.—lIt had fe- veral large mafly ftampers, compofed of huge blocks of caft-iron, that were fuc- ceffively lifted up and let fall by a wheel that catched their handles, and, after a proper time, flipped them again as it re- volved round its axis.—’Thefe ftampers fell with great force upon the lime-ftone, that had been previoufly broken into pieces of a moderate fize, and placed in a ftrong trough formed for that purpofe.—Through this trough, a fmall ftream of water was conveyed, which wafhed away with it, the {mall pieces of lime-ftone, as they were fucceflively reduced to powder by the ftampers. This ftream of water was re- ceived into a large refervoir, in which it was allowed to ftagnate, and depofit, as a fediment, the lime-ftone powder it brought along with it; the pure water flowing gently EL Ny< ae nso ema ae a a 196 OF QUICK-LIME gently over a part of the brim, which was_ made lower for that pur rpofe. When the refervoir was-nearly fall of this fine powder, the work was ftopped; the water was drawn off from the. refer- ie 1 Sag eae tee y(Ss“ a ate ige oir, by taking out fome plugs left for that : 2 Vv es se a Ge aw& ee xa| 1+h purpofe, at different heights, till all that was clear had run off: the powdered ftone was afterwards thrown out to the bank, and allowed to dry fufficiently for ufe. I have heard that a mill, upon thefe prin- Read ae rae 2 tet ar at$4 a Eat ciples, was erected by the Honourable the ret rd bd-- Truftees for managing the forfeited eftates Fan e a ot 5 z ea} Coa s in Scotland, and that a good deal of lime- We ey ee ee {tone was pounded with it.- But, as it was little foirit for improvements in agriculture; —as there was no. public demand for the manure, after the experiment was fuffi- ciently tried to fhow that it pent be prac- tifed with advantage in other places, the mill was fuffered to lhe unemp Ge‘ § 5.: But although this may be confidered as a moit valuable difcovery for thofe who ! ood lime-quarry fo fituated as not bet Ses si AS A MANURE. Be not to be within the reach of any kind of fuel for burning lime-ftone s—yet, to fuch as can obtain fuel ata moderate expence, there can be no doubt but that burning is the eafieft and moft efficacious mode of reducing lime-ftone to powder that ever was invented, and therefore ought always to be adopted where neceffity does not pre- vent it. Reducing lime-ftone to powder by cal- ination, is attended with this farther ad- vantage to the farmer, that it confiderably diminifhes his expence of carrlage.—Pure lime-ftone lofes about two-thirds of its weight by being thoroughly burned; fo that the man who is obliged to drive this manure from a great diftance, will find a very confiderable faving by driving it in the flate of /hells.—But if it wer to a powder by mechanical triture, he could notbe benefitted by this circumftance. Many perfons choofe to drive lime-{tone from a confiderable diftance, and burn it at home: But it is obvious they then fub- ject themfelves to a very heavy charge in carriage, which would: be avoided by an oppolite conduct.—This, therefore, ought Vou. L Kk never q Ma, pe% A— es ee — = + ——— = Sp Sa 2 a ‘> ram ae wS 5 SE 3— gos, OF QUICK-LIME never to be practifed but where other cir- cumftances may counterbalance this» un- favourable one. § 6. But as lime-ftone is often, in its native ftate, mixed with fand in various propor- tions;—and as fand lofes nothing of its: weight by calcination, it muft happen, that thofe kinds of lime-ftone which con-: tain the largeft proportion of fand, will lofe leaft in calcination, and of courfe afford the. weightieft lime-fhells. Hence it is obvious, that thofe who are under the neceflity of driving lime from agreat diftance, ought to be particularly careful to make choice of a kind of lime- ftone as free from fand as poffible, and to drive it in the ftate of /hells; as they will thus obtain an equal quantity of manure, at the leaft expence of carriage that is pof- fible; and the lighteft fhells ought, of courfe, to be always preferred. § 7- When lime is flaked, that which con- tains moft fand fa//s moft quickly, and abforbs the fmalleft proportion of water.— What is pure, requires a very large propor- tion OO= AS A MANURE. 499 tion of water, arid is much longer before it begins to fall. Hence it happens, that thofe who drive fandy lime-fhells in open carriages, mutt be very careful to guard again{t rain; be- caufe a heavy fhower would make the whole fall, and generate fuch a heat as to be in danger of fetting the carts on fire; whereas pure lime-fhells are in no danger of being damaged by that circumftance.—I have feen a cart loaded with fuch thells, which had been expofed to a continued fhower of rain, as violent as is ever known in this country, for more than three hours, and feemed hardly to be affected by it in the{malleft degree. I ought to obferve, however, that my experiments were con- fined to only one kind of pure lime, fo that it is not from hence demonttrated, that all kinds of pure lime will be poffefied of the fame qualities. § 8. Lime-fhells formed from the pureft lime- ftone, require more than their own weight Kk 2 of EE OTT ae Se ae nn caine=——— oa a a oes—. AP a=a Se a ree I roo OF QUICK-LIME’ of water to flake them properly*;—whereas fome kinds of lime-fhells that contain much fand, do not require above one-fourth part of that quantity. Hence it is much worfe economy in thot who have pure lime-thells, to flake and carry them home in the ftate of powdered _lime, than it is in thofe who have only a fandy kind of lime-fhells. § 9. Tt is even; on fome occafions, more ad- vifable for thofe who have very fandy lime, to drive it in the ftate of powdered lime, than in that of /hells: For, as it is danger- ous to give that kind of limé-{tone too much heat, left it fhould be vitrified, thofe who burn it can never be certain that the whole of the ftone will fall to powder when water is added, till they have actually tried its nor do they think it a greatlois if fome part of it fhould be imperfectly burned, as it re- quires much_lefs fuel on a future occafion *[ have found, by experiment, that pure lime-fhells cannot be flaked with lefs than about one-fourth more than their own weight of water. When flaked in the ordinary. way, the fame lime-fhells took more than double their weight of water. than = Sit od. ae AS A MANURE.© 501 than frefh lime-ftone; and therefore they much rather choofe to err on this, than on the oppofite extreme. But, fhould any one attempt to drive this poor fort of lime in the ftate of /hell/s, he would be in danger of carrying home many ftones that would never fa//, which would more than counterbalance the benefit he would detive from the want of the{mall quantity of water that is required to flake it. On thefe accounts, it may be admitted, as a general rule, that thofe who can have accefs to lime-{tone which is free of fand, will fave a great dea/ in the carriage of it, by driving it in the ftate of /hells;—and that, on the contrary, it will be moft econo- mical in thofe who can only get lime of a very fandy quality, to drive it in the flate of powdered lime. From hence it follows, that the practice which now prevails, of carrying fhell-lime by water from one part of the country to another, is only an imaginary faving, ob- tained at a very high rifque, to thofe who drive fhells of a fandy quality;—but a real and unequivocal advantage, of very high im- Kk’ portance png Se SSS soz OF QUICK-LIME portance to the community at large, if thefe feells are obtained from a pure lime-ftone. Thefe obfervations relate only to the faving of carriage to the farmer—an article of capital importance to him.—It is proper now to take notice of fome other particulars that may equally affe@& him in this way, as well as in. the application of the lime to his ground. 3 § 1a. A vague opinion, in general, prevails in every part of the country, that one fort of lime may be more valuable than another: —but it does not appear that farmers have hitherto had almoft any rule to direct them in the choice of different forts of lime; fome efteeming one fort /tronge/t, as they term it, and fome valuing another fort more highly, without being able to affign any. fatisfactory reafon for the preference they give, in either cafe. Tt us* of: importance, that this matter fhould be elucidated. Although it does not always happen, yet, in many parts of the country, the real na- ture of lime is fo little underftood, that the weightieft lime“is preferred, as a manure, to that AS A MANURE. 503 that which is lighter; becaufe it is imagined the firft has more /ub/tance, and will there- fore produce a more powerful effect upon ground, than the fineft and lighteft lime. But, there feems to be no reafon to think, there is any difference in the{pe- cific gravity of different parcels of pure calcareous matter, when fully calcined; therefore, if there is any difference in the weight of various forts of lime, it muft arife entirely from a variation in the quantity or gravity of fome extraneous matter that is mixed with the lime. And as fand is almoft the only extra- neous body that is ever found in lime- {tone, and is always of much greater f{pe- cific gravity than pure quick-lime,—it fel- lows, that the weighty lime only owes its {uperior gravity to a larger proportion of fand that is mixed with it. But /and is of no value as a manure; fo that he who voluntarily purchafes this kind of lime, in preference to the other, is guilty of a great degree of folly; which will be the greater, if he has likewife to drive it from a confiderable diftance.—It would be better for him, if he is determined to ufe Kk4 nothing ee Descente saa ar é a 504. OF FOMAC KE: VIME nothing but weighty lime, to buy fuch as is pure, if it can be obtained, and mix it with fand after he has got it home, fo as to give it the gravity required. Some might laugh at this, as a proof of his folly—and juftly:—But, it is,{urely, lefs foolith in hirn to do this, than to pay money for the fand which he would thus obtain for nothing, and drive it from a diftance, when he might have it at his door.‘This practice would alfo be atended with the farther advantage of enabling him to know exactly, what quan- tity of real lime he applied to his ground, as he would not be in danger of confidering the fand asa part of it. Sige Thofe who have accefs to only one fort of lime-ftone, muft be contented with it, whatever may be its quality. But fuch as have an opportunity of choofing, may be benefitted by the following obfervations: Pure lime-ftone, when fully calcined and flaked, is reduced to a fine impalpable be 4 powder, that feels foft between the fingers, without the{mallet tendency to erittinefs. —Such lime as contains fand, is never fo Ane nor fo foft, but feels gritty between the fingers, _- asa or SR a i RT apt TT ie AS A-MAIN U RIE: gos fingers, and is more or lefs fo as the fand is coarfer or finer, or in greater or fmaller proportions.| The lime from pure lime-ftone, is al- ways of a bright white, when perfeCtly cal- cined, without a tendency to any colour.— When it has any colour, it proceeds from the fand, or other uncalcareous matters in its compofition.— There are, however, fome forts of fand, that are of fuch a pure whitenefs, as not to debafe the colour of the lime in the fmallet degree; but thefe are rare:—<\nd there are fome matters that alter the colour of the lime a good deal, without debafing its quality in any con- fiderable degree; but thefe are ftill more rare than the former. Hence it follows, that the beft lime for the purpofe of the farmer, is that which is lighteft, fofteft to the touch*, and whiteft. -—-The more they deviate from either of * Softnefs to the touch is not an unequivocal proof of the purity of lime. I have feen one kind of lime, that contained a large proportion of an uncalcareous impal- pable powder, that was as foft to the touch as the pureft lime; but this was a fingular exception to a rule that is very general. thefe o ne Ee wud 3 a. oe"eg 4 | + i 4 € ing eee mm 506 OF QUICK-LIME thefe tefts of purity, the worfe they are for him.- S28 That the farmer may have under his eye, at one time, the feveral criteria of the purity of lime, that have been enumerated in different places of this Eflay, I choofe to mention them here all at once.—lIf he is attentive to mark thefe peculiarities, he needs be very little folicitous about examin- ing the qualities of his lime, by any more minute or troublefome trials.—They are as under: If the lime-ftone lofes much of its weight in calcination, and the Jime-fhells are ex- tremely light;—if the fhelis require a very large proportion of water to flake them fully;—if it is long before they begin to fall;—if the lime-ftone is not apt to ruxz (or be vitrified) in the operation of burn- ing;—if it falls entirely when it gets a fuf- ficient quantity of water, after it has been properly calcined;—if it{wells very much in flaking, and if the lime is light, fine to the touch, and of a pure white; he may, be fatisfied, that it is extremely good, and may | ule ——- a EN te TE EY OES OLE: o Pook MANURE. 509 ufe it in preference to any other lime that is inferior to it in any of thefe refpeGs, Thefe rules are perfe@ly fufficient to decide as to the comparitive jvalue of any two kinds of lime that may be oppofed to one another, and may be relied upon as fuf- ficiently accurate for the ordinary purpofes of the farmers. Eee But fuch as may difcover a new quarry of lime-ftone, and who with to afcertain with certainty its real value, before they put themfelves to any expence about it, will do well to employ the following more accurate, and in that cafe, more eafy ana- lytis. As all calcareous matters are capable of being diffolved in acids—and as no other earthy matter can be diffolved in them— it follows, that if a fufficient quantity of acid is poured upon anybody that contains calcareous matter, this matter will be quickly diffolved, while the others are left behind; and the proportions of each may be accurately afcertained. To try the exact value of any kind of lime-ftone, or other calcareous matter,— take a sass sihaaieeatiiecelppilaig=a a a an _— Se ee Pe a a= 08 OF OVIGK-LIME take a quantity of aquafortis*, or f{pirit of falt+};- and having prepared them as in the margin t, put them into a glafs or earthen vefiel;—add to that, by little and little, * Nitrous acid,+ Muriatic acid, { All the mineral acids effervefce and unite with cal- careous earths. But as the vitriolic acid({pirit or oil of vitriol) does not diffélve the calcareous matter, but forms a new concrete, that ftil] retains its folid{late, it is not fit for this experiment, And as it fometimes happens, that a little vitriolic acid is mixed with either the nitrous or muriatic acids, it be- comes neceflary to be certain that this is not the cafe, before they are employed in this experiment, The eafieft way of trying if thefé acids are free from the vitriolic, is to put a little chalk into them before you employ them. If the acid js pure, the chalk will diflolve very readily; but Df? will fall to the bottom, in the form of a pure white not, lome, part of the chalk fediment.—-When this is the cafe, add fmall bits of PP)(alee eis;= Fleer Ky by ttle and ittle, till no more of that white fedi- ment es Cae which, the acid may be kept for if ie. ee acid is fo ftrong as to havea flight brown, or reddifh appearance, it ought to be diluted with WAIL, till it affumes a greenith look.— As it is bought in the fhops, fox the ufe of ayers,&c. it is ufu- ally weak enough., Sf the muriatic acid is fo ff rong: as to have a bright yellow colour, or emits fumes when the bottle is open- ed, it ought to be diluted, by adding water, till it af fumes ee————~ ———o. ~ | uo? A MEAN UPR 569 little, a known quantity of the matter you mean to examine, which had been previ- oufly dried, and reduced to powder. After each addition, fuffer the violent effervefcence or ebullition that will enfue to abate before more is added. When the whole of the powder is put to the acid, and the efferve- {cence entirely fubfided, ftir it about feveral times with a piece of tobacco-pipe, and 2 low it to remain for fome time, that the Lik acid may act upon every oes of the matter, and thoroughly diffolve it. And‘to be certain that there has not been too little acid, put a few a drops of freth acid folution, which will excite a pe efferve- {cence if the whole is not When no change is produced by this addi- tion, it 1s a certain proof that the whole of the calcareous matter is alread dy diffolved. Take then a piece of fittering paper, tho- roughly dry, the weight of which_ alfo 1 known—fold it properly, and put it i = es 8) fumes almoft a colourlefs tra nfparency,. with a very faint Samad| tinge of yellow, When they are thus prepared, either. of thefe acids may be ufed indifcrim nately for this experiment, as they are equally proper. : e Oyals s© EL ETO a ees c Fase te so OF OGUICK-LIME glafs funnel—pour the whole of the folu« tion, with the matter that may have fub- fided, into the funnel, and allow it to filtre through the paper flowly.—When the fluid part has thus drained off, fill up the filtre again with pure water, to wath off the whole of the faline parts from the refiduum*, Add water, in this manner, till it comes off without any faline tafte,— fuffer it then to drop off entirely,—dry it thoroughly.—and weigh the paper, with its contents.—The difference between _ which, and what the powder and paper were at the beginning, is the whole weight of the calcareous matter; fo that its pro- portion to the whole mafs is perfetly af- certained. In this manner I have examined a great many different kinds of lime-ftone, and have found them vary in all degrees of purity, from fuch as were entirely fo- Tuble in acids, as fugar or falt is in water; to cthers that contained only one-twelfth of their weight of foluble matter, and eleven-tweliths of fand——The ordinary * The matter that remains undiffolved. kinds —————————————— aE AS A-MAN UR BE: sit kinds of lime-ftone contain from one-third to two-thirds of their weight of fand.— Hard chalk is ufually a pure calcareous earth, foluble in acids; and fome forts of lime-ftone may be met with that are equally pure, but thefe are rare. The only extenfive lime-quarries of fuch a pure lime-ftone, that I have met with, are at Sunderland, in the county of Durham, where there are feveral quarries of exceed- ingly fine lime-ftone, the beft of which belonged, in the year 1777, to Mr. James Galley, of that place. There are fome quarries farther up the river Wear, the {tone of which is of a much inferior quality. Were all the ftones in the fame quarry equally pure, the above would be a per- fect and unexceptionable method of afcer« taining the purity of any lime-ftone: But it often happens, that in a quarry of the very worft quality, there are fome pieces found that confift of pure fpar, that are entirely free of any mixture of fand; and in other quarries of a better fort, there are often fmall veins of an impure fort of- ftone, mixed through the rock; fo that if 2 either si2 OF QUICK-LIME either of thefe fhould chance to be picked out as a fpecimen for trial, the refult would not be juft. To avoid falling into this miftake, any one. who wifhes to make an accurate an- alyfis of any newly difcovered lime-itone, will do. well to take eight or ten{tones from different parts of the quarry, that are fomewhat. different in appearance from one another; and, having taken a chip from each, pound the whole together, to afford a proper fubjeét for the experi- ment. The fame experiment might be tried with 4me—but it is evident the propor- tions would be different in the fame ftone, from what they would be if tried before calcination—as lime wants its fixed air, &c. which it had when in the ftate of lime-ftone. But as the lime is more Hable to be varied by accidental circumftances, it is beft to try the experiment with lime- ftone. § 14. It is in general believed, that the lime made of the hardeft lime-ftone is /tronger, as it is called, by which is meant more powerfully. ‘ ee ee t A-S AMANURE.© 533 powerfully efficacious as a manure, than that which‘is made from materials of 4 fofter naturte-—Hence it is in general af- ‘ ferted, that lime made from chalk, is much weaker, as a manure, than that which is made from harder lime-ftone. Nothing, however, can be more érro« heous than this hypothefis.—In the for« mer part of this Effay, I have had occa- fion to explain pretty fully what is the real differeuce between chalk and lime-ftone— and nothing can be more certain, than that the lime made of chalk is purer than that made from almoft any lime-ftone— and contains a much larger proportion of calcareous matter; on which account, it muift be more efficacious as a manure; thanany of thefe more impure kinds of lime: The hardeft lime-ftone that I know, is that belonging to Mr. Galley, at Sunder- Jand.—Its external appearance rather re«. fembles flint than lime-ftone s—yet the lime made of this exceedingly hard ftone, is as light, as white, and as foft to the touch, as the pureft chalk-lime.—It dife fers not from that in any refpeét-—info- much that I defy the greateft connoiffeur in thefe matters to diftinguifh between it W OL, I ee and \ sig OF QUICK=LIME and the pureft chalk-lime, when perfectly ealcined, by any other means than by the pieces of flint that are fo often met with among chalk-lime. And from this lime, obtained from thefe very hard ftones, as perfect chalk may be artificially made by the frmple procefs de- {cribed p. 445, aS was ever obtained from any quarry in Engiand. From thefe confiderations, therefore, I am obliged to conclude, contrary to the common opinion, thatchalk-lime is, almoft in all cafes, more efficacious as a manure, than any lime obtained from lime-ftone, in equal quantities—as it is extremely rare to meet with a lime-ftone that con- tains near fuch a large proportion of calcareous matter; on which account it ought always to be preferred by the far- mer, where both can be had at the fame price. § 1S. We know httle certain about the mode in which lime operates, excepting that it acts merely in confeguence of its being mixed with the foil in fubftance—If a heap of’ lime, of a confiderable thicknefs, fhall have lain ever fo long upon one{pot, and a Seca? AS AMANURE.§ Es tI . and be afterwards carried clean away from a it, fo that none of the particles of the lime remain to be mixed with the foil,— fe that fpot will not be richer, or carry more be luxuriant crops, than the places around it; le which, every one knows, is not the cafe om with regard to dung. Again—If lime be{pread upon the fur- | face of the foil, and allowed to remain the there, without being ploughed in, its effects of will fcarcely be perceived for feveral years, A till it has had time gradually to fink through Mi the{ward, and mix with the{cil; after as which, its effects begin to be perceived, a although much lefs fenfibly than if the fame if quantity of lime had been intimately mix- ‘ ed with the foil by means of the plough + and harrow. “ I am not a ftranger. to the improve- ments that have been made in Derbythire, by means of lime, without the plough; * but this.is no exception to what I have it faid.—The effets are flow though cer- tain. Thofe who inhabit countries that Ny admit of the plough, are often advifed to i Jay lime upon the grafs, and are made to Na) believe that their pafture will be inftantly poh Liz mended and 556 OF QUICK-LIME mended by it, nearly in the fame percep- tible manner as if it had been dunged. This, I myfelf have tried, and have feen it tried by others—but. always found that the grafs for the firft year was rather hurt than benefitted by it; nor was it fo much improved in fucceeding years, as if the fame quantity of lime had been applied, and intimately mixed with the foil_—In this mode of applying lime, therefore, it is long before it yields a proper return; and’ 1s not to be recommended to a poor man, unlefs where neceffity obliges him to prac- tife it. § 16. If, then, lime acts upon the foil more efficacioufly in confequence of being in- timately mixed with it, we may naturally conclude, that it will produce a more fen- fible effect, when it is reduced to exceed- ingly{mall particles, than when it is applied to the foil in larger lumps; as thefe do not admit of being{fo intimately mixed with ‘the particles of the foil. But no method has ever yet been dif- covered for reducing calcareous matter to fuch{mall component parts, or of{fpread- ing I eS a) AS A MANURE. 517 ing it fo evenly over a field, or of mixing it fo intimately with the foil, as by cal- cination. Accordingly, it is found, that lime will produce a very fenfible effec upon the foil, when applied in mutch {maller quantities, than any other calca- reous matter whatever. Confidered in this view, it can never be expected that lime-ftone, reduced: to powder by any kind of mechanical triture, will produce fuch a fenfible effet upon the foil, as the fame quantity of calcare- ous matter in the ftate of lime, if properly apphed; becaufe it is impoffible, by me- chanical means, ever to reduce it to fuch a fine powder as it naturally falls into after calcination. § 17. Much, however, depends upon the mode of applying the lime to the foil, after cal- cination. If it is{fpread as foon as it is flaked, while yet in a powdery ftate, a very{mall quantity may be made to cover the whole furface of the ground, and to touch an exceedingly great. number of particles of earth.- But, if it is fuffered to lie for fome time after flaking, and to get LT 538 OF QUICK-~-LIME fo much moifture as to make it run into| clods, or cake into large lumps, it can! never be again divided into fuch{mall parts; and, therefore, a much greater quantity is neceffary to produce the fame effect, than if it had been applied in its powdery ftate., But if the foil is afterwards to be con-| tinued long in tillage—as thefe clods are annually broken fmaller by the ation of| the plough and harrows, the lime muft . continue to exert its influence a-new upon the foil for a great courfe of years:—it will produce an effect nearly fimuar to that which would be experienced by an- nually ftrewing a{mall quantity of pow- dered lime over the furface of the foil, But as the price of the lime muft, in the firft cafe, be paid by the farmer altogether, at the beginning, which only comes to be fucceffively demanded in the other cafe, this deferves to be attended to, as it may become a confideration of fome import- ance where lime is dear, and money not very plentiful,: § 18. In few particulars are praétical farmers| more AS A MANURE. 519 to more divided in opinion, than about the Mt} quantity of lime that may be laid upon I an acre of ground with profit, or even t-with fafety, Some require that it fhould ce be apphed in fuch fmall quantities, as ‘3 thirty or forty bufhels to the acre; and aver, that if more is ufed, the ground will Ds be abfolutely ruined:—whiule others main- re tain, that ten times that quantity may be of applied with fafety. AY A creat variation may, no doubt, be nm produced in this refpeét, by a difference in a: the nature of the foil,—in the ftate of cul- ta ture it is under at the time,—in the quantity of calcareous matter with which it may have been formerly impregnated; —and perhaps a variation may fometimes arife from other circumftances, that have ¢ , never yet been attended to. : A difference will likewife arife from the " quality of the lime that is applied, and 8 from the manner in which it is employed. ‘, Some kinds of lime contain, perhaps, ten ‘ times more calcareous matter than. other kinds:—And it. has been fhown above, that a very great difference may arife from a the mode of applying the lime. is DAEs” Confidering ; oR f Bs ih ih ee 520 OF QUICK-LIME Confidering all thefe circumftances, it would appear a Jittle prefumptuous in any one to prefcribe pofitive rules that fhould be generally adopted in this refpeét.—This I fhall not attempt—but fhall relate, with candour, fuch obfervations as have occur-: red to myfelf, in the courfe of a pretty ex tenfive experience of this manure. § 19.: It is common to hear thofe, who have had little experience of lime as a manure, recommend very great caution, left too great a quantity be employed, for fear of burning the foil, as they exprefs it. This idea of 4urning hasbeen evidently adopted, from what is experienced by applying cauf- tic lime to animals or vegetables, in large quantities, as. it often corrodes and{fhri- vels them up, and produces other effeéts which yreatly refemble thofe of fire: But it. cannot. produce any{uch effeéts, unlefs there arevegetables growing upon the foil at the time. In that cafe, the vegetables might, indeed, be corroded by the lime, if raimfhould fall immediately afterit was {pread;. when newly. flaked;—but as it lofes this fiery corrofive power in a few days oe AS AMANURE., 52%: days after it is fpread, nothing of that kind can be expected to happen to the /oi/. Accordingly, we never hear of crops being: burnt up with too great a quantity of lime, in thofe countries where it has long been uféd as a common manure—althou oh it is there often employed in much larger quantities than in any other places, where it is more rare. I myfelf have had the experience of ‘lime in all proportions, from one hundred to above feven hundred buthels to the acre, upon-a great variety of foils; and have always found, that its effeét in pro-. moting the fertility of the foil, has been in proportion to the quantity employed, ether circumftances being alike. The expence in moft cafes prevents farmers from employing this manure in greater quantities than thofe above mentioned; but-accidental circumftances clearly fhow, that if it were applied in much larger quantities, the effect would only be to promote the luxuriance of the crop in a higher degree. BO A gentleman of my acquaintance, in 3 whofe 522, OF QUICK-EIME whofe veracity I perfe@ly confide, hap- pening to be from home when a large field was limed,—and having no occafion for the whole quantity of lime that had been brought for that purpofe, and laid down in one corner of the field, his fervants, without driving it away, mixed what re- mained with the foil, although the lime Jay there about four inches thick over the whole furface. The effeét was, that for many years afterwards, the grain in that place was fo immoderately luxuriant, that it fell over, and rotted before it came to the ear.—After many years, this luxuri- ance abated a little, fo as to allow the grain to ripen;—but it was there always much more Juxuriant than in any other part of the field, An accidental experiment, nearly fimilar to this, fell under my own obfervation. It happened that the fervants of another farmer laid, by miftake, a few heaps of- lime upon a grats-field that he did not intend fhould be broken up at the titne. The miftake was foon difcovered, and no more lime was laid down at that place, and the few heaps(about a buthel in each) were aor en ace a AS A MANURE. 523 were allowed to lie, neglected, without bee ing{pread,—The field was paftured upon for feven or eight years after that, before it was converted into tillage; and the heaps were by that time hecome fo flat, and fo far funk into the ground, that they could hardly be difcovered. Before it was ploughed up, the whole of the field was limed, and this part of it equally fo with the reft; nor were the old heaps touched till the plough went through them in tilling the field, when the lime was there turned up, with only a very{mall mixture of foil. The confequence was, that at every one of thefe heaps, a tuft of corn fprung up with fuch luxuriance as to be entirely rotted before harveft;—and for many years afterwards, thefe tufts could be diftinguifhed from the other parts of the field, at a very great diftance, like fo many buttons on a coat;—and, perhaps, continue {o to this day. From thefe experiments, as well as other confiderations that will afterwards occur, —there feems to be reafon to conclude, that on foils which do not naturally abound with chalk, or other calcareous matter, there is 524 OF QUICK{LIME is lefs danger in giving too much lime, than in applying too little; except in thofe cafes where an over-luxuriance is dreaded. Ser; I have often heard it urged, as an objec- tion to the ufe of lime as a manure, that although it does indeed promote the fer- tility of a foil, ina higher degree at firft, yet, in the end, it renders it much more tteril than formerly; on which account, they fay, it ought not to be at all employed. This, like many other objections to ufe- ful practices, takes it rife entirely from the avarice and unfkilfulnefs of thofe who com- plain.—It is chiefly heard of in thofe parts of the country where it is not uncommon for a farmer, after once liming a poor foil, to take fifteen or fixteen crops of oats fuc- ceflively, without any other dreffing or al- ternation of crops. It muft bea good ma- nure that enables thefe foils to produce fuch a number of fucceflive{courging crops of any fort: But it would be a marvellous one, indeed, if it thould prevent thofe fields from being exhaufted by them. But, is it not well known, that in‘all the richeft and beft unproved parts of the:coun- try, rT = ms * AS A MANURE. B25 try, lime has been long employed as a ma- nure?——yet, fo far are thefe foils from be- ing rendered fteril by it, that it is doubtful if any art, without the affiftance of lime, or fome calcareous matter, could ever have brought thefe fields to their prefent degree of fertility. Thofe, therefore, who com- plain of the hurtful effects of lime asa ma- nure, proclaim what they ought to conceal, —that they have had in their poffeffion a treafure, which might have enriched their pofterity, but which they have idly{quan- dered away in their own life-time. Se We are not only unacquainted with the. mode in which lime operates upon the foil, but we are even, in a great meafure, igno- rant of the actual changes that are produced upon the earth, after this manure is applied. So much time is neceffary to difcover thefe,, -——and fuch accuracy of obfervation is re- quired, that it will, perhaps, be long before the whole fhall be fully afcertained. I thall mention a few that have occurred to my- felf. It is often afked, how long the effects of lime may be perceived on the foil? and, if by : a\ 526 OF QUICK-LIME by this queftion it be meant to afcertain the length of time that the effects of lime will be perceptible in promoting the luxuriance of the crop after one manuring, it is no wonder that very different anfwers fhould be given, as the effects muft vary with the quantity or quality of the lime employed,—_ the nature of the crops that follow,—and many other circumftances, that it would be impoflible here to enumerate. But if it be viewed in another light;— if lime be fuppofed to alter the foil, fo as to render it fufceptible of being affected by other manures in a more fenfible degree,— fo as to make it capable of producing crops, that no art could otherwife have effected, and to admit: of being improved by modes of culture that would not otherwife have produced any fenfible benefit;—the anfwer to the queftion would be more eafy,—as, in this light, it is pretty plain, that its effects will be felt, perhaps, as long as the foil exifts. I believe, farmers are feldom accuftomed to confider lime, or other calcareous ma- nures, in this laft point of view; although, when it comes to be enquired into, I doubt not but this will be found to be by far the i moft AS AMANURE. 427 moft valuable effect of thefe manures. A few facts will beft illuftrate my meaning; In Derbythire, the farmers have found, that by fpreading lime in confiderable quantities upon the furface of their heathy moors, after a few years, the heath difap- pears, and the whole furface becomes co- _vered with a fine pile of grafs, confifting ot white clover, and the other valuable forts of pafture-graffes. This fhows, that lime renders the foil unfriendly to the growth of heath, and friendly to that of clover. It is found by experience, that in all porous foils, which are not expofed to too much dampnefs, in every part of Scotland, where lime has not been employed, heath has a natural, and almoft irrefiftible pro- penfity to eftablith itfelf. In thofe parts of the country where lime has been much ufed as a manure, we find, that the fields may be allowed to remain long in grafs, without becoming covered with that noxi- ous plant. Again:—It is well known by thofe who have been attentive, and have had opportu- nities of obferving the fact, that peas, of any fort, can never be fucce{sfully culti- 5 vated 528 OF QUICK-LIME vated in any part of the country, where the| foil is not of avery{trong clayey nature, or where lime or other calcareous manures have never been employed. If the ground be made as rich as poffible with commen dung, although the peas, in that cafe, will vegetate, and grow for fome time with vigour; yet, before they begin to ripen, they become blighted,—ufually die away entirely before the pod is. formed, and but rarely produce a few half-formed peas. But if the ground has ever been limed, although, perhaps, at the diftance of thou- fands. of years before that period, it never lofes its power of producing good crops of peas, if it is put in a proper tilth for car- rying them at that time. Again:—In countries that have never been limed, the kinds of grafs that{ponta- neoufly appear, if left to themfelves, are the{mall bent-grafs and feather-grafs.— In places where lime has ever been ufed, the ground, if exhaufted, produces fewer plants of thefe graffes;—but in their ftead, white clover, the poa and fefcue erafles, chiefly abound. The{oil, in either of thefe cafes, may be-~ come \ AS A MANURE... ¢29 jeome equally poor;—that is, may produce equally{canty crops: But, the means of recovering them will be fomewhat differ. ent. In the laft cafe, a fallow feldom fails to prove beneficial. In the firft, it is often of no effe&t, fometimes, even hurtful. In the laft, a moderate dreffing of dung, pro- duces a much more fenfible and lafting effect, than in the other.—In the laft, the quality of the grafs, as well as its quantity, rather improves by age. In the firft, thefe circumftances are reverfed. : I might mention feveral other obferva- tions, tending to fhow that ground, which has been once impregnated with calcare- ous Matter, acquires. qualities from that moment which it did not poffefs before, which it ever afterwards retains, and never urns exactly to its former ftate.—But, I have faid enough to fuggeft this idea:— future obfervations will fhow how vuftly it i as founded. c § 23. Although lime has fuch powerful effects on the eb it does not feem ever to in- corporate with the mould, fo as to form one homegeneous mafs; but the lime re- Vor. VI m mains 6. OF QUICK-LIME mains always in detached particles, which are larger or{maller, in proportion as it has been more or lefs perfettly divided when it was fpread, or broken down by the fubfequent mechanical operations the foil may have been made to undergo. Hence it happens, that in ploughing, if there chance to be any lumps of calcare- ous matter ina dry ftate, upon the furface, they naturally tumble into the bottom of the open furrow, as foon as the earth is edged up upon the mould-board, fo as to fall into the loweft place that has been made by the plough before the furrow is fairly turned over. In confequence of this circumftance, it muit pane that, in the courfe of many repeated ploughings, more of the lime will be accumulated at the bottom of the foul, than in any other part of it. And as the plough fometimes goes a little deeper than ordinary, the lime that on thefe occafions chances to be depofited in the bottom of thefe furrows will be de/ow the ordinary ftaple of the foil, it will be ufelefs for the purpofes of the farmer. It is commonly thought, that the lime has /wze through the = Se ae EN, aa Se ar m a AS AMANURE,..#3 the foil by its own gravity;—although it is certain, that lime is{pecifically lighter than any fol, and can only be accumulated at the bottom of the mould by the means above defcribed; others think, that the lime is chemically difloived, and afterwards depofited there; but this idea is not cor- roborated by the facts that have fallen under my obfervation. The direétions that fol- low are equally applicable in either cafe: To obviate this inconvenience, it be- hoves the farmer,—in the firft place, to be extremely attentive to have his lime divided into as fmall particles as poffible at the time of fpreading: For, if thefe are fuffi- ciently{mall, they incorporate fo intimately with the mould, as to be incapable of being eafily detached from it.—On this account, as well as others, it is always moft advife- able to{pread the lime when in its dry powdery ftate, immediately after flaking, before it has had time to run into lumps. It is alfo of importance to plough the foil with a more{hallow furrow than ufual, when lime is put upon it; efpecially the firft time it is ploughed after the lime has been fpread upon its furface: Becaufe, at Mm 2 that 532 OF QUICK-LIME that ploughing, the lime being all on the furface, a larger proportion of it is turned into the bottom of the Jaft-made furrow, than at any fucceeding ploughing;. and therefore more‘of it will be buried be neath the ftaple than at any other time, if the furrow fhall have been very deep. This circamftance becomes more effien- tially ne ceflary in Be oughing gra{s-ot round that has been new! raat: becaute, in thyc até he hin> ae Patan C2 ay) h! nef tills Cal Uy{ne AME lo iClo cape aw Onde? of be“ A mixed with any part of the foil than in any other. ¢ a Ee ie Valo~ Fa mile aya 7 It alfo becomes extremely neceilary, 1 n 4 tn ee Pee ait fucceeding times, to guard as mucn as c(= ey ees es: poflible‘againft ploughing to unequal 4© oO Af Liiwva 1 x m7 T have hitherto{poken only Of /smé as a AAAS« Inet moit of ha fo obf>‘vat manure ga CU MOL} thLicle DICT 10Nns, :“14 aw tetas ee eae ee ne eee it Wil appear, may DE equall y applied to t other calcareous matters. at he com- = je an h~ -ative value of thefe, and the real differ- nce between them, wnen compared fepa- . a) 4 is 7 h lime, as well as with one 1 yay he fully underfteod, it will be Sa Biss. h paw a nicer e€acn clafs of‘thefe fub-- {tances | | | a| ‘| | AS AMANURE Pe 4 7'°. {tances feparately, and point. out with pre- cifion its peculiar diftinctive qualities. io" @: BCH As, All the writers on agriculture whom I have ever yet met with, have confidered the feveral claffes of calcareous fubftances as diftin@ kinds of manures, and as poffeff- ing qualities extremely different from one another on many occafions. And hence gaecens that fometimes one of thefe, which chances to have become the favour- ‘ of the author, and fometimes another, is highly recommended, while the others are defpifed as ufelefs, or reprobated as pernicious. In this manner, a very late Writer*, with whom chalk is a peculiar favourite, fays,* I will lay it down asa Senta and incontrovertible maxim, that cda/k frefh from the pit, laid on and ae) aes as be- fore diroet ed, in the proper feafon, will Bi fs peseex se fi pays)| She eee pees~ enrich: every fort of earth it.1s laid upon; ae ers ea gee ey eee ae= and that 4me, on the contrary, laid on at * The Author of the Complete Enelifh Farmer. t { a) arateve M 1m 4 W Lic tcver, | a ee SSI = a a ie §34 OF QUICK-LIME whatever time, or managed in whatever manner, will, after the firft or fecond year, impoverifh every foil it mixes with.’ ~ It would be no difficult matter to pro- duce other authors, who, in a like deci- five manner, reprobate the ufe of chal, while they enlarze, without bounds, on the qualities of Ame; and others who pre- fer marle of different forts, or fome of the other claffes of calcareous earths, as the moft valuable of all manures—while they condemn the others beyond all bounds of moderation. The truth, however, is, that although thefe authors may be right in recommend- ing their own favourite manures, the bene- ficial effets of which they may have often experienced; as they ufually condemn the others merely from carly prejudices, or imperfect trials of them, which haye not fucceeded, their decifions ought only to be confidered as a proof of their being unacquainted with the rea/ qualities of the matters they condemn, and of that prefumptuous weaknefs which is ever the attendant of ignorance, Nothing if AS A MANURE 555 Nothing can afford a ftronger proof, that the author above mentioned was to- tally unacquainted, either in theory or practice, with the rea/ difference between chalk and lime, than the pofitive diftinc- tion he has made between thefe two fub- {tances as 2 manure™*. § 25. It has been demonttrated in the preced- ing part of this Effay, that lime differs not in any of its qualities from chalk, except that it is deprived of its fixed air; which can have no effect on it as a ma- nure, becaufe it again abforbs that fixed air before it has been a, few days applied to the foil. After this period, therefore, what was originally /me, is now chaik,— and muft have the fame effeéts upon the foil zm every refpect, as an equal quantity of chalk, equally fpread upon it, would have had. It is eafy, however, for thofe who at- tend to the practice of this Gentleman, to account for his partiality to chalk. The % The Reader ought to be informed, that the hme he condemns, is lime made from the very chalk he fo muych approves of.: Mm4 quantity dred buthels would have been fufficier 696 OF OULEe K-LIME quantity of chalk he recommends, is twen- ty-five loads per acre; which, I{uppofe, may be about twelve hundred buthels*. He advifes only ten or fifteen buthels of lime. Is it furprifing that the effects of thefe two dreflings fhould be extremely different?| Ber re toe s He ventured once to give a field of clay dreffing of fixty buthels of lime;—after which he took, - 1.. wheat, produce-16 buthels, 2. oats,=- 4 quarters, 3.. barley;-+- 5 bufhels, A. 1, Clover,- worth nothing. ES fs oe se es ene eer Hence, fays he,.the lime has ruined my foil: ihe foil was knowledge red to, he poor— Tr e(~~~ Inftead of fixty, it is dou btfal if fix hun- to make it produce sod.crony, under Management fo execrable in other re{s pects. But—to leave off thefe un gracious(ie: tures, I now proceed— f pane eS A lad, Yun iderftand, to be a waceons loadst-whiich, i T fuppofe, may contain between five and fix quarters. § 5: So SS ee Sez: AS’ A MAN UR E. CHALK, as has been often faid in the courfe of this Effay, is‘a pure calcareous earth, haftily concreted. Sometimes it is mixed with a imall proportion of-argilla- ceous* matter, in which ftate it approaches to the nature of marle.~ In-either the one or the otherof theie ftates, it is employed nS KL,+ PINAY 7 os 4 as a manure in the countries where it 1 abounds. AL ois Avi ee SE ee ee Salk Rbebi Cio: LlOE Pi OLla FDS in any pa_ SE Seg! ise. Ae weeesta Wert aie een: Bera ree Ered ticular that can affect the: farmer, unlefs ~ 1 y Abe 1 1 2. ad y 1WisO is,| Ber oe: eee= a fp Bee Rodale other preparation than digging 8 L iP I i =) 2 a Rete(yee ean ee a ee ty it from the pit, and{preading it upon the a ground; whereas lime-ftone always requires to be reduced to a pov vder, either by burn- | ae ing t AS A MANURE. 545 ing or otherwife, before it can be of any ufe in that way. But as lime-{tone is at once reduced into much fmaller parts by calcination than matle ever can be brought to at firft, a much{maller proportion of lime: may be equally{pread over.an acre of ground, than of marle; and therefore it will produce, in equal quantities, a much more fenfible effect. § 3.| The difcerning reader, who attends to thefe circumftances, will eafily perceive the reafons for all the peculiarities of practice that prevail with regard to the application of lime and marle,and be able, without em- barrafiment, to judge in what cafes it may be moft for his profit to employ the one or the other of thefe manures, when they are both within his power. He may afcertain the prop ortion of cal- careous matter contained in the marle, by the fame procefs already defcribed for trying lime-ftone, p. 508, and thus compare the intrinfic value of the lime and marle in any cafe. For this is always in proportion to the calcareous matter contained in either. Ver. I. No He . eeend i s ql i i 4 NEI TG EI 546 OF QUICK-LIME He will eafily perceive, however, that the fame quantity of calcareous matter in the ftate,of“me, will produce a much greater effect than when it is in the ftate of marle; becaufe it is divided into infinitely fmaller particles, can be more equally {pread upon the ground, and more intimately mixed with the foil. Hence it univerfally happens, that amuch larger quantity of marle is applied at one drefling, than of lime. From one to two hundred cart-loads of marle is a common drefling to anacre, that is, from three thou- ‘fand to fix thoufand buthels; whereas, from thirty to three hundred buthels of lime is a common drefsing fer an acre of ground. In thefe proportions, it is reafonable to - think that the effects of the marle will con- tinue to be longer felt than thofe of the lime: For, as the marle is gradually broken into fmaller pieces every year, thefe will fuccefsively mix with the foil, and produce an effect nearly fimilar to what might be expected from an annual drefsing of lime. It may likewife be expected, that a full dreffing of marle, in the proportions above named, Bia eee — nue ee SS a= eS eee AS A MANURE.| 547 that) named, will produce a more capital im- ich provement upon light fpungy grounds, ne) than an ordinary drefling of lime;—be- ily caufe, independent of the calcareous ae ally ter, the large proportion of clay applied aa in this manner, may produce fome alter- ation on the quality of the foil. This a alteration, however, will be different, ac- ea cording to the nature of the extraneous 3 matter contained in the marle. a But as all marles contain clay, it is ep. natural to think that clay-lands will not a be benefitted at all by this circumftance, fom as in thefe cafes the calcareous matter ABS alone in the marle will be to fuch foils y} an ufeful addition—Hence light land fo will be in general more highly benefitted oe by this manure than clay-land, which has the given rife to the following vulgar rhyme: ken wil Fie that marles fand, ; Will foon buy land; luce But he that marles clay, htbe Throws all away. ime. vial The truth, however, is, that clay is as + a highly benefitted by the calcareous matter mth Nn2 in A ee———— 540. OF CUIC KR-L IME in marle, as fand is; fo that a rich marle will be nearly equally beneficial in both éales. But there are fome kinds of clays that are very free from any mixture of fand, and aflume the appearance of marlé; and aré fo called, although they hardly contain almoft any calcareous matter at all. Thefe may pethaps, on fome occafions, be an ufeful addition to light foils, and worth the expence of carrying to them when near,—but could fcarcely be of any ufe at all upon clayey foils. It has pro- bably been fome poor kind of marle of this fort that has given rife to the proverb above quoted. § 32. I fhall not pretend to preferibe pofitive rules for determining when the one or the other of thefe fubftances, dime or marle, ought to be preferred as a manure; as a decifion in favour of the one or the other muft, in a great meafure, depend upon the fituation of the place where they can be both obtained,—the purity of either of them refpectively,—the price at which they AS-A: MAN U.S E. 549 they may be purchafed, and the expence of carriage: all thefe circumftances may be beft afcertained by every individual for himfelf. But I may be allowed to obferve, that it argues a great want of knowledge of the real qualities of thefe fubftances, when a man prefers the one of‘thefe, and con- demns the other, in all cafes. For it is merely a matter of calculation, when the one, or when the other, may be moft va- luable to any particular perfon. If the marle be tolerably rich, and can be obtained at little expence near the field in the proportions ufually employed, it will be, in general, more advantageous to the poffeffer, who has a profpect of en- joying his farm for a long time, to ufe marle in preference to lime. But when it muft be brought from a diftance, /ime, in all cafes, will be cheaper, and on that account better than marl/e. If marle contains a great proportion of clay, it may be worth the expence of driv- ing to a light foil on fome occafions, even where lime could be procured as cheap: N03| But, Sc an I RN ES a ee oy— Tet a ee Penne evar as~ 7" a— =~ ¥ 550 OF QUICK-LIME But, on all occafions, if, the fame quanti- ty of calcareous matter in the ftate of lime can be obtained at the fame price, that will be a much more beneficial manure a i ip Re Stare a for clayey foils than marle. Impure marle is indeed feldom worth the expence of 4 carting on a clayey{oil.' Some readers will be much diffatisfied at reading this fhort account of the nature of marle, and its operation as a manure. For as they have been aceuftomed to look upon this manure as poffefling fome very fingular qualities peculiar to itfelf, and to think that it differed from lime in fome very effential refpe€ts, and would produce| effets upon the foil nowife fimilar to that which would be produced by lime in any tafe; they will feel a kind of uneafi- nefs at being obliged to firike this one off their lift of diftinct and feparate manures. Bot it is the bufinefs of true philofophy eae 'to eradicate that{pirit for myfterious cre- dulity, which is fo apt to lull the reafon- ing faculty afleep, and make the- mind reft fatisfied with the contemplation of ideal phantoms created by the fancy, in- ftead of real objects of ufeful knowledge. S 3° Go AS A MANURE.° sst § 33- Of Shell Marle. Shell marle is always found in low places, that either are, or have been covered with water. It is a whitifh powder, that has been formed by the gradual decompofition of fhells, in the courfe of many ages. It is, therefore, a pure calcareous matter, with- Out any other mixture than the mud and other fediments, that may have funk to the bottom of the water, in ponds where it has been formed. As the proportion of fediment that may have mixed with the fhells, may be very different in different fituations; this kind of marle, like all others, may be more or lefs pure, and, of confequence, of greater or fmaller value to the farmer. Its purity may be determined by the mode prefcribed, page 508, and its value thus afcertained with precifion. It is ufually a light, fpungy fubitance, very flightly coherent; and contains more calcareous matter in proportion to its weight, than the common forts of lime. And as itadmits of being{pread as equally as lime, Nn 4. it 552° OF OM CK 1M& it may in general be carried with profit as far as lime.; But as it is more fpungy than lime, per- haps a fmaller quantity will fill. the mea- {ure; on which account, the prime coft of the fame quantity of marle ought to be a little below that of lime, to be equally pro- fitable to the farmer. Shell marle, however, cannot be carried fo far with profit as fhell-lime of the beft fort; as this laft, in that{tate, wants a great proportion of its moifture, air,&c. which greatly diminifhes its weight. It is, neverthelefs, a very great treafure to thofe who can difcover it, as it is almoft in all cafes of equal value with lime, pro- duces the fame effect upon the foil, admits of being equally eafily{pread, and can for the moft part be obtained, upon the fpot, at a much f{maller expence. ' But, in fituations where fuel is{carce and dear, it is of much greater value than the beit lime-{tone, and ought to be prized ac- cordingly by every pofleffor of ground: nor ought any one, in fuch a fituation, to omit fearching diligently every place where there is the{malleft probability of find- ing it. oe } \ é os Sede Of Shelly Sand. On many parts of the fea-coaft, great beds of fhells are to be found, which have been broken into fuch fmall parts as to affume the appearance of fand. This is a rich and valuable manure, that deferves to be highly prized by thofe who are within reach of it; but, it is too often neglected and unobferved, as this kind of fand has, on many occafions, very much the appearance of ordinary fand. This may readily be difcoveréd, by pour- ing a little aqua-fortis, or any other mineral acid*, upon the fand you with to examine. If it contains fhells, an effervefcence will enfue; and the proportion of calcareous * Many perfons make this trial with vinegar, inftcad of the mineral acids; but this ought never to be done, as it often happens, that vinegar makes no fenfible effer- vefence with calcareous fubftances. I would, therefore, advile every country-gentleman, to keep a phial of aqua~ fortis, or muriatic acid, always by him, for making trials of calcareous fubftances: the expence is next to nothing 5 and I am perfuaded, from the want of it alone, many per- fons have failed to make difcoveries of calcareous mat- ters, that might have been of high importance to them- felves and families. matter ee ee oe Se a he een cen ae ssa OF QUICK-LIME matter contained in any fort of fand, may be afcertained by the fame procefs already fo often referred to, p. 508. Nor ought this trial ever to be omitted before the fand is employed as a manure; becaufe, a very {mall proportion of fhells will make it effer- vefce violently, fo that the degree of effer- vefcence is no proof of its purity,—and be- caufe the proportion of fhells varies in all poffible degrees. If the fhells are broken‘into very fmall fragments, and if the proportion of fand be wee it will be nearly as va- : iable as lime, and may be driven toa great eee with profit. If the proportion of ordinary fand be very great, the expence in ufing it will be greater, as the quantity mutt be confiderably increafed. But as it may, for the moft part, be pro- cured at little expence, thofe who are pof- fefled of it, are ufually able to employ. it in great quantities; in w! hich cafe, it will pro- duce amazing effects, efpecially upon{trong clay-land. A much fmaller quantity of calcareous matter in this f{tate, will produce a more fenfible effect, than when it’is in any fort of earthy marle; becaufe it admits of be- A 2= ing _—— AS A MANURE: 35 wr ing more equally{pread upon the ground, and more intimately mixed with the foil. Thofe, therefore, who are upon the fea- coaft, ought to fearch for it with care, as they will ufually obtain an invaluable trea- {ure when they difcover it. This fort of fand is much more com- mon on the eaft coaft of Scotland, than is ufually imagined.— AN along the coaft of Fife, efpecially about St. Andrew’s, the fand upon the fhore is richly impregnated with thells;—but, it has*‘never there been employed as a manure.—On the north coaft of Aberdeenthire, fhelly fand abounds, and Has been of late employed as a manure, with the greateft fuccefs, by a gentleman diftinguifhed for his knowledge and_public ‘fpirit in that corner.—It is likewife found m Banff-fhire, where it has been applied with the higheft fuccefs.—And all along the coaft of Sutherland and Caithnefs, the fands upon the fhore confift almoft entirely of fhelis. Thefe are treafures which will enrich pofterity, although they are at prefent, ina great meafure, neglected. I mention them here, to induce my countrymen not to negle eee es eee eee ey 556-O-B JO We ke a Mk neglect‘a treafure of fuch ineftimable value. But on the weft coafts of Scotland, and among the iflands, thelly-fand much more abounds, and its effeéts,’as a ma- nure, are much more generally known than on the eaft coaft, fo that it is there univerfally en aployed as the moft efficacious manure with ashe they are acquainted. Its effects upon fome of their heathy mofy foils, appears to be, in fome cafes, little fhort of enchantment. The ingenious Mr. Craik, in Dumfries- fhire,—fo well known for his judicious im- provements in the drill hufbandry, has, I am told, employed this manure.for a lo onger time, and in greater quantities, than any other perfon in Scotland, and has been highly benefitted by it. I with to produce {uch a refpectable authority, with a view to induce others to follow his example, § 35: Mr. Arthur Y oung, in one of his Tours, mentions a bed of fhells near Colchefter, in Effex, which the inhabitants diftinguith by the name of Cragg, and employ as a manure, with great fuccefs. From his ac- count of this fubftance, it would feem t«doubtful, os.. 2st SS SS SE eee —_— Ce QO Se= ASA MANURE.= 5¢7 doubtful, whether it was a real calcareous: matter or not. But he only tried it with vinegar,—an acid too weak to produce any fenfible effeét on many forts of calcareous matters, in certain circumftances. There is little room to doubt, but that, with a mineral acid, the effervefcence would have been fufficiently violent. § 36: In fome places, there are found large beds of oyfter-thells, almoft entire. Thefe are fo large as to require to be broken into {maller Fra eites before they can be pro- fitably employed as a manure.—And as thefe may be eafily calcined, they ought always to be reduced to the ftate of lime before they are ufed. Whoever finds a bed of thefe fhells, finds a lime-quarry of the moft valuable fort, and ought to value it accordingly. It may be fometimes neceflary to burn fhelly fand into lime; and this m ay, On ex- traordinary emergencies, be practifed, al- gles it is rather a troublefome operation: 1e incoherent fand always mixes with the fuel, and ext tinguifhes the fire when in its native ftate, it becomes necef- : tary. g58 OF QUICK-LIME fary to reduce it firft to fome degree of con- fiftency.—This may be effected by knead- ing the fand with a little clay, and mould- ing it into the form of bricks; which when dried, will retain their form fo long as to permit the fire to act upon the fhells, and burn them to lime, which may be after- wards flaked and ufed. A manufa@ture of this kind was for fome time carried on at the Duke of Bridgewater’s great works, near Warrington, in Lancafhire, as I am told, under the direGtion of the ingenious Mr. Brindley. In fituations where ti ne-ftone cannot pofsibly be had, and\ the carriage of lime would be extremely oe ee it may fometimes be advifeable to burn fome of this fhelly fand into lime, for the purpofe of building*;—but if the lime is to be em- ployed as a manure, it is a very idle and a ufelefs procefs: For, the burning, in this cafe, can only be of ufe in dividing the cal- * The fmall quantity of clay that is introduced in this way, will not fenfibly injure the power of the lime as a cement; for, before the fhells can be fufficiently calcined, the clay will be burnt to fucha degree, as to render it impervious to, moifture, like fand. Carous 4. ASA MANURG. 559 careous matter into{mall parts, which has already been performed by Nature, when the fhells were reduced to the ftate of fine fand. § 37. Of Lime-Stone-Gravel. This is a manure little known in Britain, although it is common in many parts of Ireland. It isa hard fort of marle, that affumes the appearance of{mall ftones, or gravel, which, when fpread upon the ground, and mixed with it, gradually falls into {maller pieces, and fertilizes the foil in pro- pertion as it breaks down and mixes with it. After what has already occurred, little needs be faid as to the qualities or mode of applying this manure. The reader will eafily be able to perceive, that if the pieces of which this gravel confifts are large, and diflolve but flowly, the quantity applied at one drefsing ought to be great, and the effects will be flow and lafting;—and, if ‘ the gravel is{mall, it will require a fmaller quantity, will operate more quickly, and laft for a fhorter time, like ali other cal-_ careous fubftances in the fame circum- {tances. Thefe 2 pg ee a RE TIS Sip LO ta yr 366 OF QUICK-LIME Thefe are all the varieties of calcareous matter that I have ever known to be ufed asamanure.‘Theyare all extremely ufeful in proper circumftances—perhaps equally» fo, if thefe circumftances are duly attended to.-To afsift the farmer ftill farther, the foilowing general Aphorifms relating to the application of calcareous matters, as a manure, may be of ufe: § 38. iw EH OORT ool al. There feems to be only one kind of calcareous matter; and all the varieties of calcareous fubftances that we meet with, are entirely occafioned by a diverfity in the nature of the extraneous bodies with which the calcareous matter is united, or a difference in the form it may appear in at the time. S Ss$s Confidered as a manure, thefe extraneous matters may be more or lefs beneficial, ac- cording to particular circumftances relating to the foil,&c. In all the foffil calcareous concretions, clay or fand feem to be the only extraneous matters worth attending to, neither of which can ever, be of gteat con- fequence as a manure, although they may be more or lefs proper for different foils. In thofe calcareous fubftances that belong to the I I a a AS A MANURE. 561 the animal kingdom, the flefhy parts of the animals may be fometimes united with the calcareous, which will greatly promote their effects as a manure on every fort of foil whatever.. This does not, however, feem to be the cafe, either with fhell-marle, or fine fhelly fand; as, in both thefe cafes, the animals which once inhabited thefe thells, have been fo long dead that no part of the flefhy fubftance can remain. But the. re- cent fhells obtained from fifhing towns, operate much more powerfully as an animal manure, than as a calcareous matter, when firft applied. It is not impoffible but that man may in. time fall upon fome contrivance for obtaining this animal calcareous manure in much greater abundance and perfection than it has hitherto been obtained. There is a{mall fpecies of frefh-water wi/2,--- which increafes fo faft, as, in a furprifingly fhort time, to fill a confiderable{pace with folid wilks, if a few of them have been placed in a proper receptacle for that pur- pofe, and water duly adminiftered to them.. fthen ponds were prepared for this pur- pofe, and properly ftocked with this ani- mal, and if they were allowed to increafe Vou. Ie A000 till fy 562 OF QUICK-LIME till a bed of them, of confiderable thicknefs,. was accumulated, might they not then be taken out in abundance to be employed as a manure? Thefe, if bruifed under a {tone like a tanner’s wheel, to reduce the fhells to{mall fragments, would certainly form as rich and efficacious a manure as could poffibly be devifed: nor could there be any difficulty in difpofing the ponds in in fuch a manner as to afford a conftant annual fupply. It has probably been by a natural pro- cefs fimilar to this, that all thofe beds of fhell-marle we now meet with, have been originally produced. This fpecies of marle is generally found to confift of the fhells of this fort of{mall wilk, more or lefs de- compofed. The animals which inhabited thefe fhells have been once nourifhed by the water contained in thofe hollow places where this fort of marl is always found, and have probably been entirely deftroyed by fome accidental drought, which de- prived them of the water neceflary for their exiftence, or to fome other difaftrous circumftance that it is impoffible for us now to point out; and the thells remain- ing ee ae ee or us pee if em ees {, x i 4 es ¥:. era ns ASA MANURE.© 56% ine behind, gradually mouldered down to the ftate in which we now find them. § 39. APHORIS M IE The fame quantity of calcareous matter, will, in all cafes, operate equally powerful on foils of a fimilar quality, when in afimilar fate. But thefe effects may be acces lerated or retarded,—be more uniform or unequal, accord- ing as the calcareous matter is more or lefs perfectly di- vided when it is fir applied to the foil. If the calcareous matter be divided into very{mall particles, fo as to admit of be-, ing equally fpread over a very large fur- face, a fmail dheweey of it will: produce a much more fenfible effect, than if the fame quantity of calcareous matter had been ap- plied in large lumps, which could, in that cafe, have operated only upon a very few particles of the foil:—Therefore, lime, fine quia ntities than any other clafs o eee Hows,, that if equal quantities of calcareous matter are. em- wile as a manure, that kind which admits £ being moft minutely divided, will pro- O 02 duce 564 OF QUICK-LIME duce the greateft effe@ at the beginning; becaufe the feparate particles will be at li- berty to ac&t on.a much greater number o is particles of the foil at once, than when it is lefs perfectly divided. But if a fufficient quantity of calcareous matter has been applied, when in pretty large maffes, fo as to cover the ground pretty equally; and if thefe lumps continue to diffolve in the foil in al] after-periods, the effe& of this drefling will be much longer perceived, than that o a drefsing of calcareous matter in fine powder, that fhould produce af firft an effe@ equal to this.—Perhaps, in this cafe, the virtue of every particle of the calcareous matter will come, in time, to produce a full effect upon the foil, and benefit it nearly as much as an equal quantity of very finely powdered calcareous m r would have done, ap- plied at different times. Stone and clay marles, therefore, are equally efficacious manures as powdered lime, although more ; Co) flow in their operation. But as lime that has been fuffered to run into folid cakes before it is applied to the foil, can neither be properly fpread upon {0 ad AS AMANURE.” 565 upon it, nor has any chance of being dif- folved by the action of the air afterwards, it never can be made to produce its full influence on the foil; and therefore this mode of applying calcareous matter is the moft uneconomical that could ever be practifed. § 40. APHO#TS MAT. Calcareous matter, alone, is not capable of rearing plants to perfectign: mould is neceflary to be mixed with it, in certain proportions before it can form a pro- per foil.—It remains, however, to be determined, what is the due proportion of thefe ingredients for forming a proper foil, ©“¢ is We know, that neither chalk, nor marle, nor lime, can be made to nourifh plants| alone;—and foils are fometimes found, that. naturally abound with the two firft of thefe to a faulty degree.—But the pro- portion of calcareous matter in thefe is fo much Jarger than could. ever be pro- duced by art, where the foil was naturally deftitute of thefe fubftances,, that there feems to be’ no danger of erring on that fide. Probably, it would be much eafier O02 to rw 566 OF QUICK-LIME to correct the defects of thofe foils in which calcareous matters{uperabound, by driving earth upon them as a manure, than is generally imagined, as a very{mall proportion of it fometimes affords a very perfect foil.—I thall illuitrate my meaning by a few examples. Near Sandfide, in the county of Caith- nefs, there is a pretty extenfive plain on the fea-coaft, endowed with a moft fingu- lar degree of fertility. In all feafons, it produces a moft luxuriant herbage, although it never got any manure fince the crea- tion, and has been for time immemorial fubjeCted to the following courfe of crops: iff, Bear, after once ploughing from grafs,—ufually a good crop. 2d, Bear after once ploughing,—a better crop than the firft. 3¢, Bear after once ploughing,—a crop equal to the firft. 4th, 5th, and 62h, Natural grafs, as clofe and rich as could be imagined,—might e cut if the poffeffor fo inclined, and would yield an extraordinary crop of hay each year. After this, the fame courfe of cropping is ae as goa eee ASA MANURE.‘567 is renewed. The foil that admits of this fingular mode of farming, appears to be a pure incoherent fand, deftitute of the {malleft particle of vegetable mould;—but, upon examination, it is found to confift almoft entirely of broken fhells: the fine mould here, bears fuch a fmall proportion to the calcareous matter, as to be fcarcely perceptible,—and yet it forms the moft fer- tile foil that ever I yet met with. I have feen many other links(downs) upon the fea-fhore, which produced the moft luxuriant herbage, and the clofett and fweeteit pile of grafs, where they con- fitted of thelly fand, which, without doubt, derive their extraordinary fertility: from that caufe. A very remarkable plain is found in the ifland of Tir-eye or Tyre-ty, one of the Hebrides.—It has long been employed as acommon, fo that it has never been dif- turbed by the plough; and affords annu- ally the moft luxuriant crop of herbage, -confifting of white clover, and other va- luable pafture-graffes, that can be met with any where.—The foil confifts of a very pure fhelly fand. And the fineft crop of Oo4 bear, Fy a iH H be f at a a| tf fi PSST ig a ae 568. OF QUICK-LImMeE bear, without exception, I ever faw grow out of the earth, I found in the ifland of Barra, one of the H ebrides, growing upon a bed of thell-fand, in which, I could not perceive the{malleft particle of earth. J] do fuppofe, that the produce would have exceeded that of the beft crop of barley J ever faw, by two quarters, at leaft, per acre. —It had been manured with fea ware. From thefe examples, I think it is eyj- dent, that a very{mall proportion of ve- getable mould, is fufficient to render calca- reous matter a very rich{oil.—Perhaps, however, a larger proportion may be ne- ceflary when it is mixed with clay, than with fand;—as poor chalky foils feem to be of the nature of that compofition, Dd t y 7 at NEKXTePXTE(ees+t= 4 At any rate, however,—from thefe ox amples, as well.as from thofe that have oc- curred in the preceding parts of this lay, {think we may be{ufficiently authorifed z if i ; ha tor aoe co ne ee ee. to conclude, that there is no danger of eve; ] m VAbCn ea nin1ed_} Pa)> t An Aaa applying calcareous fubftances to any foi} a<’ #7 aN Over-proportion, 1 calcareous matters, and if it fhall be after- watds cropped in a judicious manner. Cd A MANURE. § 41. A-P:- HO"Re ES ae LY. Calcareous matters act as powerfully upon land that is naturally poor, as upon land that is more richly im- | pregnated with thofe fubftances which tend to produce a 4 : luxuriant vegetation, i . Writers on agriculture have been long .‘ in the cuftom of ee manures into| . two claffes, viz. enriching manures,’ or; . ee, thofe that tended directly to OF QUICK-LIME a manure when applied to rich foils,—and, when applied to poor foils, would pro~ duce hardly any,—or even perhaps hurtful effects, { will frankly acknowledge, that I my~ felf, was fo far impofed upon by the beauty of this theory, as to. be hurried along with the general current of mankind, in the firm perfuafion of the truth of this obfervation, and for many years did not fufficiently ad- vert to thofe facts that were daily occurring to contradict this theory.—I am now, how- ever, firmly convinced, from repeated obfer- vations, that lime and other calcareous ma- nures, produce a much greater proportional improvement upon poor foils, than on fuch as are richer:—And that lime alone, upon a poor foil, will, in many cafes, produce a ‘much greater and more lafting degree of fertility, than dung alone. In direct contradi@ion to the theory, I mult add, that I never yet met with a poor foil in its natural ftate, which was nct bene- fitted in a very great degree by calcareous matters, when adminiftered in proper quan- tities. But I have met with feveral rich foils, that were fully im pregnated with dung, and therefore —— Es as— SS ey 4 AS AMANURE. 571 therefore exactly in that ftate in which the theory fuppofes that lime would produce the greateft effe&t,—but, upon which, lime, applied in any quantities, produced not the {malleft fenfible effect. As I concern mytelf little about theories, this difcovery gave me much lefs uneafinefs than it will give to fome of my readers;— on which account, I thall not be much fur- prifed, if they with-hold their affent to this propofition for a very long time.—I do not defire any one to agree to it, till their own obfervations extort affent,—which, I have no hefitation in faying, will fooner or later happen to every unprejudiced and attentive obferver. § 42. conclude this very long Effay with a cautionary advice, that might, per- haps, have been more properly introduced before, if it had occurred at the time;— but it is of too much importance to be omitted entirely.—It is this: When farmers employ a great deal of lime, it fometimes happens that their horfes’ feet are burnt by it, which is ex- tremely troublefome, and fometimes proves , even RS oy ES~ eer ares eacconeterms‘ a 7 evi yj TEE 5 Crane esas ea Some x ait pees ie samc EO aes= oa i te ee ana, 572, OF QUICK-LIME even fatal to the poor animals*;—- a me- thod of preventing or remedying that in- convenience will therefore be of ufe. The beft methed of preventing any in- convenience of this fort, is to fpread the lime, when in its powdery ftate, upon the . field, as evenly as poffible,—and allow it to lie in that flate for fome time, before you begin to plough it.—If the lime has been in fine powder, it will have BecOine serfectly effete in a week or fo; after which time it will be as little corrofive as any kind of common earth, fo that the horfes may work among it with perfect fafety. —But if it has been fuffered to run into clods before it was ee thefe, if. not broken{mall, will be long: in abforbing their air,. and, of confequence, will re- nain longer in an acrid ftate, fo that the ploughing may, in that cafe, be deferred fo a.week or fo longer; nor will it be even then fo perfe= fafe as the other. But if it becomes neceflary. at any time to plough in the lime immediately after it * J have known feveral horfes atu: lly killed by this means, and others fo difabled as never. be perfectly = J well afterwards. ets advifeable for every farmer who has worl of that kind going forward, to k eep a tu AS A MANURE,— 59 is{pread,—take care to do it onl ly when the foil is perfectly dry; and in lea ading your horfes to the plough, take care to prevent them from going through any wet place, fo as.to wet their hoofs or ancles; for lime ats not at al] upon any dry fubftance,—but when it is in its acrid cauftic ftate, it would corrode the hair and fleth ina moment, if it has accefs:to water. As foo yoked, keep their feet got them carefu ally b He fo as to wipe away all the dry powdery lime that may adhere to them;—and if the leat thox wer fhould fall, unyoke your horfe ately, and carry them off the field. With thefe precautions, they may work among cauftic lime for any length of time without receiving any damage. But in cafe of any accident, by which a horfe or man that is workine lime fhould be fcalded by it, it is ee of very four milk or whey in fome place ready to wath the part atfected well with~ which will quickly deftroy the poig- nancy a.= NN a, se“a— mn_ a = reaerry artes x Pa i ae 3 poe ee‘=*: “3— nies 2. a ae: tg=i acl$: x_ pass == i= 2 cp Sa e Seer oe—= i“= annem-——~——— Se ai:- ne+e==—===e SS ye OFCOUTCK=LIME nancy of the lime, and prevent the mif- chief that would otherwife arife from it. —The fourer the milk or whey is, the better it will be for this purpofe; it ought therefore to be iong kept. For want of this, vinegar will produce the fame effec, —or very ftale urine will be of ufe,—but, the milk or whey is the cheapeft and beft remedy, and ought to be always in rea- dinefs, POSTSCRIPT. EE Ee- aS Se AS A MANURE, 57 POST SCRIPT Directions for afcertaining the purity of Lime, and difcovering the Nature of the Bodies that may be mixed with it, ee In the preceding Effay, I have fuppofed that no other abjorbent* earth is ever nixed with the calcaresus in any fort of lime-{ftone;—becaufe, in fa, if ever any of thefe are mixed with the calcareous in thefe fubffances, they are in fuch{mall proportion as not to be worth regarding. —Thofe, however, who want to be criti- cally exact in their analyfis of lime-ftone, may difcover if there is any other fort of abforbent earth contained in it, by drop- . ping into the filtred{olution obtained by the procefs§ 13, p. 508, a few drops of a Clear folution of volatile alkali.—If no turbidnefs enfue, the calcareous earth has been pure-—If any precipitation takes * Abforbent earths are all thofe that unite with acids, of which there are feveral varieties; calcareous earths being one of thefe. 5 place s¥6 OF QUICK-LIME place on adding the alkali, drop more,—and more, till no turbidnefs arifes:—then filtre -the whole: abforbent earth, that is not calcareous; for acids attract volatile alkali more ftrongly what remains in the filtre, is than any of the abforbent earths, except the calcareous clafs alone. S22; It may oftener happen, that a confider- able proportion of gyp/um may be united vith lime-ftone in the fame quarry; and as this fubftance would greatly alter the na- ture of the lime as a cement(fee p. 449) and would probably affe@ it as much as a manure, it is of more importance to inform the reader of the eafieft way of difcovering this fubftance when it is prefent in lime- {tone.| It has been already faid, that gyp/um is a compound, confifting of the vitriolic acid and calcareous earth; and as the vitriolic acid attracts this earth more ftrongly than any of the other acids, this compofition isnot in the leaft affected by either the nitrous or muriatic acids. Hence it follows, that if gyp/um‘hall be containéd in any calcareous mafs ex- amined Se| BS-AC VIDA NG Uae E: a4 amined by the procefs defcribed§ 13, p- 508, it will remain untouched by the acid, and be found inthe filtre, after the calcareous earth diffolved in the acid thall have pafied through it, forming a part of the refiduum. Take this refduum, therefore,—add to it nearly its weight of fixed alkali* previoufly diffolved in a confiderable quantity of wa- ter, and filtered;—digeft it ina warm bath, or even boil it for fome hours;—pour the whole into a filtre, while yet warm;—as the fluid paffes through the filtre, pour up- on it more boiling water;—as that pafles off, continue to add more water, till it comes through the filtre quite infipid and pure, and then let it run off entirely. By this procefs, the vitriolic acid leaves the calcareous earth to unite with the fixed alkali(to which it has a ftronger affinity) and with it forms a vitriolated tartar:—this vitriolated tartar, and the fuperfluous alkali, are diffolved by the water, and carried through the. filtre along with it; fo that what remains behind is the earthy part of the gyp/um, and the heterogeneous matters contained in the original lime-ftone.—By * Potatfh. Vor, I. Pp pouring 478 OF OURCKZLIME pouring upon this re/fduum, therefore, fome nitrous or muriatic acid,#nd treating it as directed§ 13, p. 508, the calcareous earth that was in the gyp/um will be now entirely diffolved; fo that when it is filtered and dry, the difference between the weight of this refiduum, and what it formerly was, is the real weight of the gyp/um originally contained in the lime ftone. N.B. If the alkali employed to decom- pofe the gypfum was in a mild ftate, the calcareous earth that remains will effer- veice ftrongly when it is diffolving in the acid;—but if a cauftic alkali has been em- ployed, the{olution will be effe@ted with- out any effervefcence at all. “\s vitriolated tartar is not readily foluble in water a confiderable quantity of water requires to. be employed, which ought’ al- ways to be hot, that the folution may be effected the more readily. § 3. ft has alfo been faid,(§ 30, p. 274) that the only extraneous matter contained in hime-ftone is fand. But although fand, in general does predominate fo much over the other extraneous matters in lime-ftone, as to authorife the expreffion i general, yet there It a arth ely af tof i, 1 uly f eC ty AS AMANURE.| 579 there are fome exceptions that ought to be taken notice of, iff, There are fome kinds of lime-ftone, that, when analyfed, are found to contain a refiduum confifting of a foft flimy-like fubftance. This is always in very fmall pro-= portions, and has probably been formed by a fediment fubfiding from the water while the rock was forming. It feems proba- bly, that this kind of lime would be lefs proper to be employed as a cement than as a manure. 2d, Although marle and lime-ftone are juftly enough diftinguifhed in the text(§ E p. 402); yetit happens, that clay and fand are found naturally mixed with one another, in fuch various proportions, and in thefe {tates joined with calcareous matter, that there is no poffibility of afcertaining the exact point where marle ends, and lime- {tone begins. A very{mall proportion of clay is fuffici- ent to make an exceedingly hard lime-itone relent in time in the air, and fall to pieces; fo that there are many{forts of{tone marle that confift chiefly of fand and calcareous earth, and only a very little clay. J Pp2 Thefe 580. OF QUAC KE IME Thefe very hard kinds of marle may be ealily burnt into lime, fo that they may be indifferently called marle or lime-ftone. 3d, The fame may be faid of the diftinc- tion between marle and chalk(§ 5, p. 402) Many fubftances which have the appear- ance and diftinguifhing properties of chalk, contain clay in different proportions.— Thefe diffolve in the air, or rum, as it is termed, more readily than the pure hard kinds of chalk, and feel more unétuous or fatty to the touch; from whence they are alled fat chalks.—Thefe, however, may be converted into lime;; fo that they might indifferently be called chalk, marle, or lime- The lime that is made from any of thofe fubftances that contain clay in their com- pofition, is more proper for manure than for cement;—efpecially that made from thofe pe fubftances that may be made to /a// after they have undergone only a fm all degree of leat in— them, as in chalk; be-> caufe, in thefe cafes, the clay will not be fufficiently burnt to prevent it from being affected by water, and rendered foft by it. The proportion of clay and fand contain- ed y be Ve Ne 401 reat halk, — It is hard US Of ASA(MANURE? 581 ed in any lime-ftone or marle, may be afcertained, by diffufing in water the re/- duum obtained by the analyfis(§ 13, p. 508*)—allowing it to fubfide a little, and gently pouring off the fluid parts from the coarfer fediment that fubfides to the bot- tom; for, as clay remains much longer fufpended in water than fand, it maybe thus feparated from the fand entirely;— when the water comes off clear, after having been left to fubfide a little, the re/r- duum may be evaporated to drynefs, and the lofs of weight it has fuftained by this opera- tion, denotes the quantity of clay. This is rather a mechanical, than a che- mical procefs, which is called e/utriation. § 4. It has been demonftrated above,§ 35, p. 484, that the quality of lime, confidered as acement, is greatly altered, by being mote or lefs perfectly calcined:—it’ may therefore be, on many occafions, of ufe to thofe who are concerned in building, to * Obferve, it is unburnt lime-ftone, or marle enly, that fhould be fubjected to this trial. =.) be 582. OF QUICK-LIME be able to afcertain what proportion of any particular kind of lime is really reduced to a cauftic> ftate.This may be done as under: Take a known quantity of the quick- lime, perfectly dry;—add to that its own weight, or more, of common crude fal-am- nioniac*, previoufly diffolved in a large proportion of water, and filtred 3—digeft this nearly in a boilit ng heat for fome hours, till no more fmell of volatile alkali is found to arife from it, adding frefh water as it evaporates. When the volatil fmell is no longer perceiv fe whole into a filtre,—let that pafs off, add more hot water,—and more ftill, ti oo e alkaline th ow th OV it come through the filtre taftelefs and pure;—then dry the refduum, and weigh it;—the difference between that and the weight of the original lime, denotes the proportion of pure cauftic lime that was contained in the original mafs. For, as the-muriatic acid attraGs cauftic calcareous earth more ftrongly than it does c He sole ele ae at cle ae ee does the volatile alkali, the acid of the fal- * Obferve, it is not volatile fal-ammoniac. ammoniac, ot Sn aS TT ee AS A MANURE,— 583 ammoniac*, during the procefs, quits the alkali, and unites with the lime, and the alkali is fuffered to fly off in a pungent vapour. The new fubftance formed by the union of the quick-lime with the muria- tic acid, is called guid fhell; and as this is readily foluble in water, it pafles off, to- gether with the remaining undecompofed ammoniacal falt, with the water through the filtre; while the uncauttic lime, as it was neither capable of acting upon the am- moniac, nor of being diffolved in the water, remains behind in its folid ftate. * Crude fal-ammonaic is a compound falt, confifting of the muriatic acid and the volatile alkali. OF THE FIRST VOLUME. td z, o —„—————— 1 8 —— AE Reldnd 7 ff — —“ Colour&.reer Soniroi Chart Blue Cyan Green Vellow Heod Magenta White Grey— Grey 2— Grey 3 Grèoy 4 Black

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A 5 me~-* Gs)) , Zz,&) ON cs~" aed= a!(D) oO ra). r Seer i ecdoee a6®){ ie=| pt— bid b—! a Nd r 5) Sad aad vie J cy~— q) are~~= i eis) Siar te A OS—“+a ce ote 7 i ae OQ fo( si ica 8S ee er ae a eS Ba cas a Oc& CS og O i Cone VY i& end rs Ca<= tat dad yeecaal e ee) pe)~ qj ea| : ee= ceases Be Ce es S| oien ea) ous) 4‘ a poet ey GP Cp) C)@| a t ry°= at on s ip aoa(©)“3 4 25 weet) | 4 ne)~ a ex} C a)(es‘~; c 0) cae é| 5—= a—l cP)—? vane q) 4‘s 4 i= 56) 1% 4 e —| meet a or few~ Ses. re peak aed pes a 3 q I apa OQ a. Oo 4 Lee rai aCe on O qv] en ae 2@) ne 5 1) te:) N~ 1: OQ:$— qr c.,=~ , t no 4G vO nh a,/ 3 aT=f‘es OO xe a= A ie) f) GQ) KA Cn)— SS ey) co Vie| A 4 i fe= a e ca 28; if GO a.s et ore eal Oogan6 4; ?+= Sh cats wis= J r3 d=() a Ly tated Cas rom Tat a) Dy ae) q) FS x eI;_ ro ad= a) pest aye={:—:: Bs ane(NE&‘ Sl ica Cennaeey on+ N 7) e 0) A.) 1S he: plete,\q nad ec“4= S“4: Of C a}~. 4 \ mes oC( hed}\ea Ge Se SS; sy et de RS== :;~— Sc) baa i=~— ee—_ 3/ D) A: 5 bs i "»=";‘‘ re Spey> 3 aaa 5.© a), y‘i EN 4— fom gus P\ peek” co=| ae re eS ES- fi wea pi_ es z r~- f~ ¥ =~= A 6 2»={ een<‘ i =]=,$] 7 Let t } 3 i | ha MW J ay Vor, I x ¥ OL, 1, D * = 3 se iad A== r ee eh ss* yr mse~ Ce >——— C<—>} aq—e—~ eee Mar ae x=== os—4===“ + So f —-§ { a ‘| j ae| F i ti A | Mt | \ j || | i |] || |: H | | j j| { 4 ‘ 3 4 q | \:) | q || 4 A AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 307 but lefs complicated, becaufe divetted of the circumftance of the falt water, is men- tioned by Dr. Darwin, of Derby: A well ewas funk in that town(which lies in a bottom, furrounded with many hills). Af- ter digging through a bed of clay for fome contiderable depth, they found an abun- dant{pring of frefh water, which, as in moft cafes of this fort, rufhed up with great impetuofity, and foon filled the well to the top, where it flowed over in a pretty copious ftream. Dr. Darwin{eeing this, and conceiving that it might defcend through a fubterraneous funnel, that rofe to a greater height than the houfes of the town, eafily perceived, that if he could raife the fides of the wéll to a fufficient height, making them, at the fame time, {trong enough to bear the preflure of the water, he might get it thus convey- ed to the higheft floors of his houfe. This he actually effected, and enjoys, I fup- pofe, the benefit of his ingenuity, till the prefent moment, I do not hear that Dr. Darwin has thought of extending this difcovery to any other ufe; but if an abundant{pring X 2 fhould ON DRAINING BOGS 208 fhould be thus difcovered, which could be forced, without the power of machinery, to rife to a great height, it might, doubt- lefs, in a mountainous country, where phenomena of this fort muft chiefly occur, be employed to great advantage as a power for turning machinery. To iluftrate this fubject, let Fig. 30 reprefent the fection ofa hill,containg an internal ftratum of pervious matter, inclofed between two folid beds of clay; in other words, an internal refervolr, filled with water. If‘this refervoir fhould be difcovered, by means of boring, or otherwife, as at AB, and it was found that the water would rife to the height of A; then, by digging a fhaft, of fufficient di- menfions, and building the fides of it as you proceed, till it reaches the gravel at A, then the water would rife and flow over at A, till the internal furface of the water funk to the level of the line AC; after. which, the whole water that the {pring fupplies would continue to flow Yover at A, and form a perennial ftream, perhaps extremely abundant; the ufes of which, in fuch a fituation, are very ob- \ vious. 5 \f AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 309| vious. St. Winnifred’s{pring, near Holy- well, Flintfhire, which is fo abundant as to turn nine mills, is a natural burft of the fame fort with that I now defcribe(for it is not a great while fince it firft appeared). But were the{pring much fmaller than it is, the great height of fall that might thus be obtained, would give it a commanding power for turning machinery. Should an opening of the kind here mentioned be ever made, it is plain that its effects muft be fenfibly felt in fome other place; exceedingly fo, indeed, if the ftream be abundant; for a refervoir of the kind here fuppofed, muit, of necef- fity, have an outlet fomewhere, for dif- charging its waters; and, as in the cafe here fuppofed, that outlet muft be ona higher level than the other, it could not fail that when this laft was opened up, the other mufthave failed, fothataftream which iffued, perhaps, from an oppofite fide of the hill, poflibly, at many miles diftance, would be entirely dried up, and another formed,that might.take a dire€tion to the fea totally dif- ferent. Thefe phenomena, when thus ex- plained, are as natural as that the fun x 2 fhould 310 ON DRAINING BOGS fhould give light when it fhines; and can excite wonder in the mind of thofe only,| who have never adverted to the phyfical conformation of our globe. Indeed, the borer has been but too little ufed, in confe- quence of which, many facts that might have been highly beneficial to man, have totally efcaped his notice.[ fhall beg leave to fpecify a few, with a view to di- rect the attention of the public to this in- terefting fubject: At Halle, in Germany, a fpring of falt- water was difcovered, many years ago, which when manufa@tured into falt, af- fords a great revenue to the King of Pruffia, in whofe dominions it is placed. Halle being fituated very near to the confines of Saxony, the Elector was in the practice of purchafing brine from thence, which he carried into his own dominions, and there converted it into falt, for the ufe of his fubjects. As the carriage of this brine was attended with a confiderable expence, the EleGor often exprefled an earneft with, that a{pring of falt-water could be found in his own dominions.‘This turn- ed the attention of his people to this fub- . ject, AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 311 je@, and at laft an unlettered peafant, in the neighbourhood or Leipiig, prefented himfelf at court, and made offer, at the rifk of his head, to find falt-water at a place he fhould indicate, if the Ele¢tor would be at the expence of digging for it. __It was fome time before this poor man could adduce fuch arguments as to fatisfy the EleGoral council, that there was fuch a probability of fuccefs, as to authorize them to rifk the experiment; but at length he prevailed. The work was, begun at a place called Durlinberg about 15 miles 7 diftant from Halle. For fome time no- thing extraordinary appeared, but at length they came to a{pring—of frefh- water only.—This did not difcourage the peafant, who ordered them{till to go on. With fome difficulty he effected this points but as the water from that{pring incom- moded them a good deal, it excited a mur- mur againft the poor man. After digging fornewhat farther, they came to a fecond frefh-water f{pring, which threw the un- dertakers into fucha rage, that they would not liften to the poor man, who urged them ftill to proceed; but, on the contrary, > aa the ae i=: 5 ea—_———— ee ae ae“a —— A: Te© ae SP eee ol ae P ' j i ¥ — é< er 312. ON DRAINING BOGS the man feeing them in fuch bad humour at being fruftrated, after having expended fo much money, he began to dread fome mufchief to himfe!f, and fecretly withdrew himfelf from the electoral dominions. Soon after this event, the king of Pruffia overran Saxony, during the feven years’ war, and the operations at this well were forgotten. When peace was afterwards re{tored, and the minds of men a little cooled, the peafant ventured to retutn.— His mind was fiill fet upon completing his enteprize; and he{poke with fo much firmnefs on the head, and adduced fuch cogent arguments in favour of his opinion, as prevailed upon the court a fecond time to begin the work; he having the precau- tion before they began to tell them, that as the{pring was probably at a confider- able depth beyond what they had as yet reached, they muft be determined not to be foon difcouraged. They again went on, and, as he had faid, they did indeed,- when at a very confiderable depth, open up a{pring of falt-water; which ruthed into the well with fuch impetuofity, as foon filled it to the top, over which it flowed, = Re AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 313 flowed, for fome time, in fuch abundance, as to occafion confiderable damages but this violent burft fubfiding by degrees, they began to ereét falt-works, which continue to be worked till this day.. This is one practical proof, at leaft, of the be- nefit that fociety may derive from the ftudy 1 here wifh to recommend. Nor have I a doubt, but if it fhall be properly attended to, many other benefits, equal to the above, may be derived from it. It is well known, that at Newcatftle upon Tyne, and at Bo-nefs, in Scotland, coals are dug at a great depth below the- level of the fea; and even below the bot- tom, and immediately underneath it.—As .no falt-water is difcovered in thefe coal- mines, it attords the moft demonftrative evidence, that the bed of clay that lies above the coal is perfectly impervious by water; of courfe, the water which is found in the coal-mines, and which occa- fions much expence to difcharge it, can get accefs into it in no other way than by defcending along the traét of the coal-feam, from the place where it ap- proaches towards the furface. of the eround, 314 ON DRAINING BOGS ground, exactly in the fame manner that {prings are accumulated in other pervi- ous ftrata. Hence it muft happen, that if this ftream of water fhould be inter- cepted in its courfe, and there carried off to the furface of the ground, no water could get into the mine; fo that all the coals below that interfe€tion would be laid quite dry, by a procefs in every re- ipect analogous to that of intercepting the {prings, defcribed in page 236, and with an effect nearly equally beneficial. I fay nearly in this cafe, becauife no operation of this fort could entirely remove the water, from, the, coal-mine; for as, there rauft be fome fiffures among the coals, through which the water has originally flowed, fo thefe fiffures, in a fituation like that defcribed, muft be entirely filled with water, which would of courfe run in the pit, after the coals are taken out, but this would be fuch a trifling matter, as not to q deferve any notice. Let AB(Fig. 31) reprefent a feam of coals, rifing at A towards the furface, and at B dipping beneath the fea. Let it be fuppofed, that at C it has attained fuch an 5 elevation gi I eee OE TR Wy AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 31; elevation as to be above the level of fome vale or rill of water, and that, of courfe,a level driven’ from the furface at that height, till it reached the coal, might ferve the purpofe of carrying off all the water that fhould fall into it. In that cafe, were the{tratum of coal there pierced through, as at C, fuppofing that to be the only ftratum permeable by water, it would follow, that all the water which had fur- merly been conveyed through that ftra- tum, would be there intercepted, and car- ried clear off to the furface of the ground; and that, of courfe, all the coal that lies below it, would be, from that moment, freed from any additional acceffion of water. In this cafe, the level would not only ferve to free the upper part of the coal-mine from hurtful water, which is all the benefit that has hitherto been aim-. ed at in works of this nature; but the under part of the mine would be alfo be- nefitted by it nearly to an equal deerce. Where the ftrata were fo difpofed, as by varying the direction of the drain, it could be pufhed forward, without falling below the level, till it had cut through the rE” ae aN 316 ON DRAINING BOGS the bed of coal for its whole breadth, the cure would be quite complete. This cafe may probably fometimes occur; but I am as yet too little acquainted with the actual circumitances of this nature, that occur in practice, to be able to fay whether it would be very rare, or: the reverfe.. In- deed, as the fubject has never been as yet confidered under this point of view, I think there is reafon to fufpect it is not known by any human being. It is cer- tain, that much benefit is yet to be deriv- ed from a more thorough invettigation of this intricate, though very interefting fub- ject; and every hint that tends to eluci- date it in any degree, deferves to be at- tended to. {t would be impoffible to enumerate all > benefits that might be derived from the practice of: tapping, jud icloufly. applied, were the nature of the ftrata, and a phy- Goal conformation of the earth, fufficiently adverted to.—Were I even to attempt to give examples of pofible cates, by way of illuftration, it would be deemed hypothe- tical and abfurd. Yet at muft certainly be deemed more abturd, by every rational perfon,. 4 AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 317 perfon, to obferve, that we allow natural _phenomena, which ought to fuggeft prac- tical leffons of wifdom to the attentive obferver, to afford only matter of ftupid admiration. We fee, in fome places, rivers finking into gulfs in the earth, and difappearing. In other places, we fee fub- terraneous rivers iffuing from caverns, while other rivers are meandering on the earth’s furface above them.—We{fee lakés of great extent, furrounded by mountains, that cannot be drained, according to the ordinary mode of procedure.—Miuines are deferted becaufe the water cannot be car- ried off from them, on account of the im- mente length of a /eve/, that would be re- quired to be driven in order to drain them. All thefe things we fee as ifolat- ed facts, that cannot be in any way aes counted for, or connected together. Yet that they may, on fome occafions, be /o connected, as to prove highly beneficial to man, I fhall venture to ihow, even at the rifk of being accounted vifionary. We have feen, from the fact refpecting the well at Tilbury Fort, and the work- ing of coals under the fea, at Newcatftle and eer es atte irene no: wise ROT a_——=—_ —_—- eae Ss ae —— ey = 318.. ON DRAINING BOGS and Bo-nefs, that water may be preferved ina bafon of immenfe extent, though bounded by a cruft of impervious matter, which is of no great depth.| Thefe cafes alfo prove, that{trata of pervious matter may lic under thele; of courfe, many ooz- ing{treams, or even{ubterraneous rivers, may run, at no great depth, beneath lakes, or rich mines that are drowned in water; precifely in the fame way that we have feen(page 64) that a aes of water may be carried along the furface of a bed of fand, at the bottom of which runs a current of water fufficient to fupply innumerable wells abundantly with water; and that this furface-water, if the cruft be once broken, immediately finks into the fand, and totally difappears. Should any acci- _dental. convulfion of nature then break ~the cruft that fupports the lake,{o as to permit it to find its way into. thofe cavities below it, it would, through thefe iflues, find accefs to the fea, and the lake would be effectually drained; fo as to become, in time, like the pena of Cachemire,a fer- ile vale, though every where furrounded with hills, through which nooutletcould be 3 had, AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 319 had.—Might not the fame effect be pro- duced by the ingenuity of man, were he at pains to exert his faculties in cafes of this fort? An earthquake, it is fuppofed, opened a paffage through the mountains of Cachemire, by which the water iffued, fo as to drain that immenfe lake, and through which the river which traverfes that bottom{till flows. An enterprizing individual, who poffeifed a{mall lake on his property, near Glafgow, effefted a drainage, in imitation of this, by digging a level paffage through a furrounding hill, through which the water flowed off, and which ftill operates as a drain. Many cafes may occur, in which a fimilar drain- = age might be effeGted, at a much{maller expence, by finking a pit dow nwards, through which the water might iflue by i if | f Ser, oe ee fubterraneous paflages; and in the fame way, at times, it may doubtlefs happen, that water might be let off from mines at a very{mall expence, compared with that which the driving a level might have coft. Wherever operations of this fortiare. in contemplation, therefore, it behoves the owners to advert to thefe peculiarities, and a ae~. a: Sa ye Pct=: Searels ——— ¥.. teste ee if i Sa ge= j aa SiG 320 ON DRAINING BOGS and to be at more pains to-cquire an ac- curate knowledge of the fubjacent ftrata, in hilly diftricts éefpecially, by means of accurate obférvations, affifted by boring, than has hitherto been done. For in this way, doubtlefs, very great improvements may be made.at a trifling expence. With a view to illuftrate this branch of the fubject ftill more clearly, I have added a diagram(Fig. 32) which is intended to reprefent a fection of a hilly diftrict, in which AB repretents a lake of indefinite magnitude, every where furrounded with hills, which raifes the water to its prefent level, where it finds an outlet at A, and flows from thence in a valley between the hills, till after running thus many mules, if you pleafe, it precipitates ittelf over the rock C. At the bottom of this hill, C, iffues a confiderable ftream of water from a large cavern, like one iof the fame kind near Matlock, in Derbyfhire. This fubterra- neous river,‘we may fuppofe, indeed, we may be affured, flows from agreat dif- tance backward. If it be ofa large fize, it muft have come many miles, indeed, flowing AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 321 flowing all the time through open rocks, or other pervious ftrata, in a direétion nearly fimilar to that marked DE, which may be expected, in general, to lie ata a depth rather above than below the level of the opening from whence it iffues. Under thefe circumftances, it is plain, that if an opening were made in. the bottom of the lake, as at G, the water would fink directly from the lake, into the channel of of the fubterranean river, and if that open- ing were large enough, the whole water of the lake would fink through it, and it mui{t, of courfe, be effeCiually drained. Again, let us fuppofe that F reprefents a mine of Jead, or other metal, which has been there difcovered, but which is fo drowned in water that it cannot be worked with pro- fit. According to the ufual practice, the owner of that mine has no other way of draining off this water, but by taking the depth of the bottom of the mine, and fur- veying the ground around it, fo as to be able to mark the neareft place on the hill fide that is ona level with the bottom of his mine, and from thence he derives a le- vel C F till he reaches the mine. In many Moi“1. NG fituations, 322 ON DRAINING BOGS fituations, that level! may require to be driven feveral miles in length, before it can reach the mine, the expence of which can never be repaid, and therefore the mine muft be abandoned for ever.—And where it is even found that the mine is- fo rich as to afford the expence—yet the time that muft be expended on this operation(where one or two men only can be permitted to work at once) is a moft difcouraging circumftance, as five, ten, or even twenty years may be ex- pended before it can be completed.—But, in the fituation here defcribed, it is evident from infpection, that if a perforation had been made right downwards, from F, it would foon have reached the fubterranean river, and thus have freed the mine from =~ nn gee aan=~= me=_ er= Ge. See a,— at 2= a" rs Ba .” as" oe- 1 he>. a recente rae 3™ SS=a-=e iE~! - 2' ae: eee crt=_ sarees 4 ery_<=: Rida Saas= - al X: Z* ai. pp ee > Fi+s Jost- Be oe\ ' =a= the extraneous water, at an expence incon- ceivably fmall. Not only could the hurtful water be thus eafily abftracted, but other ufes could be Be 2S eS made of this fubterranean drain, that would ne prove highly beneficial to the undertak- sy er.— Ifa{mall flream of water, for example, could be brought to the mouth of the pit, it could be employed, by means of a chain and buckets, to raife up the whole of the ore to the furface, at next to no expence to the undertakers; Sa aE dell —— AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 32% undertakers; or, after{pace fufficient for that purpofe was once worked out, it could be made to drive{tampers below, for ftamping and wafhing the ore, there, before it be brought out of the mine, and for other ufes. Nor let it be thought that thefe are chi- merical or impracticable notions: There are many fituations, already known, upon the earth’s furface, where thefe operations might be undertaken not with a probability only, but with a certainty of fuccefs. The river Guadiana, in Spain, finks at one place into the earth, and after running under ground for feveral leagues, rifes again to the furface. .— Now as no holes have ever been difcover- ed in the bowels of the earth, refembling a bored’ pipe, or mole-rut—but the open- ings there, through which water flows, are univerfally found to confilt of porous ftrata, which fpread‘out in breadth to a great extent—-there is a moral certainty that there muft lie beneath the furface of the ground, every where between the place where the river finks, and where it rifes, a large ftratum of pervious matter, which pro- vably ftretches toa great extent on either fide, Y 2 and 324. ON DRAINING BOGS and that, of courfe, if any mines were dif- covered in that traét, they could, with certainty, be drained in the manner here propofed. It is alfo known, that in the hill called Ingleborough, in Yorkthire, there are many openings, called there Swal/ows, into which rivulets precipitate themfelves, and are loft. Where thefe ftreams re-appear, I do not at prefent know; but wherever it is, there can be no doubt thatall the tract between the one place and the other muft be hollow, and of courfe, could readily admit of the mode of draining here propofed. It is alfo known, that in Derbyfhire, the river Dove, I think(I quote from me- mory) finks into the earth, and at a confi- derable diftance rifes again.—Subterraneous rivers are known to iflue, alfo, at other parts in Derbyfhire, and in Devonfhire, in Denbeighfhire, and feveral other places, I have. not taken notice of; all of which give fufficient indications of a fimilar gene- ral organization, to render it next to certain, that in thofe regions, operations of the fort here recommended, would prove fuccefsful. The fame conclufion may, in general, be inferred Cn ce mend se AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 325 inferred in all the mountainous regions, where very copious fprings burft forth, whofe waters are little affeted by the tem- perature of the feafon, being very cold in fummer, and warm in winter; for this cir- cumilance always indicates, that they have come from a confiderable diftance within the bowels of the earth—Other indicative circumftances might be pointed out, which I have not time to enumerate. Having now, as I hope, proved in a fa- tisfactory manner, that the mode of drain- ing here recommended is a very practica- ble procefs, I fhall add nothing farther to the length of this Effay, than to give a few hints ref{pecting the manner in which that operation may be the moft eafily effected. On this head, it will be very obvious, that where much water is in the place to be drained, it would be, in all cafes, a dif- hcult matter, in many cafes impoffible, to fink a pit directly downwards, immedi- ately from thefe refervoirs, by digging. In {uch fituations, this operation ought to be effected by dering. When, by means of a borer, the fubterraneous vacuum has been Ye'3 once ~ a a Tah ST Ps Fn a a eae eS pi OS 326 ON DRAINING BOGS once attained, a certain judgment can be formed of the expence of the future ope- rations."The width of a bore that can thus be made is, indeed, but{mall, but much water will be let off through a very{mall bore, under the circumitances here indicated, becaufe of the altitude from which it mutt defcend. If the ftratum through which the bore paffes, fhall chance to be clay its whole length, the hole would quickly become of a fufficient width to give paflage to the whole water, But if it confift of harder materials, more bores muit be made; and thefe, if made ina circle, of no great diameter, oe near to each other, would give the water a ance,. by its great, force in rufhi through, to break down, by degrees, the whole of the circular folid, and icave a cealy in its nee at any rate, there are ew mines which have fo much water as ar re a ht ea Fe Gx] could hot be let es by a few fuch bores alone. With regard to the drainage of lakes; if thefe are of great extent, it will become a matteryof greater difficulty and ex- AND SWAMPY GROUNDS, 327 pence; but as the profit will be great, in proportion to the extent, that circumftance will, no doubt, be taken into the account. In all cafes, the afcertaining whether the thing be practicable or not, canbe done at a trifling charge; for a fingle explora- tory bore will afcertain not only the depth to which it muft be carried, before it reaches the pervious ftratum, but alfo the nature of the materials through which it has to pafs; and, confequently will give room fora pretty accurate eftimate to be made of the expence. In making this exploratory bore, one circumftance muft be particularly advert- ed to; for as it will be neceflary to make that bore, if poffible, in the deepeft part of the lake, it will be a matter of fome difficulty to afcertain whether the{mall bore, under thefe circumftances, allows water to flow through it or not? This point, however, may be afcertained by means of the boring irons alone; for if the mouth-piece be thicker than the rod, it will no fooner reach the pervious ftra- tum below,than the water, rufhthg down- ward with great impetuofity around the — a ro 2 4 of a: Sem or ae x 5. aes—-= * SE gy es — 328 ON DRAINING BOGS rod, will prevent the poffibility of draw- ing up the mouth-piece any more. To guard againit this circumftance, which is to be expected, the mouth-piece ought to be fo fixed on, as that by turning the rods the reverfe way, it may be unfcrewed, fo as to be detached from the rods entirely, which may then be drawn up without it. Of courfe, all the joinings of the rods mutt be fo fixed, as not to be loofened by that reverfed motion. It will not, however, be expected, that where a large river paffes through a Jake, like the Rhone through the Lake of Ge- neva, or the Rhine through that of Con- {tance; or even much{maller ftreams than either of thefe, could, by a procefs of the kind here hinted at, be ever fwallowed up. There are few fubterraneous ftrata, we are to fuppofe, fo large as to admit of carrying off a current of fuch magnitude. But if that fhould be found to be the cafe, the pafflage for the river into that fubter- raneous ftratum fhould be made, not in the bottom of the lake, by boring, but at the edge of it, near where the river falls “into the lake; and this paffage may be du gy i AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 329 dug, by hand, of a fufficient width to fwal- low up the river when flooded, and then the river may be led into it, fo as never to be‘allowed to-reach the lake at all. But this, for the reafon affigned, can feldom be practicable with mehice to large rivers; and in regard to fmaller rills, chee feed lakes, in general, it will be cheaper(un- le{s where the under-ftratum is clay, and of very little depth) in moft eel anee to make a water-courfe all round the lak nearly in a horizontal pofition ane a gentle flope only towards the outlet) to in- tercept all the rills, and the water that falls from higher ground, and carry it clear off, without allowing it to defcend into the bottom. In this way, no other water will require to be let off through the bottom hole, than that which arifes from fprings within the lake itfelf, which probably are, in many cafes, not nume- rous. It is to be hoped the candid reader will receive thefe hints with indulgence, they being intended to throw fome light upon a fubject of great national importance, which, if it be underftood by any one, has never SS ae| ee a Soe . : i == pe be Oo) ead oven nD) 2 H 4 sore|~~ H| pes ~ re© a Geert a on S Arete Oe ka 1 cD) oI OF=e A ep) fs) | oy ee a me} es ba ¢ Ge- a ae ae& ae H SS(©) q~ el tee ae RE=<- q)~ aD io) path Nc PG} Font B) ae 1, YY rir; rR erat—~—)~ eo) Sp Anema o) beg c 4 q{7 tf)°= a@) 4 Pe oa aad 5) Pot fndeg ca cB)— had‘ Qa ==(D) t eed(3~~> J ts}— 5| es a : a i: a hr. a> nee“a ot© ao— ed qe(eee pe!~= MS- ey, O f i@)° ee 5 m4 ce om“ or p= O©) ts eed di om ey S ort et Lea}; fe 3 Me ral 4(Gott Amen rot or© anh eS© ce| }/\€ aad=): 1) EK pow. 4 emt>~~ we‘ es ne af a (9) O Ce) aa Os a} Nesken) Cote a el(@) pa_— ct+) wot=: 1 Ss) an!&‘~r4 ce+ QO+e{ ay trys A a&% et“ 4 Suny ea~ G}~ a] a a: i f lo) n md Ce at oat pa, as Les}~— ww re cB) cD) a P) 1B) cs = past ve cD) es ca hi ae a K 4 Mat Oo= Na"= vont ES} q) AE chpat Vee=| S~—= 7 OU C3 O aipagere: Co oN bers eco' ise ot(Dy aS) a= ane-— a ana ay co(a>) Sokand oo 4= m= f wad(D) t sa) ern.) apa!©<= ol nd. a t. sa Se a pax“~ vot en Bde die 3S> ae ee 3 te a one Ayr aah te ee O ) Pg gr" aa OT soe| Cape. Y)) O=) rny ON(oe) ee eesti ri soli eae ey, b©(S) 0} G.-- ie 2 ae} Cae at ost Re. ms eG f i) eal ney eae A 0 wed be pe=~ S~ Pa rar “4 O Pre Moa oe ae a( Se SR$5 Sey ae ay CE CS — ey oa rs y t cet. oY vor ¢ ton Vv_ port{ Mi to~ pa poy O OS(cD)= ao] Gs) ain q) aa= s ha od O CS Se Ss 59 pam SS Sd pam} aa D— 1) pee a! ot lat Xe) Cf 4 4 Len pp rad. ay ee ©)— be ded eee(qe La e) Nay Fs pas aq t e pe om am Ven} nal Q) a peed A pont e~ s© a mH Pr ie. o f LN ri oe] ry e A MG>)@) Hae Ha|) q a) jemand ay y Sf) he Lr am iS As ay On RR pane 4(agp a aetesee pata pages Ste= 2 en ae Oy yalepee te pees ar ee, eae eas. A On ee Be mT edt OG pe‘Se—.\ rom=)@) 9°) ecole Co pot) rm=) 4 q(~ Cool-(cD) oo Sed ae}@ a) ed P ca 4 pee,~~— ) whuad. wad bs(qo). rl nN e et© ise ore~@)—_> ; ar! ro]@ q Y pate om)(DE| co CG Co Ss oy re eae BES i ca Ch peed ae oe ca ed~~= f a a ae) o) Sel a al-=~=d)‘ | 2 Sp cae 9>}! Or Os aes een, CO 2 jam ah eh ts i>. p C C hd a) he= Cry YhS Co+H cn q er h4©) CW Sorel earn ie ea ji ie et coe Dyes ae© i- a) et es‘ ot q“~ 12 vd f ¢)+ camer boas O» Qian Snel ae} cD) S mt Ua~i q)= jm: es Pee Oye 00 Os we oY ee a, ee eet by é py V3) Ve w ,oO ee a0} 1) or con ct o>) n~ wed es QQ: Ve) i “1 fos os~ aw)\/ ms! ae= ¢ m4~—| , ot oS Ses Orc a Baal her ge E ca of(Os ey i, ae Ci|~ tt ee) a= Pa S P=— ram) NZ rn) a4> i cy) co i gpl= eS gS aN a o——d pe ond—-— a 4’ ct cp) e 4 a rh coors ot ce)(>) ne i head(D; ot 4| bed eT ges cm ov as|| oe“ed Ngug‘a 9 tot fare pts+) bss C ere 4 tee Tot 4 " e) 4 Le PQ gerany+ agen; aster© q) ed Pe A Le fea“CS y poke co Q t ¢ f HOS ee!& eo ares 4 i Falet Cla ae es 3 5 cpr\e ted Ht Pi 5 Ta ee ee SS AND-SWAMPY GROUNDS. 331 able. for Bae Ms and therefore claim a {hare of ind wlgence from.the critic, parti- cularly fn what regards their form. As to the matter, no indulgence is requefted; for.if any thing effential be erroneous, it is of importance that it fhould be core Terted: CORRECTIONS anp ADDITIONS. WHEN above was written, I had no opportunity of car KARAS the Philofophical E See es 1s, and was therefore obliged to quote from memory, the fact re{pecting the well at Sheernefs; and the plate was engraved on the idea there exprefled. I have fince feen the 74th volume of the TranfaGions, in which, that fact is re- corded, and find it only differs from the account given above in one particular, the uppermoft ftratum, to the 30 feet, confifted wholly of fand, and that all the water which was found in that part, was falt to the tafte; in every other refpect, it was exactly as above ftated, This circumftance requires no alteration 1 : i : a ee 332,. ON DRAINING BOGS alteration to be made, as the dlluftration would be the fame. Ina few particulars, of no moment, the cafe re{pecting Dr.| Darwin’s well, is alfo a little different; but, as this illuftration is perfectly the fame, it is not worth mentioning farther. A cafe a good deal different from this, occured at Languard Fort, which is alfo fituated by the fide of the fea. In digging there for a well through a bed of fand, they found-abundance of water: but, as this was below high-water mark, they con- fidered it to be falt water, and it was owing to an accident alone, that they found it to be perfeétly fweet. They con- tinued to dig down, always finding abund- ance of{weet water, until, at the depth of twelve feet, they found it fuddenly to become more abundant, and perfe@lly falt. On examination, it was difcovered that the falt-water was found exaétly at the height of /ow-water; and that all above low-water mark, afforded fweet water only. This phenomenon was evidently owing to the falt-water having had time to penetrate backwards to a great diftance, where the fand was below the level at which the ii fea AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 333 {ea ftood continually; but, between high and low water mark, the frefh water in its paflage towards the fea, though ftopped for a time by the falt tide, yet ftill preffed forward, and retarded its paflage back through the fand: Nor is it to be doubt- ed, that, if free accefs had been given, to the water into the well, while the fand was kept back, that the water in this well would have rifen higher at flood, than at the ebb tide., But, not to dwell on this unimportant circumftance, the practical inferences that may be drawn from thefe two cafes, are important. In the cafe of Sheernefs, no enemy from without could ever entertain the moft diftant hope of intercepting the water from the fort. The thing is feemingly impoffible. In the other cafe, the water could be cut off by a befieging army with- out much difficulty, if the country fhould happen to be pretty level; for they would have only to draw a trench between the high land behind and the fort, till it reach- ed either the bottom of the pervious (tratum, or attained the level of /w water, and 2 ¥ ¥ =— -_ L—~ ne 4 SEE= 334. ON DRAINING BOGS and the bufinefs muft be effe€tually com- pleted.; Another praétical inference may be drawn from the cafe at Sheernefs which I may be permitted to mention. Should the © flat ground continue for ever fo great a diftance backward, there can be little doubt that through the whole traét between the fort and the higher ground, water will be found, by boring, every where, that will rife in the wells always to the fame level with the well in the fort: for the under pervious ftratum muft of neceffity be con- tinued fromthe higher ground, or it could not have poffibly rifen in the well at all. Another practical inference to be drawn from this cafe is; that-as wells of freth water are fometimes found to rife to the furface of the ground, or near it, in{mall iflands, that: are at a diftance from the land, there-can be no doubt, but in ey cafe of this fort a pervious ftratum, covered by one of impervious matter, muft run the whole way from the higher land, un- der the fea to the ifland, as at Inch Keith, and Inch Colomb, both in the Frith of Forth; and that, of courfe, water will be found AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 33 found in that direction every where, if dug for to a Pa depth, alent will rife to the fame level with the well in the ifland. Hence, if water be wanted on the fea-fhore it may undoubtedly there be found. Again, There are a few inftances of abun- dant{prings of good water being found on the top of fome{mall peaked hills, of confi- derable altitude, whichare detached from alf other hills by furrounding vallies. In every cafe of this fort, it muft be occafioned by a natural perforation, of the fame kind with an siete cial tap-hole, which reaches lower down than fome part of the valley around, which me it from higher ground at ware greater or{maller dittance, pase Z a of clay iying above the pervious ftra- tum the whole way.‘This being the cafe, there can be little doubt, that every whe: é 7" Aa ee i<4 between the higher ground and that hil pe) oP b b a r Paey or & © a0) t Eataesh 1S| Z o will rife to a greater height L 7: Cie a~- t! van the furface ef the ground—but it is by no means impoffible, that if { he well on the hill wil be abundant, t ay) 5 4 ried capt indeed thieicinok oalvings uy ried up. indeed, this is not only not im- poffible but high}; , 336 ON DRAINING BOGS fort in that fituation, may be very eafily re- duced to a great diftrefs by a philofophical 0 general who befieges it.—This‘cannot be A done in the low fituation of Sheernefs; nor m will the fame reafoning apply in all cafes 4 to fprings upon detached mountains, where| the fummit is more flat and of large ex-|( tent, and the{pring of water not very| abundant.: Here, alio, it may afford fatisfa€tion to| fome perfons to be informed, that the ufe} which is propofed to be made of water finking from above into internal cavities,for} the purpofe of turning machinery(p. 322) is not without example; for, there is.a| : mull of this kind, ata place called Mouhus, (I quote from memory) in the diftria of f Neufchatel, in Switzerland, where the water, which falls intoa gulf in the moun- 4 tain, turns the wheel; the mill itfelf, and’ allthe machinery belonging to it, being f entirely under ground. It may be here alfo remarked, that Dr. i Derham, having found a{pring at Up-; minfter, in Effex, which continued at all: times nearly at an equal height, both| fummer and winter, wifhed to infer from: that AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 337 that"tat; that’“all{prings, derived their origin from the fea. This phenomenon, however, has been explained in another manner, by the well near Leith(p. 285.) which is a cafe that is by no means rare. It may, indeed, oftén happen, that a well of this kind may be found lying dire@ly above another{pring of the ¢ap-kind, which may be made to rife to a great height above it, and which alfo‘hall con- tinue always at the fame height nearly. Thefe corollaries are fo obvious, as to require fome apology for{tating them— But when common things are reprefented as myfterious arcana, it is proper that the veil which covers thern fhould be, in fome mea- fure, withdrawn. After perufing the above, and adverting that there is not a fingle principle here il- luftrated, which was not clearly explained in thefe Effays, more than twenty years ago— (the fingle cafe of draining thin clays alone excepted; all that is added here being only illuftrations. of the principles already fully enough explained to every philofophical en- quirer) the reader is left to judge with what propriety the Boarp or AGRICULTURE Work ZL has -: Rie IEEE. aaa-——e, £ Teor Rie SSS—— 338 ON DRAINING BOGS,&. has prefixed the following exordium, to their account of Mr. Erxineton’s Mode of Draining Land: << It is(fay they) a circumftance hardly to ‘¢ be credited, that the principles on which « the draining of land depends, fhould have «remained fo long unafcertained, confider- «ing the great private benefit, and the «© many public advantages, which muift ne- ‘¢ ceffarily be derived from carrying fo im- ‘¢ portant an art to perfection!! 1” Mr. Arthur Young, in one of his per- formances, tells us, that he attended a /eance of a fociety of philofophers, in France, wha had met.for the purpofe of improving agti- culture, the importance of whofe delibera- tions, and the wifdom of whofe remarks, he does not mention in terms of the higheft re{pect. I am well pleafed to excufe myfelf for not quoting the paflage, from my being at prefent deprived of books.— It would be well if that gentleman would take care to have things fo well airinged at home, as not to give occafion for ftrangers to retort upon our own dear nation, in a fimilar manner. Der- ance who ott: 4- ks, SRA ro f) Cn ee ae Oe a a ne oe aint ee Ste ESSAY Ii. On THE Proper METHOD OF LEVELLING HIGH RIDGES. T was the pra¢tice very univerfally, in old times, to make the ridges in all ploughed lands crooked, like an inverted 5, and of very great breadth and height, which, ina great degree, prevents the farmer from reaping the full benefit of many of thofe improvements that have been adopted in modern times. In fome parts of England, it is fo long fince they began to make improvements in agricul- ture, that this obftruétion to them has been entirely removed, and the very re- membrance of this improper practice has been loft: But, in fome places there, and through the greateft part of Scotland, it {till continues to prevail, to the great de- triment of the induftrious improver; as it either mars his operations in a high degree, or fubjeéts him to a confiderable expence in reducing them toa proper level; which Z 3 is tee OE GEV EB ISL INC is greatly enhanced by the very confidera- ble deficiency in his crops, that he mutt feel for many, years, in confequence of this operation, unlefs it is performed with an uncommon degree of care and atten- tion. The difficulty of performing this ope- ration properly with the common imple- ments of hufbandry, and the cbvious be- nefit that accrues to the farmer from hav- ing his fields level, have produced many new inventions of ploughs, harrows, drags, &c. calculated for{peedily reducing the fields to that ftate:; none of which have as yet been found fully to anfwer the purpofe for which they were intended, as they all indifcriminately carry the earth that was on the high places, into thofe that were lower; which, although it may, in fome cafes, render the furface of the ground tolerably imcoth and level, is utually attended with inconveniencies far greater, for a confiderable length of time, than that which it was intended to re- move. For experience fufficiently fhows, that even the beft vegetable mould, if buried for a con- i [= Ux HIGH RIDGES., 34 a confiderable length of time fo far beneath the furface as to be deprived of the benign ifluences of the atmofphere, lofes its ves vite, if 1 may be allowed that expreflion, __becomes.an inert, lifelefs mafs, little fit- ted for nourifhing vegetables,—and con- Ritutes a foil very improper for the pur- pofes of the farmer. It, therefore, behoves him, as much as in him lies, to preferve, on every part of his fields, an equal cover- ing of that vegetable mould which has long been sos mote and rendered fertile by the meliorating influence of the atmo- {phere. But if he fuddenly levels his high ridges by any of thofe) con- trivances, he of neceffity buries all the good mould that was on the top of the ier‘nthe old furrows; by which he greatly impoverifhes one part of his field, while he too much enriches another; in- foruch, that it is a matter of great diffi- aay, for many years thereafter, to get the ield brought to an equal degree of ferti- Be in different places:—-W hich makes it ee e for the farmer to get an’equal crop over the whole of his field, by any management whatever; and he has the Ls mortification 44 OF SREVELEING mortification, frequently, by this means, to'fee the one half of his crop rotted by an over luxuriance, while other parts of it are weak and fickly, or one part ripe, and ready for reaping, while the other is not properly filled; fo that it were, on many occafions, better for him to have his| whole field reduced at once to the fame degree of poornefs as the pooreft of it, than have it in this ftate. An almoft im- practicable degree of attention in{pread- ing the manures, may indeed in fome mea- fure get the better of this difeafe; but it 1s fo difficult to perform this properly, that I have frequently feen fields that had been thus levelled, in which, after thirty years of continued culture, and repeated dreflings, the marks of the old ridges could be diftinétly traced, when the corn was crowing, although the furface:was fo level that no traces of them could be perceived when the corn was off the ground. But this is a degree of perfection in levelling that cannot be ufually attained by following this mode of practice, and therefore is but feldom feen: For, all that can be expected to be done by any level- ling HGH RUDIGER. sa ling machine, is to render the /urface per- fe€tly{mooth and evex* in every\part, at the time that the operation is perform- ed: But as in this cafe the old hollows are fuddenly filled up with loofe mould to a great depth, while the earth below the furface, upon the heights of the old ridges, remains firm and compact, the new-raifed earth, after a fhort time, fubfides very much, while the other parts of the field do not fink at all; fo that in a fhort time the old furrows come to be again below the level of the other parts of the field, and the water, of courfe, is fuffered in fome degree to ftagnate upon them, in fo much that in a,few years it becomes neceffary once more to repeat the fame leveiling procefs, and thus renew the damage that the farmer fuftains by this pernicious ope- ration. On thefe accounts, if the farmer has not a long leafe, it will be found in ge- * I know not if-evea, in the fenfe here ufed, is an Englith word. Level denotes, properly fpeaking, a fur- face, not only free from inequalities, but alfo horizon- tal in pofition. Even denotes a furface free from ine- qualities, whatever be the pofition thereof. neral 46.“OP BEVELLING neral to be more for his intere{t to leave the ridges as he found them, than to attempt to alter their direction: And if he at- tends with due caution to moderate the height of thefe old ridges, he may reap very good crops, although, perhaps, at a {omewhat greater expence of labour than he would have been put to upon the fame field, if it had been reduced to a proper level furface, and divided into{traight and parallel ridges. But where a man is fecure of poffefling his ground for any confiderable length of time, the advantages that he will reap from having level and well laid out fields, are foconfiderable as to be worth purchaf- ing, if it fhould even be at a confiderable expence. But the lofs that is{uftained at the beginning, by this mechanical mode of levelling ridges, if they are of confide- rable height, is fo very great, that it is perhaps doubtful if any future advantages can ever fully compeniate it. I would therefore advife, that all this levelling ap- parutus thould be laid afide, and the fol- lowing more efficacious practice be(ubfti- tuted in its ftead—a practice that I have 5 long —— Sa ee a IO HIGH RIDGES)- 37 long followed with fuccefs, and can fafely recommend as the very beft that has yet come to my knowledge. If the ridges have been raifed to a very great height, asa preparation for the en- {uing operations, they may be firft-cloven, or, as it 1s in other places called, /caled out; that is, ploughed fo as to lay the earth on each ridge from the middle to- wards the furrows: But if they are only of a moderate degree of height, this ope- ration may be omitted. When you mean to proceed to level the ground, let a number of men be colleéted with{pades, more or fewer as the nature of the ground requires, and then fet a plough to draw a thurrough* diredtly acrofs the ridges of the whole field intended to be levelled. Divide this line into as many parts as you have labourers, allot- * I find myfelf here at a lofs for a term, and there- fore have been obliged to revive one now obfolete, although exceedingly proper. By furrow, in this Treatife muft always be underftood the openings or{mall drains on each fide of the ridge, and that alone.—-By thurreugh is underftood the open trench left by the plough in its ordinary operation. The reader is defired to attend to this diftinction. jo daa THe, ng fa 4 oe a a= Se lene ai g8. VELL ING ting to each one ridge or two, or more of lefs, according to their number, height, and other circumftances. Let eachof the labourers have orders, as foon as the plough has paffed that part affigned him, to begiri to dig in the bottom of the thur- rough that the plough has juft made, about the middle of the fide of the old ridge, keeping his face towards the old furrow, working backwards till he comes to the height of the ridge; and then turn to- wards the other furrow, and repeat the fame on the other fide of the ridge, always throwing the earth that he digs up, into the deep old furrow between the ridges, that is directly before him; taking care not to dig deep where he firft begins, but to go deeper and deeper, as he advances to the height of the ridge, fo as to leave the bottom of the trench he thus makes acrof$ the ridge entirely level, or as nearly fo as poffible. And when he has finifhed that part of the thurrough allotted to him, which the plough has made in going, let him then go and finifh, in the fame manner, his own portion of the thurrough, that the plough makes in returning.—In this man- 1 ner, HIGH RIDGES. 349 ner, each man performs his own. tafk through the whole field, gradually raifing the old furrows, as the old heights are de- prefled. And if an attentive overfeer is at hand, to fee that the whole is equally well done, and that each furrow is raifed to a greater height than the middle of the old ridges, fo as to allow for the fubfiding of that loofe earth, the operation will be entirely finifhed at once, and never again need to be repeated. In performing this operation, it will al- ways be proper to make the ridges, form- ed for the purpofe of levelling, which go acrofs the old ridges*, as broad as poffible; becaufe the deep trench that is thus made in each of the furrows of this new-formed * T find myfelf here again at a lofs for a term, and am afraid this may occafion fome embarraffinent to the reader,‘To avoid this as much as may be, let him ob- ferve, that as the plough is directed to go and return fucceffively dire@tly acrofs the old ridges, the earth on each fide of the line firft drawn in that direction will be turned towards it, by the ordinary operation of the plough, for a certain breadth, fo as to form a divifion in the field, refembling an ordinary ridge.—It is this kind of divifion that I am obliged to call@ ridge that goes acrofs the old ridges, for the purpefe of levelling. ridge, 350 OF LEVEERLING ridge, acrofs the old ones, are an impedi- ment to the future operations, as well as the height that is accumulated in’ the middle of each of thefe ridges; fo that the fewer there are of thefe, the better it is. The farmei:, therefore, will do wel! to advert to this in time, and begin with forming a ridge, by always turning the plough to the right hand, till it babies of fuch a breadth as‘make$ it very incon- venient to turn Jonger in that manner; and then, at the diftance of twice the breadth of this new-formed ridge, from the middle of it, mark off a thurrough for the etic of another His turning routid‘it > the right hand, in the fame manner as was done in the former, till it becomes of ae ae the fame breadth with it; and then turn- ing to the lefthand, plough out the interval b that was lef between, the tvio new form- edridyes.» By this mode of 3 proughing, each ridge may be made of fort ty, or even fifty or’ fixty yards in breadth, without any great incohvenience; for, although fome tame will be loft in cede at the ends of thefe broad‘ri idges, yet as this operation is 7 nly to be once performed in this manner, HPGH BRIDGES 351 the advantage that is reaped by having few open thurroughs, is more than fuffi- cient to counterbalance it. And in order to moderate the height that would be formed in the middle of each of thefe great ridges, it will always be proper to mark out the ridges, and draw the thur- rough that is to be the middie of each, fome day before you collect all your la- bourers to level the field; that you may, without any hurry, or lofs of labour, clear out a good trench through the middle of each of the old ridges; as the plough at this time, going and returning nearly in the fame track, prevents the labourers from working properly without this pre- €aution. If thefe rules are attended to, your field will be at once reduced to a proper level, and the rich earth that formed the furface of the old ridges be ftill kept upon the furface of your field; fo that the only lofs the poffeffor of fuch ground can fuf- tain by this operation, is-‘merely the- pence of performing it. But this expence, I am fenfible, will be apt to ftartle many from. attempting it, as it 352 Of(LEV# LiiN 6 itis but too. common with people in the country, who are not much in the prac- tice of making accurate calculations, as much to over-rate in their own minds the expence of manual labour, as they under- rate the expence of ploughing, and the other operations performed by their own horfes and hired fervants. For the fatif- faction of thofe who may never have at- tempted any operation of this fort, I thall let them know what I have found it to be. t will readily oceur to ever moone,@ that the expence of ecreeains aes operation, muft vary aceording to the aneigit and breadth of the ridges. The-breadth, in a particular manner, increafes the expences becaule as the earth, in that cafe, mutt be thrown very far, it io fatigues the la- bourers, that they are not able to do near fo much work as if they were narrowe But on the ground where the ridges are fo high, as ee they would require to be cloven, or laid from the middle towards the furrows five or fix times, and as many times crofs-harrowed, before they could be brought to a level, by means of thefe implements alone, I find, that ten or eleven men, HIGH RIDGES. 353 men, will, in the manner above defcribed, jevel the ground as faft as one plough can turn it over, if it goes at an ordinary pace. Now, as aman can work during the time of two and a half ordinary double yok- ings in the day, eleven men in one day will level as much ground as could be ploughed at two yokings and a half of one plough, even where the ridges are as high as they can ever be met with; and where the height is more moderate, five or fix men would be fufficient to perform the fame quantity of work. From which data, any one who choofes to do it, may make a compariton of the expence of per- forming this operation in either of thefe two ways, properly adapted to his own particular fituation; for this muft necef- farily vary very much in different places, as the expence of labour and other cir- cumftances may be very different, But, for the fatisfaction of fuch as may with to avoid the trouble of making this calculation, I fhall attempt it in the fol- Jowing manner:—Let us fuppofe that the price of labour in Scotland, varies in dif- ferent places from fixpence to one fhilling, Vor. tf. Aa and 354,. OF LEVELLING and that the medium price may be fixed at ninepence per day; and that the hire of a plough, with four horfes and two fervants(for fo many, in general, will be requifite to labour properly ground in the condition that this is fuppofed to be in) varies in like manner from three to five fhillings per yoking, and that the medium price of this fhould be called four fhillings; in this cafe, the comparative expence of levelling, by thefe two dif- ferent modes, would be as follows: Levelling by the Spade. For wages to eleven labourers one day, at ninepence each, On. 3 oy For the hire of a plough 24 yok- ings, at four fhillings each, 0 10° 0 Total éxpence of one day’s work, 0 18 3 Levelling HIGH RIDGES. 355 J Levelling the fame by the Plough and Harrows, For 2-yokings and a half of a plough, as above,© IG; 6 For harrowing ditto, fuppofed at 1-4th of the ploughing, 2 2s© Total for once ploughing,&c. 0 12 6 Thefame fivetimesmorerepeated,z3 2 6 ot Total expence of levelling by plough and harrows,$15.0 Total expence of levelling by the {pade, Onto 732 Difference,—.2 16 Gg So that the expence of levelling by the plough is above four times as great as performing that operation by the fpade, at the rates above mentioned; which is a difference fo very great, as no variation of the rates of labour, from what is fup- pofed above, could in any cafe nearly compenfate. It will poffibly be objected by fome, that I here lay the whole expence of the fix ploughings and harrowings to the ac- count of leveling; whereas, they ought Aa2- rather q16 OR LEVELLING rather, in a great meafure, to be confidered as a fummer-fallow, and charged, of con- fequence, to that head; which would re- duce the expence of levelling confider- ably—But if they confider the matter with due attention, they will find that this. plea cannot be admitted. It mutt be re- membered, that each fucceflive ploughing, when performed in this manner, buries a part of the good earth that was meliorated by the former ploughings, and turns up fome of the inert earth in the middle of the ridge; which, by the next ploughing, is made. to cover another parcel of good earth, and-have its place fupplied by other earth ftill more inert than 1t was; fo that when the whole fix ploughings dre finifhed, inftead of having the field ynéliorated as by a fallow, a great part of its furface is covered with that inert earth, which is much worfe than the native mould would have been without any fallow at all: and it‘is this made fo unequal in qua- lity, as to be productive of the very wortt conféquencés, as has been already re- marked: So that, inftead of having done any fervice to the field, the whole of thefe ploughings and harrowings have really rendered a HiGA RVOGeE s&s. 7 rendered it worfe than before, and ought, therefore, to be entirely charged to the account of the levelling, and to no other account whatever; as well as the damage that the ground fuftains by this opera- tion, which has not been charged to the account..On the other hand, were we to calculate accurately, the ploughing that accompanies the levelling by the tpade ought not by any means to be charged to the account of levelling, as it anfwers every purpote of a fallow in the higheft degree; to which purpofe, the operations with the{pade likewife contribute in fome meafure. On all which accounts, I think, it is palpably obvious, that this is not only the moft effectual method of levelling ridges, but alfo the leaft expenfive, and, beyond any degree of comparifon, the moft profitable to the farmer. After what has been faid, 1 prefume the reader will excufe me, if I takeno farther notice of the various machines that have been invented for carrying the earth from the heights into the hollows; as I flatter mytfelf that he will be fatisfied, that al- though they were much more perfect tha: any of them are, and fhould diminith the A a3 expence 8 OF TLEVELM ONG expence of the operation of the plough very confiderably, yet the inconveniences that refult from the ufe of them are fo many and great, as could never admit of a comparifon with that by the fpade. It may, however, be obferved, that let the levelling in this manner be completed in the moft accurate way, ftill more is re- quired to put the field into that ftate, which ever ought to be aimed at; for as the earth that lies below the plough-fur- row, in the middle of the old ridges is firm, while that which has filled up the old furrows is loofe, there will be a hurt- ful inequality in the field, owing to this caufe, until it fhall be removed. For this purpofe, the earth in the middle of the old ridges, below the furface-furrow, fhould be loofened with a foot-crow, as complete- ly as poffible without being turned up. If this be done, and the old furrows be left a little higher than the old ridges, the operation will be as complete as can be expected. The above is what I deem the very beft method that can be praétifed for le- velling ridges; and as I have frequently performed een= Hy Gis Ra DG ESS) 359 performed it with the createft fuccefs, I can recommend it as fuch from expe- rience. But, on fome occafions, the fitua- tion of the field may be fuch, as to render ploughing it acrofs incommodious; and in that cafe, the following method, although lefs. perfect, may be fubftituted in its {tead: In this method, it is neceffary, firft, to cleave out every ridge, fo as to leave an open thurrough in the middle of it: But, in performing this operation, it wil be proper to leave about a yard or fo on each fide of the old furrow untouched; which will form a pretty deep ditch between each ridge, when the whole field is plough- Let labourers be then fent into the ed. field with{pades, who fhall dig a trench in the open in the middle of each ridge, more or lefs deep according to the height of the ridge; the earth that is taken out of it, being thrown into the furrow on each fide: And after the whole is cleared out from end to end, let the plough be again fet into the field, to turn back a thurrough of the upper-mould from each fde into the new-made trench; after Aa4. which a<— ee ieee ee 362 OF LEVELLING which, the diggers begin a-freth to work in the bottom of this new«made thur- rough, throwing the earth ftill into the hollow between the old ridges. And if all this is not fufficient to raife them high enough, let another thurrough be turned back into the trench, and another new one dug after it; repeating this alternate ploughing and digging as often as fhall be found neceffary. And after the whole is thus brought to a proper level, let it be harrowed acrofs, if it cannot be ploughed, to mix the whole as perfectly as may be. The expengé of this operation is nearly the fame as the former, but rather greater, and is always lefs perfectly done; fo that unlefs where a man is fo fituated, as not to have it in his power to command a fufficient number of labourers, at once to carry on the other method of levelling properly, or is peculiarly confined by fome other circumftances, I would always ad- vife the other method to be adopted in preference to it. But this is infinitely bet- ter than any of the common methods practifed by means of machinery, ! By z= APCHIRIWGES. 36: By either of thefe two methods, the farmer has the fatisfaction of getting his ground reduced to a proper evennefs at once, fo as to reap the full benefit of a fummer-fallow, or any other operation that he may think proper. But as the earth beiow the furface muft for fome time be unequally frm, as has been al- ready fhowed, it will be neceflary to lay it into narrow ridges for fome years at firft, and keep the furrows perfectly open and clean, to prevent, as much as may be, the water from ftagnating too much among the loofe porous earth that fills up the old furrows. With this view,-the two-bout ridges, as they are called, fuch as are commonly made in Effex, which are about two feet anda half wide, would be the moft eligible, if they could be pro- perly formed by the farmer’s ordinary ap- paratus and fervants.—But if this cannot be by them executed iz the moft perfect manner, it willbe much better for him not to attempt it, but content himfelf with laying his fields into ridges of nine or ten fect broad, or any thing under that hé Aw 362 OF LEVELLING he may incline; which may be in all cafes laboured with his ordinary implements in uy@ proper manner, and will fufficiently anfwer the purpofe wanted in the prefent cafe. And here it may not be improper to cive young improvers one eaution, which 0 may be of ufe to them in this cafe, as well as on many other occafions; which , to gee that method of labouring, and roe fe kinds of implements that feem beft LULL ky adapted to the{tate of h is farm; and other circumftances, and to adhere to thefe, without attempting to adopt others, even where he is convinced that they might, in bed ) _ 7 ar : fome particular cafes, be x his own; for nothing cake Olea Wore unperceived, although certain. expence, than a variety of implements; nor does any thing contribute more effectually to diminith the produce of a farm, than im- perfeét culture, which muit ever be the confequence of trying new modes of la- bouring with implements that*are! nGt th oroughy known by thofe who ufe them: For, as there is a certain nicety in know- s exaGily the particular trim of every at OO ca labouring “eo? - HiGA RIDGES. 364 3 jabouring utenfil, that can only be acquired by practice; the beft of thefe, when put into unfkilful hands, perform their work in an imperfect manner: And the work performed by aman who is thoroughly ac- quainted with the implement he ufes, even where it is not of the very beft con- ftruction, will be executed with furprifine accuracy and perfection. On thefe ac- counts, it ought always to be the fludy of the farmer, to have as little variety of utentils as poffible; and in his choice of thefe, he ought to adopt thofe that are fitted to perform the greateft part of the work that his farm may require, although he may perhaps be fatisfied, that one or two particular fields might admit of being dreffed by impléments of a more perfect conftruction than thofe he employs, and even at a{maller expence; but, unlefs he has as much ground in this ftate, as to admit of keeping a particular fet of fer- vants conftantly to practife that mode of eulture, and manage this fet of imple- ments alone, he had better ftick to that with which his fervants are acquainted, and bend his chief endeavours to mode- rate, .—_=—: at ice=- 304... OFF EV ae GIN G rate, or correct, the principal defects to which thefe are liable—Thus, for ex- ample, fuppofing a man fhould be tho- roughly convinced, from the moft irre- fragable proofs, that the implements and mode of culture ufually practifed in Effex, were the very beft and leaft expenfive, that could be praétifed on a foil in fuch order and fituation as is ufually met with there, and although he fhould be able to bring one or two of his own fields into a condition as fimilar to thefe as could be imagined, it would, neverthelefs, be ex- tremely imprudent in him to get a fet of implements from Effex for thefe few fields, or to endeavour to force his. fer- vants to ufe them, inftead of thofe they have been accuftomed to, and for which they have contracted a fort of partial fond- nefs. For, were we even to fuppofe, that men could be brought to drop their deep- rooted prejudices, againft any innovation in practice, and ferioufly fet themfelves, in cood earneft, to learn to handle thefe un- known implements properly; before they could learn the niceties of pra¢tice,— before they began to handle them with ANY <_e ama eS a BAYCH RIDGES©%, 2 any fort of dexterity or eafe—the: field would be finifhed, and the implements laid up till another feafon, when they would be almoft as new to begin, as at firft—But if this muft be expected, even where the operator ferioufly withes to do his beft, what may we expe¢t will be the cafe, if he is altogether indifferent about fucceeding in thefe attempts, or even fecretly wifhes that they may not turn out to advantage; but that the implements will be allowed to go out of order, and the field be laboured in fuch an imperfeé& manner, as greatly to damage the crop,— make the field fuddenly run wild, and thus effentially hurt the’ intereft of his em- ployer? Boe if the mafter, inftead of this attempt, had taken care to direct the pro- per method of labouring it with his ordi- nary implements, the fervant would exert himfelf to the utmoft of his power, to per- form the work with accuracy; would con- fider himfelf, in fome meafure, as a party interefted in the fuccets of the crop, and ufe every effort that he could to enfure fuccefs.—Anxious about this, and emulous tG aac ee i 66 OF PEV EL GING to excel, he weighs with attention, every hint that is fuggefted by the judicious matter, and marks the refult of every trial of his own; fo as, in time, to be capable of perceiving the effects of many nice pecu- liarities of practice, that could never have occurred to the moft acute{peculative ob- ferver. In this manner, the farmer reaps a full, inftead of a fcanty crop—and is freed from an enormous expence to car- penters and{miths; which, as the judi- cious Mr. Lifle juftly obferves, too often prove the ruin of young and{anguine im- provers. The advice that is offered above, is fo contrary to the ufual practice of gentle- men improvers, and fo inconfiftent with the ideas that naturally prefent themfelves to fpeculative farmers, that I am well aware of the bad reception it will meet with from many of thefe.—I perceive the innumerable arguments that prefent them- cives to their imagination, againtt what is here faid:—I forefee the merriment that it will excite,——the raillery that it will pro- duce, and the many witty things that will be HGH RF E'G EAS. 362 be faid againft the man who dares to ad- vance fuch an abfurd opinion, as that a worfe practice fhould in any cafe be pre- ferred to one that is acknowledged to be better. But, without detaining the fenfi- ble reader with anfwers to thefe obvious objections, I fhall content myfelf with fimply defiring the young improver to look around him, and remark the fuccefs of thofe improvers who have adopted the one or the other of thefe modes of prac- tice, and leave himfelf to draw the infer- ence that this will fuggeft. And if this has the effect to make him remark cir- cumftances with attention, he will not be long of difcovering reafons abundantly co- gent for confirming him in the opinion that he muft adopt.— Let it not, however, be underftood, as if I meant.to difluade the improving far- mer from adopting any other implements of hufbandry or modes of culture, than thofe that have been ufually praétifed in that part of the country where his farm may be fituated; for if thefe are imper- fect, he does well to introduce others of a i OW ‘ i) i a i D4] Be| i re|| ii) || 3 | i {} i| | i! ij { ' ian. 368 OF LEVELLING a better fort, that may be well fitted to the nature of his foil, and the fituation of his fields. But before he attempts this, let him weigh all matters with a cautious circumfpection; and what he has once adopted with judgment, let him adhere to with unremitting perfeverance, and fuce cefs willin the end crown his endeavours. Or if, in procefs of time, he fo far melio- rate his foil, as to render his, whole farm capable of a more perfect degree of culture than it could formerly admit of, let him, when all circumftances are ready for the change, boldly lay afide his former im- plements and mode of culture, and at once adopt another that he knows to be better adapted to the circumftances of his farm. —Or if his farm is extenfive, and will ad- mit of two diftin@ fets of labourers, he may make each of thefe follow a different mode of culture, adapted to the ftate of, the fields they are to manage: But in no cafe ought he to allow the fame la- bourers to work with different imple- ments, if it can poflibly be avoided.— Almoft the utmoft latitude that’ prudence 8 can HsMGOH RIDGES. 69 can admit of in this refpect, is a greater or leffer degree of weight and ftrength in different implements of the fame con- -{truction, adapted to the different degrees of ruggednefs in the different fields;—and where there is any confiderable difference in the tilth of different fields, this ought always to be practifed,, eX) OL, Bb ESSAY i| a| .; = i. ee eae i —ve a see y 3 a e sae + wrt~ A *‘ E Z ies)——"——= at- B :— i ae.".: a- x a~,-- M2— waned; RRA pre eanecre ee,| a a ES SAY> AV. On THE Proper Merxed o "ry SOWING GRASS-SEEDS. Wovutp not have taken any notice of #. this article here, had it not been to combat an error in pra¢tice ftrongly in- culcated by feveral fenfible writers, who {éem to have been better acquainted with the theory, than with the pratice of agri- culture; who have repeatedly advifed the farmer, with the moft zealous{folicitude, * Never to fow grafs-feeds with any kind of grain, but in all cafes to fow it by it- felf; which(it is faid) will always do more than repay the lofs that is fuftained by the want of a crop of grain, the hay-crop be- ing 40 much bettered by this praétice,’ Impofed upon by their fpecious reafon- ing, and the feeming confidence with which it. was delivered, I have been in- duced to try the experiment more than once. And now, if I may be allowed to Bba2 draw 372 OF SOWING draw any general conclufion from thofe experiments, and a long continued and extenfive courfe of prattice in this refpect, it would be, that, even if we were to have no.regard to any other circumftance ex- cept the-grafs-crop alone, it will always be beft to fow it with fome kind of grain; but when we confider likewife the lots that the farmer thus fuftains for want of a crop of grain, the practice recommended muft be looked upon as highly pernicious to the farmer. When grafs-feeds alone are fowed(I here fpeak of clover, rye-grafs, and other grafs-feeds ufually fowed for hay) upon a foil in tolerable good order, as_ they make but{mall progrefs at firft, a great number of{mall annual weeds are allow- ed to rufh up; which quickly acquiring ftrength, fill up the whole ground fo much as to be in great danger of choak- ing the grafs entirely; or if the foil is not overftocked with weeds, the drought of the fummer makes fuch an impreffion on the open porous ground, thus deftitute of plants to attract moifture to it, that the ? tender fy GR ASS. SE Es: 373 tender plants of grafs are in great danger of being fcorched and burnt up: where- 4 as, when the grats-feeds are fowed with j any kind of grain, it quickly rufhes up in abundance, and prevents the growth :. of annual weeds, while its broad leaves : fhade the tender plants of grafs from the ? direct rays of the fun, and preferve the led a aities earth ina proper degree of moifture, fo dik as to nurfe up the tender grafs in the moft kindly manner that could be defired. i And as the leaves of the corn decay to- het wards the end of fummer, the gra{fs gets pn then as much air as is neceflary(unlef hey in the cafe after mentioned) and continues ab to vegetate with a fufficient degree of vi- V= gour, till the grain is cut down; foas to ng be ufually in a healthier and more flou- {o tithing ftate at that time, than if it had k- been fowed alone; and will, in general, \is be afterwards much freer from natural ht gralfes, and other perennial weeds. fon But although ground can feldom be too tute rich for carrying a crop of grafs, yet it the may be often fo rich as to be improper der for producing an advantageous crop of grain. And as it may fometimes happen Bb 2 that we 4 | 4 if ii 14= On;£0 WIIG that we may have occafion to lay a field down with grafs-feeds when it 1s in this ftate, it would, on this occafion, be impro- per for, the farmer, to. be determined to get a crop of grain, as he would run a creat rik of lofing botlr crops, by the lodging of the corn befor harveft.. In this. cafe, it is prudent in him to forego the hope of a crop of grain, but not to omit fowing the feeds of fome kina of erain with his grafs-feeds. This fhould ne feattered thinly over the field, and will help to. bring up the grafs-feeds in a, kind- anner 3 and if sis feafon proves very dry, aii. may thus fometimes reap a very great crop. But if the feafon is rainy, or if his crop, from any-other caufe, is too luxuriant, whenever he fees it begin lodge, and be in danger of chogis his grafs, he ought to cut it immediately, and employ the whole as a green. fodder for his cows or other cattle. The extraor- dinary quantity of provender procured in this way, will be more than fufficient. to indemnify him for the price of the feed of the erain3 as he will have two full crops of fucculent green fodder in one feafon, _ Oo i which GI Ass's—S E.E DS. eMac which will be about three times the quan- tity that he would have had, if the grafs- feeds had béen fowed alone. This is the beft method for laying down very rich land to grafs, that I have ever feen practifed. As to fuch ground as is in a proper con- dition for carrying a moderate crop of grain, I am entirely fatisfied, not only from the reafoning above, but alfo from repeated experiment, that the crop of grafs| is at leaft egually good when it has been fowed with grain, and the crop allowed to ripen, as when it has been fowed with- out any crop at all; fo that farmers do well to continue their common practice in this refpect, however much it may be oppofed or decried by theoretical writers. As to autumnal fowing of grafs-feeds, I have found that it is much more pre- carious than the vernal; and_ therefore would never recommend it, but in cafés of great neceflity, when a leffer evil ought to be preferred to a greater. With regard to the kinds of grain with which grafs-feeds may be fowed:—Bar- ley is in general the beft, as the ground is Bb 4 viually Se ee ee—— ee ea maa oo a eT _ oe sel — im~ Ta ares nd 376 OF SOWING ufually well prepared for that crop, and the feafon of fowing it anfwers it very well for grafs-feeds. Oats are not fo proper, in general; although, when the ground is very well prepared for them, the grafs will fucceed extremely well; but it ought never to be fowed with wheat, excepting in cafes of neceffity, as it oftener fails in this way than in any other, although I have known it fometimes to fucceed ex- tremely well. The circumftances neceflary to be at- tended to for making the feeds vegetate kindly. when fowed, are in general fo obvious, as to be eafily diftinguithed by any one who attentively confiders the fubject. The feeds are for the moft part fmall, and therefore require the mould to it be pretty fine, that they may not be co- vered too deep by falling below, or be c orched up by lying above great clods.— Like every other feed, they require a due. degree of moifture to caufe them to vege- tate, and therefore ought never to be left expofed to the rays of the fun, without be- ing covered; as, unlefs a tra@ of rainy weather comes immediately after fowing, many GRASS-SEEDS. 474 many of the feeds will be deftroyed. On this account, it is always neceffary to har- row the ground immediately after fowing, with a light clofe-toothed harrow, which fhould be kept for that purpofe; and fome- times a gentle rolling is of ufe after that, efpecially upon light{pungy ground: But no one circumftance fo effeCtually in- fures the vegetating of thefe fmall feeds, as fowing them as foon as poffible after the ground is ploughed; as the moderate moifture that new turned- up ground al- ways has when it is in good order, feems to be more particularly fitted for prometing the vegetation of every kind of feed, than that which may arife from any cther caufe whatever. On which account, every in- duftrious farmer will take care to prevent, as muchas poflible, the withering of the ground after ploughing, efpecially if the feafon be far advanced, fo as not to lofe the benefit of this circumftance. Before I quit this fubjeGt, it may not perhaps be improper to obferve, that the farmer 18 more abundantly repaid for an extraordinary drefling as a preparation for a crop of grafs, than for almoft any other ————— ——= noo ene re os. ~ ae aie. od saben: lf / / a i a ES ee eh es— 378 OF SOWING,&. 2) other crop he can fow; and that of con- fequence, it is always good to lay down rich, and not poor, ground, to grafs. It is likewife of the utmoft con- economy fequence to have the ground as‘free as poffible from pérennial wéeds; fo that it ought not only to be rich, but clean alfo, if you with to’ have a: very fine crop of grafs.“Phis I the rather take notice of here, becaufe I know it is a practice pretty general in many parts of the king- dom, to lay only fuch fields into grafs as are in fuch bad order as to carry very poor crops of grain, without any fort of preparation whatever; the bad economy of which practice they would foon be con- vinced of, if they would only be perfuad- ed, for once, to try one directly oppofite’ teat. boo oe VR sans ren ane ON HA Y-MAK ENE BP EFORE artificial graffes were intro- duced into this ifland, hay-making was a very tedious and troublefome ope- ration. But as the graffes now ufually cultivated for yielding hay are not fo foft and fucculent as the natural meadow- graffes in general, we have it in our power greatly to fhorten that operation, and, at the fame time, keep our hay much{weeter than it would be if treated after the old method. For the fake, therefore, of fuch as may not be well acquainted with the beft method of making hay from artif- cial graffes(1 chiefly mean rye-grafs and clover) I fhall here fubjoin an account of a very fimple mode of practice in this re- {pect, that I have followed for many years, with the greateft fuccefs. Inftead of allowing the hay to lie, as ufual inmoft places, fgr fome days in the {wathe a PI a eM PL TEI 380 ON HAY-MAKING {wathe after it is cut, and afterwards alter- nately putting it up into cocks, and{pread- ing it out, and tedding it in the fun, which tends greatly to bleach the hay,—exhales its natural juices, and fubjects it very much to the datiger of getting rain, and thus runs a great rifk of being made good for little;—I make it a general rule, if pof- fible, never to cut hay, but when the grafs IS quite dry; and then make the gather-- ers follow clofe upon the cutters,—put- ting it up immediately into{mall cocks, about three feet high each, when new put up, and of as{mall a diameter as they can be made to ftand with; always giv- ing each of them a flight kind of thatch- ing, by drawing a few handfuls ofthe hay from the bottom of the cock al] around,| and laying it lightly upon the top, with one of the ends hanging downward. This is done with the utmof eafe and ex- pedition; and when it is once in that ftate, I confider my hay as in a great meafure out of danger. For, unlefS a violent wind fhould rife immediately after the cocks are put up, fo as to overturn them, nothing elfe can hurt the hay; as Js I have st es~- PS See——How they - one were reduced to a ftate that rendered them ion foluble in water, which muft have been the cafe before they could admit of being ae chryftallized>—What were the circum- ‘hie{tances which contributed to render fome sh of thefe chryftals fo much more perfeé yflal- than others?&c.&c.—But thefe difquifi- ae tions, however curious they might be, are ey here omitted, as not abfolutely neceflary “ for the elucidation of our fubjeét. The :_ explanation of the nature of the different ‘in calcareous matters above given, was ne- ah ceflary; as, withouta knowledge of thefe, it would have been impoffible to have ex- , plained, in a fatisfactory manner, the way a in which thefe fubftances are more or lef hate fitted to be employed as a cement, or nt a manure. 4 me Dd2 Ta pitifh 404 OF QUICK-LIME To avoid unneceffary repetitions, the Reader is defired to obferve, that for the future, I thall mention all matters that can be converted into quick-lime, under the name of /ime-/tone, whether they be in the form of marble, chalk, or common lime-ftone, diftinguifhing cither of thete when it may become neceifilary. § 6. Lime-ftone, in the ftate we find it, Is always. a. compound fubftance.—In its pureit fiate, it confilts of a calcareous earth, united with a confiderable proportion of water; for faline matters, when chryftal- lized, always contain water. Lime-ftone Jikewife contains another fubftance, the nature of which will-be afterwards explained.. _ When lime-ftone has been expofed for a fufficient length of time to the action of a fufficiently intenfe fire, the whole of the water it contained is evaporated: So that lime-fhells are always lighter than the ftone of which they are made, by the whole weight, at leaft, of the water the chryftals contained. And ai —_———-=————= Pray ——_——-~ ree rr ue Sn rea< Red te‘—s—_ a~ Pa poe=---- ————~—== Senn eee; LT WS nh CP NEN F. 4.05 8, the a-~~ tial TTT it or the And as perfect chryftals always contain| s that a much larger proportion of water than under thofe that are lefs perfect, it follows, that ‘bein of two kinds of lime-{tone of equal purity,| tion that which is hardeft, and moft tranfpa- Bie: rent, will lofe a greater proportion of its weight in calcination, than that which is fofter and more opaque.—Hence marble . lofes more weight by burning than chalk*. ) v ee Again nit ae arth,* Such readers as are totally unacquainted with the On Of_circumftances that are neceflary to the formation of vf. chryftals in general, will probably be at a lofs eafily to / comprehend the chain of argumentation followed here,“ and in fome other parts of this Eflay. The following ex= ther planation will make it more intelligible: 43 he As faline matters, properly fo called, are more eafily chryftallized by art than any others, it will be beft to take our illuftrations from that clafs of bodies. te It is a property of faline bodies, that they may all be of a diffolved in water, the They may alfo be feparated from that water, and ob- tained ina dry form; but they aflume very different ap that pearances, according to the nature of the procefs that is the followed for feparating them from that water. ‘hole If a watery folution of any falt be fuddenly evaporated by means of fire, there remains behind a white fubftance, yftals hs fometimes flightly coherent, as in pearl-afhes,&c. and fometimes it falls into a powdery calx, as in ev ee And a folution of Glauber’s falts, allum,&c. Dd3 But 406 OF QUICK-LIME Again,—As fand lofes nothing of its weight by calcination, it likewife follows, that But if the water be gently evaporated by a moderate cat-——before it becomes a dry powder, the falt quits the water, and fhoots out into regular figures of a tranfpa- rent glafly-like appearance, which have obtained the name of chryftals. Thefe chryftals vary in figure, I ardnefs,&c, accord- ing to the nature of the falts of which they are com- pofed. But they all agree in one refpett, that they contain a confiderable proportion of water united with the fa~ line matter—Some kinds of falt abforb a very large proportion of water in this way.—Chry ftallized Glau- ber’s falts contain two thirds of their weight of water. —Common falt does not contain near fuch a large pro- portion. Hence it happens, that no chryftals of any kind of falt can poffibly be formed, unlefs thefe falts have been perfectly diffolved in water. And the perfection and tranfparency of thefe chryftals depend entirely on their being allowed to fhoot leifurely, in that degree of heat which is beft adapted to the nature of each particular kind of fale. For it often happens, that water can be made to dif- folve a much larger proportion of falt, when it is hot, than when itis cold; fo that if a folution of thefe kinds of falts is continued in a confiderable heat, it will ftill remain fluid, even after it has lefs water than would be neceflary for forming the chryftals—In which cafe, if it is taken from the fire, and allowed to cool, it fuddenly concretés AS ACEMENT.. 407 fi that in two kinds of lime-ftone equally OWS, firm and well chryftallized, the pure/?, or that that which contains the greate{t propor- ie. tion of calcareous matter, will lofe in cal- iit cination, the greateft proportion of weight. ral From thefe facts it appears, that no el the rule can be given for afcertaining the pro- portion of weight chat lime-ftone lofes by accord. re com va;: nm coneretes into a folid opaque kind of mafs between a , chryftal and a calx—as may eafily be experienced, by r contain melting chryftallized Glauber’s falt in a fire-fhovel, and the a allowing it to cool before it is entirely evaporated to y lage drynefs. 4 i. y:°. t Glau The fame circumftances contributé to the formation f wate of calcareous matters into chryftals, and may be eafily Be ple applied by the Reader.——Lime is the calx produced by evaporating the chryftals to drynefs;—and it only ind Of differs from other faline calces in this refpet, that they e been always retain the quality of being foluble in water, and y See 8 may be converted. into a liquid mafs, and again chry- ryhals_ftallized whenever that is adminiftered to them:— furely, whereas lime lofes that quality in afhort time; and if it nature has not been diffolved, and again chryftallized, in that fhort{pace, it muft ever remain unalterably in the ftate >to dif it chanced to be in when it loft its faline quality.— ig hot, Hence it appears in all the different ftages of more or ee kinds Jefs perfect chryftallization, from the moft tranfparent will til{par, or marble, to the moft opaque chalk,—from the vould te hardnefs nearly of a flint, to the loofenefs of an almoft eal incoherent powder. foely Dd4 calcination. egncrretes 4088 OF QUICK-LIME calcination. It muft vary in all poffible degrees, according to circumftances. § 7. Lime-ftone, befides the ingredients above mentioned, contains a confiderable proportion of another fluid, that enters into its compofition, and greatly alters its chemical qualities, to which philofophers have given the name of fixed air*."This is alfo difentangled from the ftone, and dif- perfed, in the ac of calcination; as has been demonftrated by the very ingenious Dr. Black, of Edinburgh, to whofe moft fatisfactory Effay on this fubjeét, in the Phyfical and Literary Effays, vol. ad, I refer the curious Reader, When lime-ftone is thus deprived of its fixed air, it acquires many of the pro- perties of faline bodies. It is in confe- quence of this that it then becomes capa- le of being diffolved in water,—is ex- tremely acrid,—and acts mott powerfully * Since this Effay was written, a total change has taken place in regard to the names of chemical fubftances—- but Ido not think it neceffary here to make any change in that refpect, the terms being here all explained as they occur, fo as to prevent ambiguity. Nate te the fourth Edition. ey aT et AS A CEMENT. 409 fible te‘|| on many bodies upon which it has no fen- ra ~ effect while in the ftate of lime-ftone. l| On thefe accounts, chemifts have given| . it the appellation of cau/fic, when in this a le ftate, in contradiftin@tion to its ordinary dl ik{tate before calcination, or after it is again wth united with its fixed air, when it is faid Mes to be in its mz/d ftate. his Hence, then, the phrafe md when ap- dif plied to calcareous earth, denotes that it 8 has is then united with its fixed air; which ous may be faid equally of it beforé calcina- mott tion, when it is called lime-ftone; or after 1 the calcination, when it is denominated effete d, I lime: And cauftic calcareous earth 1s a phrafe exactly fynonimous with guwick- of lime, in its ftrict and philofophical accep- 10s tation;—that is, calcareous earth perfe¢t- es: ly detached, in a chemical fenfe, from Dae every other fubftance. ‘i§ 8. Clly But although it is poffible by art to free _ lime-ftone from its water and air, and re- sae duce it to the ftate of an unmixed acrid change faline calx 3—yet no art can keep it long a Ue] in' that ftate, as it has an irrefiftible pro- four penfity to unite itfelf again to thefe fub- {tances. if 410 OF QUICK-LIME If water is poured upon the ftone im- mediately after calcination, which in that {tate is ufually called /me-/hells, it has been already faid, that it pervades every part of the ftone; each particle of the lime feems greedily to feize fome portion of the wa- ter, with which it inftantly and intimate- ly unites. In the act of union, a confi- derable heat is generated, and in a fhort time its whole particles are perfectly de- tached from one another, fo as to fall down in the form of afine, white, and feemingly dry powder, notwithftanding the large quantity of water that is thus united with it*. If lime-fhells be expofed to the influ- ence of the air, without throwing water upon them, they quickly attract moifture * The, quantity of water contained in dry flaked lime, is much greater than any one could pothbly ima- gine——By experiment, I find that pure lime perfedily calcined, requires at leaft its own weight of water, be- fore it can be reduced to a powder. By the heat ge- nerated in the operation, about one tenth of that water is evaporated,—fo that the drie/t flaked lime, if pure, confifts of about equal parts of calcareous earth. and water.—Such as is flaked to the ordinary degree, con- tains a great deal more water than is here mentioned. ; from WS A CE, MEN Rh. All from thence, which flowly, and without any fenfible heat, flakes the lime-fhells, and reduces them to powder. Still, however, the lime retains its cau/tic quality, even after its partial union with the water: But it as irrefiftibly, though more flowly, continues to abforb the air, as the water of which it had been deprived by this calcination, and without intermiflion, per- petually tends tewards that mz/d ftate which feems to be natural to it. § 9. If water is poured‘upon flaked lime in large quantities, that water diflolves a cer- tain portion of the faline ca/x, which forms the folution called /me-water, that has been much praifed as a medicine by phyficians. But the lime has hardly had time to be difflolved by the water, before the calca- reous earth abforbs a proportion of its fixed air from the water itfelf, and the furrounding atmofphere; with which it forcibly unites, and immediately again becomes mi/d calcareous earth, or, if you will, lime-ftone. And as it is not zz this ftate foluble in water, it immediately fe- parates from it, and forms a thin film of chryftallized i| con SET is,= ail i ie > , a 7 fey i 1, i j| \ f 7 | atz OF QUTCK-LIME chryftallized lime-ftone on the furface of the water. In this way, all the lime is in a fhort time feparated from the lime water; and it quickly Jofes all thofe qualities for which it was remarkable, becoming pure and fimple water again, unlefs fome cauttic lime be allowed to remain at the bottom of the veffel, upon which the water may again act, after what it had formerly dif- folved had left it, § 10. It is by a procefs fomewhat fimilar to the former, that calcareous /falachites are formed in caverns under the earth, de- pending from the roof in the form of very large icicles, and other grotefque figures, that afford matter of admiration and afto- nifhment to the curious who vifit thefe fubterraneous caverns. It is but feldom that we are able to give fuch a diftinct‘ac- count of the operations of nature, as in the prefent cafe. Thefe flalactites are always formed by water dropping from the roof. This wa. ter, in thefe cafes, is always flightly im- gregnated with cauftic calcareous matter, which ASACEMENT. 413 which it meets with. in the bowels of the earth, and diffolves.—By what procefs that calcareous matter is there rendered cau/ftic, remains as yet to be explained, and affords a fubject well worthy the inveftigation of the curious*. This natural lime-water, when it comes to the roof of the cavern, hangs for fome time in the form of a drop, till at length fo much water is accumulated there, as, by its natural gravity, overcomes the power of cohefion, and makes it fall to the ground. But it is no fooner fallen, than it is again fucceeded by another,— and another,—and{0 on ad tujinitum. While thefe drops remain fufpended from the roof, the calcareous matter con- tained in them greedily attracts the air all around the furface of the drop; and be- fore it falls, a fmall part of it is reduced to a mild ftate,x—leaves the water with which it was formerly united, and adheres * Chemical philofophers have now been enabled to account for this phenomenon by the folvent power of certain ga/es—but it is unneceffary here to enter more at large into that difcuffion, as it does not affect the ex« planation in the text. Note to the fourth Edition. firmly Lik OF“QUICK EIME:. firmly to the roof; which in time accu- mutates fo much folid matter as to form a fort of nipple depending directly down- wards. After this nipple is formed, each drop, as it defcends, flows from its root towards its point, fo as to be diffufed in a thin ftream over its whole furface. In this‘fi- tuation, the water is fo much expofed to the action of the air in its defcent, that a part of the calcareous matter is rendered mild, and is left adhering to the former, fo as to increafe its diameter towards the root; while a part flows forward to the point, and q adds to its ftrength, in the fame manner as 1e it firft began to be formed. In this manner thefe tangles* continue to increafe in fize fo long as they are fuf- * Tt is doubtful, if tangles, in the fenfe here ufed, ts a proper Englifh word; but as it is common in Scotland, and as I know no fingle Englifh word that is equivalent to it, I have ventured to adopt it.{t denotes any kind of pendent concretion, refembling the fhape of an icicle, of whatever kind it is formed.. Any perfon who reflects on this fubject, will feel what a want it would be in the language, if the word icicle-were abolifhed: the want would hardly be lefs perceptible, if I were debarred the ufe of this term. fered AD A CEM EN T: AIS fered to remain,— and, as ought to be ex- pected from the above induction, there is always a{mall hole through the heart of each of them. The tangles under bridges, and other ar- tificial arches through which water is per- mitted to percolate, are found exaétly in the fame manner, though ufually they are lefs perfectly chryftallized. All forts of calcareous /pars owe their origin to a fimilar caufe. While thefe natural /telactites are of a {mall fize, they will continue to be regu- larly formed, and retain the figure of ici- cles; becaufe the water, as it oozes out, will be fufficient to furround the whole of the nipple, and augment it equally one very fide. But, in time, thefe will become{o large, as to caufe the water to flow down only on one fide, after which the figure will become diftorted and irregular.“Two or more will fometimes unite into one; and, in the courfe of ages, an infinite diverfity of fantaftic forms will gradually be produced, which may exhibit, on many occafions, figures of {tupendous magnificence. Seas© TE ca UR er Re iter a) anes i — 416 OF QUICK-LIME Sane The operations of nature are fo fimple; that when we once get a glimpfe of the manner in which they are effected in one inftance, it is eafy to extend our obferva- tions, in a fatisfactory manner, to athers of a fimilar nature. When we once perceive the manner in which calcareous /talactites are formed, it is eafy to comprehend the way in which more regular ftrata of calca- reous fubftances have been produced. The fame cavern that produces the one, will al- ways afford examples of the other. ‘The drop of lime-water that falls from the roof of the cavern, although it has loft fome of the calcareous matter. with which it was impregnated,{tills retains a part. When 1 it reaches the ground, it either remains ftagnant,{0 as to form a poole, or flows over a fmooth furface. In either of thefe cafes, it will be allowed time to abforb fome more of its air; anda part, or the whole, of the calcareous earth will be rendered mild, and remain in a firm chryftallized folid cake of marble. If the ftream is confiderable, the theet of: calcareous matter may be extended to a great Asi CEMENT:“47 ereat diftance, thinly{pread over a large de- Ie, clivity, as the water flows in its courfe,— he till at Jaft the whole: cavity may be filled Ne with a regular ftratum of lime-ftone or fae marble.” ot In this manner, within the memory of ane nan, have huge rocks of marble been form- Cite ed near Matlock, in Derbythire, which the furnith matter of aftonifhment to thofe nu- ‘le. merous travellers who flock to fee this un- The common phenomenon.—It is feldom that Pe nature's Operations are fo rapid as in this in- ftance.—But there is no room to doubt, mihe= that all the ftrata of calcareous matter fome in the world, have been formed by a pro- Was cefs exaCtly fimilar to this. el When the drops are fmaller, fo as not to ng be fufficient to form a large ftream, but{till W3 to flow over a{mall part of the furface, ir- ofe regular{welling cakes of lime-ftone are ag: produced.— When fmaller ftill, they rife up le up into high prominences, with roundifh ced heads,—fometimes refembling collyflower, nak and fometimes brocoly-heads. If a current of air haftily promotes. the ie evaporation of the water, the chryftalliza- iy tion will be lefs perfe@. But enough has a VOL. 1. Ee already —_. Pt en ee ae——t es~~ Ss at ae ti lene “__, eacigen ne ea es‘ aa.= We Tae ere eae—-— a SS ST= = Se—————— ars OF QUICK-LIME already been faid to illuftrate the fubjed I have undertaken I now return from the operations of Na- ture, to thofe of Art. me be expofed to the air for time, in the form of a dry » 0G pow‘der, it abforbs the fixed air alfo in this frat te, in a fhort time lofes all its qualities asa quick-lime, and, chemically confidered, differs in no refpect from the ftone of which it was compofed.| If no more water has been added at flak- ing than was barely fufficient to make it fall, and if it be kept dry ever afterwards, or mixed with any dry powder, it does not harden as.it abforbs its air, but remainsin a eee{tate, to all appearance in no re- {pec t differing from guick-lime. But if a ion proportion of water has been added than was neceffary for flaking Q Verat eee tne mme,- in proportion as it abforbs: its air, and becomes mz/d, it concretes into a coherent mafs; firft, upon the furface, which quickly becomes coverec d with a hard crutft, aly refembling the thin cruft that 1s med on the furface of moift earth by a moderate ear for ie ty oan ths quate mncered, i ALat make Il er wards, 7oes not cn Ni AS ATCE'M® NT. 419 moderate froft.—Mafons, ignorant of the real caufe of this phenomenon, call it frofted lime; although, their own expenence ought to fatisfy them, that this crutft is foamed, as readily in fummer as in winter. As lime that has abforbed its air in any of thefe ways, is altogether unfit for be- coming a cement, it is evident, that a great change may be produced upon the quality of any lime, by having allowed lefs or more of it to be in this ftate, before it is worked up into mortar. § 12. a large quantity of water be added to oo flo! k it into a thin patte, 2d quick-lime, and beat up with the water diffolves a fmall proportion of the lime, which, as it gradually abforbs its air, is Converted into chryftals; between the particles of which chryftals, that part of the lime which was not diffolved, and the other extraneous matters that may have been mixed with it, are en- tangled, fo as to form a firm coherent mafs of the whole. The patte formed in this manner, is call- ed mortar; and this heterogenous, imper- feGly femi-chryftallized mafs, conftitutes EFe2 the ead ey qe| va 2| i{ a es 420 OF QUICK-LIME. the common cement ufed for building ordi-~ nary walls. Thefe circumftances being premifed, it will not be difficult to comprehend what are the particulars that are neceflary to form the moft perfect cement of this fort. N14. ~ Since lime becomes a cement only in confequence of a certain degree of chry{- tallization taking place in the whole mafs, it is fufficiently obvious, that the firmneds and perfection of that cement, muft de- pend upon‘the perfection of the chryftals, and the hardnefs of the matters that are en- tangled among them. For, if the chryftals are ever fo perfect and hard of themfelves, if they be feparated from one another by any brittle incoherent medium, it is evident, le mafs muft remain in fome Water can only diffolve a very{mall pro- ° 5 7 iG ney: ¢» AT}| f 4 tc{t 2 portion of lime, even when in its moit per- Cc sit Geen p he S AP OSS| eR ER Bex e fee faline ftate*; and, as happens with all other *. The reader will obferve, that I often{peak of lime in its faline ftate. I prefume, he will eafily underitand, Jv that ACS A CE MEN e A2i other faline matters, no more of the lime can be reduced to a chryftalline mafs, than Se it has been aétually diffolved in the water.—| lat Hence it happens, that if mortar be made\ t0 of pure lime and water alone, a very{mall IK, proportion of the lime only can be diffolve by that{mall quantity of water that is add- in ed to it: And as this{mail proportion yf alone, can be afterwards-chrytftallized, all| nals, the remaining undiffolved particles of the: nes lime will be entangled among the few de- chryftals that are formed. tals, And as the undiffolved lime in this mafs oes will in time abforb its air, and be con- fas verted into mz/d calcareous earth without: 23 having had a fufliciency of.water to allow 4 it to chryftallize, it muft concrete into a fe friable mafs, exactly refembling chalk: It ce follows, that this kind of mortar, when as dry as it can be made, and in its higheft de- gree of perfection, will be always foft, and 7 eafily crumbled into powder. a that, by that phrafe, is meant lime while it remains ca~ ll pable of being diffolved in water:—that is, as long as it otnct remains deprived of its fixed air;—or, in other words, ol while in its cau/fie ftate. un Pe2§ 16. that — See= e~ Pes _ ac ce a a Nt 422 OF QUICK-LIME §. 16. But if, inftead of forming the mortar of pure lime alone, a large proportion of fand be added to it, the water will, in this cafe, difolve as much of the lime as in the former; and the particles of hard fand, like fticks or threads, when making fugar- candy or other chryftals, w while furrounded by the watery folution, will help to forward the chryftalbaation, and render it. more perfect than it otherwife would have been, fo as firmly to cement the particles of fand to one another. And as the granules of fand are perfectly hard of themfelves, fo as not to admit of being broken down like the particles of chalk, it neceffarily follows, that the ce- ment made of thefe materials muft be 8) ) ro sy ot \ ct —— i) ~ — ~ much more perfect, in every reipe the former. § 17. That the reader may fee the full force of the above reafoning, it is necefiary he fhould be informed, that when calcareous“matter is reduced to a cautftic cals Ky it becomes, in every fenfe of the word, a perfect faline fubftance, and is in this flate as entirely fo- ‘ Bae BS SU DIG rfetlly mit of les of e(E> ft be than luble in water as common falt or fugar; although with this difference, that lime can be fufpended by water only in a much fmaller proportion.— Water can diffolve one third of its weight of common falt,‘ina keep it fufpended in a fluid ftate; but it can hardly diffolve AGA ain part of 4 ql uick-lime before it is faturated*. eons ral 2 to+} Ls ape nplo ed to de note tnat{tate i P ® * The term /aturatzon is of a fluid, wee it has diffolved as much of a folid-body as it can poffibly fufpend in it at one time. When any faline fubftance is put into water, it is dif- folved by the water, and fufpended in it till it attains what is called the point of. faturation;—aiter which, if ene fe ee ee By anaes or oreo ever fo much falt be added, not one particle more will be diflolved,—but it will remain at the bottom in its ori- phere oy Bes) bee einal folid ftate Tt~= a Lo Gas|. ban te VV ater diHolves V 1ire ent ailtec b ae yre it oo ated| unlt aiftolve ife tK7t rent iaits Ciore 1 is fatur: GQ.{t Wil qiuitoive 1ts own Shite aay(ans[eeren ese FS myles Ani aha ry'r pi hy ts weight of Glauber’s falt, one-third or its weignt ol common fal sand not one-thoutanard Of Is Weiss Os I Che ie pape ale: Soper a tae vs fa Lag a iplirhe ss Ph ome ener Hence it may very r ey happen, that although any particular falt could be wholly dil slved in water, a part > A i Cc hae Past| s AAS= 4 I{ ats“i ae Lewin or tne iaif may remain untouched, hee WG; mu nas é $e Ase Pee Gok wince ae ce peen aaded.--- 1 ius, lr one ounce OF HINC Io put Inte Sen Caen~ 1 bee Vee eet eS{pee j ten ounces of water, that water will become faturated befol Mees| ees a ui have dilioived one third OF the Quics- lime and ct> ¥{ inder x7 ill ramain 1n 2 folid frat Wan lime,——and the remait Ww remain IN@ BOM Lidl’, ils touched. | refpect: that it cannot oftibl 424 OF QUICK#LIME But although lime be as entirely foluble in water when in its cauftic fiate, as any other purely faline fubftance, it fo quickly abforbs its air, as to have fome part of it ren- dered mild, before it can be wholly diffolved on any occafion, in which ftate water can- not act upon it;—fo that to obtain a total folution, that proportion of it that becomes mild, requires to be again and again cal- cined, after frefh folutions have been drawn from it. As fuch a large proportion of water is necellary to diffolve any quantity of lime, it feldom happens, even in mak ing lime- water, but that more lime is added than is fufficient to faturate the whole of the water:—In which cafe, fome of it ftill remains at the battom, in a condition capable of being diffolved, if more water be added to it. But lime, it has been aay laid, dit. 1 Dey. 45 fers from purely faline fubi oS in this =a jufpended in water; for it foon abforbs its air even from that element, and is thus reduced to a mild ftate, when it im- mediately ——————— SS l/r In * Although purely faline fubftances, 7 every flate, continue to be foluble in water, yet many of them be- come more or lefs fo, in.proportion to the quantity of air that is united with them at the time; and zn fo far ole lime in this particular, that they are more eafily diffolved when deprived of their air, than when united with it. Alkaline+ falts, ftrickly fo called, like lime, may be either in a cau/tic or mild{tate; which appellations they in like manner obtain when they are deprived of. their air, When thefe falts are in a cau/ffic fate, they are folu- ble in water 72 any proportion. ea have even fuch a tendency to unite with it when in this ftate, that it is extremely dificult, if not altogether impoffible, to free them from a water cil: they are reduced to a mild ftate. No art has ever yet been difcovered, by which a 1 cauftic ae alkali could be exhibited in a folid form; and although dry concretions of the fixed alkali are ometimes obtained while it is pofletled of a certain de eree of caufficity, yet thefe concretions are only ob- tained in confequence of fome part of it becoming mild in the operation: nor can they be kept in that ftate without the utmoft care. +- The term alka/, eae a f»yed to denote,a certain clafs of faline 55 bodies, whofe certain diftinguifhing charateriftic is, that they per he united“with acids ant with th oer sear)(alts. as may pe united wit ds, and With them yrorm NCuLYAL\alts, as pitre, common falt, dc, slays ii aia iene se te 426 OF@UICK-EIME PN In ae of this peculiarity, it. ne cefiarily happens, that in proportion as ec Ordinary pot-afh is an alkaline falt, obtained from the afhes of a vegetables.‘This is, in fome meafure, deprived of its air in burning the plant; but during the procefs, before the a folution is thoroughly See en to drynefs, the a lkali has abforbed fome part of its r, and is in foe meafure rendered mild, fo as to admit a bein as the AG is not in this Sate perfectly mild, the cauftic uced to a dry ftate by the ne fire. But part of the alkali attracts the moifture from the air with fo much power as foon to obtain enough to reduce the whole to a watery folution, if it is not preferved from h cep: uir with the utmoft care This, and every other filine fubftance, which attracts moifture from the air, and diffolves in it, is called a de- But, if this alkali be expofed to the air for a fufficient length of time, a it has flowly abforbed its whole pro- portion of fixed< 2nd. with it has become one che- mical mixt, Ss Abie: a ae mild alkali, it is then capable of being diflolved in water, only in one certain proportion, like other falts; and may be made to fhoot unto revular chryftals which may be kept in a folid S>, dry ftate, when the atmofphere is in a due temperature C1. 1 a,+e& of heat, in the fame manner as any other falt, t 1s ¢ Bee: Gh Nok Kas ee oe- in this cafe, the alkali, it is Pp plain, leaves the water as 3 | >} foon as it has united witl 1 its air, in the fame manner as lime feparates from water, and aflumes a dry chryftal- ling form. The alkali may, indeed, be. again diffolved, oO y adding a larger proportion of water, which the other cannot;—but, in the firft particular, the parallel is alike, 2™S mila iat orem water again, anc Common falt is, in like manner, in part decon by the violent heat that takes plaée in our ordin ka::: Se hig ei yf boiling it.--+A part of its acid 1S du sc ains, iS left in its al tendency to abforb water; in- acne of wach: bale become wet fale quence of whic vhole becomes a deliquefcent falt. Tc ees(ea ee e}“= Peis 1 ee- pe A e738) ye 7= ai not have delzquefe. for the natrum of the Ancients, or in its native_ ae' 1 a 1lolid concrete, OD=— ynefs the jul ice of the yar= th 1; 7-4( P+( that the oyamary proce no that 1uo- -=\ Fag OSU nips ameter Shara Subtrataier Rete Lae Ry deprived of tome part or itS hxed aliry-— enue rere kato aor ere oe y concreted into an imperfect iort of cary ) J In this ftate, it is po of sae ah eae PS Lae Cn Pel BOGE IS pe nena eee * Con falt is a compound fubftance, formed by the union of a particular acid with the fof? alkal:. adesrTree ee een in— cee 428 OF OU TC K- LENE tantly capable of diffolving as much cauftic lime as it had loft by the former chryftal- lization; fo that it immediately a@s upon, and diffolves another portion of the quick- lime that remained below after the water was faturated. This portion of lime 1s alfo chryftallized in its turn, and a frefh folution akes place; and fo on, it continues con- AE ati: i ftantly chryftallizing and diffolving anew, as long as any cauftic lime remains in the water to be diffolved. It is in confequence of this conftant action of the water and air, that lime- water always continues of an equal degree of ftrength, fo long as any cauftic lime egree of acrid caufticity, and can be diffolved in wa- ter in any proportion from the fligl hteft degree of im- pregnation to perfect drynefs.—But when it is placed in proper circumftances, and is allowed time to abforb its air,—like the other fubftances above mentioned, it can énly be diflolved in certain proportions; and therefore quits the water as it gradually unites with its air, and affumes a regular chryftalline form. Thefe chryftals are di ftinguifhed by the name of fugar- candy, and are well known to be more difficultly folu- ble in water,—to be a milder and lefs acrid fweet,—and to poflefs many other qualitics different from the fugar of which they were originally formed. remains a Ex ee ASA€CEMEN Tf; 429 2 remains in the veffel for the water to act upon, notwithftanding the large propor- tions— Of... calcarcous chryftals that are continually feparating from it. S18. From the foregoing induction, it ap- hat when a large quantity of fand pears, t is mixed in the mortar, that fand will bear a great proportion to the whole mafs;{fo that the water that may be mixed with the mortar will be much greater in proportio to the quantity of lime contained in= mortar, than if the whole had confifted of pure calcareous matter.—And as the fand abforbs none of that water, after a part of the lime is chryftallized, and fepa- rated from the water, that water, now pure, left at liberty to aét once. more upon thofe few ieee of cauftic lime that may ftill remain in the mortar, which will be diffolved and converted into chryftals in their turn. In this manner, it may ha PPTs in fome circumftances, that a very lar of the lime may become chry that the mortar fhall confit almoft entirely Fd~ 1 e q eet tee Pe Sa Pari of fand env Beedle in chryftailine matter, y —, emt Se ee ——_————— 430 OF QUICK-LIME and become, in due time, as hard as ftone itfelf; whereas mortar, confifting of pure lime, without fand, can hardly ever be much harder than chalk. § Ig. It is not, however, to be expected, that in any cafe, this dried mortar will aflume that tran{parent chry vftalline form, or the compaét firmnefs of marble, or lime-{tone. ——In mortar,’ ih{pite of the utmoft care that can ever be taken, a very confiderable quantity of the lime 1 nuft remain undif- fhe vhich undiffolved lime, although it may be fo much fi by the fand (tallized lime-ftone, as not much to have been wholly diffolved in water,"and from as they have been gradually fe- parated by a more flow and more perfect £ co]‘eid ion, they have nothing : moae or ch allZza of that opaque ca/x-like appearance, but affume other colours, and ee more firm, ak iniform, and compact; th he fand, and other Ls matters . AS A CE MEDCT. 4 Qi J matters that may be enveloped in them, being entirely furrounded with a pur chryftallized mat e 20. To obtain the moft perfect kind of mor- tar, however, it is not enough that a lar proportion of fand fhould be employed, and that the fand fhould be intimately mixed with the lime.—It is alfo of the utmoft im- Bas that a large proportion of water added: For, without this, it 1s impofh- ble that a Jarge SNe of the lime can be chry ali d; and the mortar, in that d confift only of a mixture of chalky matter and fand, which could hard- 1] Oi ty‘eer, + be made to unite all—would be little 5 ae ee o>@|, Y}={>]& an q more coherent than fand by itfelf, and Tate{7 ha sare chaile if afte F171 fee jeis io tnan pure Cihal k.— Nn that Cale, pute cement than lime with fand. Gg ar Y aie It is alfo of very great importance, that the water be retained as long in the mortar as poffible: For, if it be fuddenly evaporated, it will not only be prevented from ating a fecond time upon the lime, after a part of ae 4 1 C7 fete) 44 3| 1 1 Le| ia ae Pea een a beet Sr I eg aD Le W hat Was Lit Gisiolvead mas peen chryltai-~ ' 4 i wClis 4—— a 24 Er==———— OF QUICK-LIME lized, but even the few chryftals that would be formed when the water was fud- denly evaporating, would be of themfelves, much more imperfect than they otherwife moft certainly would have been. Common falt, which confifts of chryftals haftily formed by a fudden evaporation of fea-water by means of fire, has the appear- ance of a dry whitith calx, that may be —The fame falt, when flowly chryft ne ized by a gentle eva- eafily broken to pie poration in the fhade, Baek of large cu- bical chryftals, as tranfparent, and little fofter, than crown-glals. Ordinary lump-fugar, it has been faid, likewife confifts of another fubftance haftily concreted by a fudden evaporation of the fluid in which it was diflolved:—Sugar~ candy, is the fame fubftance, flowly chry- ftallized by a more moderate evaporation. —Every one knows,what a difference there is between the firmnefs of oe two fub- ftances. As great mutt be the difference be- 1 tweenthe firmnefs of that cement which has been flowly dried, and that which has been haftily hardened by the powerfu il aGion of a warm air. ASA CEMENT. 433 It is owing to this circumftance, that the lime which remains all winter in a mortar- tub filled with water, is always found to be much firmer, and more coherent, than the mortar that was taken from the farne tub, and ufed in any work of mafonry; although, in this cafe, the materials were exactly the fame.—From the fame caufe, any work cemented with lime under water, if it has been allowed to remain unhurt till it has once become hard, is always much firmer than that which is above the furface of the water. ND. To make the reader comprehend the full force of the foregoing reafoning, I would compare lime+cement, or mortar, to a mafs of matter confifting of a congeries of ftones clofely compacted together, and united by a{trong cementing matter, that had, while in a fluid ftate, pervaded all the inter- {tices between the ftones, and had after- wards become a folid indiffoluble fubftance. if the cementing- matter be exceedingly hard and coherent, and if the ftones bedded among it are alfo very hard and firm, the whole mafs will become like a folid WoL. k Ff rock, ty a Se eee site aii Fos ee ce eat ae aay 434 OF QUICK-LIME rock, without fiffures, that can hardly be broken to pieces by the power of man. But although the cement fhould be equally firm, if the{tone of which it con- fifts be of a foft and friable nature, fuppofe chalk‘or: fand-ftone, the whole mafs will never be capable of attaining fuch a degree of firmnefs as in the former cafe; for, when any force is applied to break it in pieces, although the cement(hould keep its hold, I the folid matter cemented by it would give way, and the whole would be eafily broke to piece GS. Now—in mortar, the fand that is added to it reprefents the{tones of a folid matter. in the compofition, the par ticles of which are united together by the hme that had been formerly diffolved, and now eee al- lized, which becomes an exceedingly. folid and indifloluble concretion. And as the particles of fand are of then {elves exceedingly hard, and the cement by which they are united equally fo, it 1S plain, that the whole concretion mutt be- come extremely firm, fo as to require avery great force to difunite any‘particle of it from the whole mats. 1 rdly te an, Id be t con ‘unpofe ns will 14 dete for, when In pieces, "ay vite Anis J ih) hold, them- cemen fo, 118 EE AS.4 CEMENT... 49s But if, inftead of employing fand, the only folid body that is entangled among the cementing matter fhould be chalk(which, as has been faid, muft always be the cafe when the mortar confifts of pure lime alone) or any other flightly coherent fub- ftance, let the cementing particles of that compofition be ever fo perfedt, it is impof- fible that the whole can ever attain a great degree of firmnefs; as thefe chalky matters will be eafily broken afunder. % 23. Many conjectures have been made about the nature of the lime-cement employed by the Ancients. It has been thought they poffeffed an art of making mortar, that has been long fince entirely loft; as the cement in the walls that have been built by them, appears: to be, in many cafes, much firmer than that which has been made in modern times.—Yet, when the mortar of thefe old buildings is analized, it is found to confift of the fame materials, and nearly in the fame proportions, which we now employ. It is probable, however, that their only fecret confifted in mixing the materials t fz more 62 OF OPITCK- PIM E more perfectly than the rapidity or avarice of modern builders will permit; in employ- ing their mortar in a much more fluid ftate than we do now; and in allowing it to dry more flowly, which the immode- rate thicknefs of many of their walls would naturally produce, without any precot certed ee on their part. radit has even handed down to our times the memo ry of the moft effen- tial of thefe particulars; as the lower clafs of people, in every part of the country, at this moment, invariably believe that thefe ralls were compofed of a mortar fo s to admit of its being poured, like a fluid, between the ftones, after they were laid in the wall. And the appear- ance of oe old walls, when taken down, feems to favour this popular tradition. Not have I any doubt but this may have y the cafe. The ftones in the outer part of the wall were probably bed- ded in mortar, nearly as we praCtife at pre- fent; and the heart, after being packed well with irregular{tones, might have the snter(tices between them en naa filled up with fluid mortar, which would infinuate | itfelf —— i aS A-CCEMENT.., 437 st{elf into every cranny, and in time adhere as fianly as the ftones themfelves, or even more fo, if the ftones were of a fandy fri- able nature. As thefe walls were ufually of very great thicknefs, it might often happen that the water in this mortar, by acting fucceflively upon. different particles of cauftic-lime, would at length be entirely abforbed by fucceflive chryftallizations, fo as to become perfectly dry, without any evaporation at all; in which cafe, a very large proportion of the original lime muft have been regu- larly chryftallized in a flow and tolerably perfect manner, fo as to attain a firmnefs little inferior to lime-ftone or marble it elf. Upon thefe principles, it is eafy to ac- count for the fuperior hardnefs of fome old cement, when compared with that of mo- dern times, in which a practice very diffe- rent is ufually followed, without having recourfe to any wonderful arcana what- ever. § PAAR A modern French author, Monfieur Lo- riot, after meditating much upon this fub- . Cy- z. pai el oe aes page[ad jet, imagines, he has made a perfect dif- Fer covery ee 438'OF QUICK-LIMBE covery of the way in which the Ancients employed their quick-lime, fo as to obtain fuch an extraordinary firm cement; from which difcovery, he thinks very important benefits may be derived to fociety. According to his opinion, the ancient cement confifted of lime and fand, nearly in the fame proportions as are begapee|S em ployed, for that-purpofe at prefent.—But inftead of making it of flaked lime entirely, as wedo now, he lays, they employed certain proportion of their lime wu/laked, which they mixed:with their mortar im- mediately before it was ufed.| This compofition, he fays, forms a firm and durable cement, pofleffing fo many va- luable properties, that I choofe to give the m in words of his own panegyritt.: tithe courfe ofthe year 1770*; las * It deferves to be noted, that about the fame period, Mr. Doffie, fecretary to the Scciety of Agriculture and Arts, in the Strand, London, publifhed a receipt for making mortar, in Imitation of that of the Ancients, which was in every refpect the fame with this of Mon- fieur Loriot.---Which of thefe was the original difco. verer, let the parties themfelves determine. ‘lents tain tom ttant : Nien Mi Ad CEOM'EIN TS= agp he+,“ Monfieur Dorit had the happinefs to difcover a kind of myftery in Nature, which, for feveral ages pait, had not, it is moit probable, manifefted itfelf to any body but himfelf;—a myftery on which all the merit of his difcovery is founded. “ Taking fome lime which had been a long time flaked, out of a pit covered with boards, and a confiderable quantity of earth over them again, by which means the lime had preferved all its original frefhnefs, he made two parts of it, and plafhed and beat them both perfectly well.- « He then put one of thefe parts, with- out any addition, intoa glazed earthern pot, and in that condition fet it to dry of itfelf in the fhade. Here, in proportion as it loft its moifture by evaporation, it cracked and fplit in every direction; parted from the fides of the pot, and crumbled into a + Thefe extracts are taken from a Treatife, intitled, A Praéiical Effay on Cement and Artificial Stone, jufily fuppyed to be that of the Greeks and Komans, lately re- difeovered by Monfieur Lorict, Ma/ier of Mechanics to his Moft Chriftian Majefty,&c. Tranflated from the French Original, lately publifhed by the exprefs arder of the abave Monarch. London, Cadel, 1775.---It appears to have been written not by M. Loriot himfelf, but fome of his friends, as he is always mentioned in the third perfon. Efi4 thoufand 2 aso. OF OUTCK-LIME thoufand pieces, all of them equally friable with the bits of lime dried up with the fun, which we ufually meet on the banks of our lime-pits*. ‘¢ With regard to the other part, Mon- fieur Loriot, juft added to it one-third of its quantity of powdered quick-lime, and then had the wholé well kneaded, in order to make the two kinds of lime perfectly incorporate with each other. This done, he put this mixture likewife into a glazed earthen pot, as he had done the firft; when, * It is impoffible, in reading this Effay,‘not to remark the extreme ignorance or inaccuracy of the compiler of it, on many eccafions.‘The prefent paragraph affords a ) o Eb proof of it.---"There can Be no doubt, but that lime, if it 7 7 7 has be en Cery long flarkée ay will lofe all it S gu alit tres as 2a uy J guick-lime, and become perfectly effete, let it be’ ever fo carefully covered.---He gives no other teft of the lime being fill poffeffcd of its cauftic ee but that it was covered.---For aught that appears, it might have beer entirely effete-lime 5 in which ae itis not at all fur- prifing if it fhould not be capable of being converted into a cement of any kind.---Indeed the effets he de- feribes, could only arife from its having been actually in this tate: For, there is no man, who does not know, that lime which has been fometime flaked, may, on many occafions, be employed as a cement, whieh at leaft, is capable of adhering together, and not falling down at once into a loofe powder as it dries. behold, AS A CBM ENT: AAT:; tab] Ai behold, it foon began to heat, and, in four the{pace of a few minutes, acquired a degree of confiftence equal to the beft Mons plafter, when prepared 10 the beft manner. dof In thort, it fet and confolidated as readily ban) as metals in fufion when taken from the fre, and turned out a kind of inftantaneous ae lapidification, having dried completely with fly lapidification, aving nied completely with done in a very fmall{pace of time, and that too i without the leaft crack or flaw; nay, it ir adhered fo ftrongly to the fides of the pot, vhen, as not to be parted from them without remark breaking it pile of As to this paflage, I(hall only fay, that iota| I repeated the above experiment feveral va times, with all the accuracy I was capable f of; with this only difference, that I employ- lime ed lime that had lain a confiderable time was beat up with water, as is ufual, to allow it past to four, in the common language of mafons, a snftead of lime that had been long covered ae up in a pit, like that which he employed. lyin| The refult was, what any man who be- nO(tows a moderate degree of attention to the oi fubjet, and the experience of mafons, might alt,|S ne fe have expected,—but extremely different ‘a fom that of Monfieur Loriot. 1d, The — ss——— 442 OF QUICK-LIME The pafte made of the old flaked lime alone, dried flowly became In time amafe flightly coherent, fomewhat harder than chalk, it having been very pure lime. I em- ployed, srithioiat' fand or any other addition, That which was made with the fame flaked lime, with one-third of its quantity ‘of unflaked lime reduced to powder, knead- ed through it, did indeed heat, as is ufual in all cafes when the lime is flaked»—Iwelled up, as is alfo ufual;—but q acquired no degree of hardnefs greater than the other, nor dif- fered in any refpect from it, ex‘cepting that it abforbed the water more quickly; and in a day or fo after it was kneaded up, when it became€ pretty dry, fome particles of lime- ftone, which had not been burnt{0 per- fedtly as the reft, and were therefore longer of faking, began to heave up afreth, hav- ing lain till this time unflaked. On this account, a although it muft only Vii 4 be confidered as an accidental misfortune that will’ not always h: ys happen, it was evi- dently a much worfe cement than the other. Such 1s the fa@.| Nor is it eafy to fee a Tealion rae§ — a~ a ag eer AS A CEMENT.” 443 (hould refult from the practice recom- ended.—It is well known, that if water be added to burnt lime-ftone in any Way, the firft effec is, that it heats,{wells, and falls down to a powder.—Even under the water, the effect is the fame.—After that powder is formed, it may, by remaining under water, concrete into a folid mafs; but with whatever fubfances it 1s mixed, it muft firft feparate before it unites. In the name of common fenfe, then, where - can be the difference in firft reducing it‘to that powdery ftate, and then beating it up with the water—or in pouring the water that is neceflary to reduce it to powder upon it, and allowing that powder to remain as it may fall, without being beat up with the materials?—Some of the watery particles will at firft be abforbed, which is evidently a lofs to the mortar; and the lime will be far lefs intimately mixed with the other ingredients, than if it had been properly blended and beat up with them after it was in its fmalleft powdery ftate; which muft tend to render the mortar ftill lefs perfect. Monfieur Loriot’s panegyrift, however, is 444.OF QUICK-LIME is at no lofs to produce reafons for'thefe wonderful effects, that feem to him to be entirely fatisfactory. He thus proceeds: “« The refult of this addition of the quick-lime, furprifing as at firft fight it might feem, is, notwithftanding, fo eafily explained and accounted for, that it feems fomewhat ftrange that Monfieur Loriot fhould be the firftt to fufpect and difcover it. In fact, what can be plainer, than that the fudden fetting and coniolidating of thefe two fubflances mutt neceflarily arife from the quick-lime’s being carried, by a perfect amalgamation, or admixture, into the inmoft recefles of the flaked lime,. fa- turating itfelf with the moifture it there meets with, and thereby effecting that inftantaneous and abfolute deficcation oe which, becaufe we are fo well accuftomed to it, we{fo little mind in the ufe of gy ples or plafter?” ~s vr * Any one who has beftowed a moderate decree of attention to the operation of flaking lime, as it is ufu- ally performed, muft have obferved many inftances of that fort of fudden deficcation,—but without perceiving any of the’other effets here mentioned. In AS A CEMENT. AAS If I underftand this paragraph, it mean neither more nor lefs than that thefe two fabftances unite, becaufe they necefiarily do unite moft perfectly.—If it has any. other meaning,{ am dull enough not to perceive it. It would be tirefome to quote more paf- fages from this Treatife. Let it fuffice to obferve, that the Author proceeds to tell, that this newly-difcovered cement dries In flaking lime-ftone, ¢! fyecially when of the purett fort, fo much water Is neceflary, and it is imbibed fo flowly, that the operators, knowing it will be all drunk up in due time, often throw fo much on one place at once, as to reduce it to almoft a-fluid ftate.- This water foon finks th nrough it to the unflaked lin below.~ But if the lime on the top was regularly flak ced before the laft effufion of water, it retains a{mooth uniform furface, like plafter,——js dried almoft entirely “na few minutes,—and, if not broke by the{welling of the lime below, continues ever afterwards to retain that form without crumbling away at all. If this: i: allowed to dry perfec tly; and no more water is poured on it, till it has ab forbed all its air, it is perfect chalk. It has the fame hat-dnefs, coniiftency,&c. and cannot be diftinguifhed from it, either im appearance, any other. property. This, however, will never be the cafe, unlefs the lime has been perfeétly| fo as to diffolve in acids as entirely as{ugar ee in water. 4 A. and 446 OF QUICK-LIME and hardens almoft under the hand of the operator, without cracks or flaws of any fort*; that it‘neither expands nor con- _ tracts with the air++;—that it is impervi- ous to moifture{,—-and may not only be employed for making roofs to houfes that| are fubjected to the continual dropping of water§, bafons, aqueduéts, canals pcre that. will inftantly contain water in any quantities,—but even finer works of the pottery kind@: that it perfe@ly refifts frofts; with along et cetera of other qua- lities which it would be tirefome to enu- merate; for an account of which I mutt refer to.the pamphlet itfelf, That Monfieur Loriot has not difeover- ed a cement poffeffing thefe peculiar qua- lities, if would be aphetomine in me to fay; feeing zt zs affirmed, that works have been need with it that prove the faéts in the clearef{ manner. But that fuch effects will be invariably produced,.mere- ly by adding a certain proportion of un- flaked lime in powder to mortar, as he get ich@+ Po 32;{ Ibid.§ P44. | P. 44) 45) 46. q P. 52. afferts, Cd a ASA CEMENT. 447 aflerts, of even by making the mortar entirely with powdered quick-lime, I may without hefitation venture to deny, not only from the reafoning above given, but from actual experiment again and again repeated by myfelf; which is likewife in fome mea- {ure corroborated by the experience of Mr. Doffie*. For thefe reafons, Iam induced to think, that if Monfieur Loriot has really experi« enced thefe uncommon effeéts from the * Although Mr. Doffie recommends his new difco- vered cement for many qualities, yet he differs extremely from M. Loriot in his account of the manner in which the union is effeted: For, inftead of faying that ¢ it con- folidates as readily as metals in fufion when ne wly taken from the fire,’ he fays,‘it continues foft for fome time, and only gradually hardens in the air.? See Doffie’s Mem. of Agriculture, vol. II. p. 20. Mr. Doffie does indeed afcribe to his cement fome of the fame qualities that M. Loriot attributes to his.--- Some of thefe, however, are common to every fort of lime-mortar, when carefully made; and were it not a Jittle foreign from our fubjeét, it would be no difficult mat- ter to fhow in what manner an inexperienced perfon might have his judgment. mifled with regard to fome of the other qualities that may be called more equivocal.--- The imagination isa more powerful magician than all the wife men of Egypt! mortar 448 OF QUICK-LIME i rt mortar he has tried, it muft have been o¢s cafioned by fome other unobferved pecu- liarity, and not mere!' by the circumftance to which he feems to afcribe it—Poffibly, it may have been shout with gyp- fum*, a faline fubftance, naturally abound- ing 1 France; and as one of its principal ingredients is lime-ftone, there is nothing extraordinary in its being found in the fame quarry chryftallized along with the lime- ftone, nor any impoffibility of its efcaping undecompoted, on fome occafions, during the calcination of the lime.—Or it may perhaps have been otherwife accidentally mixed with the lime in thefe experiments. But in whatever way the gyp/um may come there, if it be prefent, it is not to be doubted but effects fimilar in kind (though not in Geg gree) to what M. Loriot defcribes, would, in fome meafure, refult from the practice he recommends: For, if gypsum be deprived of its moifture by cal- cination, it becomes a fine powder, greatly refembling the pureft lime, wi hich coagu- + Gypfum is an earthly falt, confifting of the vitriolic acid and calcareous earth.---It is beft known among ar- | tizans in this country, by the name of Plafter of Paris. 2 lates AS ADCEM ENT. 3 4h) lates, if I may ufe that phrafe,' immedi- ately upon the addition of water, and: ac- quires at once all the firmnefs that>it eve can be made to attain. Thefe properties of gyp/uim have been lone well enough known; but it never acquires the ftoney hardnefs that. lime- cement is fometimes. endowed with, al- though it takes the fmootheftt polith of any cement we know: on which account, it has long been employed as a platter where fine ornaments are required. I have beftowed more attention on this performance of M. Loriot than my own opinion of its importance would have ex- acted from me; and it is purely in defe- rence to the opinion of others that I have endeavoured to account for fome of thofe pbaenomena he defcribes,—fuppofing they have really happened. The inaccurate and unfcientific manner in which that pamphlet is written, makes it afford the philofophic reader but very little fatisfac- tion; and that affectation of the marvel- lous which runs through the whole, and the many hyperbolic compliments paid to M. Loriot with which it abounds, are Vor. ft. Ge= pare ss0 OF QUICK-LIME but ill calculated for giving the reader 2 favourable opinion of the intention of the compiler. Future experiments will bring to light thofe circumftances which. feem to be at prefent doubtful and mytfte- tious.—I now proceed to point out fome other circumftances, that may influence the quality of lime-mortar. ey If lime-ftone be fufficiently calcined, it is deprived of all its moifture, and of a// its fixed air. But experience fhows, that lime-ftone will fall to a powder on the efufion of water upon it, when it is much lefS perfeétly calcined, and while it ftill retains almoft the whole of its fixed air. And as mafons have hardly any other rule for judging whether lime-ftone be fufh- ciently calcined, except this fingle circum- fiance of its falling-to a powder when water is poured upon it, we may thus eafily perceive, that the fame lime may be more or Jefs fitted for making good mor- tar, according toa circumftance that, in 4 great meafure, eludes the obfervation of operative mafons: For, if it fhould hap- ‘pen that all the lime-fhells drawn from a kiln | AS A CEMENT. 451 = ee aes. y ae; CHET==.= eee= omen SS neg——_ = z readet kiln at one time, were juft fufficiently cal- on of cined to make it fall to a powder with will water, and no more, that powder would which, be altogether unfit for making mortar of nyfte- any kind.: a foe This is a cafe that can feldom happen. ven~—But as there are a great many interme- it diate degrees between that ftate and per- q fect calcination, it muft often happen that a ined, it the ftone will approach nearer to. one of i of all its thefe extremes at one time, than at another ny «that fo that mortar may be much more perfect| oh the at one time than at another; owing to a + tach variation as to this particular. it fl§ 26. ed af. Every author who has written on the s fale fubject of lime as a cement, has endea- ffi voured to afcertain what is the due pro- ‘hie portion of fand for making the moft per- aftah fect cement.—But a little attention to the - thus fubject will fhow, that all rules that could si be prefcribed as to this particular, muft be ie fo vague and uncertain, as to, be of lit- ' tle ufe to the practical mafon. For,. i Befides the variation that may arife from ne a more or lefs perfect degree of calcination, Wp and which has juft now been taken notice ‘th ae ae :;: a RES IRN ae 452 OF OUICK- ELM of, it is acertain fact, that fome kinds of lime-ftone are much more pure, and con- tain a’ much fmaller proportion of fand, than others do. 1 have examined lime-ftone that was fo perfedtly free from any mixture of fand what- ever, as to diflolve in acids as entirely as fugar does among, water: I have alfo tried another kind that contained eleven-twelfths of its whole weight of fand, and only one- -twelfth part of lime; and have met with other forts in all the intermediate propor- tions between thefe two extremes. Now, it would furely be abfurd to fay that the pure sime would require as{mall a prop ortion of fand when made into mor- tar, as that which originally contained in- itfelf a much larger proportion of fand than any writer on the fubject has ever ventured to prefcribe for being put into mortar. What adds to this uncertainty is, the variation that may arife from the circum- ftance laft mentioned, vzz. the greater or lefs perfect degree of calcination that the {tone. may have undergone. For it ought “to be remarked, that although lime{tone, when pure, requires a very intenfe degree of h al AS ACEMENT. 453 nds of | COn-? heat to convert it into a vitrified*»mafs; fand, yet when fand is mixed with the lime- {tone in certain proportions, a very mode- ms fo rate heat is fufficient to convert the whole what. mafs into vitrified /corie, or in the com- huey ag mon language of the country, make it ruxz (0 tried into danders. wwelths From this circumftance, it happens, that ly one- thofe who are pofiefled of a very impure t with lime-ftone, are obliged to be extremely cau- ropor- tious not to give it an over proportion of fuel, left it fhould vitrify the ftone; and to fay they are very happy if they can get their r ftone calcined juft enough to make it fall ) mor with water, and no more; fo that, in gene- ral, it may be prefumed, that a very large ed in i proportion of /uch lime is never fo fuffici- i ently burnt as to be reduced to a perfectly tured. ¢ 11 e cauftic{tate, or to be capable of forming a cement. ) the‘.;= But as there is’ no danger at:any time-of cum ag. laces é q giving pure lime-ftone too much fire, thofe ter who pofiefs fuch a lime-ftone are not under q tthe cS se ee ee aa the neceflity of being afraid of erring on ng ougt i ne, ne.;: i) on* A vitrified{udftance is one that has been melted by if jepree heat, andaflumes fomewhat of a glafselike appearance. a wee” s gad, ia ga OF QUICK-LIME that fide: And asit is alofs to them if the whole does not fall after it is drawn from the kiln, it is natural to think they will in general give it a full proportion of fuel. From hence it may be reafonably conclud- ed, that, in general, a much larger pro- portion of this kind of ftone will be per- feétly calcined, than of the other fort. At a venture, we may with fome fhow of probability, conclude, that about one- tenth of pure lime-ftone is not enough cal- cined to admit of being made into mortar; and that, of the moft impure forts of lime-/ ftone, not above one-fourth part of the lime contained in it is fo much calcined as to be in a cauttic{tate. Let us fee what variation this ought to produce as to the proportion of fand that might be added to the lime in the one or the other cafe: and, that the calculation may be more eafily made, we fhall fuppofe that the pooreft lime-ftone that is ever burnt,.contains one-tenth of its whole weight of lime. Ten parts of pure lime, before it could. be reduced to the fame degree of fandi- nefs: with the other, without confidering as the ans IF the | from will in i fuel, onclud. tt pid. I be per. lot, ne fhow at Ones gh cal- mortar; of lime. > of the cined as ght to d thet one of ylation fuppol is ever, - phole + cold f find fdering the ASACEMENT. 465 the variation that arifes from the burning, would require each of them nine parts of fand to be added: Therefore, ninety parts of fand fhould be added to the ten, to re- duce them to an equality with the other lime in its native ftate. But if we are likewife to take into the account the variation above fuppofed, that arifes from their different degrees of cal- cination, the account will ftand thus: Of the ten parts of pure lime, one is fuppofed to be not enough burnt to be ca- pable of acting asa cement; fo that there re- mains nine only in a perfectly cauftic ftate. Of the ten parts of impure lime, nine are fand, and only one is lime;—and from this one is to be deduced three-fourths as not enough calcined.—Hence there remains juft one-fourth of one tenth-part(one-fore tieth) of pure cauftic lime. But this fortieth part of the whole is united to thirty-nine other equal parts of fand and uncalcined lime-{tone. ‘There remained nine whole tenth parts of the pure lime in a cauftic ftate; to each of which muft be added thirty-nine tenths, including the one-tenth of uncalcined Gg 4 limes— \ me 456 Of QUICK-LIME lime;—-fo that to reduce it to the fame ftate with the former, there would need to be three hundred and fifty parts of fand added.: It feems to be altogether inconceivable that{uch a{mall proportion of calcareous aatter could ever become fufficient to ce- ment firmly together fuch a prodigious mafs of other matters:—Nor do I pretend to fay, that this could actually be the cafe, as there may be fome error in the data. The following, however, I know to be a fact: The beit modern mortar I eyer faw, was nade of lime, that I myfelf had analyfed, and found it contained eleven parts of fand toone of lime. To this, there was added between twice and thrice its whole bulk of fand by meafure; which may be allowed to have been at leaft three timés it quan- Now, fuppofing that every particle of that lime had been fo perfectly calcined as to be in a cauttic ftate, there could not be lefs than forty-feven parts of fand to one of lime.-—The reader may allow what he pleafes for thé uncauftic part of the lime, and AS A CEMENT.— 459 ie and make his, meee accordingly.— ‘and Be it is hardly poffible to fuppofe; that above one-hundredth part of this mafs, in- is eras the water, confifted of pure . cauftic calcareous earth. Ag But, whatever was the exact proportion, _ of cauftic lime, the mortar was made of i thefe materials in the proportions exprefled, oe—and was employed for pinning the out- cae fide joints of the ftone-walls of a houfe ta fituated in a tempeftuous climate, and ex- bea pofed to every blaft. It is now about fourteen years fince it was finifhed; and I Vy Was do not believe there has fallen to the ground, lt, in all that time, one pound weight of the find” mortar*? ded Had this mortar been employed in build- k of ee ing a thick wall, where it would have been wed fuffered to dry flow enough, there feems to ans be little reafon to doubt but it would in time have become as firm as the ftones of bo~- the wall itfelf.:,; od as From thefe confiderations we may clearly E* After feven years longer trial, the mortar ftill proves good and firm, and exhibits no appearance of ever he falling. me,, fee, and. Ne 458 OF OUTCK-L EME fee, that it is impoflible to prefcribe any determinate proportion of fand to lime, as that muft vary according to the nature of the lime, and other incidental circumftances, which it would be tirefome to. enumerate, and which would form an infinity of ex- ceptions to any general rule. But it would feem we might fafely in. - fer, that the Moderns, in general, rather err in giving too little fand, than in giving too much. It deferves, however, to be remarked, that the fand, when naturally in the lime- ftone, is more intimately blended with the lime, than can poflibly be ever effected « by any mechanical operation;—fo that it ‘would be in vain to hope to make good mortar artifically from pure lime, with fuch a fmall proportion of cauftic calcareous matter as may, fometimes be effected when the lime naturally contains a very large proportion of fand. But, there feems to Ve be no doubt, that if a much larger propor- tion of fand. were employed, and if that were more carefully blended‘and expedi- tioufly worked than is common, the mor- } tar AS A CEMENT. 45g ¢ an te,. tar would be much more perfect than it of ufual in modern times. bans This I have tried experimentally, with it, the defired fucceds. t Xe§ 27° Another circumftance that tends greatly flyin to vary the quality of the cement, and to Aad: make a greater or fmaller proportion of ae fand neceffary, is the mode of preparing ; lime before it is beaten up into mortar. When lime is to be employed for mak- at i: ing platter, it is of great importance that lie every particle of the lime-ftone be flaked m before it is worked up: For, as the fmooth- re nefs of the furface is the circumftance moft H Ht withed for in plafter, ifany particles of lime om fhould be beaten up in it, and employed ich in work before they had had fufficient time. ons to fal/, the water full continuing to a& hen upon them after it w as worked up, would ute infallibly flake thefe particles, which would St then expand themfelves with great force, por and produce thofe excrefcences upon the tht furface of the plafter that are commonly etl_ known by the name of bhifters.| 10s Hence, therefore, if we hope to obtain fa a perfect kind of plafter, that fhall re- t main 460 OF QUICK-LIME main fmooth on the furface, and free of blifters, there is an abfolute neceflity to allow the lime to lie for a confiderable time macerating in water before it is worked up. This operation is called in this country, Souring. If the lime-ftone be pure, and has been very perfectly calcined, there will be little danger but that the whole of the lime will fall at firft:—But if it-has been lefs perfectly burnt, there will be many parti- cles that will require to lie a long time before they will be reduced to powder. —This operation is therefore more necef- fary with impure than pure lime.—But it ought on no occafion to be omitted, as there is not the fmalleft probability but fome blifters would appear on plafter made even of the purefi lime, if worked up and ufed immediately’ after it has been flaked. It is alfo a'common practice to four the lime when it is intended to be ufed in mortar. And although it is not fo indif- penfibly neceffary in this cafe as when it is intended for plafter, yet, if properly performed, it is evident, that it muft, even 3 here, AS A ECRMENT:? 461 here be of ule; as any dry knots that may fall after the mortar is ufed, muft tend to difunite the parts of it that had been already united," render the ecemen much lefs perfect than if the whole had been prope erly mixed up with the mate- ria als s before ufing. But more circumfpection is requifite in 10UTIN lime for moi tar, than for platter. I be endowed with a ftony degree of hard- nefs, there is no lofs fufiained by allow- ing a great proportion of the lime that is 14S>! eae re AU/i 2 LAC Lil me Lilal is intended for that. purpofe, to abforb its 1 ae before it bes ufed;“fer:a“very{mall quantity of guzck-lime will be fufficient to unite the whole into one flightly coherent mats. Therefore, the only circumftance netef- fary to be fig to in fouring lime for plafter, is, that it be allowed to macerate long enough, as there is no danger of ever erring on the oppofite extre m It is indeed neceflary that it fhould lie@ very long time on fome occafions, before we can be certain that all the particles are thoroughly ie R 462 OF QUICK-LIME thoroughly flaked. I have known pieces of lime-fhells lie: upwards of fix months. expofed to all the viciffitudes of winter- weather, and fo// after that time.—Such flightly burnt ftones are indeed ufually feparated in fifting the lime for plafter; but as fome fmall chips may efcape, it 1s always fafeft to allow it to lie zm the four a very long time. ry This practice is alfo attended with an- i 1“ Ata mtAlere eS og id E other advantage: of fome confequence.— For, if by this means a great proportion of the lime be allowed to abforb its air, and become effete, when it is beaten up for 2, the water can have no fenfible eftect upon that efete-lime—it will only fepa- rate the particles of cauftic lime more per- fectly from one another, fo as to fuffer it to dry without cracks of any fort, and render the furface of the plafter much more fmooth and entire than it could have been if the whole had been employed while in its perfectly cauflic flate. By this means alfo, thofe chryftalline exuda- tions, fo common on newly plaftered walls, will be moft effectually obviated. On ail which accounts, the practice of allowing AS A CEMENT. 463 . 3 1eCes nthe allowing lime intended for*plafter to ma- fe| cératé very long with water, ought never uch to be cms but in cafes of neceffity. ly But as lime is nO hes flaked than i it begins to abforb its air, and as it con- an tinues to abforb more and more every » tis; 2: ae Se q fa minute from that period, till it becomes entirely effete, fo as to be rendered gra- ; dually lefs and lefs fit for forming a ce- its ment of any fort:— it follows, that if lime| Pe intended for mortar is allowed to lie long Ortion mm the four, much of it will be converted Sat into chalk, or unchryftalized e/fete-lLme— up fo in which condition it will neither admit elie of fo much fand in ufing, nor ever be-: fepa- come fuch a firm cement, as if a larger per proportion of fand had been employed at rit firft, and worked up as quickly as poffible and into mortar, and ufed. uch‘This malady will be increafed, if the have lime-ftone has not been very well burnt; oyed therefore care ought to be taken to choofe By the very beft burnt lime. for mortar; in sua which cafe, a very fhort time, if it has fered been carefully fifted after flaking, will be vated fufcient to make it /a// as much as: is ott neceflary. For the object of principal im- ; ortance qmg P 464 OF QUICK-LIME portance here, is to have, the cement as jirmas poffible;>and the burfting of a very fmell particle of unflaked lime amonett it afterwards, will not produce fuch a fenfible inconvenience as it would have done in plafter. Thofe, therefore, who wifh to obtain the hardeft and firmeft mortar, will be careful to get wel/-burnt lime, and allow it to macerate with the water only a very feort time before it is ufed. But the bett burnt lime I ever faw, would require to macerate fome days in the water, before there can be a certainty that the whole will be fufficiently flaked*. § 28. * Tt is no unfatisfactory proof of the juftnefs of the foregoing reafoning, to obferve, that the pra¢tice which would neceflarily foliow from it, is exactly what was fol- lowed by the Ancients, if we can’rely on the account given of this matter by Vitruvius and Pliny. Vitruvius, fo far from recommending unflaked lime for making plafter, as Monfieur Loriot wouid fuggeft, recommends exprefsly that it fhould be /fomred or mace- rated in water—for the very fame reafons as are given above; as it is only by that‘meams, he fays, that the plafter can be prevented from bliftering—His words are(lib. vii. cap. 2)--- Tunc de albariis operibus eft explicandum. Id autem erit recte, fi glebae calcis > optime Obtain will be 1 allow q ury ne bett ure to before ty) vy hole § 28, of the vhich s fol- count ugeelt, r maces e piven that the - words Iper ipus e cdlcs optim Ais C A y aes| TT AT rar s Hi, ng aay aaa, E IViSERAIN: E A6e ~ x£50) § FO« The reader, if he has followed me thus far, will eafily perceive, that although it be optime, ante multo tempore quam opus fuerit, macera= bunter. Namgque cum non penitus macerata, fed recens fumitur~-- babens latentes crudos culculos, pujftulas emittit--- Qui calculi diffolvunt, et diffipant teétorit polztiones.’ Pliny points out, ftill more clearly, the difference be- tween the quality of the lime neceflary for making mortar and plafer—a certain proof that the Ancients had been very accurate in obferving fadts, as they could have no idea‘of the reafoning by which thefe facts might have been explained or corroborated. ¢ Ruinarum urbis,’ fays he,‘ea maxime ace quod furto, calcis fine fervumine fuoa cementa componuntur. Intrita quoque quo vetufiior, eo melior. In antiquarum (antiquis) zdium legibus invenitur, ne recentiore trima uteretur redemptor; idio nulla(nulla) tectoria eorum rime feedavere.’ Plin. Hitt. lib. xxxvi. Cap. 23. In this paffage, Pliny ftrongly contrafts mortar(ce- menta) with plafter(intria). The firft, he fays(by implication) ought always to be compoiecd of lime cum ferrumine fus, that is, lime that ftill retains its g/uten,--- lime that ftill retains that quality by which it is en abled to unite detached matters into a folid body, and glue them as it were together. In other places of his work, he deferibes it as calcis quam vehementiffima, lime in its moft acrid ftate, that is, perfectly cau/tzc lime. This quality, he plainly te it gradually lofes by Vou. f. Hh time, 466-OF-OOU TC K-LIM-E 1 be in vain to expect thofe wonderful effects from the practice recommended by Monfieur Loriot, that he fo pompoufly refcribes, yet it may happen, that if cir- é Zz cumftances accidentally concur to that end, | a very perfect mortar may be obtained, ps by following his directions. For, if the / J flaked f ; time, fo as to come at length to be fre ferrumine’ fuo; ral in which ftate, as it is impoffible to become a firm ce- a ment for building, he ited reprehends thofe who ule it as fuch. But although he condemns the practice of ufing that old and inert lime for mortar, he immediately adds, that for plafter it is better than new, becaufe it is not {o fubi o Be ASE) ces-h as ye CO fe“tt Ts 10 ubjecct to Crack 11) the Work. intrita quoque quo vetuftior,eo melior--- 7zdeo nulla teétoria eorumt Monheur S.oriot quotes this Pallas, and contends, that calers fine ferrumine fuo means merely flaked lime, in | oppolition folie favourite powdered lime-fhells.— What reafon.he has to think fo, the reader is left to judge.--- a[tis tobe obferved, however, that Monfieur Loriot does not confine the ufe of his cement to making mor- tar.---Like thcfe medicines that cure all difeafes, it is equally proper for plafter, and indeed it is as a plafter h lin chiefly recommends it.“There can be no doubt, however, “x from the authorities above quoted, that the Ancients reat ftraneers to the ufe of it in this fenfe, Tot ne ee IE AS ASOBMENTD:“aby / Ponderf flaked lime that fhall be employéd has nded by not had time to become, in a great mea- Mpoully fare, effete;—if the unflaked{hells that tut cir. are to be. pounded have been perfectly cal- atend, cined;—if the lime-{tone has been of a ibtined, fandy fort of itfelf;—if the fand added to “tt i the it has been of a proper kind, and in due taked proportion;—and if thefe materials be i, carefully mixed before’ they are applied, ene, there can be no doubt but the mortar 5 a wh would be very good: So that it may /ome- times happen, that thofe who follow the of win tha practice recommended by him, in making ae mortar for ordinary ufes, may be lucky Calle It 1S not 4. a enough to fucceed to their wifh. But as eT on thefe favourable circumftances may not chance to occur in other cafes, they may be J contends, at other times very far from fucceeding. oa: That gentleman, with his ufual want of ns. accuracy, takes no notice of any of thefe aiken circumftances.— He only recommends that powdered quick-lime, by which he means pounded lime-fhells, be mixed up with common mortar, made of old flaked lime, in ubt, Hower’ sei certain proportions. He does not give the the Anti?;; “fa{malleft hint as to the ftate of o/d flaked hime Pies to -$= a ee ae 468° QFPOWECK-LIME to be ufed as common mortar; but feems to think it a matter of no moment, whether it fhall have been fo long flaked as to be perfectly effete, or the reverfe;—he does not, indeed, feem to know any thing about that peculiarity of lime diftinguifhed by that term. But, independent of that circumftance, the practice he recommends is mt uch worfe in other refpects than that ufually followed in modern tines, either for making platter or cement,—efpecially the nit For, 10 1e ordinary operation of flaking, thofe lime-fhells that are not enough burnt, have vn qe anes a eas Oe fome chance of being reje ted when the eee Gs: ae a ae lime is fifted; whereas, in this method ot us 1 eee pounding the whole promifcuoufly, thef Sa) Fa Le eee ieee yaar tena ay Gl Me EG eee Baha Fn gee oe Will oC Mixea with Ene OLAGES 5) ang there- Cty BP eee EE tae fay ed Gales Fe tore it may De expe éted that fome of the @ narricie wilt ¥49 lak| OP pat ticit Viak if In UmWaKe HORE ree Very 3 H 1 Se“ aes POE Saeed Cleat(oe! lone time, which will be in danger of du- oO? oO . 37 4° ce 3== qi iC unitin So and DMterin?e the Work tone aiter t 2«: Saat rae ae°: o univerfaliy agree in al- A whaArS aln ft} AUTLIOLS aALMIOLL) Cs = S vik qt} I>) aes(t 1 wats{ n a ya ferting, tnat the Nardel lime-itone atroras 1 EAPO) fh[en SG) G7. jog: a lime-that wil! confolidate into the firmett CEMent; SS- a<= a ae:—< SSeS———<< It fen, Whether S to be i dogs ne rbout by tha unten, innt, have when the ’ ¢ °e ffl als Mt ude ye aurozts ASA CEMENT: cement; and hence it has been, in general, concluded, that lime made of chalk, affords a much weaker cement, than what is made of marble or lime-ftone. It appears, however, from the foregoing obfervations, that if ever this be the cafe, it is only incidentally, and not neceffarily fo. Lime made of pure chalk, differs not in the leaft from lime made of the pureft marble. Both confit of a fine impalpable powder, without any mixture of extraneous matter; and if they have been equally cal- cined, are poflefled of the fame chemical qualities, in every refpect.—Indeed, nothing is more eafy, than to forin artificial chalk from pure lime-ftone, as I have more than once experienced, which the reader may alfo do, by following the direétions in the margin*, if his curiofity prompts him And * In flaking lime compofed of pure lime-ftone, it will be dbierved, that the pieces fall into powder much more flowly than when the lime-ftone has contained any fand in it. If a great quantity of water be fucceffively poured upon a large heap of thefe pure lime-fhells, without ftirring them, and if it be allowed to lie fome time after- wards, it will be found, on openin; 5 the heap, that fome Hh 3 pieces ae POTENT Se: a er a—.— fT ST Ss eee | 4| i \ ;| eR -— SEE OD, CS LI I LS“ae ae Dp ore“= ->:~ Sn a 47o OF QUICK-LIME And the practice of the fouthern pro- vinces of Britain, fufficiently confirms the juftnefs of thefe obfervations. For, to the fouth of the Humber, on the eaft coaft, almoft all the lime they ufe is made of chalk; yet, there are many buildings in thefe counties, in which the cement 1s as pieces of lime-fhells have only expanded confiderably in bulk by the operation of flaking, without being crumbled down to a powder.—Thefe pieces, if allowed to remain in a clofe place, where they are not expofed to the viciqitudes of the weather, will ftill retain their form; and.as they gradually abforb their air, they acquire a fort of firmnefs of confiftence, and in time become chalk in every fenfe of the word,—having the fame degree of firmnefs, of foftnefs, and every other quality of chalk. This is the moft perfect refemblance of chalk that can be made: but, if any quantity of that pure’ lime be re- duced to a very thin pafte, at the time of flaking, and be haftily dried to a certain degree, it acquires a fort of confiftency fo as to be capable of retaining its form. And if this be kept in a place not expofed to the vicif- fitudes of the weather, till it has attained its whole air, it will refemble chalk almoft as much as the former, and might be employed for every purpofe that the chalk is ufed for. The Reader will pleafe to obferve, that this can only be done with lime that is perfeétly free of fand; for, if it has the leaft particle of fand among it, no art can give it the foftnefs of chalk. frm a—_— ai ge oe oe a eee a Tee SEEN we : AS ASCE Ae NeT 471 ee firm as in any part of the ifland. Nor ms the does the ordinary mode of building tn thefe a places, indicate any deficiency in the qua- taf, lity of their mortar; for, many of their mut of houfes are coated on the outfide witha ultings : cruft of lime, ftuck full of{mall pebbles, NENt 18 43. Ee ES ee ae which remain in it very firmly for many years. We know well, that this is the moft ateabletin ae trying manner of employing mortar. rl ei There is, however, greater danger that pled to the lime made of chalk, fhould form, cn fome he fom occafions, a weak cement, than that from ney acquire a: “ lime-ftone. become cal For, as chalk never contains any fand, fame cepree -guaiy of its lime will always form a very foft ce- ment, unlefs care be taken to mix a large ll e..° a Ke rhat can proportion of fand with it, in beating up me be re- the mortar; which is not fo indifpenfibly Rats neceflary in forming mortar from lime- ip form ftone, as it fometimes contains fo much 9 the viel fand as to form a pretty firm cement, with- 5 whole a out any additional fand at all. i Even if the iime-ftone fhould be equally pure calcareous matter as the chalk, the sis cnt) lime of the firft has a chance of becoming nd fo ift a firmer cement than that of the laft.: ron gel For, as it is impoffible to reduce the a H h 4 pure <5 z SS ee_, Si eA era et ee TE EB EOL Geet ae ::: pave ie 4y2 OF QUICK-L IME pure Ame-fione to a powdery calx, without fubjecting it to the action of a very{trong fire, which, while it diffipates the water, and frlly dries the chryftals, carries off the whole of its fixed air, fo that the ca/x is almoft entirely cauttic. But chalk may be reduced to calx, by fuch a moderate heat as 1s{carcely fufficient to diffipate any of its air;—{o, that what aflumes the appearance of lime made from it, may be nothing elfe than a powdered effete calcareous earth, which never can become a cement of any fort. But as there is no danger of vitrifying chalk by over- burning, this inconvenience may be en- tirely obviated by a careful and perfect cal- cination. In thofe countries, therefore,- where chalk-lime is common, care ought to be taken to choofe only that kind of it for mortar, that has been calcined by a very firong fire, and to reject that which has been burnt by furze or brakes, as unfit for that purpofe. But it is obvious, that as this defect arifes entirely from the unfkilfulnefs of the operator, which may be eafily avoid- , ed, " ich has as unfit s dest Oe nee ley,"= Hod med a) feel Eheaee“fen, Be= FYXD A Po ghz Sy De aa ele eae Aare “Wes ed, it ought not to be confdered as any objection to the quality of the lime, con- fidered in itfelf. § 30- It is unneceflary to extend our obferva- tions to all the other kinds of lime-ftone that may be met with; as thefe general obfervations on the two extremes, marble and- chalk,’ may be cally applied to all the intermediate kinds. It has been al- ready faid, that the different friability of different forts of lime-ftone arifes entirely from a{maller or greater degree of per- fection in the chryftallization, which mut have been occafioned by accidental cir- cumftances that have occurred at the time the concretion was effected, and can have no influence on the quality of t when it is cnce more ceduced to the ftate of a Palit na «! f= a blevee iS tne imMaleir dift Fei rence lj a = oe € ween the che- mical qualities of any one ee of foffile calcareous earth and another, when per fecily pure, there is no reafon to fulpect that there can be any difference between one kind of dime and another, as@ cement, f ¥~ Ui 1PTE shisiwawy ge- q npear that there : ?* se OF OUTC RK OM E unlefs what may arife from the nature of the extraneous bodies that may be acci- dentally mixed with that calcareous mat- ter in its native ftate, or from its being more or lefs perfe€tly calcined. But the only extraneous matter that is ever found in lime-ftone is fand*, in greater Or{maller proportions. And as no lime-ftone that can be calcined, contains fuch a large proportion of fand as is ne- ceflary for making a perfect cement, we may naturally conclude, that every kind of lime is equally fit for becoming a firm cement, if it be firft reduced to a proper degree of caufticity, and has afterwards a due proportion of fand properly mixed with it, before it be employed in work. Different forts of lime, no doubt, vary very much from one another in the pro- ortion of fand they naturally contain, and therefore muft require very different ge) proportions of fand to be added to them before they. can be made equally perfect as a cement.‘This is an economical con- * This expreffion requires fome limitation. See the Poftfeript to this Eflay. c ase fideration, i: ee } ASA CP ME NOT agg ue of Gderation, of no fmall moment in fome a cafes, as it may make one fort of lime is vattly cheaper than a nother on fome oce P Ma fions, and Hare= deferves to be attend ed to. by- every builder.— Directions a8 ae tat be given in the Second Part of this Efiay, nd, by the help of which he may be enabled ands to diiceoes the exact proportion of fand ) Cilans contained in any fort of lime he may wifl a5 1S 0 to examine. uA sat ery Kind In the preceding parts of this Effay, I ng a fm have fpoken of fand as the only fubftance 2 proper that is ever ¢ nddet to lime in forming ce- ferwares ment; but as others have, on fome occa- mixed fions, been employed for this purpofe, it rk, will be proper ieee to point out their feve- vary| ral excellencies and defects. pio Almoft the only fubftances that I have known ufed ag an addition to mortar, be- yntaln, ‘ferent fides fand of various denominations, are » the da fand-fione, brick-dufi, and fea- vet faells, that have been broken into{mall «lon fragments. And for forming plafter, where clofe- ey nefg rather than hardnefs is required, the . ufeful additions are, lime that has been 0 flaked, 476 OF QUICK-LIME flaked, and kept long im a dry place, till it has become nearly effete; powdered chalk or whiting, and an, in varlous pro- portions; befides hair, and other fub- ftances of that fort. Others that have been lately recom- mended by Monfieur Loriot, are, balls of + any fort of earth flightly burnt and pound- rs 1 ats Cs eS ap eee| i Soe* 41_ Pan. it has-been feparated from the{ftones) reduced to powder, and fifted; or almoft any. other thing that can be reduced to 1 s| iG 1 A age Weeratelty mne Nittnar a INOGEFAte:y Tne DOWCET. e ts+ 2 q Te oo[es adic tO JUaGZE, in fome meafure Cy, of‘ th e oa Liege a das‘ J Ses arative value of thefe feveral additions. [@) € r \ ¢ BUP = be frond me ad PD ps (@)) but, to render the iupje Be lic.. Be aia the following obfervations may be o Pa, eee Vn seee i De ema ee ¢ SL bo futficient! iy CGi Lain, that nove OF + 1efe additions enter into the cor npolition, + & es ca ae cont fo as to affect its qualities as a chemical Mixt;—they only Operate in a manner 7 Bs puresy MECHaNICGdL ¢ LOY, wha ever the na- WHS>. be 1 ft t}= ie fe ture of the addition may be, it poticties fhe lame qualities, NACH 10. united..as at —— Z_ — es! es Ww } > tr KA pa es tA —{ y ay a pe N NI till i by itfelf, and may be feparated by me-| chalk chanical means from the‘ompound, un- f Sic altered. Therefore, we need give ourfelves| ~ no trouble about afcertaining their che- at mical Gallic: but confider them merely a 2 as mafies of matter that may be more or a lefs fitted for this purpofe by their pecu- .: liar form, degrees'of hardnefs,&c. ad: It‘has been already fhown, that fand ot ought to be preferred to chalky matters, i a chiefly on account of the hardnefs and tones} Ae firmnefs of the particles of which it c ifts.—And as the pureft fand confitts of chryftals, which are fo hard as fcarcely to admit of being broken into ) courted fmaller parts, this kind of pure cryftal- nl be line tranfparent fand is, perhaps, on this com- account, the moft proper addition that tions. can poflibly be made to lime in forming clear, mortar.: ule: Sand-ffone confifts of an almoft innu- yne of meri ble congeries of{mall particles of ofition, fand united to one another, in a flight hemical manner, by fome kind of natural cement. nannet—But as it is troublefome to reduce this he MM kind of ftone to its fmalleft component ils parts, and as the particles of it, whén not au reduced a COAT ee Ce emamreeen sik pie Vee meee sii. > 478, OF FOS eh-l UME reduced to that ultimate degree of finenefs, may be eafily broken into{maller parts, it can never be looked upon as fuch a proper addition for a lime-cement as the pureft fand. There are alfo many fubftances that-are alled fand, which are nothing elfe than fragments of decompofed granite, moor- ftone, fand-ftone,&c.—-all of which may be eafily reduced into{maller particles by moderate triture, and are liable to. the fame objeCtions as pounded fand-ftone. But almoft any of thefe is preferable to | brick-duf?. Fine clay, when perfectly burnt in the fire, may be made to aflume almoft a ftoney hardnefs. But common brick 1s fo imperfectly burnt, as to admit of being reduced, without much trouble, to a fine impalpable powder; infomuch that it ts often ufed, when in this ftate, for fcouring polifhed iron or brafs, efpecially if the brick has had no fine fharp fand in its compofi- tion. As the rough particles of brick-duft may be fo eafily reduced toa fine powder, the mortar formed with it can in no cafe be the moft perfect fort, But ie eee Te Ml MG Ass XG doM EN: 479 Pei But brick-duft is fill liable to a greater 1 hat objection, when confidered as a component EN 4 part of mortar. Clay only lofes its quality of abforbing water, and in fome meafure of diffolving in it, by a very perfect degree of burning;. fo that if any part of it has efcaped the violent aétion of the fire, that part, when mixed in mortar, will{till be apt to abforb uit,' water whenever it oy reach it, and Jofe its firmnefs, and make the mafs of which it is a part, crumble to duit. It is exactly in this manner that all forts of marle are liable to fall into powder when drenched in water, and expofed to the air; even although ee{ometimes appear, when dry, to be endowed with a ftoney hardnef: On this account, aoe ee which ay ally confifts of the imperfect burnt bricks, ought to be confidered as a very danger- ae ous mixture for mortar, and fhould never . be employed but in cafes of abfolute necef- fity. Mhinay See ee ee ST— S wt cir ecco eee Stony ; | 1. ia But the balls of other forts of earth, flightly burned, as recommended by Mon- fieur Loriot, muft be, on many accounts, far lefs proper; as many of thefe fort s of eartl 480 OF QUICK-LIME earth cannot, by the action of fire, be de- prived of their qu He of abforbing water, and of becoming{oft with it. So that he who fhould be foolifh enough to employ thefe fubftances, may be certain that his ‘cement will not only be inc pable of at- taining any con fiderable degree of hardnefs at any time, but will alfo be liable to turn moift in a damp air, nor will be capable of retaining its firmnefs or Co! hefive quality in an expofed fituation. Royce= lime- se is liable to the fame objections with the fofteft fand-ftone or brick-duft; as the particles of which it confifts, never can be endowed with the adhefive firmnefs that is neceflary for form- ing a perfect cement. Fine fbells are per haps firmer than any cther fubftance, next to pure fand, and may be employed where the other cannot be got, if this abounds. I have feen a ce- ment that was as little affected by the wea- ther as any other, and had ftood firm in the work a great many years, that had been originally formed with a fand confiftine almoft entirely of the fragments of f fhells.— 5 But or acs But it had not the rocky hardnefs of fome old mortar that we frequently meet with. Roughly powdered glafz, if fuch a thing could be got, at a moderate e expence, would form a moft perfect fort of mortar;—as it would not be liable to be affeéted with the weather, mweuld be ey hard, and ra, Thus it apt DearS, oe of al that can be eafily met mae fand forms the moft proper addition to lin king mertar; on which account, it hei as oe juftly preferred to all others for that purpofe. Pure firm chryftallized fund is better than any other fort:—But all pure fands are not equally proper for this ufe. iS It has been already fhown, that the oS) principal advantages which refulted from the addition of fand in making lime- mortar, were, that it augmented the quan- tity of hard indiffoluble matter,—and put it in our power to employ a larger quan- tity of water in proportion to the lime, and thus forwarded the chryftallization of the calcareous matter, augmented the Voto4. Ti quantity ae 482 OF QUICK-LIME quantity of thefe chryftals, and rendered their quality more perfect. Thofe kinds of fand, therefore, which promote thefe purpofes in the higheft degree, will be beft adapted for mixing with mortar. But if fand confifts of irregular an- gular particles, a greater quantity of water will be retained in the vacuities formed between thefe angular pieces, than could have been if the whole had confifted of round fmooth globules; and therefore it is natural to think, that rough angular fand, will be more proper for this ufe than that which is fmoother. Hence, if equally pure, fea-fand, which confitts of round globules, that have been worn perfectly f{mooth by the continued attrition upon one another on the fhore, (like the larger pebbles in the fame fitua- tion) will be worfe than any other fort.— River-fand will be better than it;—and pit-fand, when quite free of earth, the beft of all. § 33- If the fand be hard, and the particles angular, it is perhaps of very little impor- fance whether thefe be very fmall, or of fize.—The fand in the lime that formed > @ larger 112 2, s SD” —= Ig a ma mae a Sr i a rN ETE